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THE MASTER'S THESIS
A Handbook for Graduate Students
Or
Academic Writing in English
ABSTRACT
This guide outlines the formatting standards set forth by Yerevan State University. The guide is divided into five chapters which
explain in detail the formatting requirements and submission procedures all graduate students writing a thesis at YSU must
follow.
Table of Contents
PREFACE
Now that English has become the leading language in international scientific
communication, more and more scholars not only realize
the necessity
to read their
professional literature in English, but also feel the need to present their ideas and research results
in this language - at international conferences, on the pages of international scientific journals,
when applying for grants or launching international projects. Many also realize that translation is
only one option, and that scholars should have the ability to write their own papers in English.
There is, however, only fragmentary information on how to do it properly, to say nothing of
recommendations specially addressed to non-English-speaking scientists. The present book is a
step in this direction. It is aimed at providing multifaceted linguistic support to graduate students
and scholars of all disciplines in writing their papers in English.
The book proceeds from the notion that expressing one's ideas in a foreign language and
translating them are two quite different activities. When writing a paper in a foreign language,
the author - a specialist in a discipline and its terminology - needs to know how to express his/
her intentions idiomatically, coherently and in a stylistically adequate manner. It is precisely this
knowledge that the book provides.
"English for Scientific Purposes" is thus a reference book of a new active - type. It
does not "teach" English, but helps one use it; it encourages the expressing of one's ideas in
English instead of translating them word for word from a native language; it offers a wide range
of expressions, word combinations, phrases, speech patterns and examples characteristic of the
English academic style rather than descriptions of its peculiarities; it aids in selecting an
appropriate pattern out of a comprehensive list and at the same time directs the choice by
anticipating further steps to make the job as easy as possible.
The Guide offers concise and highly structured information on how to organize a
scientific paper, accompany it with a proper title, summary and comments, and express one's
opinions, beliefs and arguments. It consists of three parts dealing with text organization,
rhetorical devices, and text comments, respectively.
Part I offers speech patterns and phrases actively used in English to structure a scientific
paper: to state a problem, introduce materials and methods of investigation, when reviewing,
citing or commenting on the pertinent literature, describing and explaining experimental data,
drawing conclusions and outlining perspectives, etc. It also supplies formulas for crossreferences, arranging narration and appending various supplements. In addition, it gives
examples of using some Latin expressions and abbreviations, as well as the wording of
acknowledgments.
1. General Comments
This guide provides basic information about thesis preparation at Yerevan State University
by addressing many issues of content and wording, as well by setting forth the basic
requirements for organizing and formatting it. The Guide establishes the technical parameters
within which all students must work. These parameters include margins, formatting and style,
sequence of pages, and spacing. The guide can be considered necessary for students to
understand the various elements of a manuscript and general publication formatting requirements
in academic publishing. Students are responsible for obtaining and following up-to-date
guidelines.
Students must also work directly with the thesis supervisor for formatting reviews and for the
final submission of the document. The University establishes a preliminary review (predefense)
deadline approximately one month before the defense.
A thesis is a written document that entails an independent research activity undertaken to
explore some problem or topic of interest to the field. It is the culmination of an individual
research experience that may use new data or information to replicate an earlier study, a
secondary analysis of data from another study, or the product of original research based on
primary data. Upon a completion of the thesis, the student must pass a public defense of the
thesis conducted by the University committee. This oral examination also evaluates the student's
knowledge of general principles and techniques. The thesis committee minimally consists of the
student's thesis chair, one or two other full-time university faculty members, as well as scholars
invited from other institutions and the committee head. It is required that all theses conform to
the specifications given below. Unless the thesis chair has given consent in advance, departures
from these norms will render a thesis unacceptable. A Thesis must be written in English, it must
demonstrate the candidates ability to carry out research and to organize results. A Thesis is the
culmination of an individual research experience and it must be expressed in good literate style
and must be a distinct contribution to knowledge.
Preparing a Master's thesis is a time-honored tradition in academe, yet many students who
are about to undertake such a project have only the vaguest notion of what a thesis entails.
Students also may perceive the thesis as a formidable process; yet it does not need to be the case.
All theses should be based on the compilation of knowledge and skills acquired throughout the
students graduate program. However, no single definition of a thesis exists. What constitutes an
appropriate thesis varies considerably between disciplines and even between faculty members
within a discipline. Given this lack of uniformity regarding what a thesis is (and the resulting
anxiety it invokes in students), how can a thesis be described? Here are four common
characteristics. First, a thesis is an exercise in research. You are asked to demonstrate your skills
in using the methodologies of your field to examine a topic of interest to your discipline. What
constitutes research methodology varies widely across fields. For example, in the physical
sciences, research often (but not always) involves the use of experimental procedures in a
It is not a secret that today almost all literature searches begin with, but are not limited
to electronic search techniques. As you read through the literature, you will gain a better
understanding of what is known about your topic and key unanswered questions. It is
important to determine the suitability of a potential topic. Suitability refers not only to the
quality of the idea, but to logistical considerations that will have an impact on your ability to
complete the thesis. Indeed, students often have good research ideas which, for a variety of
reasons, they may be unable to carry out.
Five key issues to consider: time management, access to needed resources, faculty
support and approval. The first consideration is time. A student who puts in regular, consistent
effort on the project and meets regularly with the supervosor should be able to bring the thesis
to a successful close. The second consideration is access to needed resources. If your work
depends on access to certain library materials or other documents, e.g., native talk records, a
key question is whether the materials are available. If certain materials are essential for the
research, you should check whether thesis materials are obtainable before extensive effort is
made in planning the study in more detail. The third issue that falls under the heading of
feasibility is the availability of faculty support. It is in your best interest to connect frequently
with your thesis supervisor who has expertise in the researched area. A final and very
important concern involves clearance of a research proposal through institutional review
procedures. Theses (and thesis proposals) go through several revisions, reflecting both
conceptual and stylistic changes.
Typically a thesis defence will begin with the student making a short (about 10 minutes)
presentation about his or her project followed by questions from committee members. Faculty
may ask the student to explain the meaning of the results and how they might be interpreted from
different theoretical perspectives undertaken in the thesis. It also is not uncommon for the
committee to ask for minor revisions to the text of the thesis. The best preparation for the oral
defense is to be intimately familiar with what you did and the rationale for your approach.
If you are in the process of writing your thesis, you should make clear and unambiguous
arrangements with your supervisor for reading, editing and approval of draft chapters for MA
thesis. The following points describe what would reasonably be expected from you and your
supervisor.
Normally, supervisors will comment and suggest modifications to an overall thesis
outline and plan produced by the student. This should be done at an early stage and normally
should occur before the final (at least 6 to 8 months before the final year). Both supervisor(s) and
student should be clear as to the agreed structure and content of the proposed thesis.
You should expect the supervisors to read and comment on draft chapters of the thesis on
an agreed timescale. You should plan the preparation of your thesis to allow time for your
supervisors to read your drafts carefully. You can expect the supervisors to supply detailed
comment and suggestions for modifications but you should not expect supervisors to provide
extensive re-written sections of your drafts.
Be aware that YOU are expected to take ownership of your thesis; it is your work
and you will be examined on the presentation and interpretation of it. Because the University
regulations stipulate that the thesis for a full time registered MA must be submitted no later than
about two years from the registration date, you must ensure that there is adequate time to interact
with your supervisors during the preparation of the thesis.
Your supervisors should ensure that you understand the procedures for the submission
and examination of the thesis and should assist you in preparing for the oral examination. The
decision to submit rests with you, and while you should take due account of your supervisor's
opinion, it must be stressed that at this stage it is advisory only. If You have any concerns about
the supervisory efforts made during the preparation of a thesis, contact the Head of the chair as
promptly as possible.
Steps in the Thesis Process
Choosing a Research Area
---------------------------------- -------------------------------------------Developing/Refining a Thesis Idea
-------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------Selecting a Thesis Advisor and Committee
---------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------Preparing and Submitting a Thesis Proposal
3.Thesis Components
The thesis must include:
1.The Title Page, with the title of the thesis; the name of the author, the institution and
the department, the year the thesis was submitted, the signature of thesis supervisor.
2. Abstract. Every copy of the thesis must have an abstract. An abstract must provide a concise
summary of the thesis. The abstract may not exceed 150 words for a Masters thesis. In style, the
abstract should be a miniature version of the thesis. It should be a summary of the results,
conclusions or main arguments presented in the thesis. (See Appendix A)
3. Table of Contents. The table of contents must be detailed. Each chapter and main section in the
thesis must be listed in the Table of Contents and each must be given a page number for the
location of a particular text. (See Appendix B)
4. An Introduction that clearly states the rationale and objectives of the research. It also includes:
a. Background b. Statement of Purpose (Objective) c. Methods and Procedures d. Research
Overview (See Appendix G for headings levels)
5. Chapter I. More than one chapter will be necessary to complete the research. A background,
comprehensive review of the literature (in addition to that covered in the introduction to the
paper) is required. This is known as the Review of Literature and should include relevant, recent
research that has been done on the subject matter.
6. Chapter II. The Methodology is included in this chapter and should include all relevant
methods that were utilized as well as research methods and measurements.
9. Chapter III. The Results: This should include your data analysis and findings.
10. Conclusion. This should include your summary, conclusions and recommendations.
11. References. A thorough bibliography or reference list, according to disciplinary norms.
1. Block, N. Readings in Philosophy of Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1981.
2. Brown, G., Yule, G. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: C.U.Press, 1983.
3. Brown, G., Pollitt A., Williams J. Language and Understanding. Hong
Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995.
4. Davis, G., Warren T. Psychology of Education. Chicago: University of
Chicago, 1974.
5. Deese, J. The Structure of Associations in Language and Thought. New
York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1965.
13. Notes with additional information after each chapter (or after the last one) are encouraged.
14. Appendices (optional). May include a list of definitions, abbreviations and acronyms. It may
contain an ethics certificate in the case of research involving human or animal subjects,
microorganisms, living cells, other biohazards and/or radioactive material (see Internal Review
Board for your discipline).
The final version of the thesis (after pre-defense) must be free from typographical, grammatical
and other errors when submitted to the Graduate Director. Normally, a Masters thesis does not
exceed 55 pages (including title page, abstracts, table of contents, notes,
bibliography/reference list, and appendices).
4.Thesis Formatting and Style
The following formats apply:
Line spacing 1.5
Times New Roman or Arial 12 pt font
All four margins 20mm
A 4 page size
The chief consideration in formatting the thesis is consistency. While the institution has
specific rules and parameters that all theses, writers must follow, students do have some
flexibility in formatting their documents, provided that the documents are formatted consistently.
For example, while students may choose which basic font to use, they must use that same font
throughout the document, including in footnotes, headings, page numbers, tables, reference
citations and captions. Students should use a uniform and consistent style, typeface, and font size
throughout their own document.
The thesis or dissertation must be divided into a logical scheme that is followed
consistently throughout the document. The main body of the document must begin with a major
division, such as a chapter or section. Chapters are the most common division, but sections and
parts are also permissible. Chapter, section, part numbers and titles are primary divisions of the
entire thesis or dissertation and are not part of the subdivision scheme. Each major division
(chapter, section, or part) must:
have a title
be numbered consecutively throughout the document (e.g., Chapters 1, 2, 3.)
begin on a new page A major division entitled Introduction may precede the first
numbered chapter, section, or part only if the student ends the document with another
unnumbered major division entitled Conclusion.
Subdivisions/Headings
Any logical system of subdivision within chapters or sections is permissible, but the scheme
used must be consistent throughout the document. The appearance of the heading must vary in
style for each level of heading unless a numbering sequence is used to indicate level. Once
students decide on the format for each level of heading, they must apply the format consistently,
including font, font size, and other font attributes (bold, italics, underline, et cetera), space above
and below the heading, numbering, indentation, and punctuation.
The headings within a chapter, section, or part do not begin on a new page unless the
preceding page is filled with text. If there is not room for the complete heading and at least two
lines of text at the bottom of a page, the new heading should begin on the next page.
Referencing usually consists of information in parentheses or square brackets within the text.
Two common methods of referencing are:
1. to use the author's name and date of publication, as in (Smith, 2001),
2. to assign numbers to the bibliographic entries and insert the corresponding numbers for the
authors as they are cited in the text, as in Smith (5).
The purpose of internal referencing is to guide the reader to the appropriate entry in the
list of references/bibliography, where complete information is available. In-text references to the
author's name normally refer to an alphabetical list of sources; numbered references normally
refer to a numeric list. Students may not collect references as endnotes at the end of each chapter
or section. Footnotes are permissible, but only if the student also includes a full list of references
or bibliography at the end of the document. The form, style, and content of references or
footnotes should be determined by what is generally accepted in the student's field of study,
using a professional journal or style manual. Students using both references and footnotes in the
text must use a different format or style to differentiate the two, keeping in mind that the same
font type must be used throughout the entire document. Other attributes may be used to
distinguish footnotes from body text; for example, the footnotes may be single spaced and a
smaller font size. In addition, the footnote number and the beginning of footnote must appear on
same page.
Students should consider carefully whether information is best presented in the text or in
a table. Tables are usually quantitative, though some may consist entirely of words rather than
numbers. In either case, care must be taken to organize the material in ways that are readily
understood and visually clean.
Tables must have a unique title and number. The title and number are placed above the
table. Tables must use the same type of font as the rest of the document. Rather than copying
tables from another source, students should create tables themselves. (For instance, tables should
not be inserted into the text as pictures.) Although the type of font within a table must be the
same as the rest of the document, it may differ slightly in size.
If appendix material is included as an attachment, a page should be included stating how
material is accessible and how it should be used.
Positioning of page numbers is optional. Pages with figures or illustrations may be
numbered in sequence or left unnumbered. The chosen procedure must be used consistently
throughout the thesis. Pagination must be carefully checked for correct sequence and
completeness.
Figures, tables, graphs, etc., should be positioned according to the publication
conventions of the discipline. Charts, graphs, maps, and tables that are larger than the
standard page should be avoided unless absolutely necessary. Overlays must be meticulously
positioned in the text. Where graphs, illustrations, photographs, etc. fill an entire page, these
pages can be numbered in sequence or left unnumbered. Legends or captions accompanying
such full-page graphics must be presented on a separate page. Additional materials, such as
slides, tapes, diskettes, etc. can be included only if the student authorizes the reproduction of
the thesis without them.
PAGE FORMAT AND LAYOUT
Font
A single font must be used throughout the thesis or report, the only exceptions being in tables, graphs, and appendices. Headings
may be bolded and no more than 2 points larger than the rest of the text.
Margins
All theses and reports must have consistent margins of at least 1.25 inches at the top, bottom, left, and right edges of the page.
Page numbers must be placed at least one inch from the bottom of the page. Margins which are larger than those required are
acceptable, but smaller margins are not.
Spacing The thesis or report must be double-spaced or 1.5-spaced. Single spacing may be used only in the Table of Contents,
footnotes and endnotes, charts, graphs, tables, quotations, captions, glossary, appendices, and bibliography. Prose quotations over
three lines long should be in block quote, double or single-spaced, and indented on the left. Do not use quotation marks in the
block quote except when indicating quotations within the block quote.
Numbering of Pages
Beginning with the first page of the Acknowledgements or Preface, if used, all preliminary pages preceding the actual text must
be numbered in lowercase Roman numerals; e.g., iii, iv, v, etc. These numerals must be centered under the text with at least one
inch of space between the number and the bottom of the page. If no optional pages are used, the page numbers must begin on the
Abstract. Do not number the copyright page, signature page, title page, or dedication, but do include each of them in the pretext
page count. The first page of the text begins at Arabic numeral 1. All pages within the text must contain an Arabic page number,
bottom-centered, at least one inch from the bottom edge of the page. The first page of every major section (chapters, appendices,
bibliography, Vita, etc.) must begin on a new page.
Tables and Illustrations
Pages carrying illustrative material must be given page numbers appropriate to their place in the document. Illustrative material
may not be inserted after the document has been numbered and given numbers such as 10a. All tables, figures, illustrations, and
other types of examples included and referenced in the text of the dissertation should be numbered for identification. There
should be no duplication of these numbers; i.e., no two tables should be assigned the same number. Figures may be numbered in
one of two ways: consecutively throughout the document or double-numbered so that illustrations numbers reflect their locations
in the document. Captions and legends must be placed on the same page with the figure, graph, table or illustration they describe.
In order to fit both figure and caption on the same page, captions may be single-spaced, margins may be decreased to one inch,
and figures may be reduced in size to fit. If the figures are reduced from their original size, then the page number must be added
after the reduction so as not to alter its size. If there is no other way to manage the amount of material to be shown, the caption
and figures should be side-by-side in continuous view. This method should only be used in the rare instance where all of the
pertinent material will not fit on the same page. Figures, captions, and page numbers must be easily readable when the electronic
document is viewed at 100 percent.
CONTENTS
The Table of Contents must be placed before the text and any lists of tables, figures, etc. It consists of section titles, chapter
titles, and as many or few subheadings as the author feels are necessary. The section and chapter titles listed on the Table of
Contents must exactly match the titles as they appear within the text. Chapters labeled in the Table of Contents with Arabic
numbers (Chapter 3) must not lapse into Roman numerals (Chapter III) when they appear again in the text. Page numbers for
chapters and subheadings are right justified on the Table of Contents and preceded by a dot leader. In the text of the thesis or
report, major sections must begin on a fresh page and be designated in the Table of Contents by left justified headings (not
indented). Sub-sections, which do not need to begin on fresh pages, must be indented in the Table of Contents. The page numbers
listed on the Table of Contents must correlate with the beginning of each section or chapter. Table of Contents entries are
generally double-spaced. However, chapter titles and subheadings, when more than one line long, should be indented at the
second line and single-spaced.
7. Bibliography/ References Lack of proper format and limited details with many sources missing or incomplete.
Bibliography/References are mostly complete and correctly formatted. Capstone contains a variety of sources.
Bibliography/References are complete (all sources shown) and correctly formatted; inserted to validate evidence.
8. Writing is unclear, distracts from meaning, is not at appropriate level, or contains excessive errors. Writing is clear and
appropriately sophisticated, with virtually no errors, and supports meaning. Writing is at or near professional level, has no errors,
and enhances meaning.
The structure of the article is as follows. The first section reviews/ describes/ clarifies/
outlines/ sketches P. Section 2 portrays/ dwells on/ enlarges upon/ shows that Q, Section 3 argues
that P, The final section proposes/ summarizes/ spells out in (more) detail R,
In this article I review/ debate the problems (and advantages) of P, and argue -that Q. 1 claim/
demonstrate/ suggest that (insufficient attention has been paid to) Q. In particular, it will be
shown that R.
In this paper, I attempt to clarify the relation of P and Q. To do so, I first present R. I then
attempt to show that P, In conclusion, S is considered.
This paper presents a new (complex/ algorithmic/ structural) approach to the study of P.
The empirical results are described in section I. In section 2, I will address/ discuss/ characterize/
comment on/ specify/ tackle Q. Section 3 turns to P/ presents theoretical results. Section 4
concludes with a discussion of implications/ consequences of R.
This paper proposes a new methodological framework within which P can be studied.
After analyzing the data, it is concluded that Q. The results of the study are evaluated and
assessed in the light of the problems of Q. Additionally, R is examined.
Materials and methods: see to adopt, apply, develop, offer, provide, rely on, try, work out,
use; an approach, framework, method, methodology, model, paradigm, perspective; to aid, allow,
help, an analysis, Inquiry, investigation, research, study; etc.
In our study ...we have adopted/ applied an innovative approach to testing/ modeling
P. ...we develop/ offer/ provide/ rely on/ try/ work out/ use a method of P. ...P is dealt with/
analyzed
within
functional
framework/
paradigm/
perspective.
Our
analysis/
Transitions: Cross-reference, Interlinks between seetions/ points; organizing the exposition: see
to start, begin, oome to, continue, move on, @nd, finish; first, furthsr, finally, after, before,
a/ready, here, now, above, below, just, In the course of; in the remainder; appropriate,
convenient, desirable, essential, helpful, Informative, Instructive, natural, psrtlnsnt, proper,
reasonable, suitably to claim, expound, meditate, reflect on, scrutinize, take up, etc.
...0ur purpose
...here
...is to improve our knowledge of P.
...is to help scientists to
manuscripts.
We aim ...here
...to
P
Q.
I shall concentrate...here
...on exploring P.
My
...here
...is with P.
I/ We (shall) ...start/ begin/ continue/ end/ finish/
with/ by P.
To begin with/ First,
...we turn to instances of P/ we may consider P. Second/ Finally,
...we are going to see/ examine whether P.
In closing, ...I want to discuss P/ to make a proposal that P.
"After ...these general/ preliminary remarks,
...this short comment/ outlining Q, ...here is P/ P is in order,
...I shall introduce/ address/ return to P. ...I shall consider the problem of P. ...I want to test the
significance of P. ...I'd like to scrutinize the issue/ method of P.
SI have ...already/just ...given/mentioned/pointed out that P.
We have ...already/ just ...seen that P.
From the above/ Now ...it should be clear/ evident/ obvious that P.
Here/ Now ...we can pass on/ we shall move on to consider P.
In the course of this investigation ...P will discussed/ it will be shown that P. In the rest of this
paper/ section
...I (shall) reflect on/ speculate about P. In the remainder of this paragraph ...I
am intended to confront/ face the issue that P. Before we go into this problem,
...I want to
...is
...the
belief/
theory that P,
...the conception/ claim/ idea/ hypothesis/ supposition that P.
...we
the notion/ (point of) view/ viewpoint of P.
...has
the view/ coneept/ idea/ hypothesis that P.
The general notion/ central concept/ (important) point ...in our model ...is that P. Our hypothesis/
The idea
...here
...is that P.
This ...concept
...will serve as a starting point for studying P.
...notion
...needs careful explanation/ needs to be reconsidered,
...idea
...is a useful starting-point for investigating P.
...theory
...is basic/ fundamental/ strategic/ germane/ relevant to our approach.
...hypothesis
...proved useful in solving problems concerning P. ...view
prevailing/ innovative in contemporary research.
...interpretation ...can be generalized to apply to P. ...model
account of P.
The ...basic notions ...of this theory are given below/in [NN]. First,
sketch my proposal that P/ to use/ study P as Q.
...I want to point to/ review/ introduce new principles. Now
...is
...I am going to
a supposition that P.
...we propose a theory to account for P. At this point ...a certain clarification is necessary.
...one important detail must be noted, P.
Let us now
...I find it
(introduce/apply)
an
algorithm/formalism/criterion/constraint/
system/ tendency.
...is viewed here as (being an example of) Q/ as having an instrumental function.
The approach/ claim adopted here
Our calculation/ classification/ explanation
Our hypothesis, ur interpretation, Our argument/ proposal/ strategy
Now, Further
...I/ we shall
To show that P, ...I/ we shall
...is based on observations of P. .is based on considerations that P. .is based on an assumption that
P. .is based on an examination of P. as based on the concept/ technique/ theory of P. ...I/ we shall.,
appeal to the concept/ notion/ theory of P.
..touch upon the problem/ question/ issue concerning P. ..talk on/ paint in more detail P/
formulate the criterion of P. ..postulate/ state/ apply/ derive the principles of Q. ...admit the
theory/ postulate/ suggestion/ view of Q. ...frame an extension of the paradigm/ notion of Q.
...put forward a hypothesis/ model of Q. ...present/ propose an algorithm for Q. ...develop/
design/ apply a formalism of Q. ...impose restrictions on/ place (put) constraints on Q. ...employ/
extend the law/ rule/ thesis that Q.
...II we can ...add/ mention/ note/ indicate/ reiterate/ repeal/ say that P. ...point out/ allude to the
publications on the subject.
7.3. References to authors and bibliography:citations, comparisons, critisism,
objections
References, citations, comparisons; Positive comments; Criticism and objections (F - the referred
author, [NN] - reference t a bibliographic
References, citations, comparisons: see to follow smb in, to conform to/ reject; in accord
(accordance/ agreement/ concordance/ conflict/ congruence/ contrast/ line/ opposition) with/ to
smb's view; take (up) different stands on/ a (similar) position/ (point of) view, join a debate, stern
(originate) from/ contrast with (other) studies, enter into the orbit of research, command
support/gain ground/generate controversy (interest/preoccupation) among scientists, receive
attention (criticism/ support)/ tend to be dismissed (effaced/ overlooked/ confounded/
encountered)/ undergo a change (revision)/ be under scrutiny (consideration); an ambiguity
(confusion/ deficiency/ disagreement/ discrepancy/ misunderstanding/ trend/ness/ gap) found in
the literature, turn up in one's treatise, benefit by examining, a theory/approach/method evolved
by F; to quote, excerpt, cite a passage, supply references/a citation; consult literature on the
subject; refer the reader for an introduction (further reading) to bibliography (publications/ an
author/F's contributions/writings), etc. According to F, P. Following F, I will refer to P as Q. We
can follow F in assuming that P.
The problem that turns up in F's treatise is that P. This issue originates from F's [NN].
This result was obtained by F. Such problems are fully discussed by F in [NN]. How the
micromirror works
These factors
...is described by F.
...are viewed by F to be of secondary importance.
Such cases
...would support/ conflict with F's analysis.
Such detail
...rarely characterized F's publications.
This is where F's central proposal ...becomes relevant.
Standard treatments of P,
...such as [NN], point out that Q.
F's ...article/ analysis
...sets out to provide a definition for P/ raises many questions.
...hypothesis/ proposal ...is a provocative one/ rests on two basic ideas, P and Q. ...argument/
idea/ point...is that P. ...name
...is virtually unknown/ is well-known today.
...is known for her/ his work on women's health.
...helped turn the study of P into an experimental science. ...made a significant contribution to the
treatment of P. ...conceives the terms system and relation basically in static terms. In her
study, ...F
...identified/ discovered/ established P.
...there was a discussion about whether P. It is
...claimed/ shown/ stated in [NN] that P.
I maintain, ...in contrast/ in opposition/ by analogy, that P. I adopt
...F's suggestion/ point of
view that P.
We regard P as Q; ...this is ...in accord/ accordance/ agreement/ concordance/
...in congruence/ line/ conflict with F's [NN].
F can be cited/ consulted here/ Here is an excerpt from F's [NN],
...P.
Here we can excerpt a passage from F's study of motives:
...P.
The following passage from [NN] illustrates this principle,
...P.
This aspect
...has (not) received attention (criticism/ scientific support) ...in the literature.
This topic ...tends to be dismissed (effaced/ overlooked)
...in the literature.
...still generates controversy/ may be encountered
...in the literature.
This method ...is little discussed/ was rejected
...in the literature.
The literature ...on the subject ...is concerned with/ bears directly on P.
...provokes reflection/ is in confusion. ...concerning P ...is now quite voluminous/ remains
ignored.
...raises many questions/ suggests many answers. ...is not relevant to the theory of parsing.
P is claimed/ explored/ faced/ found/ defined/ developed
...in [NN].
P is the central issue explored
...in [NN].
The use of this tomography to study the brain is discussed
...in [NN].
The most complete account of this problem is found
...in [NN].
A striking example of the influence of P on Q can be found
...in [NN].
Proposals relating to P are developed further
...in [NN].
Consider the argument that F advances
...in [NN].
Our results agree/ contrast with previous publications;
...cf. [NN].
This hypothesis provokes (further) reflection,
...cf. [NN].
This idea fits into contemporary speculation;
...cf. [NN].
This view commands wide support among scientists,
...e.g. [NN].
This viewpoint receives strong scientific support,
...cf. [NN].
This theory finds support in recent studies/ gives rise to a critical literature;
...e.g. [NN]. This
approach has gained few followers so fat/ is represented by work on P;
skepticism stems from popular accounts of P,
This notion stems from studies of P,
...such as [NN].
...such as [NN].
This method continues to be present in current medicine; ...as an example, take [NN].
These approaches are usually confounded in the literature;
...(for detail,) see [NN].
This view provokes misunderstanding on the subject.
...For detail, see [NN].
These studies have reached widely differing conclusions. ...For more detail, see [NN]. There is
currently great interest in P.
...See [NN] for subsequent discussions.
F and S take different stands on that point.
...See [NN] for subsequent discussions.
Discussions of parsing strategies turn out to be about P. ...For an introduction, see [NN].
It is not entirely clear in the literature what is meant by P. ...References should be made to [NN].
Disagreement arises as to whether P. [NN] deserves to be mentioned in this connection.
Relevant/ further bibliography of the publications on the subject is
Positive comments: see careful/ complete/ comprehensive/ convincing/ in-depth/ lucid/ minute/
profound/ thorough (analysis/ account/ description/ explanation/ treatment), creative/
sophisticated/ sound/ transparent (approach), correct/ precise (characterization/ determi* nation),
accurate/ coherent/ elaborate/ flexible (picture/ conceptual system), elegant/ original/ welldesigned (formulation/proposal), clearcut (distinction), exact/uniform (definition), neat
(division), adequate/efficient/indispensable/optimal/ reliable (tools), solid (argument/grounding/
basis), helpful/ plausible/ subtle (interpretation/ comment/ suggestion), successful (attempt),
valid (representation/ argumentation/ conclusion), viable (model), (approach) consistent/
consonant with (evidence)/effective/sufficient/valuable/vital for, to manage, permit, persist,
promise, provoke, stimulate, yield, etc.
F's investigation
...is an accurate/ comprehensive/ convincing/ lucid analysis of P.
...is an instructive/ minute/ profound/ thorough description of P.
...is a good snapshot of functional analysis/ supports the theory of P. F's study/ analysis ...offers a
window into the complex of P/ sheds new light on P,
...allows a principled decision on P/ resolves the problem by P. F's theory/ proposal ...can yield
useful predictions about P/ sounds attractive/ is elegant.
proved to be successful/ the most transparent.
F's approach ...is quite/ highly creative/ effective/ fruitful/ innovative/ sophisticated/ sound.
F's method ...promises to furnish P/ has proven illuminating in the study of P. F's design
..appears beautiful/ is more flexible than P/ is the best, F's scheme ...is consistent with P/ is
consonant with the evidence. ...is perfect/ vital/ indispensable/ valuable for P.
...is superior (to anything one has tried to apply before) in numerous details, F's distinctions/
arguments/ basic points
...are clearcut/ consistent/ sound,
F's definitions of variables
...permit their assessment,
provides a firm basis/ solid grounding for (reassessing P,
...furnishes conclusive/ convincing/ definite/ incontestable/ indisputable/ positive/ irrefutable/
undeniable/ unquestionable/ documentary proof of the fact that P. ...offers in-depth discussions
on topics involving P. ...opens prospects for further study of P/ casts (a new) light on the
question.
...gives convincing (direct/ exact/ good/ plausible/ serious/ sound/ strong/ sufficient/ valid)
reason to think that P/ the clue to the role of P/ a systematic account of P, ...gives rise to
theoretical discussion (impetus to the field)/ provokes reflection. ...suggests ingenious/
innovative/ inventive/ neat solutions to P. ...bears directly on P/ covers the structure of P (the
subject area) fairly well. ...brings about order and unity in (a unification of) terminology. ...adds
support to this view/ an extra dimension to the issue. ...has aroused wide interest.
...has been the stimulus for analytic discussion/ for cross-cultural experimentation. ...will
stimulate others to come closer to the understanding of P.
In [NN], the issue
...is developed/ discussed in sufficient detail.
Theoretically important here
...is the clear demarcation between P and Q.
My interest in P was stimulated
...by these developments.
'In [NN], F
...provides ...exact (uniform) definitions/ a coherent (realistic) picture of P.
...a careful/ complete/ lucid/ minute/ profound account for P. ...offers ...adequate/ efficient/
flexible/ powerful/ reliable/ sufficient
...a solid grounding for studying P. ...indispensable prerequisites for assessing/ describing P.
...a correct/ precise characterization of P. ...a neat division/ determination of P.
...deals
...with the complex subject in an orderly manner.
...shows,
...very convincingly, that P.
...presents
...a wealth of data about P/ is right in distinguishing P from Q. ...has refined...the
notions of P to correspond closely to Q. ...managed ...to answer the question with simplicity.
..that F's major contribution to the field as a whole lies.
One major advantage of [NN]...is that (it makes room for the notion) P.
Criticism and objections: see abstract/ arbitrary/ controversial/ outdated (approach),
ambiguous/vague (statement), artificial/odd/unacceptable/unfortunate (distinction), awkward/
crude/ erroneous/ false (assumption), disastrous (mistake), incorrect/ wrong (inference), dubious/
meaningless/ unrealistic (claim), speculative (scheme), misleading (comparison), shaky
(foundations), trivial (point), unreliable (conclusion), contradictory to (facts), contrary to (rules),
notorious for; skeptical/ critical/ suspicious of; a bias, defect, disadvantage, drawback, error,
failure,
fault,
illusion,
mistake,
omission,
oversimplification,
prejudice,
weakness;
In order to reveal P
...it is essential to validate.
We have not yet examined
...the causal relationships in this case.
We have to examine
...the relationship between P and Q.
Before we proceed to evaluate P, ...it is informative to check/ assess/ determine Q. To find the
correlation/ Proof of fusion ...requires two pieces of evidence: P and Q. For P we need certain
data,
...such as observations/ calculations/ estimates of Q.
From this perspective,
...let us re-examine/ determine/ assess/ explore P.
I shall try to illustrate the idea/ tendency/ the role of P in Q ...in the rest of this paper. As an
illustration of this approach,
of one example of P
...would be appropriate here.
In this section I want...to turn to examples/ to give instances of P/ to analyze the data. Some
specimen analyses/ data observations
...are given below.
Some concrete illustrations/ examples
...are given below.
Evidence for P
...was obtained in studies on the myocardium.
Such evidence
...may be derived from evolution/ confirm P.
These estimates of the process
...were derived from satellite data.
These measurements in the rate of P
...are based on P.
The data used for this study ...stem (are available) from measurements/ consist of P. New
experimental data
...hint at the existence of P.
These data
...contribute material for the testing of our claim.
A search for a correspondence between P and Q ...should provide a test of our hypothesis. A
confirmation of our hypothesis
...can be sought by analysis of corpus data.
Observing P...will constitute a test of our theory/ can confirm the validity of our ideas.
These findings These probes The information obtained The identification of P Our arguments
The discovery of P Particle physics Computer models Computer simulations There is great
interest
...lend support to the expectation that P. ...provide vital information about Q. ...is crucial for
identifying Q. ...is the key to identifying Q.
...are based on data (materials) obtained in experiments.
...has supplied evidence for Q. ...lends support to this idea. ...estimate/ reveal that P should cause
Q. ...reveal that P is irrelevant here.
...in correlating such data (our results/ materials) with P. Of particular interest/ importance/
significance ...is the fact that P/ the discovery of Q. We (can) appeal
facts/ findings/ discoveries/ studies/ [NN]
to show that P.
These observations/ facts may be encountered
These numbers/ figures/ measurements/ estimates
demonstrated (revealed/ established)
P was obtained (discovered)
These results
...were obtained by F (at F's laboratory).
These experimental data
...were reported in [NN].
For a full documentation of these features/ For more details,
...see [NN].
This phenomenon
...was discovered to characterize P/ has been reported in [NN]. The
researchers
...furnish strong evidence that P.
These studies ...shows/ has shown that P. ...revealed the shape of P.
...shows how systematic such phenomena can be. ...have reported a link between P and Q, ...hint
that P/ prompted us to explore P, ...shed light on 'P.
A striking example (interesting case/ fact) of P
...can be found in F's [NN].
F ...proved that such an operation is feasible/ witnessed the growth of Q in the study of P.
...provided tools for perceiving P/ performed an experimental check on P. (Thus) There is
...evidence that P/ ample evidence to suggest that P,
There is
...no evidence whatever that P.
Evidence
...indicates/ shows/ suggests/ demonstrates that P.
Further evidence
...includes the facts that P.
Several lines of evidence
...have shown that P/ contradict the view that P.
A considerable amount of evidence
...suggests that P.
The evidence, taken together,
...suggests that P.
We have evidence:
...extraterrestrial intelligences ^are not here.
This claim/ hypothesis
...does not stand up to real-world evidence,
These cases/ facts/ observations/ findings/ discoveries
...support our analysis.
We have now
...obtained the evidence that P/ uncovered evidence that P/
tested the hypothesis.
Observations/ calculations/ measurements/ estimates have been made to determine P. Our
observations ...assume that these events led to (are responsible for) P. ...provide evidence for P.
...indicate that these situations are alike/ differ (in a certain respect). ...suggest that these
specimens are among the oldest. ...lead to the conclusion that different species respond to P in
different ways/ that other nearby galaxies exhibit similar features, .tend to occur under the
following conditions: P .is common for long chains/ is relatable to P/ rarely occurs, .is apparent
in records of P. .is different with different types of P. .are similar to each other/ are clearly present
in P. ... indicate that/ permitted P.
These instances/ phenomena
...tend to form chains/ have in common the fact that P. In some
instances/ cases
...P is Q/ there may be P/ formal analogies can occur.
The clearest instance of the phenomenon
...is to be found in the relation of P and Q. These
observations
...are compatible with/ support the evidence that P.
...provide (further) impetus for the development of P.
My aim has been to develop and illustrate
...principles of / criteria for P.
I (shall) portray this state of affairs
...using the illustration of P.
P
...is chosen to illustrate Q (for discussion)/ illustrates the principle.
This example
...can serve as an illustration.
The dilemma
...is illustrated with memory-type devices.
This procedure
...may be illustrated by P.
Two sample cases (simple examples, showing that P)
...will help demonstrate Q,
Here I shall
...give examples which show that P/ try to illustrate that P.
We have illustrated mainly P,...because it allows us to display the relation more clearly.
To illustrate the point (further),
...we may take/ consider another example, P.
The following examples
...may serve as illustrations/ illustrate these difficulties.
The foregoing example
...is meant (chosen) to illustrate/ demonstrate P.
This point
...can be easily exemplified.
The point will be clearer
...if we consider another type of example.
Examples (of each position)
...are P and Q/ are the following, P.
These examples
...are not untypical/ involve P.
For further exemplification of the problem,
...consider the remarks made by F.
I refer here to P which is discussed at (some) length in,
...for example, [NN].
The reason for rejecting the idea that P ...comes from the fact (observation) that Q.
Given the fact that P,
...it is not surprising that Q/ the conclusion is evident.
As an instance/ For example/ e.g., compare P and Q. ...As an example, take p. 12 of NN.
To return to example (1),
...notice that P.
We conclude this section
...with a few observations on P.
Finally, we turn ...to instances (where) P/ we shall find that in some instances P is Q. As these
examples (instances/ illustrations/ observations/ facts) show,
Our investigation provides evidence to P/ a tool for assessing (estimating) the size of P.
Our observation/ test/ measurement
...permits a reliable assessment of variables.
Our study
...found no association between P and Q.
Detailed investigation
...reveals features of P
An examination of materials
...reveals/ suggests/ points to the conclusion that P.
On (close) examination of the facts
...it was discovered/ established that P.
When we examine P,
...we find that Q is insufficient for our purposes/
should be further studied.
A second problem is found...when we examine/ try to define/ seek to determine P.
Experiments, tests, estimates, measurements, verifications: see an experiment, procedure,
simulation, technique, test, tool; to control, govern, mimic, perform, simulate, use; an aid;
peculiarity, effect, importance, significance; to document, record, remark, report, represent,
tabulate; a discovery, examination, finding, observation; to correspond, depend, incorporate,
vary, deviate, differ, diverge, consist; to constitute/involve evidence; to indicate, separate, justify,
verify, derive evidence/information from data; to correlate data with features, satisfy
requirements, relate to/ index experience, to model reality/ a phenomenon; to reconstruct an
evolution; to represent in a diagram/in real time; to define/set up a correspondence, to find a
correlation, to give an indication, to facilitate an identification, (to discover/ establish/ prove/
evidence for) a connection/difference/similarity/ regularity/parallel/variation, etc.; cf. 4.1; 4.3.
The design of our experiment has been ...to test (conduct simulations of) P/ modeling P.
help demonstrate Q.
Experimental observations
...have been made to determine/ verify/ probe P.
The results we report here
...were obtained on a joint expedition.
In our experiment,
...P is studied/ investigated/ examined/ discovered/ established. In a series
of studies
...we asked students to rate P.
A series of studies has been conducted
...to find a con-elation between P and Q.
...to investigate connections (differences/ similarities/ relationships) between P and Q. To
investigate/ determine P,...it was planned to simulate Q/ it was decided to measure Q.
To test the hypothesis, To assess/ obtain P, To better understand P, In order to measure P In order
to establish P There was an effort It is possible
...we conducted laboratory experiments using P.
To gain more specific information on P,
...a second experiment was conducted.
Continuing our search for P,
...we see that a good indicator of the presence of P
would be Q.
Under these/ certain/ normal/ experimental circumstances,
...P
...tends to occur/ remained unchanged/ will change as Q happens. ...possesses certain
peculiarities/ affected the rate of Q. ...deviates (diverges) from the norm/ differs from Q in that it
is R. ...is a stimulus (substitute) for in vivo experimentation. ...must be repeated whenever Q
changes/ is necessary for the effect to appear. ...is an aid in determining R/ was hastened by the
effect of Q.
At each stage/ In such cases...we check that P/ P occurred/ something suiprising happens. This
change/ reaction
...takes place/ occurs when P.
This effect
...constitutes a rather interesting case.
There are
...(crucial) differences/ (strong) parallels/ similarities between P and Q.
These characteristics/ factors are
...singled out by means of P.
These properties
...determined the choice of P.
The effects of P on Q
...encompass a considerable range/ are not limited to R.
These effects
...are used to explain R.
The behavior of these effects ...may be considered from various perspectives/ as P. Here we
present/ give/ provide/ report
...a complete treatment of these effects.
We have developed/ elaborated a technique/ method/ approach/ procedure that relies on P.
We have used
...accelerated protons to study disruptive effects.
The reason why we used such methods/ computer simulations...is to correlate P with Q. Using a
supercomputer to solve such equations, ...we have now uncovered evidence that P. To elucidate
the details of how P functions
...our research team used computer simulations.
The trials/ experiments
...were used to determine P/ included four treatments.
This result led us
...to experiment with/ upon (rats)/ to test (probe/ simulate) P.
Further experiments
...revealed relations between P and Q.
This technique/ strategy
...capitalizes on P/ employs transformations.
...can be used to simplify/ demonstrate Q. ...has not become a widely used tool in biology
research.
These background trends have been a s s e s s e d...using a large dataset of absolute times. The
impact of this mechanism was assessed
...by using measurements of P.
The value of this function is required
...to evaluate production rates of P.
These measurements
...went into establishing the numerical value of P/
To verify (probe) P, ......our team took a close look at the measurements of/ measured Q.
The dependent variables used in this study
...were composite scores.
These estimates (measurements)
...show agreement with experiments.
Results and their representation: to acquire, affect, approximate, become, break, carry, compose,
drive, embody, emerge, function, happen, have, hide, influence, inherit, interfere, intervene,
meet, obey, occur, pass, pertain, react, resist, taint, withstand, work; a cause, condition,
consequence, gradation, interplay, alternative, analogous, bound, comparable, compatible,
complementary, constant, continual, determined, diverse, equivalent, formal, homogeneous,
identical, implicit, independent, individual, internal, involved, mechanical, objective, opposite,
parallel, partial, related, relative, separate, unreactive, unrelated, unrestricted, unchanged;
common, characteristic, direct, different, dominant, normal, random, rare, similar, variable,
universal; expected, observable, observational, obvious, perceived, testable, unpredictable;
available, inherent, motivated, occasional,
optional,
oriented, responsible,
separable,
uncontrolled, unintentional, unsupervised; appendix, diagram, figure, graph, list, pattern, scheme,
table, character, expression, formula, mark, note, sign, symbol, etc.
Our investigations/ computer simulations/ Analyses of these data ...reveal/ show that P.
The findings of this study/ Several lines of evidence
...reveal (that) P.
Our study of P
...indicates that Q/ points to the existence of Q.
This study
...presents evidence to/ lends support to the hypothesis of P.
Surveys of quasars/ Studies of distant objects
...challenge current thinking about P.
Our material/ examination
...reveals many ways in which this algorithm operates.
The following table/ A demand schedule...shows/has shown that P.
In general,
...the results of our research indicate P/ establish a clear pattern: P.
Seen as a whole,
...our results suggest that P/ further elucidate P.
The results obtained
...highlight the potential of adapting P to Q.
Taken together,
...our results reveal agreement between P and Q/
provide support for the model/ ...are encouraging/ in accordance with P/ rule out the possibility
of P.
These results
...appeared to be confirmed/ are less successful.
...led us to experiment with IV impose constraints on P. ...served to show that P/ look something
like P. As our results indicate, ...relation of P to Q is variable/ there is an association/
discrepancy/ parallelism between P and Q.
It has been (conclusively) shown that/ As our experiments reveal (indicate), P...
These mechanisms
...are to be explicated.
The question is,
...what are the factors/ mechanisms/ processes affecting P?
We are faced with the problem of
...defining (accounting for) P.
This analysis
...serves to provide an explanation/ interpretation for P.
Our analysis
...points to another explanation.
By making explicit these distinctions, ...I hope to provide (shall give) an explanation for P. The
most logical explanation for P/ My explanation ...is (based on the concept of) Q. This point
...requires (some) justification.
A few words of comment are necessary here/ A comment about P is in order. With regard to
P, ...a certain clarification is necessary. The following
...is meant as an explanation.
Our observations ...support the supposition that P/ permit a reconstruction of P. Our results
...indicate/ suggest that/ rule out P/ provide strong support for the model of P. ...reveal close
agreement between the experimental and computed values of P.
As our results/ observations indicate
...there is ample evidence to suggest that P (is related to Q). ...there is a connection (relationship)
between P and Q. ...the rate of P depends on/ changes with the amount of Q. ...this factor affects
the rate (range) of P/ produces an effect on P. ...this effect leads to/ is connected with (related to/
produced by) P. ...these modifications arise from the instability of the bosons. ...due to it's
properties, P gives rise to structures called Q.
...can be associated with P.
...operates within the domain of P.
...can serve as a framework for explaining P.
...can be used to define P/ is a matter of degree. This characteristic ...allows a reference to P/
distinguishes P from Q.
...obtains in P ("is customary")/ is shared between P and Q.
The difference/ similarity between P and Q...
...lies in R/ is one of degree rather than kind.
...becomes apparent if we contrast/ compare the conditions they satisfy. ...is prefigured in the
tendency to use R. The conditions under which these forms tend to occur ...are P and Q/
determine/ complicate P.
We can explain the effect/ process if we assume
...that P,
We have sufficient ground to assume
...that P.
The key to explaining the effect/ process/ mechanism/ property
...may lie in P.
Given (the notion/ limitation/ fact) that P,...we can explain Q/ the conclusion is evident. Given
that/ this,
...we have to stand the consequences of P. ...we can extend the interpretation P to Q, ...is based on
the discovery of P. ,,.can be deduced from its structure. ...can be deduced from measurements,
...to test the plausibility of our proposals/ suggestions/hypotheses/
...seems an irrelevant feature (to be acting as/ to be rich in Q)/ could be handled as Q, ...can be
extended to take account of Q/ could be a reason for the change in Q. ..probably represents the
earlier stages of Q/ presumably results from differences in Q. is apparently even more
unrelated to (correlated with) R than Q,
The thesis/ model/ scheme/ interpretation/ explanation...proposed here to account for P is that Q.
Our scheme/ hypothesis relates P to Q/ agrees with observations/ needs explanation/ is
preferable.
Our description
...makes explicit the influence of R on Q.
Our interpretation
...is dependent on P.
The implications (of my model) are twofold:
...P and Q.
The use of the technique/ model/ scheme
...enables predictions of P.
...is bringing about improvements in/ constitutes a promising approach to P. " Our model
...describes how PP behave/ involves/ presupposes/ helps clarify P.
...provides an opportunity for testing P/ unequivocal evidence for P.
...can help find a solution by restructuring Q/ proves productive.
...permits to develop a typology of the phenomena.
...permits to infer (reconstruct/ a reconstruction of) historical connections.
...is capable of providing an answer to P/ has social aspects.
...has the property (virtue) of being testable.
...can be judged on the basis of potency.
...lends itself to simplifications/ yields more definitive results.
The need for a more acceptable classification increases/ has arisen.
Here
...different classifications are possible.
...is an explanation of how PP are classified. Our classification of PP
These calculations
observations
These judgments
Such representation
should be clear (the fact is clear/ It is none the less clear) that P. It is (would be) accurate to say/
It cannot (can hardly) be denied that P. Certain elements of P are extremely stable.
This system is constituted by certain relations. PP are all alternatives. These rules operate
according to certain conventions.
These laws hold only in certain situations. In certain cases the converse may be true. There must
be certain features which are characteristic of P. P is almost certain to persist. Under certain
circumstances, P happens/ takes place. These relations do not depend on P. It is P which is
characteristic of Q. Although it is true that P, this tendency is slight. It is in principle possible to
reduce P to Q. There is no difference in principle between P and Q.
There is nothing against assigning P to Q. There is a more plausible alternative for P. There is no
implication here that P. There are no more alternatives to P. There is no/ little connection/
distinction between the two phenomena.
We have put forward the view that P is distinct from Q.
Our hypothesis
Our conclusion
...is based on a careful estimate of P.
...confirm our hypothesis/ support our contention.
...seem to solve the problem of P.
...will actually generate P/ are (therefore) at least plausible.
...is guaranteed to lead to P.
...provide/ may become the guidelines for explaining P.
...will be applicable to/ clearly demonstrates/ provides P.
...holds for the overwhelming majority of languages.
...holds for any set.
There is a discrepancy/ mismatch/ conflict/ contradiction
...between P and Q.
There is a Striking similarity
...between P and Q.
It is misleading to suggest/ It is (was) strange (uncommon/ accidental) .
...that P.
It is hard/ may be difficult to calculate (judge/ imagine) P.
It is not clear whether P. It seems
impossible to tackle the problem successfully.
Whether P includes Q is an open question.
It is the rate of P
...that will be most troublesome.
P ...assumed unusual shapes/ exhibited an unusual behavior. ...proved greater than suspected/
may sound attractive, but Q. ...revealed itself with startling clarity/ is not an incidental
consequence of Q. ...is insufficient to determine Q/ may seem undesirable here. ...is not at all
clear/ may come in various guises/ cannot secure our understanding of Q. ...poses an as yet
unsolved problem/ should not divert our attention from Q. ...vanishes under further scrutiny/
deepens the mystery of how the galaxies formed. This ...is a frustrating lesson/ an unpleasant
consequence of P. ...is a vexed (and troubling) question.
...raises an unanswerable question of whether P/ presents one with a dilemma. ...may conceal a
great deal of information (about variation).
A word of caution
...is needed about this concept/ approach/ idea.
There is
...a danger in relying too much on P as an explanation.
There is no
...conclusive evidence on the trend of P.
There are no
...clear ways (procedures) of testing P.
There may be instances
...which are uncertain/ about which we are uncertain.
There is
...(considerable) confusion over this difference.
The confusion arises because of P.
Another instance of this confusion is that P.
The main source of confusion
...seems to reside in differentiating between P and Q.
Much of the confusion In the field
...lies in a mistaken claim that P.
This question
...leads to a paradox/ is not yet accurately formulated.
These conditions
...could complicate the assessment of P,
Lack of P has been a serious obstacle to Q.These stereotypes affect attitudes towards P.
P should not be confused with Q. A positive answer cannot be based on crediting that P.
We must take care not to misinterpret the difficulty that, P. Serious obstacles lie in P.
The extrapolation of P must be made with caution, 9 The difficulty may be put briefly/ One
added complexity presents itself, P.
Progress in analyzing P has been hindered by the lack of information concerning Q,
Nobody yet knows what is P. We know less than we thought we knew about P.
(Comparatively) little is known...about the distinctions to be drawn between P and Q.
Whether P influences Q
...is not known at present/ remains unknown.
P reflects our lack of knowledge about Q. For P it is necessary to have knowledge of Q.
Our knowledge of P/ in this sphere ...is scant and fragmentary.
...is insufficient to determine Q.
There are many gaps
...in our (theoretical) understanding of these processes.
This controversy
...has left several theoretical tasks unaccomplished.
The debate over the data continues,
...involving astronomers.
Researchers today/ Some biologists
...suspect that P/ are worried that P.
Scientists
...have yet to identify phenomena that exhibit P.
Details/ Many issues
...remain unresolved.
The function of these signals
...has not yet been established.
The precise basic defect
...has eluded investigators.
The mechanisms involved in P
...are complex and still poorly understood.
Many present conceptions of P
...appear unable to meet these criteria.
The more specialized studies of these phenomena
...are very nearly lacking.
The economic analysis in these cases
...is often conflicting.
The analysis
...leaves many questions open/ fails to convey P's true dimensions.
A previous analysis of P
...failed to find a correlation between P and Q.
...stimulates theoretical
research into Q.
At present, the topic of theoretical concentration
...is the study of P.
The depiction of P
...is currently an active area of (computer science) research.
This topic/ issue
...has come to occupy the central place in biology.
This idea ...is highly charged/ has an obvious (widespread) appeal among biologists. These
principles
...may become (provide) guidelines as to how to proceed/ for P.
Scientists
...have to supply experimental confirmations of the idea.
The treatment of P
...has shown improvement in recent years.
The advance of P
...is due to Q/ brings another point to the foreground, Q.
The computer
...opens up a whole range of new opportunities.
TEXT ORGANIZATION
While we can expect P, ...we cannot expect Q in the foreseeable future.
The prospect
...opened by this new work is Q/ is a little closer.
There is (clearly)
...a great deal to be done in elaborating this plan.
The question ...about P in this (in a more general) context leads to Q.
In reality, ...it is difficult to control P/ both techniques are of equal importance.
...the broader issue is that P/ there is a deeper reason for P. This technology (technique/ method/
approach/ procedure)...
...will (can/ may/ could) cause Q/ may soon offer P/ is advancing quickly. ...can be used in P/ can
be tapped to develop software applications. ...will surely become a preferred method for Q/ has
its practical benefits. ...is the domain where these predictions can be tested/ seems hard to
beat. ...may become widely used by the middle of the 21st century. ...has reached the point where
it can P/ will I think prove productive. ...would not be nearly enough to stop the population
growth.
7.6. Conclusion/Concluding remarks
Prospects and applications; Proposals for further research; Concluding remarks/
summary
Prospects and applications: see to apply directly/gradually/partially/in addition to/in
combination with; (to make) easier/ facile/ potent, ideal for; practical/ rich (applications), an
achievement, advance, advantage, benefit, contribution, gain, improvement, innovation,
prominence, revolution, reward, success, merit, profit; to avail, clear away, advance, progress, (to
improve) productivity/usefulness, fulfill (the needs), succeed in, (to control/prevent) chaos, to
ease a burden/ reduce the harm (of the underproduction/ undertreatment problem); to use a
(supercomputer/method to compress/record voice/sound/to encode an utterance/signal; (to
promote) scholarship/ (develop) businesses/ (correct) vision/ coordinate (efforts)/ cut (air
pollution)/invent (a generator)/blend (technologies)/block (angiogenesis)/put theory into
practice/ regulate (production)/stop (an explosion)/treat (cancer)/update information/upgrade
computer systems/offer (more) affordable opportunities for/assist in/avoid (problems in)/(to gain)
access to/ (promote/ achieve/ develop/ explore) accumulation/ acquisition/ adaptation/
application/ determination/ implementation of; to yield clues to consciousness; not to dismiss/
ignore/ neglect (a possibility), etc.
The conclusions of the study ...reveal that P/ will help illuminate/ explain P.
We have succeeded in our results, our technique, our method
The merits of the method The method utilized These comparisons This problem/ possibility The
present theory
...could lead to (better measurements of) P.
...can be directly applied to the process of P.
...can be applied directly/ gradually/ partially/
can ...enrich scientific knowledge in P/ become most significant innovation in P. ...bring about
improvements in (the treatment of) P/ fulfill the needs of P. ...bring success in controlling
(environmental) chaos/ bring economic profits. ...increase/ enhance productivity/ simplify Q by
clearing away irrelevant details. ...find fruitful applications/ impede progress in automatic
parsing. ...make the consequences of the (underproduction/ undertreatment) problem harmless.
These findings
...may be of considerable practical value.
Practical benefits now foreseen of P ...cannot be an exclusive list.
...includes a practical benefit. ...from applying/ making avail of P is that Q. ...brings changes in
Q.
...for comparing P/ for pooling information about Q. ...are easy to automate. ...is an ideal
teaching machine. ...are of great practical importance. ...are helpful for practical purposes. ...may
come from exploiting Q. ...hinges on the fact that Q/ raises the issue of R. ...we can begin a larger
trial. ...is that P.
The usefulness of these techniques
A gain to be had
The introduction of P
Such databases are powerful tools
Such actions
The computer of the future
The data asked for here
These data
Success in P
Building on this success,
The most significant innovation 8 P ...will not be easy in practice/ will, in practice, be applicable
only to Q.
...can bring an advance in our understanding of P.
...can easily be adapted so as to imitate Q/ can ease/ reduce the burden of P.
Here we are faced with a formidable task of P. This preoccupation will not go away.
There is an acute need for P.
There is great interest in correlating such data with P.
There is clearly a great deal to be done in solving these problems.
It would be of great interest to develop P.
The topic of theoretical concentration
...should shift to P.
The central concern of cybernetics
...will shift to P.
(For the measurement of P) It is necessary to have an accurate theoretical
knowledge of Q/ to investigate actively Q. 8 Now it is known with certainty that P...
...proves difficult to check out/ is still beyond our competence/ is theoretically important.
...is applicable to such processes in general/ is a relatively neglected aspect of the system.
...is a generally recognized problem/ is an unexplored area (between language and culture).
...is crucial/ essential to understanding formalizations in many fields.
...cannot be discovered unless Q/ described mechanically (in isolation from Q/ implicitly).
...remains to be considered/ needs to be reconsidered/ should provoke further reflection.
...should be conceptually defined/ further specified.
...should be treated separately (identified formally/ formulated differently). Our awareness that
we need some (more) background for P increases.
There is a general awareness that such disassociation might be expecting
a revision of the theory. , The realization is gaining ground that/ It is hoped that
P will happen.
It must be recognized that
...eventually
Any P requires Q/ is either Q or R. We are not able to do P with any real success. Any such
theory must be able to deal with all PP. In regard to any subject matter, P. In any case, there is an
overlap/ difference in PP. In any area of science,
will be P.
I wish
...to close with
predictions
P/ to conclude by
that P.
My expectation/ hope/ prediction
...is that P will provide Q.
Printing
7.7. Appendices:acknowlegements
Latin abbreviations and expressions: e.g. References; Abbreviations/ List of abbreviations;
Annex; Index of names/ subjects, see via, vice versa; a figure, scheme, graph, table, etc.
Latin abbreviations:
cf.
confer
compare
i.e./ ic
id est
that is
e.g./ eg
exempli gratia
for example
N.B./ NB
no/a bene note well
etc.
etcetera
and the rest
v.s./vs./vs
versus
against
ib./ibid.
ibidem
in the same place
viz.
Videlicet
namely
Latin (derived) expressions:
ad hoc ail hominem ail inftnitum alter ego alter idem ceteris paribus inter alia in tola
for this special object
to the man
to infinity
another self
another exactly the same
other things being equal
among other things
entirely
ipso facto mutatis mutandis par excellence per set Se prima-facie reduclio ad absurdum sine qua
non
by the fact itself
with the necessary changes
preeminently
itself
at a first view
a reducing to the limit
an indispensable condition
Examples: The consequence of the author's rather optimistic treatment of the formal side of his
model is the ease with which he postulates all sorts of extension for it, mostly unblushingly ad
hoc, wherever he needs to. Cancer cells appear to have an "immortalizing enzyme" that allows
tumor cells to divide ad infmitum. The law of demand states that the quantity demanded of a
good or service in a given time period is negatively related to its price, ceteris paribus. F voiced
similar opinions mutatis mutandis when he reacted against the historical approach. Cosmogonic
myths are thus mythological information pat-excellence. This distinction operates within the
domain of linguistic convention per xe. In the next chapter I shall examine these principles and
argue their prima-facie plausibility. I shall make at least a prima facie case for this claim after
first explaining the few additional notational devices in the diagram.
(Emphasis/ Italics original).
Acknowledgments: see to (gratefully) acknowledge smb's support/ assistance/ contribution (to
the revision of one's article)/one's debt (to smb/forsmt), (be) grateful/indebted (to smb/colleagues
for comments on/discussing one's article/objections), to
(deeply/
greatly/sincerely) smb's help; to thank (sincerely/smb/a reviewer) for help/comments/criticisms/
discussions/ discussing); etc.
Thanks to/ I thank sincerely F
I wish/ should like to thank F
43
I. TEXT ORGANIZATION
I. thank the following
...for their criticisms on various versions of this paper, FF.
Numerous contributions of F to the preparation of this article ...are greatly appreciated.
I would especially like to thank F
...for her useful observations on P.
I owe sincere thanks to F,
...whose help I deeply/ greatly/ sincerely appreciate.
I am grateful/ indebted to F (to the editor of this journal/ to my colleagues)...
...for comments on an earlier version of this article/ for discussing the article with me.
Gratitude also goes to F
...for pointing out/ discussing with me the data/ idea.
The author
...is indebted to F for various helpful comments.
...(gratefully) acknowledges the contribution of F to the revision of this paper.
...acknowledges his debt to F for proofreading the manuscript after (final) typing.
The assistance/ support/ help/ contribution of F...
...is gratefully acknowledged/ greatly appreciated. Finally, I thank the anonymous reviewers
...for comments on the penultimate draft of this paper. I want to acknowledge the contribution of
an anonymous referee
...to the revision of this article.
Two anonymous reviewers raised many incisive objections, ...for which I am grateful.
...to which I have done my best to respond.
If I have failed to do so adequately,
...the responsibility is mine.
If any imperfections remain,
...I am entirely to blame/ the fault is mine.
7.3. Printing and publication:
to print, publish, issue, communicate, revise, a publication,
grant, conference, edition, etc.; cf. 3.1-3.3; 17; 18.1-18,3; 20; 21.
9 This work/ study/ publication ...was supported by research grants from the Institute P. ...was
made possible by a grant from "P" Research Council. ...benefited from the following research
grants: P.
8 (Preliminary) Results of this investigation ...have been communicated to the conference [NN],
9 This paper/ book ...is a corrected/ expanded/ revised edition of [NN]/ was first published in
1975.
The revision of the paper was undertaken by F.
NB. A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. The
well-written scientific paper should report its original data in an organized fashion and in an
appropriate language. A scientific paper is primarily an exercise in organization; it should be
highly stylized, with distinctive and clearly evident component parts. Each scientific paper
should have, in proper order, its Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion.
An effective way to proceed in writing a scientific paper is to answer these four questions, in
order: 1) What was the problem? Your answer is the Introduction. How did you study the
problem? Your answer is the Materials and Methods. What did you find? Your answer is the
Results. What do these findings mean? Your answer is the Discussion. [R.A.Day. How to write
and publish a scientific paper. Philadelphia, 1979].
BIBLOGRAPHY