Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DOI 10.1007/s00170-011-3384-5
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Received: 20 February 2011 / Accepted: 8 May 2011 / Published online: 24 May 2011
# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
1 Introduction
In recent years, microstructure changes in the surface of a
machined workpiece, commonly referred to as white and
dark layers, have been studied under certain machining
conditions. Moreover, white and dark layers are generally
considered to be detrimental to fatigue life because they are
known to be hard and brittle.
Barbacki and Kawalec [1] studied dark and white layers
formed during the machining of steels and concluded that
the dark layer is not observed in high-speed machining due
to its high tempering temperature. Barry and Byrne [2] also
used transmission electron microscope (TEM) to analyse
white layers generated in hard turning of AISI 4340 steel
with worn and unworn tools. They found that under these
conditions, white layers can form if the temperature
exceeds the austenitic formation temperature of the steel.
Moreover, Ramesh et al. [3] carried out TEM, X-ray
diffraction (XRD), EDS, and nano-indentation hardness
tests of white layers formed from hard turning of AISI
52100 steel and found that cementite was absent in highspeed machining in which thermal effects are expected to
be dominant. In contrast, cementite was observed in the
white layer formed at a low cutting speed, at which
mechanical effects tend to dominate and the temperatures
may not exceed the austenitisation temperature of the
steel.
In recent years, some attempts to numerically model the
microstructure changes have been reported. Ramesh et al.
[4] used a numerical model of orthogonal machining to
calculate the temperature, effective stress, and plastic strain
in a workpiece subsurface in ABAQUS, a finite element
software. In his work, the white layer was formed at a depth
46
Fig. 1 The experimental setup for measuring the machining temperature and forces
47
2.2 Measurements
The measured forces are shown in Fig. 2a, b. It can be seen
that tangential force, feed force, and radial force are in Z, X,
and Y direction, respectively. The radial forces in Fig. 2a, b
are nearly identical. The tangential force Fcw and feed force
Ftw due to tool flank wear can be determined as follows [10]:
Fcw tangential force with flank wear
" tangential force due to fresh tool
Ftw feed force with flank wear " feed force due to fresh tool
1
An image of the temperature distribution along the tool
flank wear width is shown in Fig. 3. The figure shows that
the location of the maximum temperature distribution is at
the tool-chip interface. Moreover, the contact width of the
tool-workpiece interface is the same as that of the wear
width. The temperature in this region is obviously higher
than in other regions along the workpiece surface because
the process-generated heat of the wear width has no time to
diffuse.
48
$
%
ZL
qshear
X " x sin V
Tshearx; z
exp
2pkw
2a
0
( $ q%
V
K0
X " x sin 2 Z " x cos 2
2a
$ q%)
V
X " x sin 2 Z x cos 2 dx
K0
2a
a 3:0246 & 10"2 1:9016 & 10"5 & K 1:7244 & 10"8 & K 2
3
The modified Bessel function k0(u) is determined by:
k0 u
1
2
1
0
"
#
dw
u2
exp "w "
w
4w
TrubbingX ;Z
2pkw
ZVB
Bx qrubbing exp
X " xV
2a
Fig. 4 Heat transfer model and heat partition along the tool-workpiece
interface
V
& K0
2a
q%
X " x2 Z 2 dx
49
The heat intensity of the shear heat source qshear and the
heat intensity of the rubbing heat source qrubbing are given
by [18]
qshear
qrubbing
Fcw V
wVB
1
2pkw
ZVB
0
qshear
2pkw
$
%
ZVB
1
X " xV
Bx qrubbing exp
2pkw
2a
$ 0 q%
V
X " x2 Z 2 dx
& K0
2a
$
%
n
X
1
X " xi V
Bxi
qrubbing exp
2pkw
2a
i0
$ q%
V
& K0
X " xi 2 Z 2
2a
Trubbingx;z
Let
ZL
0
10
x 2 0; VB)
12
$
%
$ q%
X " xV
V
& K0
X " x2 Z 2 dx
"0:7341x 0:8825qrubbing exp
2a
2a
$
%( $ q%
$ q%)
X " x sin V
V
V
exp
K0
X " x sin 2 Z " x cos 2 K0
X " x sin 2 Z x cos 2 dx
2a
2a
2a
13
50
white and dark layers are all present at the following cutting
condition. The depth of the white layer also increased with
an increase in the wear width.
The hardness of the surface and subsurface layers was
measured, and the results are shown in Fig. 7a, b. From the
figures, we find that the hardness of the bulk material is
240 HV, and for different widths of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 mm,
the total depths of the white and dark layers are 0.515,
0.572, and 0.643 mm, respectively. Comparing Fig. 6 with
Fig. 7, the range of the white layer hardness is 360 HV<
WL<400 HV, and the depth of the white layer is about 0.1
and 0.158 mm at wear widths of 0.3 and 0.5 mm,
respectively. Comparing Fig. 5 with Fig. 7, the temperature
at which the microstructure change occurs is approximately
230C. It is worth pointing out that the temperature of
51
, +
++
, +
,,
HVp " HV = Tp " Tmicro"changes & T " Tmicro"changes
14
52
15
+
,,
& T " Tmicro"changes
53
Fig. 12 White and dark layer formation for different feed rates at
cutting speed V=100 m/min and wear width VB=0.3 mm
Fig. 11 White and dark layer formation for different cutting speeds at
wear width VB=0.3 mm and feed rate r=0.15 mm/rev
Fig. 13 White and dark layer formation for different wear widths at
cutting speed V=100 m/min and feed rate r=0.15 mm/rev
54
5 Conclusions
In this paper, a micro-hardness-based model was developed to
analytically study the turning process in terms of white and
dark layer formation. The following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The good agreement obtained between the experimental
and analytical results indicate that the proposed microhardness-based model was suitable in identifying the
microstructure changes at various depths below the
machined surface.
References
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