Quaternary international, Vol. 21, pp. 163-169, 1994.

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A CLIMATIC MODEL FOR SOUTHWESTERN AMAZONIA IN LAST GLACIAL TIMES

Edgardo M. Latrubesse* and Carlos G. RamoneU1"
*Departamento de Geografia, Universidade do Amazonas, C.P.885, 69011, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
t Facultad de lngenier~a y Cs. HMricas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, C.C. 495, (3000) Santa Fd, Argentina

Muitidisciplinary data indicate that southwestern Amazonia was a savanna environment during Last Glacial times. Interpretation of
biogeographical and geological records, as compared with the present climatic conditions, permit us to postulate a dry season more
pronounced and prolonged than the present one; city northerly winds (vinodatog] with S O U ~ I~,misphcre trade winds) dominated during
the dry season, and the southerly cold air masses (locally termed 'friagem' or 'surazo') would have been more frequent and intensive than
today.

INTRODUCTION
The large Amazon rainforest, occupying 5,000,000 lan2,
has been a center of attention of the natural sciences in the
last centuries. Although the Amazon rainforest extends into
various countries, 80% of the total area is located in Brazil.
The Amazon ecosystem houses more living species than
any other single system on Earth. Today, for example, some
80,000 vascular plant species could be identified, and as
many as thirty million animal species may exist (Colinvaux,
1989).
In the last two decades, the most frequent explanation for
this biodiversity has been that of the forest refuges (Haffer,
1969, 1982; Prance, 1982). According to this theory, during
periods of glacial activity Amazonia had a much drier
climate, resulting in a rainforest reduction and in an increase
in the savanna areas. No refuges were available in the
southwestern Amazonia; however, some important
biogeographical changes occurred. Two important papers
give a review about the geomorphological and paleobotanical changes in Amazonia during the Quaternary, with
emphasis on the Last Glacial Maximum (van tier Hammen,
1991; Clapperton, 1993). In this work, we include both a
review and new data, explaining a probable circulation
model, specific for the southwestern Amazonia; most data
are included in Latmbesse's Doctoral Thesis (1992).
PRESENT CLIMATE IN AMAZONIA
In the Amazonia rainforest a humid tropical climate
prevails. Rainfall, averaging 2000 mm in the whole basin,
increases in the northwest to 5000-7000 mm (in Ecuador)
and to 10,000 ram in Choco (Colombia), outside the basin.
The area south from the centerline of the Solimoes--Amazon
River, known as southwestern Amazonia, shows a
pronounced dry season with high- and low-peaks of rainfall,
which does not hold true for the area north of the Solimoes
River. The shifting of the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) influences this region.
During summer, in the southern hemisphere, the ITCZ is
located from 10 to 15 S. In this period, southern Amazonia

receives most rainfall. The 1TCZ shifts northwards, reaching

its extreme northern position from July to August, and is then
located over Venezuela and Colombia. The total average
rainfall for these three months (winter in the southern
hemisphere) decreases to 100--140 mm. According to the
facts given above, the southwestern Amazonia has a definite
'dry' season during winter (Fig. la, b). The winter dry season
is characterized by dry northerly winds, originated in the
anticyclonic circulation of the southern hemisphere
tradewinds.
PRESENT CLIMATE IN THE PAMPEAN AND
CHACO PLAINS
Conversely to the Amazonia region, where Atlantic trade
winds govern wind and rain patterns, in the southern portion
of the continent (at 30 S), weather patterns produced in the
South Atlantic and South Pacific anticyclones prevail. The
winds from the South Pacific Anticyclone (SPA) lose their
humidity on the west side of the Andes, coming into the
Argentine plains cold and dry from the southwest and south
during winter.
The winds of the South Atlantic Anticyclone (SAA) are
warmer and more humid, coming into the plain from the
northeast. On the Pampa, rains result from the interaction
between the SAA and SPA air masses. However, in the
Chaco region, rains are convective, originating in the SAA
air masses.
PRESENT EFFECTS OF THE SPA IN
SOUTHWESTERN AMAZONIA
Cold fronts, coming in winter from the cold air masses
produced in the SPA, move into southwestern Amazonia.
These masses cross the Argentine plains, reaching Brazil. In
southwestern Amazonia, they produce the phenomenon
locally called 'friagem' or 'surazo'.
From May to July, the temperature decreases more than
15C over 3 or 5 days (Molion, 1987). The average
temperature is 26C between October and April, decreasing
3-4C in the dry season (Rancy, 1991), the rainfall being

163

164

E.M. Lalrubesse and C.G. Ramonell

i

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17.

,,

70
|

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60

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/.~

i,

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I

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I

FIG. la. Normal rainfall in January (isoyets in ram). The shaded areas are above 500 meters above sea level (from Salati

FIG. lb. Normal rainfall in JaliLla/-y (isoyets in ram). The shaded areas are 500 meters above sea level (from Salati

reduced by 120 mm between July and August. Both

formation and movement of these cold air masses were

recorded by satellite and field observations (Brinkman et al.,
1971; Parmenter, 1976). Therborg (1983) described a sharp
temperature decrease, in July 1975, when (at the latitude of
Iquitos, at 3 S) 8C were recorded for three consecutive
nights. According to the author, the normal average
temperature during the 'surazo' would he 14--16C. In the
Bolivian plains, during the 'friagem', the minimum
temperature reaches 0-5C. The 'surazo' has an important
biological effect, producing economic losses in agriculture
(Ronchail, I992).
Today, southwestern Amazonia is affected by air masses
coming from the SPA in winter, which produce a
temperature decrease. The more frequent winter winds move

et a L ,

et al.,

1978).

1978).

towards the north and northwest, warm and dry. Figure 2

schematically shows this condition.
SOUTHWESTERN AMAZONIA ,DURING T l t g LAST
GLACIAL TIMES: IgNV~ONMBNTAL C ~ E S
FROM MULTIDIT~EI~INARY DATA
Palynology

The more specific palynological data on southwestern

Amar~nia come from Rondonia, indicating that savannas
replaced rainforest during different periods in the Late
Pleistocene (Absy and van der I-Imma~n, 1976). Dry periods
were registered at 4I and 18.5 ka BP (van der Hammen, pets.
commun.; in Absy, 1993).
Similar results were found in the plateau in the southern

SouthwesternAmazoniain Last GlacialTimes

The fossils studied by Rancy were found mainly in the

upper Jurua River basin. The author also describes f'mdings
in the Purus and Madeira Rivers. Previous studies have
mentioned the presence of large Late Pleistocene mammals
in the Napo and Ucayali rivers. Figure 3 shows the areal
distribution of these paleontological sites.

60"W
I
I

165

E_cua_dor

Geology

:"

Quaternary geological research m southwestern

Amazonia is scarce, the few studies available being mainly
made along river banks.
The rivers of southwestern Amazonia can be classified
into two groups:
(a) Fluvial systems with headwaters in highlands (Ucayaii,
Marafion, Madre de Dios).
(b) Fluvial systems with headwaters in lowlands (Purus,
Jurtla, Javari).
i

HG. 2. Winter atmosphericcirculationassociated with the 'friagem' or

'surazo' phenomain Amazonia.
range of Carajas, where dry periods (with replacement of
rainforest by savanna) at 60, 40 and 23-11 ka BP were
recorded (Absy et al., 1991).

Paleontology of Vertebrates
Rancy (1991) found large m a m m a l s of Lujanense
Mammal Age in southwestern Amazonia and proposed a
savanna environment during the Last Glaciation (Table 1).

Alluvial sediments in the Madre de Dios River were

deposited in Middle Pleniglacial times, during the Late
Pleistocene (Riisiinen, 1991; Riis~men and Linna, 1992).
In the Ucayali River, Dumont et al. (1991) found that
alluvial gravels (up to 10 times coarser than the present
sandy bed load) were deposited between 32 and more than
40 ka BP. For these authors, this change is indicative of the
irregular fluvial regime during glacial times.
Moreover, when analysing the morphology of ancient
channels of the Ucayali, Durnont et al. (1991) concluded that
at 13 ka BP, the river discharge was seven to 10 times smaller
than the present values.

TABLE 1. Pleistocenemegamammals(morethan 1 kg) fromsouthwesternAmazonia(fromRancy, 1991)

Genera

Habitat

Diet

Eremotherium
Ocnopus
Glossotherium

Forestedge/savanna
Forestedge/savanna
Savanna

Grass/browse
Grass/browse
Ca'ass/b~wse

Lestodon
Scelidotherium
Mylodon
Megalonyx

Savanna
Savanna
Savanna
Savanna

Grass/browse
Grass/browse
C_a'ass/bfowse
Grass/browse

Edentata-Cingulata
Propraopus

Forestedge/savanna

Omnivo~

Dasypus
Euphractus
Pampatherium
Hoplophortts
Neuryurus
Panocthus
Glyptodon

Forest/savanna
Savanna
Savanna
Savanna
Savanna
Savanna
Savanna

Insectivore
Omnivore
Grass
Grass
Grass
Grass
Grass

Savanna
Savanna

Grass/low browse
Grass/lowbrowse

Savanna
Savanna

Grass/browse)fruit
Grass/browse/fruit

Forest/savanna

Browse/fruit

Savanna
Savanna
Forest/savanna

Grass/lowbrowse
Grass/lowbrowse
OnmivoreHrugivore

Forest

Carnivore

Edentata-Pilosa

Notoungulata
Toxodon
Mixotoxodon

Proboscidea
Cuvieronius
Haplomastodon

Perissodactyla
Tapirus

Attiodactyla
Vicugna
Palaeolama
Tayassu
Carnivora
Eira

166

E.M. Latrubesse and C.G. Ramonell

65
. O*

CO

cation Hap

ECUADOR

,/

6~

B R A SjI

pu~

PERU
$

l0

Boundorl e s

"~

'

~.

Rivers

"~
I

"

/'~

FIG. 3. Paleontological sites (black circles) with Upper Pleistocene mammals (Lujanean Mammal age) in southwestern Amazonia
(adapted from Rancy, 1991).

For rivers with lowland headwaters, the more illustrative

study was carried out in the upper Jurua basin by Simpson
and Paula Couto (1981). In this region, Simpson describes
the 'bone-bearing conglomerate' or conglomerate facies
'PL-type'.
Quaternary conglomerates are also found in some other
rivers (Acre and Madeira Rivers). Our research included
fieldwork in the upper and middle Acre, lower Iaco, Purus
(near Boca do Acre), Moa and upper Jurua Rivers (field data
in Latrubesse, 1992); these rivers today carry 98% of the
sediment load as suspended load (Gibbs, 1967); the bed load
is very small and sand sized.
The more precise Quaternary data come from the upper
Jurua basin. The bone-bearing conglomerate is vertically and
laterally discontinuous, and it is facially related to sandy
deposits. The prevailing colors range from black to
red-brown, due to precipitation of iron oxides; most pebbles
are hard concretions, some quartzite also occurs; the pebbles
reach 10 cm in diameter, and the matrix is sandy to
clayey-sandy.
A rich vertebrate fauna of Lujanean Mammal Age is
found in the deposit (Simpson and Paula Couto, 1981;
Rancy, 1991). Rancy assigns a Late Quaternary age for the
fauna which inhabited the region during the Last Glacial.
Some preliminary conclusions can be obtained from the
above mentioned data. Rivers with headwaters in the Andes
had a strong dynamics between ca. 56 and 26 ka BP (Dumont
et al., 1991; R~is~inen, 1991; Risiinen and Linna, 1992),
associated with the Maximum Glacial in the central and

northern Andes (van der Hammen et al., 1981; Clapperton,

1986, 1993). The occurrence of pebbles (10 cm diameter)
deposited by lowland rivers clearly indicates the magnitude
of changes produced on the hydrological variables.
In short, the southwestern Amazonian rivers had a high
energy, produced by strong precipitation in the Andes and
climatic deterioration in the lowlands, which reached its
maximum during the Last Glacial Maximum.
THE PAMPEAN AND CHACO PLAINS DURING
THE LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM
The Pampean Plain

The surface sediments of the Pampean region are aeolian

silts and sands. The aeolian sands compose an extensive sand
sea (inactive under the present climatic conditions) over
200,000 km 2, from 38 to 33 S. Great longitudinal dunes,
more than 100 km long, were detected as the first landforms
in the sand sea (Iriondo, 1990a; Ramonell and Latrubesse,
1991; Ramonell et al., 1992a). Peripherally to the northern
and northeastern areas, on the sand sea's leeward side, there
exist loessic sediments up to 30 S. The loessic sediments
were deposited in a peridesertic environment (Iriondo,
1990a), over the pre-existing fluvial landscape; loess
deposits covered the drainage systems in the plains (Iriondo
1991), as well as the upper portions of the San Luis and
C6rdoba Pampean Ranges (Ramonell and Latrubesse, 1990;
Cantd, 1992).
The ~,eolian sedimentary system was defined and named

SouthwesternAmazoninin LastGlacialTimes

~ao_,,WA
/
*i
~
.r'l ~,4o
,

../'..~':':
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,.~..-.:

"...,,.

s'o.
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-,

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REFERENCES:

~,C

SAND SEA

. . . . . . - - -

LOESS
AEOLIAN SILTY SANDS
--'~ ICE FIELD OF PATAGONIAN
ANDES
m

VALLEY GLACIERS AND

NIVATION PROCESS
-6|

<,
I

TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENT
BY MELT WATER
WINDS

FIG.4. The PampeanAeolianSystem(modifiedfromIriondo,1990a)

Pampean Aeolian System by Iriondo (1990a; Fig. 4). The

Pampean Aeolian System was generated during the Last
Glacial Maximum (Iriondo, 1990a; Ramonell and
Latrubesse, 1991) and became inactive in the Lower
Holocene (Tonni, 1992; Ramonell et al., 1992a, hi. The
climate was dry and cold, dominated by SPA winds
strengthened by Katabatic winds coming from the Ice Field
on the Patagonian Andes (lriondo and Garcia, 1993).
The Chaco Plain

In western Chaco a dry climate occurred during the Late

Pleistocene, with deposition of aeolian sand and loess
transported by northerly winds (Iriondo, 1990b). In the
middle section of the loess sequence, '4C dating indicates an
age of 16,900 270 BP (Iriondo, 1993).
Estimates of paleodischarge for the more important rivers
of the Chaco Plain in Argentina (Pilcomayo, Bermejo and
Salado Rivers) indicate considerably reduced flows during
that time, amounting to approximately 20% of present
discharges (Iriondo and Garcia, 1993).

WIND CIRCULATION MODEL FOR

SOUTHWESTERN AMAZONIA
Data collected and revised demonstrated that
southwestern Amazonia supported savanna climates during
the Last Glaciation. The more precise data are restricted to
periods close to the Last Glacial Maximum, and between 40
and 9 kaBP.
Presently, the winter dry season is characterized by the
dominance of dry northerly winds, originated in the
anticyclonic circulation of the southern hemisphere trade
winds; when the dry northerly winds reach southwestern
Amazonia, the ITCZ is placed in its northern position.
Considering the Late Pleistocene savanna environment, the
more probable scenario was similar to the above-mentioned
one, but with a more extended dry season. New geological
data in central Amazonia (see Iriondo and Latrubesse, this
volume) are in agreement with this assumption.
In addition, the 'friagem' or 'surazo' phenomena should
have been more frequent and intensive than today, a

168

E. M, Latrubesse and C. G. Ramonell

'i 1

+i+

+'

++++i

f*

: - -,J....)

"~ "',,sRq!

TRADE WIN ]S

,.. +..

4."-"

..
+"

J/
d#

",.,
---I' ' f f
~. I~ :
,;

~t

~,

/// ,,,

:SANDS 300

~AEOLIANSILTYSANDS
ICEFIELDS
t,0

I~

dP NORTHERLY WINDS

o-I-ES
ff
DOe

90

80

70"

60

50

FRIAGEHon SURAZO
40

30

SO*i

FIG, 5, Wind circulation model for southwestern Amazonia at Last Glacial times.

hypothesis supported by the environmental scenario

prevailing in the Pampean Plain in Last Glacial times.
Figure 5 shows schematically the wind circulation model
(or the more frequent one) for southwestern Amazonia
during Last Glacial times.

FINAL REMARKS
(1) Southwestern Amazonia supported a savanna
environment during the Last Glacial Maximum, with a dry
season more pronounced and prolonged than the present one.
(2) The dry northerly winds, originated in the anticyclonic
circulation of southern hemisphere trade winds, dominated
during the dry season.
(3) The 'friagem' or 'surazo' should have been more
frequent and intensive than today, having great importance
as a biD-regulation factor because of the temperature
decrease.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to express our thanks to the Laboratorio de Paleontologia,
Universi__de,~__do Acre, for its professional aid; especially, to A. Rancy, J.

Pereira de Souza Filho, J.C. Bocquentin ViUanueva~ J. dos Santos and R.

Negri. Part of the support for the fieldwork came from the Universid___~le-do
Acre. Figures drafted by A. Romagnoni are kindly acknowledged.

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