This paper starts with discussions about factors that initiate teacher learning in

modern times, which offer some background information about the changes schools
and teachers have to deal with. Then, an exploration into teacher isolation and
collaboration helps understand the nature of teaching profession. Furthermore, the
paper examines issues relevant to teacher professional development, which include
changes in the concept of professionalism, the locus of control of professionalism,
quality professional development and professional development for English
teachers.

The Factors Initiating Teacher Learning in Modern Times

Several major factors have a direct influence on teacher learning and

professional development. One of the factors is associated with social and
technological development. Another comes from the demand of the educational
reform. The third one derives directly from the shift from a teaching to learning
paradigm and the fourth one arises from the changing role of teachers. The
individual teacher is in the center, surrounded and influenced by different layers of
factors. Figure 2 shows the relationship of the factors with individual teachers.

Figure 1 Factors Initiating Teacher Learning

Society Social changes and

technological development

Schools Educational reform

Teaching paradigm A shift of teaching and

learning paradigms

Individual teachers The changing role

of teachers
First of all, multiple and complex social changes have placed multiple
demands on teachers (Dadds, 2001). Modern teachers are required to cope with
these changes and to foster practices which are responsive to educational needs of all
children. As to technological development, the way in which Information
Communication Technology (ICT) transforms teaching and learning has proved to
be an influential aspect for teacher learners. It highlights the importance and
necessity of teachers acquainting themselves with innovative teaching approaches
that are associated with emerging technologies.

Secondly, school systems have been considered predictable, systematic, and

bureaucratic for centuries. However, along with social changes and technological
development came a revolutionary assertion of educational reforms taking place
globally three decades ago. Diversity, mobility, and technology have emerged as
prime forces underlying our lives, which in turn significantly influence school
systems. As a result, there is a tremendous need for reforms in school systems to
change teaching and learning. These initiatives are overwhelming virtually to all the
involved parties: administrators, students, teachers, parents, and even the
community.

Thirdly, also influenced by the factors mentioned above, traditional, teacher-

centered, and text-based teaching is gradually shifting to learner-centered, activity-
based and outcome-based learning. This is in line with Jaffee (2003) when he says,
“…learning requires not just the passive reception of content but also an active
process of engagement, application, syntheses and authentic understanding” (p. 8).
The changing paradigm poses a great challenge for teachers, most of whom learned
to teach by using the lecture method. However, many findings indicate that the
lecture method is clearly less effective than other methods in changing thoughts and
attitudes (Bligh, 1972; Eison & Bonwell, 1988; Kellogg Commission on the Future
of State and Land Grant University, 1997, 1999; Terenzini & Pascarella, 1994). How
to deal with the changing paradigm is an emerging lesson teachers need to learn.

Lastly, closely related to the shift in teaching paradigm is the changing role of
teachers. The new paradigm demands that teachers see themselves as co-learners
with their students. Teachers, like their students, are required to advance their
knowledge and enrich their vision so as to become competent and confident in the
ever-changing time. A comparison of teacher-centered and learner-centered
paradigms is offered by Huba and Freed (2000):

Table 1 Comparison of Teacher-centered and Learner-centered Paradigms

Teacher-centered Paradigm Learner-centered Paradigm
Knowledge is transmitted from professor to Students construct knowledge through gathering
students. and synthesizing information and integrating it
with the general skills of inquiry, communication,
critical thinking, problem solving, and so on.
Students passively receive information. Students are actively involved.
Emphasis is on acquisition of knowledge outside Emphasis is on using and communicating
the context in which it will be used. knowledge effectively to address enduring and
emerging issues and problems in real-life
 contexts.
Professor’s role is to be primary information giver Teacher’s role is to coach and facilitate. Teacher
and primary evaluator. and students evaluate learning together.
Teaching and assessing are separate. Teaching and assessing are intertwined.
Assessment is used to monitor learning. Assessment is used to promote and diagnose
learning.
Emphasis is on right answers. Emphasis is on generating better questions and
learning from errors.
Desired learning is assessed indirectly through the Desired learning is assessed directly through
use of objectively scored tests. papers, projects, performances, portfolios, and the
like.
Focus is on a single discipline. Approach is compatible with interdisciplinary
investigation.
Culture is competitive and individualistic. Cultural is cooperative, collaborative, and
supportive.
Only students are viewed as learners. Teacher and students learn together.

Note. From Learner-center assessment on college campuses (p. 5), by M. E.

Huba & J. E. Freed, 2000, Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

The factors above contribute to the needs for teachers to change. And the facts
prove that educational reforms cannot attain its goals without the fundamental
changes from teachers. That is why scholars such as Fullan and Stiegelbauer (1991)
and Fullan (2001) have urged teachers to play the roles of change agents within the
educational context. However, why teaches choose to engage in professional
development programs and why they are willing to be change agents are closely
related to such internal forces of teachers as motivation or personal belief and the
external attributes like social changes or school reforms. While most researches
promote either the ideas of the importance of teacher professional growth or the
design of professional programs, there is a need to explore and analyze those inner
needs or motives. This research expects to explore teachers’ internal needs or
motives for professional development. To do this, it is necessary to examine what
makes teaching an isolated job and how to encourage teacher collaboration.

Teacher Isolation vs. Teacher Collaboration

Teacher isolation, a common theme addressed by those who study the collegial
relationships of teacher (Johnson, 1990; Little, 1993), is defined as the extent to
which teachers are restricted from or restrict themselves from interactions with other
individuals or groups in the school (Bakkenes, Brabander, & Imants, April, 1999;
Johnson, 1990). Generally speaking, this isolation is built into the structure of the
working day, in the scheduling, in the description of roles, duties, and
responsibilities, in the division of programs, content, and students, and in the
physical design of the school (Savvedra, 2000). It also results from personal
characteristics. For example, Johnson (1990) suggests that some teachers remain
distant from their colleagues either out of disregard for others, reluctance to share, or
fear of exposing their weaknesses. A research conducted by Bakkenes, Brabander
and Imants (1999) explains teacher isolation from a defensive perspective—the
protection of scarce time and resources to work with students, rather than from an
offensive perspective—the opportunities to influence other adults in the school. The
finding suggests that to develop collegial relationships within a school,
communication should be stimulated on topics that are closely linked to the
instructional process.

There is no denying that the protection of opportunities and time to work with
students is a strong motive in teacher behavior. Nias (1989) holds that teacher’s self
or professional identity is built on the work with students. Nevertheless, research
also indicates that teachers recognize that informal or formal interactions with
fellow teachers could satisfy their needs for adult company and personal support,
invigorate their teaching from instructional assistance as well as promote
institutional coordination (Johnson, 1990). Collegiality would allow teachers to
share the common goals, and most of all, the moral purpose emphasized by Fullan
(2001) in his book Leading in a Culture of Change. Therefore, collegial programs
should not be limited to the instructional aspect only. Rather, inquiry about
instructional practice is only one of the collegial seeds, which is joined by
collaboration, self-direction, trust, and commitment (Dantonio, 2001).

There are two types to collaboration: inside and outside collaboration (Fullan,
1999). Inside collaboration provides teachers with a means for professional learning
and development with the context of self and community. Outside collaboration
involves working with other interested parties outside the school, which provides
opportunities for new kinds of expertise through teamwork and conversations. In
this research, collaboration started inside the community initially but spread out
when those participants started to work in different schools. Outside collaboration is
expected when the members work on collaborative projects that require them to seek
expertise from different resources. Both inside and outside collaboration requires
teachers who enjoy pursuing professional development and seeking opportunity to
working with others in order to achieve certain professional goals in their career
path. Therefore, a broader picture of teacher professional development, which is
going to be discussed in the following section, could provide clearer ideas how to
promote teacher learning.
The Professional Development of Teachers

Changes in the Concept of Professionalism

In general, “professionalism” refers to a certain type of professional ethos,

skills and behavior in congruent with a specific, prevailing professional ideology
(Hargreaves &Good, 1996). In the case of teaching, two major ideologies give
distinctive definition of teaching, its knowledge base, and its ethical implication
(Zuzovsky, 2001). One ideology views teaching as an applied science or “technical
rationality” (Schon, 1983), of which the knowledge is codified, generic, and
disciplinary. It is suggested that there are general solutions to practical problems.
These solutions can be developed outside practice situations and can be transformed
into practitioners’ actions by high-level training, publications, regulations, etc.
Accordingly, teachers’ professional development is defined as the acquisition of
scientific knowledge and skills relevant to teaching.

However, the traditional view of professional development has proved

inadequate since it generalizes the complex dynamics and unique qualities of
professionalism. In an attempt to match this complexity and uniqueness of teachers’
professional work, the paradigm of “reflective rationality” has been proposed. This
ideology is based on the assumption that complex practical situations need specific
solutions. Problems are defined and strategies are selected when the practitioners are
in cooperation with those involved. The reflective view of professional development
puts a premium on making choices and judgments among dilemmas related to
teaching work. Professional development of teachers involves growth in reflective
skills and awareness of the essential values underlying and affecting their actions.

Hargreaves and Goodson (1996) introduce five different models of

professionalism based on the two ideologies (the technical rationality and the
reflective rationality): classical professionalism, flexible professionalism, practical
professionalism, extended professionalism, and complex professionalism.

Classical professionalism asserts that teachers, like lawyers or doctors, have a

specialized knowledge base and technical culture. Teaching is characterized by a
strong ethics of service and standards of practice.

Flexible professionalism centers on building local professional communities,

promoting cultures of collaboration and replacing an ideal of scientific certainty
with the aim of situated, context-related certainty.

Practical professionalism views professionalism as private, experiential and

striving towards the personal construction of practical knowledge. Teacher
development is about interpretative reflection on and in action, as well as more
critical reflection about action and about the social conditions and consequence of
one’s actions as a teacher.

Extended professionalism breaks through a rather intuitive practical

professionalism embedded in personal practice. It includes the broader perspective
of the school and the theoretical dimension that underlies the practical experiences.

Complex professionalism considers teaching not only extended but also very
complex in terms of knowledge, reasoning and tasks. This increased complexity
leads to a rise in professional prestige and occupation status in one end and stress or
“burn out” on the other.

Hargreaves and Goodson (1996) conclude that elements from all the five
models should be incorporated into professionalism in a post-modern era where
teachers are faced with increasing complexity, economic flexibility and scientific
and moral uncertainty. Table 2 summarizes the relationship between two ideologies
and five different professional development models.

Table 2 A brief comparison of the technical rationality and the reflective

rationality and the correspondent professional development models
Teaching Professional ideologies
The Technical Rationality The Reflective Rationality
Knowledge is codified, generic and disciplinary. Knowledge is complex, unique, and flexible.
Professional development means to acquire Professional development is about making
scientific knowledge and skills decision and judgment, improving reflective skills
and raising awareness.
Models of Professional development
Classical professionalism Flexible professionalism
Practical professionalism
Extended professionalism
Complex professionalism

As is shown in this table, ideal professional development programs should

integrate different types of professionalism with a view to cultivating the reflective
teaching and enhancing self-awareness. The changes in the concept of
professionalism definitely have a direct impact on the areas of professional
development. The following section provides more information related to these
changes.
Changes in the Areas of Professional Development

What constitutes professional development? In other words, what changes are

teachers seeking when pursuing professional improvement? Borko and Putman
(1995) divide professional knowledge into general pedagogical knowledge, subject-
matter knowledge and pedagogical knowledge:

General pedagogical knowledge includes 1) learning environments and

instructional strategies, 2) classroom management and 3) knowledge of learners and
learning. Subject-matter knowledge consists of two areas: 1) knowledge of content
and substantive structure and 2) syntactic structures, while pedagogical content
knowledge involves four areas: 1) overarching conception of teaching a subject, 2)
knowledge of instructional strategies and representations, 3) knowledge of students’
understandings and potential misunderstanding, and 4) knowledge of curriculum and
curricular materials

Borko and Putman’s ideas about teachers’ knowledge remain at a very

traditional level, which mainly focus on knowledge limited to individual teachers’
teaching contexts. Eraut (1995) offers a broader vision of teachers’ professional
knowledge. He divides the domain of teachers’ knowledge into two dimensions. The
first dimension comprises three areas of knowledge: 1) subject-matter knowledge, 2)
education knowledge, and 3) societal knowledge. The second dimension indicates
the range of contexts where teachers can apply this knowledge: 1) classroom
knowledge. 2) classroom-related knowledge. 3) management knowledge, 4) other
professional knowledge: curriculum development, pupil counseling, communication
with parents, etc.

Higgins and Leat (2001) state that professional development consists of five
aspects: 1) subject knowledge, 2) pedagogical knowledge, 3) craft knowledge, 4)
image and self-concept, and 5) understanding goals of education. Compared with
other scholars, Higgins and Leat’s propositions sound simpler. However, examined
closely, they probably provide a more complete list which best meets the needs of
modern teachers not only because they remind to include technology learning in
teacher professional development but also take into account teachers’ image and
self-concept, an area which gains little attention in the academy.

With so many areas to cover, professional development is complex per se, let
alone when it involves individual teachers who are tremendously different in their
teaching philosophy and beliefs, their teaching styles, their views of teaching and
learning, as well as their relationship with students. Research has contributed by
offering a spectrum of professional knowledge for teachers; nevertheless, in reality,
most of the mandated training programs for professional development deliver
subject or pedagogical knowledge while leaving little space for teacher
collaboration. Teachers’ personal well-being is seldom included in the formal
professional development activities, nor is teacher self-direction. Without taking
these aspects into account, teachers are not inspired to take charge of their own
personal and professional journey of growth.

Delivery Approaches and the Locus of Control of Professionalism

Lack in clarification of questions such as “How professionalism is delivered?”

and “What is the development subject of professionalism?” incompletes the
discussion of professional development. Therefore, such essential issues as “delivery
approaches” and “locus of control” cannot be ignored.

Regarding delivery approaches, Guskey (2000) proposes the following models:

1) training, 2) observation/assessment, 3) involvement in a
development/improvement process, 4) study groups, 5) inquiry/action research, 6)
individually guided activities, and 7) mentoring. Higgins and Leat’s (2001)
approaches are in line with Guskey’s recommendation: 1) instruction, 2) modeling,
3) induction, 4) coaching, 5) peer collaboration, 6) action research, and 7) critical
enquiry. Both of their propositions cover individual endeavors, peer collaboration
and inquiry/action research.

When it comes to the locus of control, Higgins and Leat (2001) present their
analysis in three different perspectives: managerial, situational and individual. The
relationships between knowledge areas, delivery approaches and locus of control are
well illustrated by Higgins and Leat (2001) in figure 3, which is followed by more
elaboration on the three dimensions.

Figure 2 What, How and the Locus of Control

What Changes Locus of Control
Instruction

Subject knowledge
How it can be changed
Modeling

Peer Collaboration

Pedagogical knowledge
Managerial
Induction

Craft knowledge
Action Research
Coaching

Critical inquiry

Image and self concept

Situational
Understanding goals of education

Individual
Note. From Horses for courses or courses for horses: What is effective teacher
development (p.66), by S. Higgins & D. Leat, in Teacher development: Exploring
our own practice, J. Soler, A. Craft & H. Burgess (eds.), 2001. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing Ltd.

The managerial grouping mainly regards teaching as an identifiable and

deliverable profession which follows an institutional planning and implementation
framework. Viewed from this angle, teacher professional development is arranged in
a competence-based framework. It seems that getting enough lectures and
instructions about subject knowledge, subject application, effective teaching
methods and technical skills can meet all the needs of professional learning. Most
professional development programs often reflect this conception, mainly focusing on
practical issues of classroom management or instruction.

When seen in a situational perspective, professional development is affected

by the particular and complex context of the organization. In this level, delivery
approaches such as instructions, modeling, induction, and coaching are commonly
used. When schools are trying to meet demands for accountability, various factors
are taken into account. Some of the factors might clash with teachers’ professional
commitment to developing practice. As a result, potential tension between the
interest of schools and the improvement of professional development is created
accordingly, especially in a culture of centralization and bureaucracy. The danger in
getting this balance wrong is “in one direction low morale and feelings of
deprofessionalization and in the other direction lack of public or political confidence
in the teaching of profession” (Higgins & Leat, 2001, p.57).

Ideally, professionalism usually refers to the individual teacher alone and

relates to this teacher’s private growth, his or her personal improvement in quality of
work, professional commitment and relations to clients as well as colleagues.
Teachers engage in individual professional development might find themselves
collaborating with their peers, doing action research, and involving critical inquiry.
These learning opportunities activate reflective teaching, shaping self-images and
autobiographies of individual teachers. Achieving efficient professional
development requires considering all these aspects in a holistic manner.

Career Cycle and Professional Development

Teacher career cycle is examined here because an exploration into the

participants’ teaching history is a part of the research. Literature reviews on teachers’
career development could not only provide theoretical background knowledge but
also enable the researcher to compare the participants’ career path with what is
presented in the literature.

According to Fessler (1995), most of the models of teacher career development

introduced before 1990 appeared to be linear, static and fixed. Fessler also mentions
that two models presented by Vonk (1989) and Huberman (1993) changed the views
of teacher career development because they provided schemata that introduce the
notion of alternative career options experienced by teachers at various stages (1995).

Vonk’s framework (1989) provides seven phases in teacher career life: 1) pre-
professional phase: pre-service training and preparation; 2) threshold phase (first
year): new teachers get a handle on the job; 3) the phase of growing into the
profession (2 to 7 years): attention is focused on improving teaching skills and
competencies; 4) the first professional phase: the teacher demonstrates the
accomplishments, skills and mastery in the profession; 5) phase of reorientation to
oneself and the profession: the teacher may question and doubt his or her
commitment to teaching; 6) the second professional phase: the teacher reenergizes
themselves and pursues further job satisfaction; and 7) the phase of running down:
the period before retirement.

Hurberman’s model divides the career cycle into five major stages. The first
three years is a stage for survival and discovery, which is followed by another three-
year period during which teachers try to find stabilization in their teaching job. Next,
teachers who have taught seven to eighteen years might find themselves in either of
the following situations: experimentation/diversification and stock-
taking/interrogation. In each case, those who find job satisfaction feel serene in the
following stage (Year 19-30) while those who take stock of their job become
conserved. In the last leg of the career cycle, the disengagement stage, teachers
expect to leave the job either feeling fulfilled or bitter. Hubermans’ model is better
understood by the following illustration (Figure 4):

Figure 3 Modal Sequences of the Teacher Career Cycle: A Schematic Model

Years of Teaching Themes/phases
1-3 Career entry: survival and discovery

4-6 Stabilization
7-18 Experimentation/ Stock-taking/

Diversification Interrogations

19-30 Serenity Conservatism

31-40 Disengagement

(“serene” or “bitter”)

Note: From Professional career and professional development: Some

intersections (p.204), by Michael Huberman, in Professional development in
education: New paradigms and practices, Thomas Guskey & Michael Huberman
(eds.), 1995. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

An account of the teacher career cycle is incomplete without mention of

Fessler and Christensen’s model (1992), which synthesizes literature and
incorporates data from interviews. Fessler and Christensen offer a comprehensive
and expanded picture of the career cycle by taking into account not only the
organizational environment but also the personal environment (see Figure 5). It
genuinely reflects the complexity of teacher development, in which several different
dimensions and factors interweave continuously.

Figure 4 Dynamics of the Teacher Career Cycle

 Note. From The teacher career cycle: Understanding and guiding the
professional development of teachers, (p. 36), by R. Fessler & J. Christensen,
1992. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

The components of the career cycle are briefly described below.

1. Pre-service. At this stage, teachers receive trainings and preparation for the
teaching profession.

2. Induction. It is defined as the first few years when a new teacher is

socialized into the system.

3. Competency building. This is a very pivotal period for teachers in their

early stages of their career. Ideally, teachers at this stage are receptive to new ideas,
attend workshops and conferences willingly, and enroll in graduate programs on
their own initiative. Those who succeed go on to periods of positive growth and
development, but those who flounder would experience career frustration or
instability.

4. Enthusiastic and growing. Teachers at this stage love their jobs, and look
 forward to making progress as professionals. They are featured by enthusiasm and
high level of satisfaction. The ideal climate reinforces teachers at this stage with
opportunities to learn and apply new ideas.

5. Career frustration. Teacher burnout is most likely to occur at this stage.

Frustrated teachers find little job satisfaction and start to question why they are
doing this work. Those who find their school climate stifling or those who never
develop the skills to succeed feel frustrated easily.

6. Career stability. Teachers at this stage demonstrate acceptable

performances but they are not committed to the pursuit of excellence and growth.

7. Career wind-down. It is time for teachers to leave the job. Some might find
it pleasant to reflect on many previous positive experiences and look forward to a
career change or retirement. Others might find it bitter if they cannot wait to get out
of a job they resent.

8. Career exit. This stage does not refer to retirement only. It could be a
temporary career exit for child rearing, for example. It might also be a time of
alternative career exploration or of moving to a non-teaching position in education.

What makes Fessler and Christensen’s model different from the others is that it
reckons the impact of personal environment and organizational environment on
teacher development. The personal environment of the teacher includes several
interactive facets, such as family support structures, positive critical incidents, life
crises, individual dispositions, avocational outlets and the developmental life stages
experienced by teachers.

The variables of the organizational environment that impact the teacher

professional development include school regulations, the management style of
administrators and supervisors, the presence or absence of public trust in a
community, the expectations a community places on its educational system, the
activities of professional organizations and associations, and the union atmosphere
in the system.

When the participants’ professional development is examined, it is not possible

to pass by their teaching years and all sorts of factors the affect their decision-
making. Therefore, the three models introduced here, Fessler and Christensen’s
model in particular, are valuable references for this research.
Quality Professional Development

It cannot be denied that “teachers as learners” is not only a trend but a must in
teachers’ professional life, especially with the assertion and implementation of
educational reforms. However, teacher learning sometimes could be very isolated
and individual. What really helps teachers grow? What kind of support do teachers
need? Zemelman, Daniels and Hyde (1994) provide the following answers:

1. Teachers need regular time together.

2. Teachers need to be collaborative to build supportive bonds.

3. Teachers need support from the top which encourages teachers’ decision-
making and initiative.

4. Teachers also need support to strengthen their latent professionalism.

5. Teachers need to grow through concrete experiential and authentic

activities.

6. After experiencing new classroom strategies, teachers need to reflect, to

analyze and to compare.

Those guidelines are echoed by a two-year study of professional development

conducted by the National Foundation for the Improvement of Education (NFIE) of
the National Education Association (NEA). During that period of time, NFIE
examined high-functioning schools and studied their professional development
opportunities, interviewed nearly 1,000 teachers and teacher leaders, solicited essays
from teachers, conducted focus group of members of the public and consulted with
leading education researchers and reformers. With all these efforts, the definitions of
high-quality professional development in the final report, Teachers Take Charge of
Their Learning (NFIE, 1996), are highly convincing. It says that high-quality
professional development:

1. has the goal of improving student learning at the heart of every school
endeavor;

2. helps teachers and other school staff meet the future needs of students
who learn in different ways and who come from diverse cultural, linguistic,
and socioeconomic backgrounds;

3. provides adequate time for inquiry, reflection, and mentoring and is an

important part of the normal working day of all public school educators;

4. is rigorous, sustained, and adequate to the long-term change of

practice;
 5. is directed toward teachers' intellectual development and leadership;

6. fosters a deepening of subject-matter knowledge, a greater

understanding of learning, and a greater appreciation of students' needs;

7. is designed and directed by teachers, incorporates the best principles of

adult learning, and involves shared decisions designed to improve the
school;

8. balances individual priorities with school and district needs and advances
the profession as a whole;

9. makes best use of new technologies; and

10. is site-based and supportive of a clearly articulated vision for students.

To ensure good quality professional development, Bransford, Brown and

Cocking (1999) analyze the quality of teachers’ learning experiences from four
perspectives: learner-centered environments, knowledge-centered environments,
assessment-centered environments, and community-centered environments (see
figure 6).

Figure 5 Perspectives on Learning Environments

Community

Learner Knowledge
centered centered

Assessment
centered

Note. From How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school (p. 134), by J.
D. Bransford, A. L. Brown & R. R. Cocking, 1999. D. C.: Academy Press

1. Learner-centered environments: Programs for professional development

often fall short of the importance of putting learners in the center of
learning. They only consist of required lectures or workshops with mixed
participants of different level of expertise, experiences and expectations.
An ideal learner-centered program would take into account different needs
of the teachers, creating professional development opportunities that
 include different stage of participation.

2. Knowledge-centered environments: Ideally, opportunities for teachers

should enable them to rethink their disciplinary knowledge and teaching
strategies in a more thoughtful way. Knowledge here does not only refer to
such areas as content and pedagogies but a broader vision of the purpose
and fundamental beliefs. Workshops that only provide teaching techniques
fail to offer deep understanding of the nature of their disciplines. As a
result, while teachers might learn new teaching strategies, they find it
difficult to apply them to teaching if they hold on to the old beliefs.
Getting teachers to rethink their subject matters means getting involved
with more learning, which might be difficult because teachers are used to
being in control and thinking of themselves as efficacious. Helping
teachers become comfortable with the role of learners becomes more
important than ever. Luckily, teachers gain wider access to expertise and
knowledge with new development in technologies.

3. Assessment-centered environments: Assessment here also means

opportunities for teachers to reflect on their practice and make
improvement accordingly. Learners are given chances to test their
understanding by trying out things and receiving feedback in learning
environments that are assessment centered. Only through trial and error
can teachers be sure whether certain idea will work. And the feedback
helps them to clarify ideas as well as correct misconceptions.

4. Community-centered environments: Collaboration and learning is highly

emphasized in a learning environment that is community centered.
Developing communities of practice is a recommended approach to
enhance teaching learning (Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002).
Community-centered environments invite teachers to share successes and
failures with pedagogy and curriculum development. They are also
encouraged to collaborate with their peers and participate in educational
research and practice.

The previous three documents synthesized, it is obvious that contemporary

teachers need to take charge of their professional development, forming a
professional conversation with the colleagues and outside resources. In recent years,
the idea of forming learning communities encourages the power of “learning
together” through the form of community of practice. Wenger, McDermott, and
Snyder (2002) define communities of practice as:

…groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic,
and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an
ongoing basis (p. 4).

Although all organizations have informal communities of people who

communicate, share information and build relationships, not every community is a
community of practice. Communities of practice emphasize domain, community,
and practice—the heart, the head and the hand; inquiry, interactions and craft
(Wenger, McDermott & Snyder, 2002). It is not just a set of relationships, nor is it
just about a shared interest. The developed individuals or teachers with strong
motivation to learn can find follow-up support for professional development within
the community of practice. They fulfill themselves by sharing tacit and explicit
knowledge and making contributions to the community and to the school. The power
of sharing can be contagious.

Communities of practice have had a position in private organizations or

enterprises, proving to be beneficial to create a sharing culture and facilitate
performances. School cultures have long been regarded as isolated, reserved and
traditional due to the school structure and the characteristics of the teaching career.
As a result, schools seem to be always late to embrace a notion which encourages
collaboration and cooperation. Not until recently do more and more teaching
institutes or organizations start to realize the effect of collaborative and sharing
culture. In particular, they try to make judicious use of new technology to sustain
learning and teaching in form of communities of practice.

Professional Development for English Teachers

Since the participants of the research are English teachers, it is necessary to

explore professional development for English teachers in the literature. Peyton
(1997) suggests skills and knowledge foreign language teachers need, some of
which are also critical for English teachers in Taiwan:

1. A high level of language proficiency in forms of speaking, listening,

reading and writing.

2. The ability to use the language in real-life contexts, for both social and
 professional purpose.

3. The ability to comprehend contemporary media in the foreign language,

both oral and written, and interact successfully with native speakers.

4. Pedagogical knowledge and skills, including knowledge about human

growth and development, learning theory and second language
acquisition theory.

5. Knowledge of the various technologies and how to integrate them into

their instruction. (Peyton, 1997)

Research on teacher professional development for English teachers provides

insightful recommendations from different perspectives. Bailey, Curtis and Nunan
(2001), for example, put premium emphasis on teacher self-awareness and self-
observation, which are the cornerstones for reflective teaching. Ways to achieve
reflective teaching includes keeping teaching journals, using cases and language
learning experiences, conducting action research, engaging in peer observation, team
teaching, mentoring or coaching, and compiling teaching portfolio (Bailey, Curtis, &
Nunan, 2001). Gebhard and Oprandy (1999) propose a guide to exploring beliefs
and practices for language teachers. Exploration of teaching enables language
teachers to make assumptions about exploration, pay attention to exploratory
processes, raise awareness of teaching beliefs and practices in order to reach the core
of the inner awareness of who we are as teachers.

Apparently, Gebhard and Oprandy (1999) also build their framework on the
reflective rationality. Some of their beliefs and assumptions are summarized as
follows:

1. Taking responsibility for teaching: Individual teachers are like islands

isolated from others. Not only must they take responsibility for their own
teaching but reach out to others in the process.

2. The need for others: It is meaningless to explore alone. Joint exploration

offers opportunities to see the process through another person’s perceptual
filter. Besides, different perspectives, insights, knowledge and advice
between colleagues, either novices or experts, not only make rich
discussions but also provide choices.

3. Description over prescription: Teachers are encouraged to collect

descriptions of teaching rather than follow prescriptions. The prescriptive
approach, which implies a more correct or better way to teach, deprives
teachers of the right to experience and experiment. Descriptions, in
 contrast, are like a mirror for teachers to reflect on their own teaching and
teaching possibility.

4. A nonjudgmental stance: There is a need to let go of the inclination to

judge so that teachers can focus on description. Reducing emotional
judgments also enables teachers to see teaching more clearly.

5. Attention to language and behavior: Gebhard and Oprandy (1999) notice

that when teachers talk about teaching, they tend to use vague words to or
follow a particular pattern of discourse. Teaching, like other professionals,
needs to develop a common but specific terms to promote mutual
understanding.

6. Personal connections to teaching: Teachers need to connect who they are as

teachers with who they are as persons. This connection helps teachers to
relate anything in their life experiences to teaching, which encourages
explorations well beyond the teaching act itself.

In summary, like other professionalism, professional development of English

teachers need an ongoing process to help them maintain proficiency in the target
language and keep up to date on current issues and trends. While most opportunities
for professional development are based on mandatory policies, teachers are likely to
participate in different forms of learning voluntarily. No matter what form the
learning takes, the process should be able to raise language teaching awareness.

Summary

The concept of teaching professionalism has changed from the technical

rationality to the reflective rationality. Teacher learning activities move beyond just
providing mandated training programs focused on domain or pedagogical
knowledge. Teachers are encouraged to engage in a variety of developmental
opportunities such as modeling, coaching, action research, peer collaboration and
critical thinking so that teachers can be liberated from isolation. Several factors
affect how teachers grow professionally, including individual needs, organizational
needs, personal environment and organizational environment. To attain an ideal
model of quality professional development, all those elements need to be taken into
accounted.
References

Bailey, K. M., Curtis, A., & Nunan, D. (2001). Pursuing professional Development--
the self as source. Boston, USA: Heinle & Heinle.

Bakkenes, I., Brabander, C. d., & Imants, J. (April, 1999). Teacher isolation and
communication network analysis in primary schools. Educational
Administration Quarterly, v. 35, No. 2 166-202.

Bligh, D. A. (1972). What’s the use of lecture? Baltimore: Penguin Books.

Borko, H., & Putman, R. T. (1995). Expanding a teacher’s knowledge base: A

cognitive psychological perspective on professional development. In T. R.
Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds). Professional development in education: new
paradigm and practices. New York, N.Y.: Teachers College Press.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L. & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain,
mind, experience and school. D.C.: Academy Press.

Dadds, M. (2001). Continuous professional development: Nurturing the expert

within. J. Soler, A. Craft & H. Burgess (Eds.), Teacher development: Exploring
our own practice (pp. 50-56). London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.

Dantonio, M. (2001). Collegial Coaching: Inquiring into the teaching self.

Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa.

Eison, J., & Bonwell, C. (1988). Making real the promise of active learning. Paper
presented at the meeting of the American Association for Higher Education,
Washington, DC.

Eraut, Michael. (1995). Developing professional knowledge within a client-centered

orientation. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in
education: New Paradigm and Practices (pp.227-252). New York, N.Y.: Teachers
College Press.

Fessler, R., & Christensen, J. (1992). The teacher career cycle: Understanding and
guiding the professional development of teachers. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Fullan, M. (1999). Change forces : the sequel. London: Falmer Press.

Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in A Culture of Change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Fullan, M., & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). The new meaning of educational change. New
York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Gebhard, J. G., & Oprandy, R. (1999). Language teaching awareness: A guide to

 exploring beliefs and practices. Cambridge University Press.

Guskey, T. R. (2002). Evaluating professional development. Thousands Oaks, CA:

Crowin Press.

Hargreaves, A. & Goodson, I. F. (1996). Teachers’ professional lives: Aspirations

and actualities. In I. G. Goodson & A. Hargreaves (Eds.), Teachers’ professional
lives (pp. 1-27). London: Falmer Press.

Higgins, S., & Leat, D. (2001). Horses for courses or courses for horses: What is
effective teacher development. J. Soler, A. Craft & H. Burgess (Eds.), Teacher
development: Exploring our own practice (pp 50-56). London: Paul Chapman
Publishing Ltd.

Huba, M. E., & Freed, J. E. (2000). Learner-centered assessment on college

campuses: Shifting the focus from teaching to learning. Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.

Huberman, M. (1995). Professional careers and professional development: Some

intersections. In T. R. Guskey, & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional
development in education: New paradigms and practices. New York: Teachers
College Press.

Jaffee, D. (2003). Virtual transformation: Web-based technology and pedagogical

change. Retrieved May. 24, 2003, from http://www.unf.edu/
~djaffee/virtualtran.htm

Johnson, S. M. (1990). Teachers at work: Achieving success in our schools. USA:

Basic Books.

Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities. (1997)

Returning to our roots: The student experience. Washington, DC: National
Association of State Universities and Land-Grant College. Retrieved Mar. 05,
2003 from http://www.nasulgc.org

Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities. (1999)

Returning to our roots: The engaged institution. Washington, DC: National
Association of State Universities and Land-Grant College. Retrieved Mar. 05,
2003, from http://www.nasulgc.org

National Foundation for the Improvement of Education. (1996). Teachers take

charge of their learning: Transforming professional development for student
success. Washing, D.C.: NFIE.

Nias, J. (1989). Primary teachers talking: a study of teaching as work. London &
 New York: Routledge.

Peyton, J. K. (1997). Professional development of foreign language teachers.

Retrieved Apr. 05, 2003, from http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/peyton02.
html

Savvedra, E. R. (2000). Creating a culture for educational change:context of

collaboration, authentic, participation and interactive professionalism. In P. M.
Jenlink, T. J. Kowalski (Eds.), Marching into a new millennium: challenges to
educational leadership (pp. 321-336). London: The Scarecrow Press

Schon, D. (1983). The reflective practitioners: How professionals think in action.

New York: Basic Books.

Soler, J., Craft, A., & Burgess, H. (Eds.). (2001). Teacher development: Exploring
our own practice. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.

Terenzini, R. M., Cunningham, G. K., Thorndike, R. L., & Hagen, E. P. (1991).

Measurement and evaluation in psychology and educational (5th ed.) New York:
Macmillan.

Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of

practice. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Zemelman, S., Daniels, H., & Hyde, A. (1994). Best practice: New standards for
teaching and learning in America’s school. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann
Educational Books.

Zuzovsky, Ruth. (2001). Teachers’ professional development: An Israeli perspective.

European Journal of Teacher Education. 24(2), 122-142.