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Adobe Construction: A Case Study in Turkey

Leyla Tanaan

Faculty of Architecture , Istanbul Technical University , Taskisla, Taksim, 34437,

Istanbul, Turkey
Published online: 09 Jun 2011.

To cite this article: Leyla Tanaan (2008) Adobe Construction: A Case Study in Turkey, Architectural Science Review, 51:4,
349-359
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3763/asre.2008.5139

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www.earthscan.co.uk/journals/asre

doi:10.3763/asre.2008.5139

Architectural Science Review

Volume 51.4, pp 349-359

Adobe Construction: A Case Study in Turkey

Leyla Tanaan

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 14:23 23 September 2014

Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Taskisla, Taksim 34437,

Istanbul, Turkey
Corresponding author: Tel: +90-212-293 1300 (2211); Fax: +90-212-251 4895;
Email: tanacan@itu.edu.tr
Received 4 June 2008; accepted 29 August 2008

Abstract: Adobe has been used as a construction material for hundreds of years, and even today, a great number of people still
live in adobe houses in various parts of the world. This is for reasons of local availability and because buildings constructed from
adobe can create healthier environments. As a case study, this paper analyses a building complex made primarily of adobe masonry
and reinforced concrete. The complex, a country club located 35km from Istanbul, consists of a 19-room hotel, a restaurant, and
a horse stable. Both the hotel and restaurant were constructed in two flats of locally produced adobe and have been in service
since 1998. This paper describes the construction techniques and methods used to produce the adobe. It presents experimental
tests of the mechanical and physical properties of the material, comparing to local construction standards and to the properties of
other common building materials. Finally, the paper evaluates the suitability of adobe masonry construction for the Istanbul area.
Keywords: Adobe, Building materials, Housing, Masonry construction, Mechanical and physical properties, Reinforced concrete

Introduction

Earth buildings can be found on every continent, some

having been occupied even thousands of years (King, 1996). It
has been widely used in Anatolia since prehistoric times (e.g., in
atalhyk & Haclar); (Naumann, 1975). There is a growing
interest in the use of earth as a construction material for two
reasons; the heritage factor and because it is environmentally
friendly (Carmen, Jimenez, Delgado & Guerrero, 2006). A study
of traditional building practices throughout the world identified
some 18 different methods of using the material, each able to
produce a great variety of forms (Guillaud & Houben, 2001).
As a developing country with a growing population, Turkey
suffers from an acute housing shortage. It is anticipated that the
housing units needed by 2010 will be 7.5 million. A major factor
affecting the construction industry is the cost of fuel and building
materials, most of which have to be imported. The most common
building material for construction of houses in rural areas is the
usual burnt clay brick (Binici, Aksogan & Shah 2005). Building
with adobe offers many advantages, including:
It enables cheap, easy, and fast production;
It allows people to use local materials and to take charge
of the production of their built environment;
It doesnt need a special plant for production, saving
money and energy in terms of production and
transportation;
It has adequate thermo-physical and hydric properties
which contribute to the regulation of thermal comfort
of the building, hence decreasing its life-cycle costs;

It produces little pollution, both during manufacture

and through the life of the building; and
It plays a part in the respect for, as well as the survival
and updating of, cultural, architectural, and urban
environments (Guillaud & Houben, 2001).
Two important factors have to be considered when building
with adobe. First is its water retention. It has to be protected
from water and rain during its service life. The other factor
relates to the need for care in its production and use during
construction (Kafesiolu & Grdal, 1985). Issues such as
stability, compressive strength, and integration with other
materials become critically important with adobe.
Stabilization of adobe refers to any treatment that gives
it properties such as water permanence, strength, and
dimensional stability. Although it has been practiced for a very
long time, it is still not an exact science (Guillard, Joffroy &
Odul, 1995). Compression and drying both help to stabilize
adobe. In addition, there are more than a hundred products in
use today for stabilization. These include sand, gravel, fibers,
bitumen, resins and chemical products, cement, pozzolana,
lime, and gypsum. These materials increase density, strength,
cementation, bonding, waterproofing, and elimination of water
dispersion. For cementation, some efforts have been made
with promising results (Guillard, Joffroy & Odul, 1995; Isik &
Tulbentci, 2008; Millogo, Hajjaji & Ouedraogo, 2008; PinedaPinon, Vega-Duran, Manzano Ramirez, Perez-Robles, BalmoriRamirez & Hernandez-Landaverde, 2007).

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Architectural Science Review

There is a tendency at present to stabilize systematically, but

stabilization is not obligatory. As Fathy (1973) has warned
about adobe production, Expensive methods of stabilization
are unnecessary. Once a sufficiently strong brick has been
made, leave well alone. He continues:
The composition and properties of soil used in adobe
production varies widely from place to place. In addition,
this variation is likely to be reflected in the quality of adobe,
a fact that has caused architects and engineers to be reluctant
to use such blocks. Because of this reason, it is essential that
at any given site the soil to be used for adobe making must be
carefully analyzed chemically and physically. Experiments and
laboratory tests on sample bricks must be made to determine
the physical properties like shrinkage, unit weight, behaviour
under wetting or mechanical properties like compressive and
flexural strength (Fathy, 1973).
To explore these issues, this case study investigates the
properties of adobe utilized in a country club, which has been
in use since 1998. By analyzing its mechanical, thermal, and
acoustic performance during its service life, the case study
explores whether adobe is a suitable construction material for
the conditions of the Istanbul region.

Construction Details

The Sakliky Country Club is located 35km from Istanbul,

Turkey. The complex comprises a 19-room, two-story hotel, a
two-story restaurant, and a horse stable. All were built using
locally produced adobe. While the stable and restaurant
employ adobe masonry construction, the hotel consists of a
concrete skeleton, with adobe blocks used for both interior
and exterior walls.
Istanbul lies at latitude 41 north, and the sample buildings
face to the south. The average temperature of Istanbul is
3.3C for January, and 24.4C for July. The temperature at
the site is generally 1 or 2Figures
degrees cooler than in the city.
Figure 1 shows the adobe masonry construction. As a
foundation, reinforced concrete walls of 40cm in thickness
are used. For seismic conditions, foundations must be strong.

Volume 51, Number 4, December 2008

Above this concrete foundation, a stone wall is constructed;

both as a base for the adobe wall, and in order to give a stone
appearance. This wall has the same thickness as the concrete
wall, 40cm.
A ring beam, made of 10 x 10cm wood with reinforcing steel
wire, lies atop the stone foundation. Second and third ring beams
are built at an intermediate height in the masonry at the level of
the lintel (see Figure 2). The main role of the ring beams is to
absorb horizontal loads. Ring beams improve the stability of the
walls by reducing the concentrated pressure of earthquakes with
high tensile and bending stress. They also help distribute vertical
loads evenly, stiffen the walls to reduce the risk of buckling, and
serve as anchors for the floors and roof (Guillard, Joffroy & Odul,
1995). Note that to ensure the efficiency of the reinforcement,
the adobe blocks must bond well to the wood of the ring beams.
The outside and inside ring beams are tied together with steel wire
at 50cm intervals. The space between them is filled with cement
mortar. Then earth mortar, approximately 2cm in thickness, is
laid over the wood and mortar base. In order to prevent capillary
water that may come from the ground, a damp-proof course is
laid beneath the wood beams and cement mortar. The walls are
made with adobe blocks of size 27 x 12 x 9cm and plastered over.
Blocks are used both in load bearing walls and in the reinforced
concrete skeleton system as infill masonry in the site, so this
size gives the material, which is very easy to handle, and very
flexible in the way it can be used for many configurations of wall
and building systems. Adobe walls are laid in alternate courses
of headers and stretchers, commonly known as English Bond.
Bonding patterns play an essential part in ensuring the cohesion,
the stability and the strength of masonry structures built from
small elements bonded together with mortar. The width of
the mortar joints, both horizontal and vertical, is even and a
minimum of 1.5cm and must not exceed 2cm to avoid cracking.
Thus, crushing of the adobe under the effect of the weight of
the wall itself or of a concentrated vertical load is prevented in
horizontal joints. Mortar is used in a plastic state in order to
ensure good mechanical bonding between the masonry elements
making up a wall. All these factors as well as the material strength

Figure 1: The construction of the adobe masonry wall with English bond.

Figure 1: The construction of the adobe masonry wall with English bond.

Adobe Construction

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Leyla Tanaan

enable to reduce earthquake loads by using the thickness of the

load-bearing walls.
The roof is covered by a wooden structure and the width of
the eaves is 1.5m in order to prevent the wall from getting wet
by rain (see Figure 2). Besides, certain precautions were taken
against erosion driven from rain during the design stage; at the
ground floor of two storey buildings, adobe masonry walls are
protected by the balconies (Figure 3), arcades (Figure 4), or
built in stone masonry (Figure 5).
In the hotel building, which is constructed with a concrete
skeleton system, the exterior adobe walls are built with total
thickness 33cm (1 adobe block +plaster), while the interior
partition walls are 18cm (1/2 adobe block +plaster) thick. In
all buildings, except the stable, 3cm of earth plaster is used as
a rendering material on both inside and outside adobe walls.
Infill adobe masonry of concrete framework limits the risk of
crushing occurring under horizontal loads.

Adobe Construction

All the information related to the production of adobe blocks

was obtained from the artisans who worked at the construction
site.
100

150

Adobe wall

Stone foundation

351

Materials

Earth: Earth used during the production is excavated

from 15cm below the surface of the site. It has almost a
black colour. It does not contain lumps, stone or plant
roots. It is not silty, and is slightly moist. The amount
used in the mixture is 80 handcarts.
Sand: Washed river sand of 1-3mm grain size is used.
The amount used in the mixture is 20 handcarts.
Straw: Straw has medium-size fibers. It is reapingthreshing machine straw. Three straw bales are used in the
mixture. Each has dimension 40 x 60 x 120cm.
Fertilizer: Natural fertilizer is used. Cow manure is
added to the mixture to improve the cohesion and plasticity
of soil of low clay content as well as helping flocculate
soils containing expansive clay. Sometimes the manure
is applied to the mud plaster when partially dry to help
stop the development of cracks. Likewise, it is used in
various parts of the world to improve bonding and water
proofing (Moquin, 2000). The amount of the fertilizer is
1.5 handcarts.
Water: As much as the mixture needs for enough
consistency.

100
40 cm

150
Adobe wall

Stone foundation

100

100
40 cm

Figures 2a & b: The walls are horizontally reinforced by embedded ring wood

Figure 2: The beams

wallsat approximately
are horizontally
reinforced by embedded ring wood beams
100 cm levels.
approximately 100 cm levels.

Figure 2: The walls are horizontally reinforced by embedded ring wood beam

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Figure 3: Hotel Building the balconies protect the walls from rain underneath.

Figure 3 Hotel Building-balconies protect the walls from rain underneath.

Figure 4: Restaurant building the arcades protect the adobe wall of the ground floor.

Figure. 4 Restaurant Building- arcades protect the adobe wall of the ground floor.

6
Figure 5: Restaurant Building the walls of the ground floor facing to the south are built in stone masonry.

Figure 5 Restaurant Building-walls of ground floor faced to the south built in stone masonry.

Adobe Construction

Leyla Tanaan

Mixing

The basin for mixing the constituents is constructed of clay

bricks. The dimension of the basin is 25 x 700 x 1200cm.
Its floor is covered by cement screed. There is also a drainage
channel at the floor level. Three basins are constructed side by
side, in order to allow parallel production. After the materials
are put in the basin, they are mixed two times a day for at least
one week. The mixing aims to prevent the straw from decaying.
After one week, the mixture acquires the consistency of cement
paste, and the cover of the drainage is opened to discharge the
excess water inside the basin. A total of 2,500 adobe blocks can
be produced from one basin.
Wooden moulds of 12 x 9 x 27cm and 12 x 12 x 12cm size are
used (Figure 6). Inside, the moulds are covered by zinc plates, in
order to remove blocks easily, and to achieve a smooth surface.
The mould is placed on a floor of cement screed. The earth
mortar is mixed thoroughly before filling the mould. There is
no compaction procedure; however, the earth is thrown forcibly
into the mould.
The excess material on the top of the mould is trimmed and
the mould is removed. The blocks are left on the floor for at
least two days. After, they are turned on their reverse side and
left for one day. Next, they are leaned against each other, as in
Figure (7a), for one week. This allows moisture to evaporate
homogeneously, preventing shrinkage cracks during drying.
Using this method, two workers can produce 400 adobe blocks
in a day, enough for a 10m2 wall. The local climate lets artisans
work on adobe production from mid-May to mid-October.
After drying, the adobe blocks are stored under an open shed
(Figure 7b). This kind of storage has two advantages: it leaves
open space between the blocks, and prevents the corners from
breaking.

Wall Plaster

The same earth mortar is used as a wall plaster. For the

plaster, both earth and straw are sieved through a coarse screen
of 4mm mesh.

Plaster Application

The adobe wall surface is thoroughly wetted before

applying the undercoat plaster. The surface is scraped and
scoured with a stiff brush to remove all loose earth and dust
in order to achieve adequate plaster adherence underneath.
Mortar is applied by throwing it over the surface of the
wall. Then, the surface is scratched with a nail. It is left
to dry for approximately one week. For the application of
final rendering, first, the working area is sprinkled by water
by using plaster brush. Then 1-1.5cm of mortar is applied
over the surface by trowel, and leveled to achieve a smooth
surface. The total thickness of the plaster is approximately
3cm. The process is finished by applying transparent colorless
silicon-based water repellents that allows the walls breathe as
well. Paint is not used at the site in order not to conceal the
identity of the adobe. The maintenance of the finishing coat
is required every year where the walls are directly exposed to
rain; otherwise, no specific failure is detected. Thus, from
previous research literature, to protect the blocks from erosion
by acting as water proofers, one of several surface applications
is recommended:
A clear silicone coating (particularly for rainy areas);
A lime wash that is renewed every year,
A sodium silicate coating, commonly known as water
glass but this usually fails a short time after it has been
applied by penetrating and then causing the earth to flake
away,
Various types of oil (Williams, Eastwick & Easwick,
1950),

12

12
12

12

27

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Moulding

Figure 6: Adobe moulds. Figure 6: Adobe moulds.

(a)

(b)
Figures 7 a & b: Drying of the adobe.

Figure 7 Drying of the adobe.

353

12

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Volume 51, Number 4, December 2008

Three coats of exterior cement wash (McClintock,

1989).
In Another one of the studies, fly ash, powdered brick,
hydrated lime and water were mixed to develop a pozzolonic
plaster for use in conservation of earthen walls against
destructive action of rain (Degirmenci & Baradan, 2005).

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Experimental Procedure

Tests were performed on the adobe blocks used in the

construction. The measured properties of the blocks are
shrinkage, density, unit weight (specific density), water
dispersion, static modulus of elasticity, flexural strength, and
compressive strength. All these properties are considered
important to evaluate the suitability of blocks for use. Earth
walls are normally considered to be incombustible and
resistance to fire is likely to be sufficient for dwelling houses,
so, no tests were done on this subject.
Eleven blocks were tested. Specimens 2, 3, 4, and 6 were
reserved for the water absorption experiments. Specific
density was found only on Specimen 10. For the mechanical
properties, four specimens were used.
A non-destructive digital tester WTW DIGIEG-C2
determined the modulus of elasticity. The mechanical tests
were performed with a universal testing machine, MFL, with
a capacity of 100 kN. Flexural testing was performed using
a one point loading arrangement, with support spacing of
100mm.

Results and Discussion

Linear Shrinkage and Density

The average linear drying shrinkage of all 11 specimens is

5.22% of the dimensions right after the bricks were removed
from the mould and 1.92% of the dimensions after initial
drying. In order to find the dry dimensions bricks were kept
in the etuve at 1055 C for 24 hours, then replaced into the
desiccator until the equilibrium moisture content is reached
prior to testing. Because the blocks are moulded and dried
thoroughly before construction,
drying shrinkage of adobe
Tables

blocks may not have much negative impact as in Pise (rammed

earth) or Cob construction. Thus, the drying shrinkage of adobe
can be as high as 5-6% (Kmrcolu, 1962). High values of
shrinkage indicate high water content, typically because a high
proportion of clay is used in the mixture. Excessive shrinking
also permits cracking during the drying process. Hence, the
block can be affected by ambient conditions, and may have
relatively low mechanical strength. It is advised to reduce
drying shrinkage by changing the binder/sand proportion of
the mixture (King, 1996).
Figure 8 shows that the measured density of all specimens is
approximately the same.
Typical densities for adobe are 1.20 gr/cm3 for adobe with
straw, 1.55 gr/cm3 for gypsum- stabilized adobe, and 1.70 gr/
cm3 for cement-stabilized adobe (Ycesoy, 1984). The specific
density () of the adobe relates to its average porosity (p). The
pore characteristics (size, open or closed surface structure,
interrelation, and the pore distribution) affect properties such
as water absorption and flexural and compressive strength. The
average porosity can be determined from the formula 1-c=p,
where the compaction, c, is defined as /. Specimen 10 has a
specific density 2.51 gr/cm3 and compaction 1.68/2.51=0.67.
Thus, this specimen has average porosity 0.33. Because porosity
is deduced from the density, it is expected to have negligible
variation across all the specimens.

Water Absorption

The water absorption capacity and saturation coefficient of

a material relate to its freeze/thaw resistance and mechanical
strength. Water absorption tests were performed on Specimens
2, 3, 4, and 6. However, since they were dispersed in the water,
it was impossible to achieve any result. Following Turkish
Standard 2514 (Turkish Standard Institution, 1997), a water
dispersion experiment was applied to Specimen 1. Half of
the specimen was immersed in water. The dispersion time
was measured. In the first 20 minutes, the parts seen from
the outside began to disperse. Fifty minutes later the corner
of the specimen collapsed. The relevant standard specifies

Table1.Test results of density and drying shrinkage.

Table 1: Test results of density and drying shrinkage.
Specimen
No.

Drying
Shrinkage
(after
removed
from the
mould)
(%)
4.07
1
3.70
2
5.56
3
5.56
4
5.56
5
3.70
6
Specific Gravity
(Specimen No. 10)
Porosity (average)

Density
(gr/cm3)

Specimen
No.

1.57
1.67
1.68
1.67
1.73
1.68
2.51

7
8
9
10
11
Average
Std. Dev.

0.33

Drying
Shrinkage
(after
removed
from the
mould)
(%)
6.30
5.56
5.93
7.04
4.44
5.22
1.09

Density
(gr/cm3)

1.71
1.71
1.73
1.73
1.59
1.68
0.054

Adobe Construction

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Table 2: Test results of the mechanical tests.

Table 2: Test results of the mechanical tests.
Specimen Drying
Density Sound
No.
Shrinkage ()
Velocity
(after
gr/cm3
(m/sn)
initial
drying)
(%)
5
1.92
1.73
813.40
8
1.92
1.71
1123.35
9
2.31
1.73
1094.83
10
3.46
1.73
1296.48
Average
1082.01
Std. Dev.
200.02

a minimum of 45 minutes for the water dispersion of good

quality adobe. The capillary water absorption was totally
completed (the time in which the adobe became thoroughly
wet) in 110 minutes. These observations show that material
has open, fine and interrelated pore structure, which enables
capillary water diffusion in the material.

Sound Velocity

As can be seen from Table 2, the average sound velocity

is 1082 m/sec. The variations in this value give clues to the
pore distribution of the adobe. The velocity of sound has a
strong relation with both the unit weight () and porosity (p).
However, while unit weight and porosity have deviations of only
3-4% across the specimens, sound velocity has a deviation of
18.5%. This shows that although the specimens have similar
characteristics related to their mixture, weight, and porosity,
there are differences between them in terms of their pore size
and their pore distribution.
The sound velocity of Specimen 10 is the highest value. As
seen from test results, although it has approximately the same
unit weight with the other specimens, the drying shrinkage
of the same specimen also gains the highest value (7.04%).
This indicates that the proportion of clay in the mixture is
greater than the proportion of sand (both have similar specific
densities). Clay is a binding agent and has fine grains, which

Youngs
Flexural Compressive
Modulus Strength Strength
of
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Elasticity
(kN/mm2)
1.17
2.20
2.11
2.96
2.11
0.73

0.29
0.63
0.78
0.68
0.59
0.21

1.48
1.68
1.83
2.54
1.83
0.48

1.17
1.85
1.59
2.49

can enable more homogeneous and finer pore size distributions.

On the other hand, although the specimen has the highest
drying shrinkage, it has the highest sound velocity (1296.5 m/
sec), which means that there is no interstitial problem in the
body that may affect the mechanical properties.
Although Specimen 10 has the highest sound velocity,
testing the specific density only on Specimen 10 is considered
to be sufficient, because sand and clay used in the mixture have
almost the same specific density (2,51 gr/cm3).

Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity (MoE) gives important information

about the mechanical strength and elastic deformation of a loadbearing material. The modulus of elasticity of Specimens 8, 9,
and 10 are very close to each other (Figure 9). This value is 20-30
kN/mm2 for normal concrete, 5-10 kN/mm2 for gypsum mortar,
3-5 kN/mm2 for load bearing clay brick walls, and 4-10 kN/mm2
for stone load-bearing masonry walls. As a general evaluation, the
average value of the adobes (2.11 kN/mm2) is approximately the
half of the value of clay brick masonry walls (Kocatakn, 1976).

Flexural Strength

Mechanical test results for Specimen 5 are the lowest

compared to the other specimens (Figure 10). In flexural
strength, the average value of the other three specimens is 0.69

2,75
2,50
2,25
2,00
1,75
1,50
1,25
1,00
0,75
0,50
0,25
0,00

23

Specimen Number
Density (gr/cm3)

355

Specific density (gr/cm3)

Figure 8: Test results

gravity of
andspecific
density.gravity
Figureof8:specific
Test results

and density.

10

11

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Architectural Science Review

Volume 51, Number 4, December 2008

N/mm2 and greater than that of Specimen 5 in the proportion

of 17%. Although this value decreases the average value of
the flexural strength, it is included in the evaluation as a safety
tolerance. The flexural strength of a structural material, like
adobe, is not as important as the compressive strength, but
it can give an idea about the strength and behaviour of the
material. Here, straw has a considerable importance. It creates
a network of omni-directional fibers that improves notably
tensile and shearing strengths and helps to reduce shrinkage.
As shown in Figure 10, the compressive strength of the
material is three times greater than its flexural strength. The
average compressive strength of eight samples is 1.83 N/mm2,
with a maximum of 2.54 N/mm2 and a minimum of 1.17 N/
mm2. Figure 11 compares the load-bearing capacity of adobe
with that of other building materials (Kocatakn, 1976).
Turkish Standard 2514 gives the minimum value of
compressive strength for adobe as 1.0 N/mm2. As shown in
Figure 8, adobe has the lowest value among the alternative
masonry materials (of course, none has the compressive
strength of concrete). On the other hand, the thickness of the

3,50
2,96

3,00
2,50

2,2

2,11

2,00
1,50

1,17

1,00
0,50

Compressive and Flexural Strength (N/mm2)

3,00

Modulus of Elasticity (kN/mm2)

2,542,49

2,50

2,00

1,85
1,68

1,50

1,83
1,59

1,48
1,17

1,00

0,78

0,68

0,63
0,50

0,29

0,00

0,00

8
9
Specimen Number

10

Figure 9: Test results of modulus of elasticity.

10

Specimen Number
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

Figure 9: Test results of modulus of elasticity.

Flexural Strength (N/mm2)

Figure 10: The variation of compressive and flexural strength

among the and

specimens.
Figure 10: The variation of compressive
flexural strength among the specimens.

35,00

Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

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Compressive Strength

adobe wall is 40cm, considerably greater than the thickness of

a typical clay brick wall, which is approximately 19cm. Hence,
the difference in compressive strength may be acceptable.
When the test results of compressive strength are compared
with the test results of flexural strength, it is seen that the
compressive strength of Specimen 10, which has the highest
sound velocity, has the highest compressive strength, as
opposed to the Specimen 9, which has the highest flexural
strength. No. 10 has also the highest density. This can be
explained by considering the straw additive. Straw functions
as a fibre reinforcement, and is dispersed in the mixture in
various densities and proportions. For composites like adobe,
the homogeneous dispersion of the fibre should be considered
particularly important. Especially above a critical value of
fibre volume fraction, any gains in efficiency can be lost due
to coagulation. This also has negative impacts on compressive
strength. On the other hand, the presence of fibers in mud
bricks provides flexibility to the structures thus enhancing
their earthquake resistance. Due to its fibers, these bricks
can store more elastic energy, are strong enough, ductile
and resistant against earthquakes (Binici, Aksogan & Shah
2005).

30,00

30,00
25,00
20,00
16,00

15,00

15,00
10,00

8,00

5,00

3,00

8,50

1,50

1,00

Clay Brick
Wall

Stone Wall

1,83

0,00
Concrete

Gypsum
Mortar

Adobe

Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

Figure 11: Compressive Strength of different materials.

Figure 11: Compressive Strength of different materials.
32

33

enough, ductile and resistant against earthquakes (Binici, Aksogan & Shah 2005).

Adobe Construction

Leyla Tanaan

Building Acoustics

357

Adobe, with its structure and surface texture, has good properties in terms of sound

Building Acoustics

Istanbul is, the maximum U value of the walls should be less

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 14:23 23 September 2014

Adobe, with
its structure
surfacematerials.
texture, has
good
0.60
W/m2K. Here
absorption
compared
to otherand
alternative
In the
case ofthan
sound
transmission
loss with this material, the U value of 1.06

properties in terms of sound absorption compared to other W/m2K is achieved for 46cm wall thickness and 1.38 W/m2K
(R), it is materials.
directly proportional
withofthe
surface
density (m)loss
(kg/m2is) of
the building
elements.
alternative
In the case
sound
transmission
achieved
for the
33cm wall thickness. They are both higher
(R), it is directly proportional with the surface density (m) (kg/ than the required value. This negative side of the material
surface elements.
density of the
partition
is increased,
increased
as shown and
in necessary precautions should be
m2When
) of thethebuilding
When
the surface
densityRofvalue
the is also
should
be considered
partition is increased, R value is also increased as shown in Eq. 1: taken. The owner of the club also complained about the thermal
behaviour of the adobe, especially used in the exterior walls of
n
R = 15.4 log ! mi + 10(dB)
(1) the hotel. For this reason, he has applied wooden horizontal
i =1
weatherboarding to the exterior north facing walls (Figure 12).
Eq.
1:
The density of the adobe is 1680 kg/m3. For sound at a
The club owner said if given a second chance, he would again
frequency of 1000 Hz, the R value for the partition walls of the build using adobe, but would utilize it as an infill material rather
stable and restaurant, which are 46cm thick, can be calculated than as a load-bearing material. Therefore, he could produce
as 54,5 dB.
the of
hotel
rooms,is which
have3. exterior
walls
the material
lighter
the material in use and with improved
The For
density
the adobe
1680 kg/m
For sound
at a frequency
of 1000
Hz,than
the R
of 33cm and partition walls of 18cm, R values of 53 dB and thermal properties.
48value
dB can
be partition
achievedwalls
respectively.
According
to Turkish
for the
of the stable
and restaurant,
which are 46cm thick, can be
Standard 2381 (TSE, 1985), sound transmission loss of 55 dB Conclusions
calculated
54,5at
dB.
For the hotel
rooms,
of 33cm
andshrinkage
partition of the adobe is on the upper limits
is needed
for as
sound
a frequency
of 1000
Hz.which
As a have
result,exterior
the walls
Initial
drying
partition walls of the hotel are not sufficient for reducing sound (5.22%). However, there is no evidence of building hazards
walls of 18cm, R values of 53 dB and 48 dB can be achieved respectively.
transmission.
or failuresAccording
related toto the excess shrinkage that may affect
Accordingly, the owner of the hotel noted some complaints the performance of the buildings. This can be improved by
Turkish Standard 2381 (TSE, 1985), sound transmission loss of 55 dB is needed for sound at
during the interview.
changing the binder/sand ratio of the mixture.
Adobe
can be considered
as in the range of good quality
a frequency of 1000 Hz. As a result, the partition walls of the hotel are
not sufficient
for
Thermal Evaluation
in terms of water dispersion. Nevertheless, since adobe
The thermal
conductivity
(W/mK) of a material is related can accumulate considerable quantities of moisture, either
reducing
sound
transmission.
to the porosity and density of a material. This value is 0.80 because of rain penetration or vapour condensation, during its
W/mK for lightweight concrete, 2.04 W/mK for normal construction and its service life, it should be protected from
concrete, 0.79 for masonry clay brick, 2.33 W/mK for stone water. In the case of this15
study, the walls are protected from
and 0.60-0.70 W/mK for adobe that is stabilized with cement. rain by wide eaves and from ground water by the damp-proof
The densities of same materials are 0.80, 2.40, 1.80, 2.70, 1.7 course. Certain precautions were taken against erosion from
gr/cm3 respectively (Ycesoy, 1984). (Kocatakn, 1976).This driven rain during the design stage.
value is almost equal to the properties of the adobe in this
Only where the eaves had to be made narrow, are stains
study.
observed due to the washing effect of rainwater (Figure 13).
Due to the thickness of the adobe walls, their thermal inertia In order to determine the resistance of the material against
is high (Parra-Saldivar & Batty 2006) making them suitable for splashing water, tests must be done.
arid (hot and cold) climates. On the other hand, according
The properties of density, specific density, and porosity/
to Turkish Standard TS-825 (TSE, 2000), it is recommended compaction of the adobe is determined to be approximately
that for the buildings located in the II thermal region where the same for all the specimens, but the pore size and their

Figure 12: Weatherboarding

of the north face.
Figure 12: Weatherboarding
of the north face.

Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 14:23 23 September 2014

358

Architectural Science Review

Volume 51, Number 4, December 2008

Figure 13: Water stain on surface of the wall.

Figure 13: Water stain on surface of the wall.
distribution varies from one specimen to another. This structure
affects the mechanical properties like the modulus of elasticity,
and the flexural and compressive strength of the material.
Particular attention must be paid to the dispersion of fibre
reinforcement of straw, homogeneously in the mixture in order
to achieve the same quality for every block produced from
the same batch. This can be deduced from the relationship
between flexural and compressive strength. The compressive
strength of the material is quite higher than the minimum
value recommended in TS 2514.
Adobe performs well in terms of acoustical properties.
However, in the hotel, where partition walls were built to only
18cm, it is not used in an efficient way. With this kind of
adobe, a minimum thickness of 33cm is advised.
The density of the adobe is in the range of the values given
in literature; however, its thermal performance (U-value) as a
wall material is too high for use in Istanbul. So, efforts must
be made to design the building system for greater insulation
capacity, in order not to sacrifice energy performance.
As a general conclusion, the adobe used as a load-bearing
wall material in these buildings has sufficient mechanical
properties, even though it was produced locally. In terms of its
physical properties, it performs well. Since construction details
were attended to properly, it has been used since 1998 without
requiring any maintenance or repair. However, in terms of its
thermal behaviour it needs to be evaluated again for the weather
conditions of Istanbul.

Acknowledgement

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of brahim

ztrk in testing the materials (Building Materials Laboratory, Faculty
of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University), Sadk Boztimur (adobe
artisan) and Hakan Kk, the owner of the Country Club.

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