LUBRICATION

Purpose of Lubrication
The primary purpose of lubrication is to reduce wear and
heat between contacting surfaces in relative motion.
Because heat and wear are associated with friction,
both effects can be minimized by reducing the coefficient
of friction between the contacting surfaces.
Lubrication is also used to reduce oxidation and prevent
rust; to provide insulation in transformer applications; to
transmit mechanical power in hydraulic fluid power
applications; and to seal against dust, dirt, and water.

Lubricants
Reduced wear and heat are achieved by inserting a lower-viscosity
(shear strength) material between wearing surfaces that have a
relatively high coefficient of friction. Any material used to reduce
friction in this way is a lubricant. Lubricants are available in liquid,
solid, and gaseous forms.
Industrial machinery ordinarily uses oil or grease.

Solid lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide or graphite are used

when the loading at contact points is heavy. In some applications
the wearing surfaces of a material are plated with a different metal to
reduce friction.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to motion. It
represents the fluid internal friction.
Newtons viscous law:

F
du

A
dy

where:

is the shear stress;

is a proportionality constant and defines the dynamic or absolute viscosity as the
tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to
the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid;
du
is the shear rate or velocity gradient.
dy

Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio between absolute viscosity and mass
density.
- It is measured by viscosimeters (viscometers) in which the

fluid drives the oil through a calibrated capillary.

where:

is the kinematic viscosity;

is the absolute viscosity;

is the mass density.
Example of a viscosimeter:

Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter

Units of Dynamic Viscosity

Dynamic viscosity:
SI system:
- 1 Pa.s = 1 N.s/m2 = 1 kg/m.s
Metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system:
- 1 Poise (P) = 1 dyne.s/cm2 = 1 g/cm.s = 0.1 Pa.s
It's usual to divide the Poise by 100 into the smaller unit:
- 1 centiPoise (cP) = 0.01 P
Water at 20.2oC has an absolute viscosity of 1 cP.
British IPS (inch-pound-second) system:
- 1 reyn = 1 lbf.s/in2 = 6890 Pa.s

Units of Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity:
SI system:
- 1 m2/s
Metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system:
- 1 Stoke (St) = 1 cm2/s = 10-4 m2/s
It's usual to divide the Stoke by 100 into the smaller unit:
- 1 centistoke (cSt) = 0.01 St = 1 mm2/s = 10-6 m2/s
Water at 20.2oC has a kinematic viscosity of 1 cSt.

British IPS (inch-pound-second) system:

- 1 in2/s = 645.2 cSt = 6.452E-04 m2/s
Conversion from Saybolt Universal seconds (SUS):
- 1 cSt = 0.22 (SUS) 180/(SUS)

Viscosity Classifications
ISO (from ASTM D2422): Based only on viscosity ranges at 40C.

Each viscosity grade is designated by the nearest whole number to its midpoint
kinematic viscosity in mm2/s (cST) at 40C, and a range of +/- 10 percent of this value
is permitted.

Viscosity Classifications
SAE: Based primarily on viscosity at 100C, with an additional lowtemperature requirement for winter grades (ASTM D5293-Cranking
and ASTM D455-Pumping).

SAE Crankcase oil grades

Comparative Viscosity Classifications

Viscosity-Temperature Charts
Oil viscosity decreases rapidly with increasing temperature.

Viscosity-Temperature Relations
Some of the most commonly used viscosity-temperature equations:
Walther equation:

log log( 0.7 ) A B log T

where:

is the kinematic viscosity in cSt;

T is the absolute temperature in K;
A and B are constants for any given oil.

This relation forms the basis of the ASTM viscosity-temperature

chart and holds well for most mineral and synthetic oils, at high
pressures, and at a variety of given shear rates for polymer solutions
in multigrade automotive oils.

Viscosity-Temperature Relations
Some of the most commonly used viscosity-temperature equations:
Vogel equation:

ref e

( T Tref )

where:

ref is the absolute viscosity at reference temperature Tref;

is a viscosity-temperature coefficient that can be estimated from the viscosities at
two temperatures from the relation:

ln( 2 / 1 )
T2 T1

The Vogel equation is a more accurate representation of viscosity

over an extended temperature range.

Viscosity Index
The Viscosity Index (VI) is an empirical indicator of the relative
decrease in viscosity with increasing temperature.

Viscosity Index
Originally a VI of 100 represented the least temperature-sensitive
Pennsylvania petroleum oil, and a VI of 0 represented the most
temperature-sensitive Gulf Coast oil.

For an oil with VI 100:

VI

L U
LH

where, for the same 100C kinematic viscosity of the oil in question:
H is the 40C viscosity of the 100 VI oil;
L is the 40C viscosity of the 0 VI oil;
U is the 40C viscosity of the unknown VI oil.

Viscosity Index
For an oil with VI > 100: VI
where: N

( anti log N ) 1
100
0.00715

(log H log U )
log Y

and
y is the viscosity in cSt at 100C for the fluid of interest.

This method is now the ASTM procedure when VI exceeds 100,

because the former gave confusing results and even some double
values in this VI range.

Viscosity Index

Data for the evaluation

of viscosity index:

Viscosity-Temperature Coefficient
Viscosity-Temperature Coefficient (VTC) is useful for some synthetic
oils and multigrade mineral oils not well defined by the usual VI
system.
VTC

( 40 100 )

40

100
40

VTC gives a measure of the fractional change in kinematic viscosity

in going from 40C to 100C.
VTC = 0 for an oil viscosity unaffected by temperature;
VTC = 1 for an 100C oil viscosity 100 = 0.

Viscosity-Pressure Charts
Oil viscosity increases steeply with increasing pressure.

Viscosity-Pressure Relations
Some of the most commonly used viscosity-pressure equations:
Barus equation: 0 eP
where:

0 is the absolute viscosity in cP at atmospheric (nearly zero) pressure;

is the viscosity at pressure P at the same temperature;
is the pressure-viscosity coefficient.

This relation applies for many oils at pressures up to about 70 Mpa

such as those encountered in conventional fluid-film bearings and in
hydraulic systems.

Viscosity-Pressure Relations
Some of the most commonly used viscosity-pressure equations:
Roelands equation: log 10 1200 (log 10 0 1200 ).( 1 P / C )Z
where:

0 is the absolute viscosity in cP at atmospheric (nearly zero) pressure;

Z is a constant which is characteristic of the lubricant and is relatively independent of
temperature;
C is a constant with a value that depends on the pressure units used (196.1 MPa or
28440 psi), as necessary to make P/C dimensionless.

This isothermal relation applies over a broad range of gauge

pressures up to quite high values.

Viscosity-Pressure Index Z
Representative values
of viscosity-pressure index Z:

Viscosity-Pressure Index Z
Values of Z for most mineral oils, synthetic hydrocarbons, diesters,
and polyesters, can be estimated by the relations:
Z 7.81( H 40 H 100 ) ( F40 )
1.5

where:

H 40 log(log( 40 ) 1200 )
H 100 log(log( 100 ) 1200 )
F40 ( 0.885 0.864 H 40 )

Petroffs Equation
Bearing friction was first analyzed by Petroff in 1883.

The shaft is vertical and considered concentric. It is assumed that

the bearing load is small and that oil completely fills the clearance
space without side leakage.

Petroffs Equation
Shearing stress in the lubricant:

U 2rN

h
c

with: N in rev/s Shaft velocity;

U = 2rN Surface velocity.

Torque required to shear the oil film:

2rN
4 2 r 3 lN
T ( A )r
2rl r
c
c

Frictional torque:
T fWr f ( 2rlP )r 2r 2 flP

with: P = W/2rl Bearing pressure.

Solving for the coefficient of friction, we find the:

Petroffs equation: f 2 2

N r
P c

Sommerfeld Number
The bearing characteristic number, or the Sommerfeld number is:
r 2 N
S
c P

with: N/P Dimensionless parameter;

r/c Dimensionless radial clearance ratio;
S Dimensionless Sommerfeld number.

Sommerfeld number and coefficient of friction relation:

2
r
2 N r
f 2
2 2 S

c
P c

Petroffs Law Viscous Friction

Model
In the thick film lubrication regime, Petroffs law gives a good
approximation to friction losses.

Stable Lubrication
Stribeck-Gumbel or McKee-Petroff curves:

In stable thick film lubrication variations are self-correcting. For example an increase
in lubricant temperature will decrease both viscosity, N/P and coefficient of friction
resulting in less heat generated and then in a drop of lubricant temperature.
In unstable thin film lubrication variations have compounded results.

Beauchamp Tower's Experiments

Beauchamp Towers experiments (1883-1885) to determine the
friction of the journal of a railway-car wheel with a lubricator hole, in
the partial bearing, drilled in the course of the experiments:

Beauchamp Tower's Experiments

The experiments showed some surprising results. It became clear
that the lubricant between the journal and bearing was under
pressure. At sufficient rotational speed the pressure distribution
within the oil film was such that the film actually generated the loadcarrying forces.

Reynolds Equation
- Assumptions

Beauchamp Towers results were explained by Osbourne Reynolds using a

differential equation first published in 1886.
Reynolds equation can be derived from the Navier-Stokes and continuity
equations or directly from laws of viscous flow and principle of mass
conservation, with the following required simplifying assumptions:
(1) The lubricant fluid is Newtonian (shear stress is proportional to the shear rate);
(2) Flow of fluid is laminar (no vortex flow or turbulence);
(3) The weight of the fluid is negligible.
(4) The forces due to the inertia of the lubricant are negligible.
(5) The lubricant fluid is assumed to be incompressible;
(6) The pressure remains constant across the thickness of the relatively thin lubricant fluid;
(7) The viscosity of the fluid is assumed to be constant throughout the film;
(8) There is no slip between the lubricant and the bounding surfaces;
(9) There is no end leakage (infinite length bearing);
(10) The curvature of the bearing can be ignored when compared with the very small
thickness of the fluid film (translational instead of rotational velocities).

Reynolds Equation
- Control Volume The Reynolds equation can be derived directly by considering a
control volume fixed in space and extended across the lubricant film.

Reynolds Equation
- Velocity Distribution Summing the forces in the x direction gives

dp

Fx pdydz p
dx dydz dxdz
dy dxdz 0
dx

reducing to
dp

dx y
du

Using the Newtons viscous law dy

we obtain
dp
2u
2
dx
y

or 2 u
y 2

1 dp
dx

Reynolds Equation
- Velocity Distribution Integrating twice with respect to y
u 1 dp

y C1
y dx
u

1 dp 2
y C1 y C 2
2 dx

Applying the lubricant velocity boundary conditions

y 0 u 0 C2 0

y h u U C1

U
h dp

h 2 dx

gives the velocity distribution of the lubricant in the film

u

1 dp 2
U
y hy y
2 dx
h

Reynolds Equation
- Velocity Distribution The velocity distribution is obtained by superposing a parabolic
(Poiseuille) distribution onto a linear (Couette) distribution.
(a) Couette flow induced by
viscous drag force
(b) Poiseuille flow induced by
pressure gradient

Resulting velocity profiles

When the pressure is
maximum, dp/dx = 0
and u = Uy/h

Reynolds Equation
- Mass Conservation The volumetric flow rate in the x direction per unit of width in the z
direction is
Q
qx x
z

h ,z

udydz
z

udy
0

Substituting the value of u and integrating gives

h 3 dp Uh
qx

12 dx 2

Since the lubricant is assumed as incompressible, the flow must be

the same for any cross section
dq x
d h 3 dp Uh
d h 3 dp
dh

6U
0

dx
dx 12 dx
2
dx dx
dx

Reynolds Equation
Reynolds equation for one-dimensional flow in a journal bearing
d h 3 dp
dh
6U

dx dx
dx

Reynolds equation for two-dimensional flow when side leakage is

not neglected
h 3 p h 3 p
h

6U

x x z z
x

There is no general analytical solution to this equation. An

approximate solution due to Sommerfeld can be expressed as
2
r N
r
S
f
c
c
P

where indicates a functional relationship.