Fluid Mechanics

Pressure Measuring Devices

Introduction

Pressure is exerted by a fluid on the surfaces that it is in contact with. The air above the earths
surface also exerts pressure which is called atmospheric pressure. The concentration of pressure
is defined by the amount of force per unit area which means that for any 1 Newton that is exerted
on an area of 1 m2 gives 1 N/m2 which is equivalent to 1 Pascal. Instruments used to measure
pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. The purpose of this research is to give an
understanding on the purposes of different instruments used to measure pressure. This
assignment will focus mainly on the instruments that are used to measure fluid pressure which
comprises of the pressure of water and air since they are considered fluids because of their ability
to flow. It will also give a summary on the physical properties of fluids and this will give a
clearer understanding on the concepts of fluids.

Instruments used to measure Fluid pressure

Barometers
A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric
pressure. There are two types of barometers:

Mercury barometer
Aneroid barometer

Mercury Barometer
A mercury barometer (figure 1) in its simplest form consist of a glass tube, about 1m long and
closed at one end, which is completely filled with mercury. Mercury in the tube adjusts until the
weight of the mercury column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir. High
atmospheric pressure places more force on the reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column.
Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column by lowering the force
placed on the reservoir.

Figure 1

Aneroid Barometer

A Mercury Barometer

An aneroid barometer (figure 2) is an instrument for measuring pressure as a method that does
not involve liquid. The aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell,
which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated capsule is prevented from
collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or
contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements
of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer.

Figure 2

Aneroid Barometer

Atmospheric pressure at sea level is said to be 101.325 kN/m2 .

Proof
If A is a point in the tube at the same level as the free surface outside, the pressure pA at A is
equal to the atmospheric pressure p at the surface because, in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the
same at any points at the same level.
pA= pmgh
Putting h=760mm=0.76m
pm= specific gravity of mercury mass density of water
= 13.69.81103 N/m3
pA= 13.69.811030.76 N/m2
= 101.3 kN/m2

Piezometer or Pressure Tube

A piezometer is either a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by measuring the
height to which a column of the liquid rises against gravity, or a device which measures the
pressure of groundwater at a specific point. It is a vertical open-end tube inserted into a pipe or
vessel. (Figure 3)

Figure 3

A piezometer

Mercury U tube Manometer

A mercury U tube manometer is used to measure the pressure above atmospheric pressure of
water in a pipe, the water being in contact with the mercury in the left hand limb. The tube of the
manometer is partially filled with mercury or water which settles in the bottom of the u-shaped
tube, before the atmosphere being measured is allowed to enter the open end of the tube and
move against the fluid in the tube. The difference in the height of the liquid in the sealed side and
open side of the tube is the measure of the pressure of the atmosphere or gas being tested.

Figure 4

Mercury U tube Manometer

Inverted U-tube Manometer

Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids. The space
above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air which can be admitted or expelled through
the tap on the top, in order to adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer.

Figure 5

An inverted U-tube manometer

Equating the pressure at the level XX'. Pressure at the same level in a continuous body of static
fluid is equal.
For the left hand side:
Px = P1 - rg(h+a)
For the right hand side:
Px' = P2 - (rga + rmgh)
Since Px = Px'
P1 - rg(h+a) = P2 - (rga + rmgh)
P1 - P2 = (r - rm)gh
If the manometric fluid is chosen in such a way that rm << r then,
P1 - P2 = rgh.
For inverted U - tube manometer the manometric fluid is usually air.

Bourdon Gauge

A bourdon gauge is a pressure gauge employing a coiled metallic tube which tends to straighten
out when pressure is exerted within it. The instrument is used to measure gases and liquids. The
bourdon gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular
form in cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in cross-section may be hardly
noticeable, and thus involving moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable
materials, the strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or
even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is
pressurized.

Figure 6

Bourdon Gauge

Physical Properties of Fluids

Vapour Pressure
The pressure at which a liquid will boil is called its vapor pressure. This pressure is a function of
temperature vapor pressure increases with temperature. In this context we usually think about the
temperature at which boiling occurs. For example, water boils at 100oC at sea-level atmospheric
pressure 1 atm abs. However, in terms of vapor pressure, we can say that by increasing the
temperature of water at sea level to 100 oC, we increase the vapor pressure to the point at which
it is equal to the atmospheric pressure 1 atm abs, so that boiling occurs. It is easy to visualize that
boiling can also occur in water at temperatures much below 100oC if the pressure in the water is
reduced to its vapor pressure.

Capillarity
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative
magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing
vessel. Capillarity is important in fluid measurements when using tubes smaller than about 10
mm in diameter.

Surface Tension
The surface tension (s sigma) of a liquid is the work that must be done to bring enough
molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form one new unit area of that surface
J/m2 = N/m.
Surface tension generally appears only in situations involving either free surfaces (liquid/gas or
liquid/solid boundaries) or interfaces (liquid/liquid boundaries); in the latter case, it is usually
called the interfacial tension.

Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation of vapour or gas filled cavities in a flowing liquid when the tensile
stress is superimposed on pressure. It is developed at areas of low pressure in a liquid.

Bulk Modulus

All materials, whether solids, liquids or gases, are compressible, i.e. the volume V of a given
mass will be reduced to V - dV when a force is exerted uniformly all over its surface. If the force
per unit area of surface increases from p to p + dp, the relationship between change of pressure
and change of volume depends on the bulk modulus of the material.
Bulk modulus (K) = (change in pressure) / (volumetric strain)

Reference
Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics Volume 1, Third Edition, J.F. Douglas and R.D.
Matthews, Longman Group Limited, (1996)

Methods for the Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes, Part 1. Orifice Plates, Nozzles and Venturi
Tubes. British Standards Institute. (1964)

Finnemore, John, E. and Joseph B. Franzini (2002). Fluid Mechanics: With Engineering
Applications. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc