Research Paper 2015

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. . . Published ahead of Print
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The Relationships between Age and Running Biomechanics

Paul DeVita1, Rebecca E. Fellin2, Joseph F. Seay2, Edward Ip3,
Nicole Stavro4, and Stephen P. Messier4
Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC; 2Military Performance

Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA;
3
Department of Biostatistical Sciences and Department of Social Sciences & Health Policy,
Wake Forest School of Medicine Winston Salem, NC; 4Department of Health and Exercise
Science, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC
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Accepted for Publication: 24 July 2015
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise Published ahead of Print contains articles in unedited
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Copyright 2015 American College of Sports Medicine
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Publish Ahead of Print

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000744
The Relationships between Age and Running Biomechanics

Paul DeVita1, Rebecca E. Fellin2, Joseph F. Seay2, Edward Ip3, Nicole Stavro4, and
Stephen P. Messier4
Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC; 2Military Performance
Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA;
Department of Biostatistical Sciences and Department of Social Sciences & Health Policy,
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Wake Forest School of Medicine Winston Salem, NC; 4Department of Health and Exercise
Science, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC
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Running title: Age and Running Biomechanics

Corresponding Author:
Paul DeVita, Ph.D.
332 Ward Sports Medicine Building
Department of Kinesiology
East Carolina University
Greenville, NC 27858
email: devitap@ecu.edu
This study was sponsored by grant W81XWH-10-1-0455, USAMRAA (U.S. Army). Research
supported in part by an appointment to the Postgraduate Research Participation Program (REF)
funded by U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine and administered by Oak
Ridge Institute for Science and Engineering. The authors report no conflict of interest. The
results of the present study do not constitute endorsement by the American College of Sports
Medicine.
Copyright 2015 by the American College of Sports Medicine. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Abstract:
Running has high injury rates, especially among older runners. Most aging literature compares
young vs old runners without accounting for the progression of biomechanics throughout the
lifespan. We used age as a continuous variable to investigate the continuum of age-related gait
adaptations in running along with determining the chronology and rate of these adaptations.
PURPOSE: Identify the relationships among age and selected running biomechanics throughout
the range of 18 to 60 years. METHODS: Experienced (n = 110), healthy runners (54% male)
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provided informed consent and ran at their training pace while motion and force data were
captured. Kinematics, ground reaction forces (GRFs) and lower limb joint torques and powers
were correlated with age using Pearson product-moment correlations and linear regression.
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RESULTS: Running velocity was inversely related to age (r = -0.27, p = 0.005) due to decreased
stride length (r = -0.25, p = 0.008) but not rate. Peak vertical GRF (r = -0.23, p = 0.016) and peak
horizontal propulsive GRF decreased with age (r = -0.38, p < 0.0001). Peak ankle torque (r=0.32, p = 0.0007), and peak negative (r = 0.34, p = 0.0003) and positive (r = -0.37, p < 0.0001)
ankle power decreased with age. Age-based regression equations and per year reductions in all
variables significantly related to age are reported. CONCLUSIONS: Data support prior work
showing lower GRFs, stride length and velocity in old runners. Results are novel in showing the
rate of decline in running biomechanics on a per-year basis and that mechanical reductions at the
ankle but not hip or knee were correlated with age confirming previous observation of
biomechanical plasticity with age showing reduced ankle but not hip function in gait.
Key words: older runners, joint torque, power, aging, gait
Introduction
Running is a popular physical activity with an estimated 30 million people having run at
least 50 days per year in the United States in 2012 and 2013 (40). Running regularly has many
health benefits that protect against disability and early mortality, while also prolonging
disability-free lives (4,10,46). Specifically, adherence to a physically active lifestyle that
includes running into middle and old age (e.g. > 70 years) reduces age-related attenuation of
oxidative capacity, bone mineral density, functioning motor units, and cardiovascular health
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compared to a sedentary lifestyle (23,24,26,36,37,41,44). These benefits lead to reduced risk for
coronary heart disease (41) and reduced musculoskeletal pain (2) in older runners compared to
sedentary, older adults.
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Although running provides numerous health benefits, it is also associated with a high rate
of overuse injuries, with an annual incidence rate as high as 79% (13). These injuries include
achilles tendinopathy and fasciopathy, plantar fasciitis, iliotibial band friction syndrome, and
medial tibial stress syndrome, however the most prevalent injury site is the knee, with anterior
knee pain reported more often than other injuries (30,34,43,45). Running injuries limit
participation in both running and other physical activities that may adversely affect an
individuals health status. Additionally, age is associated with an increased risk of developing a
running-related overuse injury, especially over the age of 45 years (31,35) presumably due to
reduced muscle strength, flexibility, and altered gait biomechanics (12). Older compared to
younger runners more often have multiple injuries and soft-tissue-type injuries to the calf,
Achilles tendon, and hamstrings (31). Thus, older runners whose health status may be reduced
due to the natural history of aging, may face increased health risks associated with running
injuries and reduced physical activity.
It is well supported that older runners use a variety of biomechanical adaptions compared
to younger runners. Older runners select a lower preferred training pace due to a shorter stride
length despite a higher stride rate (3,6,11). While running at their self-selected training pace,
older runners use less knee range of motion and exert lower vertical and anteroposterior ground
reaction forces and impulses (3). While running at the identical pace of 2.7 m/s, older compared
to younger runners again used reduced range of motion at the knee but also at the hip and ankle
and produced less positive work at the knee and ankle (12). These adaptations produced lower
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maximum vertical and anterior propulsive ground reaction forces in the older runners but did not
reduce the maximum posterior braking force. These gait adaptations were attributed to declines
in maximal and submaximal cardiorespiratory characteristics and declines in muscle strength and
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power (19,38), possibly selective weakness in plantar flexors (12), and for maximal speed
running, decreased Type II muscle fiber area and maximal and rapid force-generating capacity of
the lower limb muscles (21), and musculotendon mechanical properties (19).
Since most age-related literature on biomechanical gait adaptations treats age as a
dichotomous variable comparing distinct young and old populations (e.g. ref 11, mean ages
young and old adults were 31 and 69 years), few studies have taken a developmental approach to
aging. To our knowledge, Korhonen et al. (21) and Hamilton et al. (15) remain the only studies
in which biomechanical adaptations were investigated in adults ranging in age from 17 to 82

years (21, n = 77) and 30-94 years (15, n = 162). These studies were limited however to maximal
running speed. Korhonen et al. (21) showed substantial declines in stride length (4.3m to 3.2m)
and maximal running speed (9.8m/s to 6.5m/s) from youngest to oldest runners. Stride rate was
also attenuated, but to a lesser extent (2.2Hz to 2.1Hz). These changes were associated with a
linear decline in the braking posterior ground reaction force (GRF), but a quadratic decline in
propulsive anterior GRF that increased in rate of change with age. Hamilton et al. (15) showed
similar results with declines in stride length (4.4m to 2.8m), maximal running speed (8.9m/s to
4.9 m/s), and range of motion in the knee joints (122 to 95) from youngest to oldest runners.
These kinematic and external kinetic adaptations were associated with an age-related decline in
muscle thickness, Type II fiber area and maximal and rapid force-generating capacity of the
lower limb muscles.
Korhonen et al. (21) and Hamilton et al. (15) provide important information not only on
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which characteristics change with age but also when they change, and their data represents an
important contribution to the biomechanics of maximal human performance. Most adults of all
ages, however, do not engage in maximal effort physical activity but at low to moderate efforts
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to maintain and improve health, functional capacity, and quality of life. We therefore propose
that a cross-sectional design with age as a continuous variable investigating running
biomechanics at self-selected training paces is necessary to provide an ecologically valuable data
set on age-related biomechanical gait adaptations during running. We contend that such a data
set will provide the basis for determining which adaptations occur through the continuum of
adult aging and the chronological history and rate of these adaptations on a year-by-year basis.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the age-related adaptations in the biomechanics of
running throughout the age range of 18 to 60 years. The results of this study can have
implications for developing training programs and performance equipment for the aging runner
and ultimately may lead to reduced injury in older runners.
Methods
Participants
Runners who were injury-free for at least 6 months and with current training unaffected
by any previous injury (n = 59 males; n = 51 females, mean age: 41.88.8 years; mean mass:
70.912.8 kg; mean BMI: 23.42.8 kg/m2) were recruited through advertisements on the internet
and in newspapers and by brochures posted at local running stores. Inclusion criteria were age
18 to 60 years and weekly mileage of 5 miles or greater for the past 6 months. Exclusion criteria
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were chronic diseases or orthopedic conditions which could influence running biomechanics (i.e.
arthritis, osteoporosis, coronary disease, cancer, ACL injury, reconstructive joint surgery or
replacement, acute musculoskeletal injury that affects running, overuse running injury during the
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past 6 mos) and pregnancy. We note however that the youngest and oldest participants meeting
all criteria and entered into the study were 23 and 59 years old. Mean running experience for all
participants was 11.39.4 years and mean weekly running distance was 33.822.0 miles.
Additionally, subject characteristics by 10-year age bins showed the youngest runners were 10%
less massive as the others, running experience increased with age, BMI was consistent across
ages, and weekly distance was not associated with age (Table 1). Prior to testing, an informed
consent document, approved by the universitys institutional review board, was explained to and
signed by each participant.
Instruments
An AMTI Model OR6-5-1 (Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc., Watertown, MA)

force platform was embedded in a 22.5 m raised walkway at the Wake Forest University
Runners Clinic and used to measure GRFs (480 Hz). The force platform was interfaced with an
AMTI Model SGA6-4 six channel amplifier, an IBM PC, and software to analyze the three-
dimensional forces and moments applied to the instrument during running. Equipment used for
kinematic analysis included six Motion Analysis Corporation Eagle High Speed (200 Hz) digital
cameras and EVa (Motion Analysis Corporation, Santa Rosa, California) and Visual 3D (CMotion Inc., Germantown, Maryland) software. The video and force platform systems were
interfaced such that three dimensional motion of the lower extremity, including rearfoot motion,
and joint moments of the hip, knee, and ankle were calculated. A photoelectric timer (Lafayette
Model 63501) with photocells placed 7.3 m apart was used to monitor running speed as
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participants ran along a 22 m runway with a capture volume of 7m (length) x 1.2m (width) x
Testing Protocol
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2.3m (height). Acceptable trials were within 3.5% of each subjects training pace.
Anthropometric Measurements
Body mass and height were measured and recorded with the participants wearing running
shorts, a tight fitting T-shirt, and no shoes. Instruments were calibrated weekly.
Running Measurements
Participants wore running shorts, a tight fitting T-shirt, and their normal running shoes. A
set of 37 passive reflective markers arranged in the Cleveland Clinic full-body configuration
were attached to the runners. Additional markers were placed on the rearfoot and shank to
calculate 3D rearfoot motion (shank - lateral knee, anterior tibia, and lateral ankle markers;
rearfoot - heel, lower heel, and lateral calcaneal markers). A static calibration trial was first
performed in which the participant stood in an anatomical position in the center of the capture
volume to determine the participants joint angular positions in a static position. Participants
practiced running on the runway to familiarize themselves with the markers and training pace.
Three acceptable trials for each side were obtained; an acceptable trial was defined as running
within the predetermined range of normal training pace and contacting the force platform with
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the appropriate foot in normal stride, as determined by visual observation.
Data Reduction
All data processing was conducted with Eva and Visual 3D software. Raw coordinate
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data from the 3D system were signal-processed using a second-order, low-pass Butterworth
digital filter with a cut-off frequency of 6 Hz to remove high frequency error. The processed
coordinate data were used to calculate stride length, stride rate and joint angular positions
through the gait cycle at hip, knee, and ankle joints. GRF data were filtered at 50 Hz.
The lower extremity was modeled as a rigid linked segment system. Magnitude and
location of the segmental masses, mass centers, and segmental moments of inertia were
estimated from position data using a mathematical model of relative segmental masses reported
by Dempster (7) and the participants anthropometric data. Inverse dynamics using linear and
angular Newtonian equations of motion were used to calculate the joint reaction forces and
moments at the hip, knee and ankle joints. Joint moments represented the internal moments
produced by the muscles and other tissues crossing the joints. Three-dimensional joint powers
were calculated as the product of the joint moments and joint angular velocities. Support moment
and total power curves in the sagittal plane were calculated as the sum of the individual, sagittal,
joint moments and powers (9,49). Maximum sagittal joint moments and powers, the extensor
angular impulses, and positive and negative work were derived at each individual joint and from
the support and total power curves. All variables were then averaged over the six trials per
participant and these mean values were used in the data analysis as each participants best
representative value.
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Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations were derived for each
biomechanical variable. Mean values were also calculated for the 20-29 year olds and 50-59 year
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olds to describe the magnitude of change between these age groups. Pearson product moment
correlation coefficients and their p-values were calculated to examine the correlations of age
with velocity, stride length, stride rate, and the variables derived from the GRFs, joint angular
positions, moments, and powers using = 0.05 to identify significant relationships. Simple linear
regressions were used to establish predictive models for providing representative values of
variables that were found significantly related to age at the ages of 20, 40, 60, and 80 years of
age.
Results
Temporospatial variables in running
The mean running velocity was 3.00 0.35 m/s. The mean stride length was 2.19 0.28
m and stride rate was 82.6 5.4 strides per minute. Stride length and running velocity were
significantly inversely correlated with age, r = -0.253 (p = 0.008) and r = -0.267, (p = 0.005,
Figure 1). On average, stride length and running velocity decreased from to 2.270.29 to 2.06
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0.23 m and 3.160.41 to 2.820.30 m/s respectively between runners aged in their 20s and 50s.
The correlation between stride rate and age was not statistically significant.
Ground Reaction Forces
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The maximum braking and propelling anteroposterior GRFs averaged across all
participants were -2.86 0.52 N/kg and 2.52 0.48 N/kg and mean maximum vertical GRF was
22.5 0.2 N/kg. Pearson-product moment correlations for maximum propelling (r = -0.383,
p<0.0001; and vertical (r = -0.230, p = 0.0156) GRFs showed significant inverse correlations
with age; as age increased anterior and vertical GRFs decreased (Figure 2). On average,
maximum propelling and vertical GRFs decreased from to 3.180.71 to 2.700.41 and
23.90.2.9 to 21.52.4 N/kg, respectively between runners in their 20s and 50s.
Joint Angular Positions

Mean hip angular position throughout stance was 20.7 6.1 of flexion and maximum
knee flexion and ankle dorsiflexion near midstance were 39.6 5.0 and 23.4 3.1. Only the
knee kinematics were significantly related to age (r=-0.203, p=0.033) showing younger runners
flexed more in midstance (40.65.5 for 20-29 year olds) than older runners (36.84.5 for 50-59
year olds).
Joint Moments and Powers
The mean maximum support moment for all participants was 4.30 0.79 Nm/kg and
mean maximum hip, knee, and ankle extension or plantar flexion moments were 2.26 0.52,
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1.97 0.42, and 2.53 0.37 Nm/kg, respectively. Maximum hip and knee moments were not
significantly correlated with age. Maximum support moment (r=-0.292, p=0.0019) and
maximum ankle plantarflexion moment (r=-0.319, p=0.0007) were however both significantly
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and inversely correlated with age (Figure 3). Older runners reduced their ankle moments
(2.280.32 vs 2.740.43 Nm/kg in runners aged 20s and 50s) leading to a reduction in the
support moment (4.741.02 vs 3.720.63 Nm/kg over this age range).
The mean maximum negative total power for all participants was -9.96 3.05 W/kg and
mean maximum negative hip, knee, and ankle powers were -1.60 0.72, -7.10 2.07, and -5.85
1.62 W/kg. Mean maximum positive total power was 9.81 2.77 W/kg and mean maximum
positive hip, knee, and ankle powers were 2.33 1.46, 3.67 1.24, 8.90 2.04 W/kg. Pearson
product-moment correlations for both negative and positive maximum powers were statistically
significant in the total power and the ankle joint power with all results showing reduced power
with age (Figure 4). Negative power correlation coefficients were respectively r=-0.204
(p=0.0324) and r=-0.336 (p=0.0003) for total and ankle powers and on average these values
changed from -10.823.41 to -8.392.60 and -6.872.15 to -4.731.27 W/kg respectively
between runners in their 20s and 50s. Positive power coefficients were respectively r=-0.371
(p<0.0001) and r=-0.372 (p<0.0001) for total and ankle powers and on average these values
changed from 11.713.55 to 7.862.52 and 10.102.31 to 7.582.00 W/kg respectively between
runners in their 20s and 50s. No significant correlations were observed in the hip or knee power
Average Reductions with Age
variables.
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The regression equations from the statistically significant relationships were used to
predict the per year percentage reductions in these variables and also representative values for
runners at the ages of 20, 40, 60, and 80 years of age to provide more concrete examples of the
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absolute reductions that occur with age (Table 2). The largest reductions with age in both
absolute and relative terms were seen in the maximum negative and positive ankle power,
negative and positive total power and maximum anterior propelling GRF. These variables
decreased 31% on average between the ages of 20 and 60 yrs and were predicted to decrease
47% on average by age 80 yrs. These decreased mechanical outputs resulted in 13% reductions
in stride length and running velocity by age 60 years and predict 20% reductions by age 80 years.
Discussion:
Understanding age-related adaptations and deficits in running will enhance the design
and implementation of training programs that focus on attenuating these changes (21) and
programs aimed at reducing injury and/or improving performance in older runners (31).
Reducing the rate of decline in running biomechanics with age and the incidence of injury and
improving performance will enable older runners to maintain their running programs longer into
capacity, and overall quality of life.
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older age thereby enhancing cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and skeletal health, functional
We found inverse and linear relationships between age and basic running kinematics: as
age increased, stride length and running velocity decreased. Based on the regression equations,
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we estimated that stride length and running velocity were reduced 0.08 m and 0.10 m/s over each
decade. During the aging process from 20 to 60 years of age, these equations predict average
stride length and running velocity will decrease from 2.37m to 2.05m and from 3.23 to 2.81 m/s
(both 20%). These decreases in stride length (0.47 m) and velocity (0.64 m/s) with age were
similar to those reported by Conoboy et al. (6) and Bus et al. (3) both of whom directly compared
younger vs older runners of similar ages. This agreement between studies suggests our novel
regression equations may be used to accurately estimate stride length and running velocity at
various adult ages and these predictions can be used to assess an individuals current
performance level and as target goals by coaches, medical personnel, or runners themselves. We
suggest that our estimates for the decline in biomechanical characteristics for runners at 80 years
of age may be conservative because the rate of decrease may accelerate after 60 years of age as it
does for number of nerve and muscle fibers (1), both concentric and eccentric muscle strength
(28), and walking speed (17). Stride rate was not related to age as observed by Conoboy et al. (6)
whose participants had similar ages to our sample extremes. Stride rate was related to age
however in older runners aged 67 to 73 years (11) Within our age range, the inverse relationship
of decreased velocity with age was then a direct function of reduced stride length; the correlation
between velocity and stride length was r=0.88. We also note the linear nature of all present
significant relationships agrees with linear declines in physiological properties including aerobic
capacity (23), muscle strength and power (32) and neurological properties including reduced
number of motor units and motor neuron conduction velocity (47) through the ages of 20 to 60
years.
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The reduced kinematics with age were due to reduced kinetic and energetic variables
with age as conjectured by Conoboy et al. (6). The current decreases in the GRF variables were
similar to those reported by Bus (3), ~10% for vertical and ~25% for anterior maximum forces
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for the same age range and also to other reports (12,20,21). The relative decrease in anterior GRF
maximum was also nearly 3-fold larger than the relative decrease in vertical GRF maximum
(0.70% vs. 0.24% per year). As runners age, they reduce their horizontal propulsive effort more
than their vertical propulsive effort. Indeed, we observed much stronger relationships between
both stride length and velocity in the anterior compared to vertical GRFs (r = 0.744 and 0.784 vs.
r = 0.521 and 0.582, respectively). Our data also agree with classic studies of GRFs and running
speed which showed that maximum anterior GRF changes more dramatically with speed than
does maximum vertical GRF (12,14,20,21,33).

Altered kinematics and GRFs during running are associated with altered muscle function
and joint mechanical output. Notably, we observed reduced ankle joint moment and power with
age but not reduced knee or hip joint moments and powers. These results agree well with
previous reports on running comparisons between ~20 and ~60 year old age groups. Both
Karamanidis et al. (19) and Kulmala et al. (22) reported reduced moment and power at the ankle
but not at the hip or knee (note: Karamanidis et al. did not report hip joint data). Fukuchi et al.
(12) showed older runners maintain hip biomechanics but had the largest reductions in moment,
power and work at the ankle joint. The magnitude of the reductions in ankle moments and
powers from age ~20 to ~60 years were about 20-30% in our data (2.82 to 2.29 Nm/kg and 10.8
to 7.34 W/kg) and agree with these previous studies. Reduced ankle but not knee or hip joint
function in our data may be due to a generalized decline in muscle strength and power (19,38)
but also agree with previous reports showing the triceps surae have larger or earlier losses in
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muscle strength (5), mitochondrial function (18), and number of motor neurons (16) compared to
other muscles. Reduced elasticity in the Achilles tendon in runners aged 35 to 65 years (39) may
also contribute to the attenuation of ankle power and interact with plantarflexor weakness
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reducing energy storage and return from this tendon (42). Overall, reduced ankle power may be
related to the increased rate of Achilles and plantarflexor injuries in older vs younger runners in
that aged ankle muscles and tendons may be not be able to withstand the rigors of running
especially in individuals running more frequently (31). Reduced stride length, running velocity,
and maximum propelling GRF with age were directly associated with ankle muscle function.
Maximum positive ankle power throughout our 40 year span was strongly and directly associated
with stride length (r=0.684), velocity (r=0.661), and maximum propelling GRF (r=0.844).
Reduced ankle joint function with age was also strongly associated with the reduced
overall limb mechanical output. Maximum ankle moment was correlated with maximum support
moment, r=0.747 and maximum ankle positive power was correlated with total positive power,
r=0.925. We find these results interesting because they relate to the biomechanical plasticity with
age observed in older adults (i.e. 70-85 year olds) while walking (8) by suggesting the distal to
proximal redistribution of joint moments and powers with age may originate as reduced ankle
joint mechanical output. This observation is novel in that no one has yet to report when the
fundamental biomechanical gait adaptations emerge or the sequence in which they do so. We
suggest the present emergence of reduced ankle function from ages 23 to 59 years is most likely
enhanced in this relatively high power activity of running and that this linear reduction with time
might not be evident by age 59 years in lower power activities such as walking. Our data also
suggest that either strength or power training the ankle plantar flexors may be a viable
mechanism for attenuating the reduction in running biomechanics with age. Specifically, training
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and rehabilitation protocols for older runners should be based on the fact that ankle but not hip
and knee moment and power are reduced by age 59 years leading to shorter strides and lower
running velocity. We suggest that such programs may be particularly beneficial to competitive
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Masters athletes. Further, joint and muscle power are critical for performing both high level
physical activities as presently observed but also for daily activities in older adults (25). Our
identification of power deficits at ankle but not knee or hip provides a joint-specific basis for
ankle power training programs that lead to improved performance in challenging daily activities
such as ascending and descending gaits. We should also consider, however, that the magnitude
of the observed reductions in ankle joint function with age may represent healthy aging because
our participants were presently injury free and relatively healthy.
We also note that our data support the emerging proposition that long term running
behavior ameliorates the increase in body weight and BMI evident in sedentary, middle aged
adults (27,29,48). Present 30 to 59 year old participants had nearly identical mass and BMI
values and their values were only slightly higher than those in the 20 to 29 year olds. Hence, it
appears that long-term running may be an effective non-pharmacologic weight maintenance
intervention that may be effective in combating obesity-related comorbidities.
Limitations
This study was limited by age range from 23 to 59 years old. While declines were seen
with age, this study was not able to observe these declines past the age of 60 years. We expect
but cannot confirm that reductions in gait biomechanics with age over 60 years may shift
towards curvilinear relationships with the rate of biomechanical decline increasing with age as
noted above. We call for studies similar to ours but including much older adults to clarify the
continued declines at older ages. Although logistically difficult, we note that longitudinal studies
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measuring the same individuals over years or decades of time would provide even stronger data
documenting aging related biomechanical adaptations in running. We note that all testing
occurred in a lab setting and it was possible that the gait observed in the laboratory might differ
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somewhat from that performed outdoors. We acknowledge the age-related correlations

coefficients showed low to moderate but not strong relationships. There is extensive variability
in running biomechanics throughout the population and the present protocol included this
variability by having all participants run at their own training paces and not at a standard speed.
While the relationships may not have been strong, they were reliable (statistically significant)
and they were entirely reasonable in direction based on the completely established relationships
among age and neuromuscular-skeletal biomechanics. We were also unable to investigate the
particular physiological deficits that led to reduced biomechanics and in particular to reduced
ankle joint torque and power with age. Continued investigations with age as a continuous
variable and that include more comprehensive data sets would add depth to our current
understanding of aging.
Conclusions
Since running continues to be a popular form of exercise, it is important for athletic
trainers, physical therapists, and physicians to understand the biomechanical adaptations that
occur with age. Overall, our data show that running biomechanics decline linearly and they
provide estimates of the magnitude of the reductions on a per-year basis. Reductions in the basic
running characteristics of stride length and velocity between the ages of 23 and 59 years are due
primarily to reduced ankle moment and power production during the stance phase but not
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reduced knee or hip function. Whether these reductions were due to physiological limitations or
the conscious selection of lowering ankle mechanics remains to be clarified. We propose
however that attenuating the biomechanical deficits observed with aging may enable people to
cardiovascular health.
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continue running longer into older age, prolonging disability-free lives as well as maintaining
Acknowledgements:
This study was sponsored by grant W81XWH-10-1-0455, USAMRAA (U.S. Army). Research
supported in part by an appointment to the Postgraduate Research Participation Program (REF)
funded by U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine and administered by Oak
Ridge Institute for Science and Engineering. The authors report no conflict of interest. Citations
of commercial organizations and trade names in this report do not constitute an official
Department of the Army endorsement or approval of the products or services of these
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College of Sports Medicine.
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organizations. The results of the present study do not constitute endorsement by the American
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Figure Captions:
Figure 1: Scattergrams between age and stride length (a) and velocity (b). Regression line and
equation indicate statistically significant relationship, minimum p<0.05.
Figure 2: Mean vertical (a) and anterior-posterior (b) GRF curves (shaded area is 2 SDs) and
scattergrams between age and maximum GRF in each direction (c,d). Arrows identify the
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variables on the curves. Regression lines and equations indicate statistically significant
relationships, minimum p<0.05. As is the case for the data in figures 3-4, we mention here that
the 2 SD range provides an approximate estimate of the values for the 20 and 60 year olds. The
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younger and older runners were near the upper and lower force values in the range, respectively.
Figure 3. Mean support and ankle joint moment curves (a-b) during the stance phase (shaded
area is 2 SDs) and scattergrams between age and maximum moments on each curve (c-d).
Arrows identify the variables on the curves. Positive values are extensor or plantarflexor
moments. Regression lines and equations indicate statistically significant relationships, minimum
p<0.05.
Figure 4. Mean total and ankle joint power curves (a-b) during the stance phase (shaded area is
2 SDs) and scattergrams between age and maximum powers on each curve (c-d). Arrows
identify the variables on the curves. Positive values indicate joint moment and angular velocity
were in the same direction and positive work was done through concentric contractions.
Regression lines and equations indicate statistically significant relationships, minimum p<0.05.
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Figure 1
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Figure 2
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Figure 3
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Figure 4
Table 1. Selected participant characteristics grouped by age and decade

Participant Characteristics (n=110)
Age Groups By Decade

30 39
40 49
50 60
Body mass (kg)
64.7 8.8
72.1 13.8
71.8 12.0
70.7 15.2
BMI (kg/m)
22.6 1.7
23.5 2.6
23.4 2.5
23.7 3.9
6.4 3.6
9.5 6.9
11.5 8.3
15.6 14.1
41.0 31.0
29.4 18.0
Running experience (years)
35.0 22.4
31.8 19.2
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Average weekly distance (mi)
20 - 29
Table 2. Predicted reductions in the statistically significant variables

Value At Age (yrs)
40
60
Stride length (m)
0.33
2.37
2.21
2.05
Velocity (m/s)
0.33
3.23
3.02
2.81
Maximum Knee Flexion Angle (deg)
0.27
42.1
39.8
Maximum Ant-Post Propelling Force (N/kg)
0.70
2.98
Maximum Vertical Force (N/kg)
0.24
Maximum Ankle Moment (Nm/kg)

Maximum Total Negative Power (W/kg)
Maximum Total Positive Power (W/kg)
Maximum Ankle Negative Power (W/kg)
at age 80 years (%)
1.89
20.0
2.60
19.7
37.5
35.2
16.3
2.56
2.14
1.72
42.1
23.7
22.6
21.4
20.3
14.6
0.47
2.82
2.55
2.29
2.02
28.1
0.61
-11.5
-10.1
-8.7
-7.3
36.8
0.94
12.3
10.0
7.7
5.4
56.6
0.85
-7.20
-5.97
-4.74
-3.51
51.3
0.80
10.78
9.06
7.34
5.62
47.9
Maximum Ankle Positive Power (W/kg)
80
20
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% Reduction / Yr
EP
Variable
Predicted Reduction

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. . . Published ahead of Print

The Relationships between Age and Running Biomechanics

Department of Kinesiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC; 2Military Performance

Accepted for Publication: 24 July 2015

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Publish Ahead of Print

The Relationships between Age and Running Biomechanics

Running title: Age and Running Biomechanics

332 Ward Sports Medicine Building

in which biomechanical adaptations were investigated in adults ranging in age from 17 to 82

lower limb muscles.

signed by each participant.

An AMTI Model OR6-5-1 (Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc., Watertown, MA)

the appropriate foot in normal stride, as determined by visual observation.

Ground Reaction Forces

Joint Angular Positions

Joint Moments and Powers

Average Reductions with Age

capacity, and overall quality of life.

does maximum vertical GRF (12,14,20,21,33).

somewhat from that performed outdoors. We acknowledge the age-related correlations

College of Sports Medicine.

aging runners: A 21-year longitudinal study. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168(15):1638-46.

25 to 74 years. Amer J Hum Biol. 1992;4(4):537-45.

Sports Med. 2006;40(7):601-4; discussion 4.

Patterson Air force Base, Ohio. 55-159.

running biomechanical adaptations in older runners. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon).

at different running speeds. Hum Movt Sci. 1983;2):47-56.

20. Karamanidis K,Arampatzis A. Mechanical and morphological properties of human

bone density, and osteoarthritis. Journal of the American Medical Association.

25. Larsen AH, Sorensen H, Puggaard L,Aagaard P. Biomechanical determinants of maximal

behavior. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2012;37(1):88-99.

27. Latorre-Roman PA, Izquierdo-Sanchez JM, Salas-Sanchez J,Garcia-Pinillos F. Comparative

30. Magnan B, Bondi M, Pierantoni S,Samaila E. The pathogenesis of achilles tendinopathy: A

Foot and Ankle Surgeons. 2014;20(3):154-9.

running economy. Journal of strength and Conditioning Research. 2011;25(11):2971-9.

of clinical and experimental medicine. 2015;8(1):1043-50.

Table 1. Selected participant characteristics grouped by age and decade

Age Groups By Decade

Body mass (kg)

Running experience (years)

Average weekly distance (mi)

Table 2. Predicted reductions in the statistically significant variables

Stride length (m)

Maximum Knee Flexion Angle (deg)

Maximum Ant-Post Propelling Force (N/kg)

Maximum Vertical Force (N/kg)

Maximum Ankle Moment (Nm/kg)

at age 80 years (%)

Maximum Ankle Positive Power (W/kg)

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