Design and Fabrication of All Fiber Flat Top Inter Leaver in DWDM Applications

Design and Fabrication of All-Fiber Flat-Top
Interleaver for DWDM Applications
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of
Master of Technology
(Optoelectronics and Optical communication)
by
S Ravi Kumar
(2005JOP2128)
Under the guidance of
Prof. B. P. Pal & Dr. R. K. Varshney
Departments of Physics and Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
May 2007
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “Design and fabrication of all-fiber flat-top
interleaver for DWDM applications” being submitted by Mr. S Ravi Kumar
(2005JOP2128) to the Department of Physics and Department of Electrical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
degree of Master of Technology in Optoelectronics and Optical Communication, is a
record of bona fide work carried out by him under our supervision.
The results contained in this report have not been submitted elsewhere for any degree or
diploma.
Prof. B. P. Pal Dr. R. K. Varshney

Professor Principal Scientific Officer
Department of Physics Department of Physics
IIT Delhi IIT Delhi
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am greatly indebted to my supervisors Professor B. P. Pal and Dr. R. K. Varshney for

their invaluable support, guidance and utmost interest during the course of this project. In
ways many more than I can express, they have motivated me to work hard and taught me
to think independently. I have truly learnt much from their optimistic way of thinking.
But for their helpful inputs, this project would have been far from completion. Thanks
also to Prof. M. R. Shenoy for his kind help and suggestions.
I must thank Dr. Naveen Kumar for the time and effort he has spared for me and the
valued inputs that were given by him. I express my gratitude to Mr. Nagaraju for being
with me in the lab and creating a work environment, all during my lab work. He has
taught me the coupler fabrication technique among other useful things. Thanks to Mr.
Raja Vinayagam for providing me with the lab equipment whenever I needed.
Special thanks to Prof. Vinod Chandra and Electrical Engineering Department for
allowing me to use lab equipment which was greatly useful in carrying out this project.
I would also like to thank my classmates Krishnan, Pavan, Kapil, Praveen, Saha, Anil,
Renuka, Abhinav, Sumitha, Deepak, Anoop, Sudhir and Vidya for their support
throughout my stay in IIT.
Last, but not the least, I thank my parents and other family members for their constant
support and influencing me in every way of life.
ii
ABSTRACT
The deployment of optical networks for communication has lead to rapid development in
the area of communication. This has given rise to newer applications with greater demand
for data bandwidth. Dense wavelength division multiplexed (DWDM) optical networks
with high spectral efficiency are indispensable means to cater to present day need of
bandwidth. In this work, the focus has been on design and fabrication of all-fiber flat-top
interleaver for DWDM applications.
The concept of DWDM is introduced in the first chapter of this thesis. A fair idea of
DWDM networks is essential to understand the role of an interleaver in DWDM
networks. To enhance research and development in this field, technical specifications
have been recommended. These have been briefly discussed herein.
We have studied and analyzed various design approaches used for filters in general, and
interleavers in specific. Simulation was carried out to calculate structure parameters using
these approaches. The results have been verified by comparing with data from literature.
Design to compensate dispersion has also been studied.
A two-stage flat-top interleaver was fabricated in the lab and was characterized. The
technique to implement the interleaver has been discussed.
Polymer based optical components have several advantages and therefore have been
receiving much attention in recent years. An interleaver based on Y-junctions instead of
directional couplers, using polymer technology has been reported. But it does not have
appreciable characteristics of an ideal interleaver, like flat passband and high extinction
ratio. We have proposed and worked out a design to achieve these characteristics in a
polymer Y-junction based interleaver. This structure has been analyzed and the structure
parameters that would give the optimum characteristics have been derived.
iii
CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE...............................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................ii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................viii
Introduction....................................................................................................1
1.1 DWDM ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 DWDM Operation .............................................................................................. 2
1.3 Technical Requirements and Specifications ....................................................... 3
1.4 Role of Interleavers/De-interleavers in Present day DWDM Links ................... 3
Interleaver Types and Design Methods..........................................................5

2.1 Interleaver ........................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Interleaver Types ................................................................................................ 5
2.3 Single-stage MZI Interleaver .............................................................................. 6
2.4 Desired Characteristics of an Interleaver............................................................ 9
2.5 Two-stage MZI Interleaver ............................................................................... 10
2.5.1 Delay line in the upper arm of the second stage ....................................... 12
2.5.2 Delay line in the lower arm of the second stage ....................................... 14
2.6 Design Approaches ........................................................................................... 16
2.7 Synthesis of Two-port Lattice Form Optical Delay Line Circuits.................... 17
2.8 Optical Half-Band Filters.................................................................................. 18
2.9 Dispersion Compensation ................................................................................. 18
2.10 Optical All-Pass Filter Structures ..................................................................... 19
Results and Discussion ................................................................................21

3.1 Simulation ......................................................................................................... 21
3.1.1 Single-stage MZI Interleaver Spectral Response...................................... 21
3.1.2 Two-stage MZI Interleaver Spectral Response......................................... 22
3.1.3 Design of Interleaver Based on the Passband Ripple ............................... 23
3.1.4 Synthesis of Two-port Lattice Form Optical Delay Line Circuits............ 26
3.1.5 Simulation for Optical Half-band Filters .................................................. 29
3.1.6 Optical All-Pass Filter Structures ............................................................. 29
3.1.7 Tolerance of Structure Parameters............................................................ 31
iv
3.2 Experimental Work........................................................................................... 33
3.2.1 Fabrication and Characterization of Fused Fiber Couplers ...................... 33
3.2.2 Techniques to Achieve Optical Path Difference between MZI Arms ...... 35
3.2.3 Tuning Channel Spacing and Channel Wavelengths................................ 35
3.2.4 Estimation of the Differential Delays in a Two-stage MZI ...................... 37
3.2.5 Implementation of 2-stage MZI Interleaver.............................................. 38
3.2.6 Tuning of 2-stage MZI Based Wavelength Interleaver ............................ 42
3.2.7 Discussion ................................................................................................. 43
Y-Junction Flat-Top Interleaver...................................................................44

4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 44
4.2 Principle of Operation....................................................................................... 44
4.3 Parameter Optimization .................................................................................... 47
4.4 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 49
FUTURE SCOPE ........................................................................................50

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................51
Appendix A..................................................................................................53
Appendix B..................................................................................................54
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Schematic of a typical DWDM optical fiber long-haul link ............................... 2

Figure 2: Schematic of different interleavers...................................................................... 6
Figure 3: Schematic of an all-fiber MZI based interleaver................................................. 7
Figure 4: A 2-stage MZI configuration ΔL2 is in the upper arm of the second stages ..... 10
Figure 5: A 2-stage MZI configuration wherein the second delay line ΔL2′ is in the lower
arm ............................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 6: Configuration of coherent two-port lattice-form optical delay-line circuit....... 17
Figure 7: A 2 x 2 FIR optical half-band filter circuit configuration ................................ 18
Figure 8: Ring cascade architecture for all-pass optical filter ......................................... 20
Figure 9: Simulated spectral response in linear scale at Port 3 of the MZI-based
interleaver ................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 10: Simulated spectral response in log scale at Port 3 of the MZI-based interleaver
................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 11: Simulated spectral response of a 2-stage MZI interleaver .............................. 22
Figure 12: Variation of 0.1dB-passband width with increasing passband ripple ............. 23
Figure 13: Variation of 0.5dB-passband width with increasing passband ripple ............. 23
Figure 14: Variation of 25dB-stopband width with passband ripple................................ 24
Figure 15: Variation of crosstalk with passband ripple .................................................... 24
Figure 16: Matlab GUI to calculate the structure parameters and the interleaver
characteristics based on channel spacing and the specified passband ripple............ 25
Figure 17: Linear Chebyshev filter designed using optical delay line circuits................. 26
Figure 18: Multi-channel selector filter designed using optical delay line circuits.......... 27
Figure 19: Transmittance and relative group delay in a group-delay dispersion equalizer
................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 20: Group delay equalization for 2-stage MZI interferometer .............................. 30
Figure 21: Spectral response when deviation of coupling ratios is 5% from the optimum
values ....................................................................................................................... 31
vi
Figure 22: Spectral response when deviation of delay lengths is 1µm from the optimum
value.......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 23: Photograph of the fusion fiber coupler fabrication rig .................................... 33
Figure 24: Experimental set-up used to measure the wavelength response of an all-fiber
MZI ........................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 25: Photograph of the two-stage MZI interleaver that was fabricated in the lab .. 39
Figure 26: Power spectrum of EDF broadband source used for the experiment .............. 39
Figure 27: Power spectrum of EDF broadband source over a range of 2nm.................... 40
Figure 28: Spectral response 1-stage interleaver before tuning........................................ 41
Figure 29: Spectral response 1-stage interleaver after tuning........................................... 41
Figure 30: Spectral response of 2-stage interleaver during the process of tuning ............ 42
Figure 31: Spectral response of partially tuned 2-stage interleaver.................................. 43
Figure 32: Schematic diagram of Y-junction based 2-stage MZI interleaver .................. 45
Figure 33: Spectral response of a Y-junction based 2-stage interleaver........................... 48
Figure 34: Optimum values of ΔβS1 and ΔβS2 when both the delays are on the same side
................................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 35: Optimum values of ΔβS1 and ΔβS2 when both the delays are on opposite sides
................................................................................................................................... 49
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Simulated structure parameters for the designed Linear Chebyshev filter ......... 26
Table 2: Simulated structure parameters for the Multichannel selective filter ................. 27
Table 3: Simulated structure parameters for the designed group-delay dispersion
equalizer.................................................................................................................... 28
Table 4: Circuit parameters for Maximally-flat Half-band filter...................................... 29
Table 5: Circuit parameters for Chebyshev Half-band filter. ........................................... 31
Table 6: Zeros, poles and circuit parameters for dispersion equalizer for an optimized 2-
stage MZI interleaver................................................................................................ 29
Table 7: Effect of additional stages in all-pass filter for equalizing dispersion................ 30
Table 8: Typical measured characteristics of the couplers fabricated .............................. 34
Table 9: Optimized splitting ratios of the 3 couplers K1, K2 and K3 in a 2-stage MZI-
based interleaver when the delay line ΔL2 = 2ΔL1 ± λ / 2neff in the upper arm ....... 53
Table 10: Optimized splitting ratios of the 3 couplers K1, K2 and K3 in a 2-stage MZI-
based interleaver when the delay line ΔL2 = 2ΔL1 is in the lower arm.................... 53
Table 11: Optimized parameters for a 2-stage MZI configuration using Y -junctions when
the delay is in the upper arm ..................................................................................... 54
Table 12: Optimized parameters for a 2-stage MZI configuration using Y -junctions when
the delay line is in the lower arm line is in the lower arm……………………………….54
viii
i
Chapter 1
Introduction
To meet bandwidth demand and make optimum use of existing amplifier
bandwidth, dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) systems must offer higher
channel counts at narrower channel spacing and the requirements are on an incessant
increase [1]. Use of 160 channels with 40 Gbps bit rate per channel is quite common
today. A number of different DWDM technologies exist to meet the needs of system
designers, but each forces design tradeoffs in terms of narrowness of channel spacing,
cost, reliability, and manufacturability. Nowadays, interleaver technology is being
deployed as it allows designers to achieve narrow channel spacing with mature
technology.
1.1 DWDM
The predominant aspect of a DWDM communication link is that several
wavelengths (at least four), each carrying digital signals @ ≥ 2.5 Gbit/s, could be sent
through a single-mode fiber simultaneously within the 1530-to-1610-nm gain bandwidth
of a fiber amplifier with inter-channel spacing ≤ 200 GHz. The key features of DWDM
are
Transmission capacity upgradation: As demand for bandwidth grows, each wavelength
channel can carry data at independent data rates and can be upgraded independently.
Transparency: Each optical channel can carry data in any transmission format and at any
data rate. This makes the network design and engineering simpler and more flexible as
there is no need for common signal structure.
Wavelength routing and switching: Wavelength can be exploited as a new dimension for
routing besides space and time. Further, wavelength-switched architectures allow
1
reconfiguration of optical layer. Optical add/drop multiplexers, optical cross connects and
wavelength converters are used for implementation of these networks.
1.2 DWDM Operation

DWDM networks are sought after to utilize the enormous transmission bandwidth
of an optical fiber beyond what could be achieved by simply increasing the bit rate of a
transmitter-receiver pair. In DWDM, multiple transmitters, each at a different
wavelength, are combined onto a single fiber by a multiplexer (Mux). At the other end, a
demultiplexer (DeMux) separates out the wavelengths into separate receivers. In this
way, multiple transmitter-receiver pairs share the same fiber. The schematic of a typical
modern DWDM optical link is shown in Fig1.
Laser Diode at ITU

Wavelengths
λ
Multiplexer Demultiplexer OE
Long
λ Bragg
Circulator OE
λ OE
EDFA EDF EDF
λ OE
λ3 λ3
λ OE OE
Isolator
λ
Optoelectronic
Converter
Add-Drop multiplexer
Figure 1: Schematic of a typical DWDM optical fiber long-haul link[11]
A genre of high-quality semiconductor lasers, called distributed-feedback (DFB)

lasers, is typically used in a DWDM system. Electronic digital inputs modulate individual
lasers, each emitting at a different peak wavelength. The spectral linewidth of modulated
output of a DFB laser is typically of the order of 10-3 nm. An array of DFB lasers, each
tuned to a different but well-defined and standardized wavelength are used. Interference
among the wavelength channels is avoided and the integrities of the independent signals
2
from each source are maintained for subsequent filtering and conversion to electrical
signals at the receiving end by sufficiently spacing them from their neighbours.
1.3 Technical Requirements and Specifications

To coordinate and facilitate the growth of DWDM fiber links, International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) has set certain wavelength standards, referred to as ITU
wavelength grids, for DWDM optical transmission systems. As per ITU standards (ITU-
T recommendation G.692), the reference frequency ( ν 0 ) is chosen to be that
corresponding to the Krypton line i.e. 193.1 THz. (≡ 1552.52 nm in wavelength), and the
chosen channel spacing are expected to follow the relation
ν 0 ± Δν (THz) = 193.1 ± 0.1I, where I is an integer.
The recommended standard channel spacings are 200 GHz (≡ 1.6 nm), 100 GHz (≡ 0.8
nm), 50 GHz (≡ 0.4 nm), and 25 GHz (≡ 0.2 nm). It is to be noted that ITU standards
specify fixed frequency spacing, rather than constant wavelength spacing. Variations in a
laser’s peak wavelength lead to crosstalk between adjacent channels. Therefore it is
necessary to keep the variations in wavelength small compared to the spacing between
adjacent channels i.e. a laser signal should be prevented from “wandering” into an
adjacent channel in a DWDM stream. One would have to use the manufacturer’s design
specifications for a particular DWDM system. Those specifications may be tighter than
the 10% allowed by ITU.
1.4 Role of Interleavers/De-interleavers in Present day

DWDM Links
Due to the difficulties encountered in attaining high-speed electronic components at
speeds beyond 40 Gbit/s, increase in the number of channels has evolved as the best near-
term option to achieve high spectral efficiency.. This can be done in two ways
1. Increasing the operational communication bandwidth per channel.
2. By decreasing the inter-channel spacing.
3
These two aspects are combined to define spectral efficiency, which refers to the
amount of information that can be transmitted over a given bandwidth.
A DWDM optical network requires a variety of passive and active components like
wavelength multiplexers/de-multiplexers, EDFAs, gain flattening filters for EDFAs, add-
drop multiplexers, dispersion compensators, bandpass filters, lasers, and so on. Since,
most of the current DWDM networks operate in the C-band, which corresponds
approximately to the gain band from 1530 nm to 1565 nm of an erbium doped fiber
amplifier (EDFA), increasing the operational communication bandwidth involves
replacing the present components. The newer components would be costlier as they
would require technologies different from the ones used presently. Also, additional
amplifiers have to be used for the other bands namely, L-band (1570 nm - 1620 nm) and
S-band (1480 nm ∼ 1525 nm).
The alternative option, i.e. to decrease the inter-channel spacing, is generally preferred.
But, this would still mean replacing some components for e.g., filters with narrower
passbands would be required at the receivers, which is also expensive. Interleavers/de-
interleavers provide an easy solution in this regard and therefore have received much
attention.
4
Chapter 2
Interleaver Types and Design Methods

2.1 Interleaver
Interleaver/de-interleaver is an optical filter with a periodic response that is capable of
separating a comb of densely spaced signal channels into several sets of channels with
wide channel spacings or doing the converse [3]. Because of the periodic nature of
interleave filter, its transfer function consists of fewer number of Fourier components
compared to, say, add/drop filters. For this reason, the interleaver is simpler to realize
than other filters.
2.2 Interleaver Types

As a functional block, interleavers can be considered to be of different types [4]
1:2 interleaver: It combines two or more input streams of wavelength-channels
having a constant spacing Δν in the frequency domain into a single dense stream of
channels with separation Δν / 2 at the output (see Fig. 2a ). When operated in the reverse
direction, it separates the even and odd signal channel streams.
1:4 interleaver: The natural extension of the 1:2 interleave filter is the periodic
separation of one in every 2n channels, such as 1: 4 demultiplexer depicted in Fig. 2b.
This device has four different output ports. This kind of interleaving (i.e. 1:2n) can also be
achieved by cascading 2n-1 stages of 1:2 interleave filters.
Banded interleaver: This type of interleaver separates/combines, one stream of
wavelength channels into two bands of channels, coming from the two different output
ports, periodically. It is difficult to fabricate such device in practice because the
5
requirements to achieve sharp skirt for the filter to meet the ITU specifications are very
tight.
Asymmetric interleaver: The other variation in contrast to the three types of
interleaving mentioned above is the asymmetric interleaver which separates one
wavelength from the stream of wavelength channels such that one channel appear at one
output port whereas the remaining (n-1) channels exit from the other output port
periodically i.e. it separates one channel out of n.
λe
a) 1:2 λo
λ……..
λa
λb
b)
1:4
λc
λ……..
λd
c) Banded λb1
4:8 λb2
λ……..
d) Asym λa1
λ…….. 1:8 λa7
Figure 2: Schematic of different interleavers.

a) 1:2 interleaver b) 1:4 interleaver c) Banded interleaver d) Asymmetric type interleaver
2.3 Single-stage MZI Interleaver

An all-fiber single-stage unbalanced MZI can be formed by splicing two 2×2 fiber
couplers in such a way that the lengths of the two arms are slightly unequal [5] by an
amount ΔL1 . The differential path length ( ΔL1 ) is equivalent to a differential delay line in
one of the arms. The corresponding differential phase delay ϕ1 suffered by the channel
wavelength λ is given by
ϕ1 = 2πneff ΔL1 / λ (2.1)
6
where neff (λ ) is the effective index of the guided mode at λ .
ΔL
Port 1 Port 3
P3 (λ1 , λ2 )
P1 ( λ1 ) Coupler 1 Coupler 2
3 dB 3 dB P4
P2 (λ2 )
Port 2
Port 4
Figure 3: Schematic of an all-fiber MZI based interleaver, realized through concatenation of two 3-dB
couplers; ΔL1 represents a delay line in the upper arm of the interferometer.
The transmission characteristics of an interleaver based on MZI can easily be described

in terms of transfer matrices of the individual couplers and the differential delay lines [6].
From the coupled mode equations for the electric field amplitudes, the transfer matrix for
the coupler is given by
⎛ c − js ⎞
M coupler = ⎜⎜ ⎟ (2.2)
⎝ − js c ⎟⎠
where c = cos(κz ) , and s = sin(κz ) ; κ is the coupling coefficient and z is the interaction
length of the couplers. The transfer matrix corresponding to the differential phase delay
ϕ1 between the two arms is given by
⎛ e jϕ1 0⎞ (2.3)
M ΔL1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝0 1 ⎟⎠
Thus, product of the transfer matrices for the couplers with those of the differential delay
line would yield the transfer function of an unbalanced MZI (shown in Fig. 7), and is
given as
M MZI = M coupler 2 M ΔL1 M coupler1 (2.4)
If E1 and E 2 are input fields to the MZI at Ports 1 and 2, respectively, then the output
fields ET and EC at Ports 3 and 4 can be expressed as
7
⎛ ET ⎞ ⎛E ⎞ (2.5)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = M MZI ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ EC ⎠ ⎝ E2 ⎠
⎛ ET ⎞ ⎛ c 2 − js 2 ⎞⎛ e jϕ1 0 ⎞⎛ c1 − js1 ⎞⎛ E1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (2.6)
⎝ EC ⎠ ⎝ − js 2 c 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 1⎟⎠⎜⎝ − js1 c1 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ E 2 ⎟⎠
where ci = cos(κz ) i , s i = sin(κz ) i , i = 1, 2.
Thus, if P1 (λ1 ) = E1 (λ1 ) E1* (λ1 ) =1 and P2 (λ2 ) = E 2 (λ2 ) E 2* (λ2 ) =1 represent the normalized
powers at the two input ports, corresponding to the channel wavelengths λ1 and λ 2 ,
respectively, then the fractional output powers at the throughput and coupled ports are
respectively given by
ϕ1 (λ1 ) ϕ1 (λ2 ) (2.7)
PT = ET ET* = P1 (λ1 ) sin 2 + P2 (λ2 ) cos 2
2 2
ϕ1 (λ1 ) ϕ1 (λ2 ) (2.8)
PC = EC EC* = P1 (λ1 ) cos 2 + P2 (λ2 ) sin 2
2 2
The splitting ratios of the couplers 1 and 2 in the MZI configuration have been assumed
to be 50:50. In order to achieve wavelength interleaving by an unbalanced MZI
configuration, the differential phase ϕ1 has to satisfy either of the following conditions:
ϕ1 (λ1 ) = (2n + 1)π and ϕ1 (λ2 ) = 2nπ ; (PC = 0, PT = Pmax) (2.9)
or
ϕ1 (λ1 ) = 2nπ and ϕ1 (λ 2 ) = (2n + 1)π ; (PT = 0, PC = Pmax) (2.10)
where n is an integer. From Eq. (2.9) and Eq. (2.10), we can observe that
ϕ1 ( λ1 ) − ϕ1 ( λ2 ) = π . (2.11)
Thus, by substituting the values of ϕ1 (λ1 ) and ϕ1 (λ2 ) in Eq. (2.1), we get
λ1λ2 (2.12)
ΔL1 =
2neff Δλ
Physically, if the DWDM signal channels are input at Port 1, the signal wavelengths that
suffer a differential phase delay of (2n + 1)π will exit through Port 3, and the
wavelengths that suffer a differential phase delay of 2nπ will exit from Port 4. These
wavelengths correspond to the peaks in the spectral response. The single-stage MZI
exhibits a sinusoidal spectral response at the output ports 3 and 4 that are complementary.
8
The wavelength separation between the consecutive peaks at any output port represents
the free spectral range (FSR) of the MZI; the FSR is determined solely by ϕ1 between the
propagating signals in the two arms of the MZI. If we change ΔL1 by an amount
λ / 2neff (which introduces an additional phase change of π ), the spectral response at the
output ports gets reversed.
The spectral response of the single-stage MZI is shown in Fig.7 of next chapter.
2.4 Desired Characteristics of an Interleaver
Low insertion loss: Any component used in a DWDM network has to be of low insertion
loss since a lossy device would lead to attenuation of signal and thus degradation of
signal-to-noise ratio, even after amplifying. Any initial imbalance in channel-power will
have a cascading effect, as the signal is normally required to pass through multiple stages,
and may affect the signal-to-noise performance of the system
Wide Pass band: The wavelength emitted by the laser source in the transmitter can vary
slightly due to changes in ambient conditions like temperature. The components used
should allow for this small variation.
Wide Rejection band: The power in the rejection band should be considered as noise to
the channel from other channels (crosstalk). Also this would reduce the power in the
passband leading to higher insertion loss.
High extinction in the Rejection band: The response at the rejection band is the power
that would be coupled as crosstalk from this channel to other channels. Hence, the
attenuation in the rejection band should be as high as possible.
Good wavelength accuracy: The interleaver’s spectral response should not change over
time and should be fixed to the DWDM wavelength grid specified by the ITU. The
variation in spectral response can lead to severe performance degradation through
attenuation of signal as well as crosstalk from adjacent channels.
9
Low dispersion: The filters and other components used in DWDM networks have strict
requirement of low dispersion since very high bit rates (40 Gbps, typically) are used.
Low Polarization dependency: The various kinds of polarization dependencies like

polarization mode dispersion (PMD), polarization dependent loss (PDL), and polarization
dependent wavelength shift (PDλ) cause loss of signal and have to be avoided.
Uniformity across channels: The interleaver should have uniform spectral response over
the optical bandwidth used for DWDM, since the transmission characteristics should be
independent of the wavelength used for transmission.
2.5 Two-stage MZI Interleaver
A 2-stage MZI configuration has been proposed to meet the just discussed requirements
[7]-[9]. It can be realized by concatenating three couplers through two differential delay
lines in the two stages, as shown in Fig. 4. In order to achieve a uniform flattop response
with minimum insertion loss, one has to choose optimum splitting ratios for the couplers
K1, K2, and K3, as well as magnitudes of the differential delay lines ΔL1 and ΔL2 .
ΔL1 ΔL2
P3 (λ1 , λ2 )
P1 ( λ 1 )
K1 K2 K3
P2 (λ2 ) 3 dB P4
Figure 4: A 2-stage MZI configuration realized by concatenating three couplers K1, K2, and K3; the two
delay lines ΔL1 and ΔL2 are introduced in the upper arms of the first and second stages, respectively
The phase difference between the fields E13 and E14 at ports 3 and 4 of the single-stage
MZI configuration (see Fig. 3) plays an important role in deciding the magnitude of the
delay line to be introduced in the second stage for achieving a flattop spectral response of
10
the 2-stage MZI; Considering unit input at only port1, the resultant output fields at Ports
3 and 4 are given as [5, 6]
E13 = ET = c1c 2 e jϕ1 − s1 s 2 (2.13)
E14 = EC = j (c1 s 2 e jϕ1 + s1c 2 ) (2.14)

If the splitting ratio of the first coupler is 50:50, and that of second coupler is more than
50: 50 (i.e. s2 > c2), the phase difference (θ) between the output fields E13 and E14 is given
by [11]
E13 .E14
θ = cos −1 (s2 > c2) (2.15)
E13 E14
Likewise, if the splitting ratio of the first coupler is 50:50 and that of second coupler is
less than 50:50 (i.e. c2 > s2), the phase difference (θ) between the output fields E13 and E14
is given by [11]
E13 .E14
θ = 2π − cos −1 (c2 > s2) (2.16)
E13 E14
It is imperative from the Eq. (2.15) and (2.16) equations that the magnitude of the
optimum delay-line in the second stage would depend on whether the splitting ratio of the
second coupler is more, or less than 50:50. Often a compromise is made between
achieving a flattop passband and a low insertion loss, since additional filtering elements
are usually added to an original sinusoidal passband shape to achieve a uniform flattop
response.
Position of the Second Delay Line

To realize a 2-stage MZI configuration with a flattop response, a second 2×2 coupler is
concatenated to a single-stage MZI with an optimum differential delay line in the second
stage. There are two possible choices for a designer- the second delay line could be
introduced either in the upper arm or in the lower arm of the second stage of the 2-stage
MZI [12, 10]. Though these two optional configurations appear to be apparently
identical, the performance of these two configurations are dictated by the splitting ratios
of the constituent couplers as well as the phase differences between the fields at ports 3
and 4, and also by the magnitude of the delay lines in the second stage.
11
2.5.1 Delay line in the upper arm of the second stage
The transfer matrix corresponding to this 2-stage MZI configuration is given by [9, 12]
M 2 − stageMZI = M coupler 3 M ΔL2 M coupler 2 M ΔL 1 M coupler 1 (2.17)
If the DWDM signal channels are input at Port 1, then the output fields at Ports 5 and 6
can be expressed as
⎛ E15 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = M 2− stageMZI ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (2.18)
⎝ E16 ⎠ ⎝ 0⎠
⎛ E15 ⎞ ⎛ c3 − js3 ⎞⎛ e jϕ2 0 ⎞⎛ c 2 − js 2 ⎞⎛ e jϕ1 0 ⎞⎛ c1 − js1 ⎞⎛1 ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ E16 ⎠ ⎝ − js3 c3 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 1 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ − js 2 c 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 1⎟⎠⎜⎝ − js1 c1 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠
or (2.19)
E15 = c1c 2 c3 exp( jβΔL1 ) − s1 s 2 c3 − s 2 s3 c1 exp( j ( β ΔL1 + β ΔL2 ) ) − s1 s3 c 2 exp( jβΔL2 )
(2.20)
E16 = − j[c1c 2 s3 exp( jβΔL1 ) − s1 s 2 s3 + s 2 c3 c1 exp( j ( β ΔL1 + β ΔL2 ) ) + s1c3 c 2 exp( jβ ΔL2 )]
(2.21)
where β is the propagation constant at the channel-wavelength ( λ ) such that ϕ 2 = β ΔL2
and ϕ1 = β ΔL1 . The fractional output powers exiting through ports 5 and 6, are given by
the relations P15 = E15 E15
* and P = E E *
16 16 16
P15 = − 2 c 1 s 3 c 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2 ) + 2 c 1 s 3 s 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2 )

+ 2 c 1 c 2 s 1 s 2 cos( β Δ L1 ) (s 32 − c 32 ) + 2 c 3 c 2 s 3 s 2 cos( β Δ L 2 ) (s 12 − c 12 )
+ c 12 c 22 c 32 + s 12 s 22 c 32 + c 12 s 22 s 32 + s 12 c 22 s 32 (2.22)
P16 = 2 c 1 s 3 c 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2 ) − 2 c 1 s 3 s 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2 )

( ) (
+ 2 c 1 c 2 s 1 s 2 cos( β Δ L1 ) c 32 − s 32 + 2 c 3 c 2 s 3 s 2 cos( β Δ L 2 ) c 12 − s 12 )
+c c s +s s s +c s c +s c c
2
1
2 2
2 3
2
1
2 2
2 3
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
3
(2.23)
The right hand side of the Eq. (2.22) and Eq. (2.23) are similar to a finite Fourier series,
and in order to obtain a box-like (flattop) response, we must have [7, 10]
βΔL2 = 2 βΔL1 ± nπ (2.24)
12
where n is an integer. The earlier reports [10, 12] considered only the case of n = 0 but
Eq. (2.24) is for a more general case. The value of n should be chosen to satisfy the
condition of constructive interference. The other fundamental requirement is that the
insertion loss should be minimum, which demands constructive interference between the
channel-wavelengths coming from the ports 3 and 4 at the output of the coupler K3. Thus,
conditions for the odd- and even channel wavelengths to emerge from ports 5 and 6,
respectively, with minimum loss would be met when
β ΔL2 = 2nβΔL1 ± (2n − 1)π , c 2 < s 2 and s3 < c3 . (2.25)
Since the conditions for flattop and minimum loss are to be met simultaneously, Eq.
(2.24) and Eq. (2.25) imply n = 1.
Alternatively, if the odd and even channels were required to emerge from ports 6 and 5,
respectively, the condition for interference would be met when
βΔL2 = 2mβΔL1 , c 2′ < s 2′ and s3′ > c3′ . (2.26)

where m is an integer; we have used the prime notation to distinguish the parameters
from those corresponding to the former case. This leads to n = 0 and m = n + 1. The
fractional output powers emanating from ports 5 and 6 are given by
P15′ = − 2 c 1′ s 3′ c 2′ 2 s 1′ c 3′ cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2 ) + 2 c 1′ s 3′ s 2′ 2 s 1′ c 3′ cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2 )
( ) (
+ 2 c 1′ c 2′ s 1′ s 2′ cos( β Δ L1 ) s 3′ 2 − c 3′ 2 + 2 c 3′ c 2′ s 3′ s 2′ cos( β Δ L 2 ) s 1′ 2 − c 1′ 2 )
+ c 1′ 2 c 2′ 2 c 3′ 2 + s 1′ 2 s 2′ 2 c 3′ 2 + c 1′ 2 s 2′ 2 s 3′ 2 + s 1′ 2 c 2′ 2 s 3′ 2 (2.27)
P16′ = 2 c 1′ s 3′ c 2′ 2 s 1′ c 3′ cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2 ) − 2 c 1′ s 3′ s 2′ 2 s 1′ c 3′ cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2 )

+ 2 c 1′ c 2′ s 1′ s 2′ cos( β Δ L1 ) (c 3′ 2 − s 3′ 2 ) + 2 c 3′ c 2′ s 3′ s 2′ cos( β Δ L 2 ) (c 1′ 2 − s 1′ 2 )
+ c 1′ 2 c 2′ 2 s 3′ 2 + s 1′ 2 s 2′ 2 s 3′ 2 + c 1′ 2 s 2′ 2 c 3′ 2 + s 1′ 2 c 2′ 2 c 3′ 2 (2.28)
Since the expression for P15 and P16' represent the two cases corresponding to the
channel streams λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. emanating from ports 5 and 6, respectively, P15 = P16' .
Similarly, P16 and P15' represent the powers corresponding to the channel streams
λ 2 , λ 4 , λ6 .. emanating from ports 6 and 5, respectively, P16 = P15' . This gives us

c1 = c1′ , s1 = s1′ , c 2 = c 2′ , s 2 = s 2′ , c3 = s3′ and s3 = c3′ . (2.29)
13
2.5.2 Delay line in the lower arm of the second stage
The schematic of a 2-stage MZI configuration with the second delay-line inserted in the
lower arm (of the second stage) is shown in Fig.5.
Port 1
E1 ΔL1 E15 Port 5
Port 3
K1 K2 Port 4 K3 Port 6
ΔL2′ E16
Figure 5: A 2-stage MZI configuration wherein the second delay line ΔL2′ is introduced in the lower arm
As before, if the DWDM signal channels are input at Port 1, then the fields at the output
Ports 5 and 6 can be expresses as
⎛ E15 ⎞ ⎛ c3 − js3 ⎞⎛ 1 0 ⎞⎛ c 2 − js 2 ⎞⎛ e jϕ1 0 ⎞⎛ c1 − js1 ⎞⎛1 ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ E16 ⎠ ⎝ − js3 c3 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 e jϕ 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ − js 2 c 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 1⎟⎠⎜⎝ − js1 c1 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 ⎟⎠
(2.30)
The fractional output powers exiting through ports 5 and 6 (shown in Fig. 4), are given by
T15 = 2 p1 q 3 q 22 q1 p 3 cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L2′ ) − 2 p1 q 3 p 22 q1 p 3 cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L2′ )
+ 2 p1 p 2 s1′ p 2 cos( β Δ L1 ) ( q 32 − p 32 ) + 2 q 3 p 2 q 3 q 2 cos( β Δ L2′ ) ( q 12 − p 12 )
+ p 12 p 22 p 32 + p12 q 22 p 32 + p12 q 22 q 32 + q 12 p 22 q 32 (2.31)
T16 = − 2 p 1 q 3 q 22 q 1 p 3 cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2′ ) + 2 p 1 q 3 p 22 q 1 p 3 cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2′ )

− 2 p 1 p 2 q 1 q 2 cos( β Δ L1 ) (q 32 − p 32 ) − 2 p 3 p 2 q 3 q 2 cos( β Δ L 2′ ) (q 12 − p 12 )
+ p 12 p 22 q 32 + q 12 q 22 q 32 + p 12 q 22 p 32 + q 12 p 22 p 32 (2.32)
where pi = cos(κz ) i , qi = sin(κ z )i , i = 1, 2, 3. The conditions for achieving flattop
response and constructive interference for channel wavelengths λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. and
λ2 , λ4 , λ6 .. to emanate from ports 5 and 6, respectively, would be met when
βΔL2′ = 2mβΔL1 , p 2 > q 2 and p3 > q3 .

(2.33)
The prime notation has been used to distinguish the parameters from those corresponding
to the former case. On the other hand, if one requires that the channel
14
wavelengths λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. and λ 2 , λ4 , λ6 .. exit from ports 6 and 5, respectively, then the
condition would be
βΔL2′ = 2nβΔL1 ± (2n − 1)π , p 2′ > q 2′ and p3′ < q3′ . (2.34)
The output powers exiting through ports 5 and 6 are given by
T15′ = 2 p1′ q 3′ q 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L2′ ) − 2 p1′ q 3′ p 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L2′ )

+ 2 p1′ p 2′ q1′ p 2′ cos( β Δ L1 ) ( q 3′ 2 − p 3′ 2 ) + 2 q 3′ p 2′ q 3′ q 2′ cos( β Δ L2′ ) ( q1′ 2 − p1′ 2 )
+ p1′ 2 p 2′ 2 p 3′ 2 + p1′ 2 q 2′ 2 p 3′ 2 + p1′ 2 q 2′ 2 q 3′ 2 + q1′ 2 p 2′ 2 q 3′ 2 (2.35)
T16′ = − 2 p1′ q 3′ q 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L2′ ) + 2 p1′ q 3′ p 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L2′ )

− 2 p1′ p 2′ q1′ q 2′ cos( β Δ L1 ) ( q 3′ 2 − p 3′ 2 ) − 2 p 3′ p 2′ q 3′ q 2′ cos( β Δ L2′ ) ( q1′ 2 − p1′ 2 )
+ p1′ 2 p 2′ 2 q 3′ 2 + q1′ 2 q 2′ 2 q 3′ 2 + p1′ 2 q 2′ 2 p 3′ 2 + q1′ 2 p 2′ 2 p 3′ 2 (2.36)
As in the previous case, T15 and T16' represent the two cases corresponding to the
channel wavelengths λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. to exit from ports 5 and 6, respectively, and
therefore T15 = T16' . Similarly, T16 and T15' represent the fractional powers corresponding
to the channel wavelengths λ 2 , λ4 , λ6 .. to emanate from ports 6 and 5, respectively,
making T16 = T15' . Such a comparison yields
p1 = p1′ , q1 = q1′ , p 2 = p 2′ , q 2 = q 2′ , p3 = q3′ and q3 = p3′ . (2.37)
This particular aspect of the location of the delay line in the second stage and its effect on
the splitting ratios of the couplers and channel wavelengths would play an important role
in the fabrication of flattop wavelength interleaver in the 2-stage MZI configuration. It is
apparent that for obtaining identical spectral response from each of these configurations
with the channel wavelengths λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. and λ 2 , λ4 , λ6 .. emanating from ports 5 and 6,
respectively, we should have P15 = T15 , and P16 = T16 , which yields
βΔL2 = βΔL2′ ± (2n − 1)π (2.38)
c1 = p1 , s1 = q1 , c3 = p3 , s3 = q3 (2.39)
s 2 = p 2 , c2 = q2 . (2.40)
15
Hence, it could be observed that when a delay line of the optimum value is inserted in the
lower arm of the second stage, the optimum splitting ratios of the first and third couplers
remain the same but that of the second coupler gets interchanged, i.e., if it was 60:40 in
the former case, it would be 40:60 in the latter case.
2.6 Design Approaches

There are various approaches to design interleavers for DWDM using all-fiber MZIs [9,
10]. The design, typically involves specifying some of the characteristics of the
interleaver, like the spectral response, passband ripple, number of stages, insertion loss,
passband width, stopband width, crosstalk, dispersion, etc and calculating the structure
parameters like the coupler ratios and differential delay path lengths.
An iterative approach followed by [11] is by minimizing loss matrix, to within specified
limits, calculated from transfer matrices. This also discusses the difference between the
cases when the second delay line is in same or opposite side with respect to the first delay
line.
A different approach is followed by Qian Wang, et al in [12]. A genetic algorithm has
been used to model the structure. The structure parameters i.e., the coupling ratios and the
phase shifts correspond to genes. The chromosomes are encoded and the selection
process is carried out. Mutation avoids trapping of chromosomes in the local maxima.
The first delay line is fixed according to the channel spacing and the second delay line is
double the length of the first.
S.W.Kok, et al, [10] have given a design recipe considering the structure analyzed by
Qian Wang, et al. [12]. In this design, the structure is analyzed based on Fourier
components due to the delay lines. For a specified passband ripple the recipe is to
calculate the coupling ratios of the second and the third couplers. To this end, the flatness
is described in terms of derivatives of the transfer function with respect to wavelength.
The second derivative is shown to be related to the passband ripple. Taking this as the
constraint and using Lagrange approach of using multiplier for optimization, the
parameters are calculated.
16
2.7 Synthesis of Two-port Lattice Form Optical Delay Line
Circuits
K. Jinguji, et al [13] have given a method for synthesizing two-port lattice form optical
delay line circuits that are composed of optical delay lines, directional couplers, and
phase shifters and is applicable to the design of optical filters in general, including
wavelength interleavers. Methods and algorithms used in digital signal processing have
been adapted to calculate the structure parameters. It can be shown that two-port optical
delay-line circuits can have the same transmission characteristics as finite impulse
response (FIR) digital filters with complex expansion coefficients.
The method is based on the use of a unimodulus para-unitary matrix as a transfer matrix
and on the division of the transfer matrix into basic component transfer matrices. a
transfer function with complex expansion coefficients and design of filter characteristics
with arbitrary symmetries is made possible by the use of phase shifters. It has been shown
that arbitrary filter characteristics corresponding to Nth-order complex FIR digital filters
can be realized by N-cascaded, two-port lattice-form, optical delay-line circuits (see Fig.
6).
The desired transfer function is approximated and the Fourier coefficients are calculated
using Fourier expansion method. The coupling ratios and the phase shifts are obtained by
solving recurrent equations derived from the transfer function.
φ1 φ2 φ3 φN
ΔL ΔL ΔL ΔL
θ0 θ1 θ2 θN-1 θN
Figure 6: Configuration of coherent two-port lattice-form optical delay-line circuit
17
2.8 Optical Half-Band Filters
Optical half-band filters are important components of wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM) systems. A 2 x 2 Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) circuit configuration with one
or two feedback loops optimized for IIR half-band filters is known, and this configuration
has been used to realize a millimeter-wave waveguide circuit and a millimeter-wave bulk
filter with resonators [15]. An optical multi/demultiplexer with this configuration has also
been fabricated using silica-based planar lightwave circuits (PLC’s). K. Jinguji, et al [14]
have proposed optimized 2 x 2 circuit configurations for Finite Impulse Response (FIR)
optical half-band filters (see Fig. 7).
These FIR circuit configurations have a power half-band property
2
2 w0 (2.41)
G ( w) + G ( w + ) =1
2
Where G (w) is transfer function; w0 is angular frequency period.
φ2 φ1
2ΔL 2ΔL
θ2 θ1 θ3
Figure 7: A 2 x 2 FIR optical half-band filter circuit configuration
2.9 Dispersion Compensation

In high-speed systems, dispersion plays an important role in the overall system
performances. Up to now, the most common way to deal with fiber dispersion has been
the usage of prechirp technique [16]. The prechirp is normally obtained by the laser in
both direct and external modulated experiments. The possibility to let the external
modulator perform the prechirp of the transmitted signal has also been examined [17].
On the receiver side, there is a well known technique based on heterodyne mixing and
dispersion compensation at an internal microwave frequency [18]. However, a full scale
heterodyne receiver is today considered less attractive in a system point of view.
18
A third known method is to compensate the fiber dispersion using dispersion shifted
fibers and dispersion compensating fibers. The disadvantages with this method are the
extra fiber loss and the cost for the dispersion compensating fiber.
Recently a fourth known method has been demonstrated [19]. The method is based on a
spectral inversion at the midpoint of the transmission length. A problem with this method
is that the conversion efficiencies still are low, about -25dB, besides being expensive and
complicated.
Using optical filters to counter chromatic dispersion seems to be cost effective and viable
solution.
2.10 Optical All-Pass Filter Structures

All-pass filters (APF’s) are devices that allow phase correction or equalization without
introducing any amplitude distortion. An optical implementation of such devices is very
attractive since they can be used for dispersion compensation. In contrast to other
dispersion control devices, optical APF’s can correct any order of dispersion. This can be
achieved by careful design of multistage APF’s to approximate a target phase profile.
However, large dispersion is usually narrow band or requires many filter stages.
Mathematically, if the frequency response of a filter is written as

H ( w) = H ( w) exp[ jφ ( w)] then for an APF H ( w) = const and φ (w) can be made
arbitrarily close to any desired phase response.
A continuous linear system characterized by an impulse response function h(t ) has a

corresponding system function H (s ) which is the Laplace transform of h(t ) . Any input
results in an output that is the convolution of the input with the impulse response. The
system function is in general a complex function of the complex argument s also known
as the complex frequency. The frequency response may be derived by evaluating H (s ) at
s = jw (i.e., on the imaginary axis in the complex -plane).
19
For a discrete system characterized by a discrete impulse response function h(n) and a
corresponding system function H (z ) (the z-transform of the frequency response is given
by evaluating H (z ) at z = exp(jw) (i.e., on the unit circle in the complex z- plane). The
APF system response and frequency response are
N −1
z − zi
H ( z) = ∏ (2.42)
i =0 zz i* − 1
e jw − ri e jθ i
N −1
H ( w) = ∏ j ( w−θ i ) (2.43)
i = 0 ri e −1
where zi are poles inside the unit circle with corresponding zeros outside the unit circle
in a symmetrically conjugate manner. Again it is easily verified that these functions have
magnitude 1. Also the above frequency response is periodic in the normalized frequency.
This period is known as the free spectral range (FSR).
φ1 φ2 φ3
κ1 κ2 κ3
In Out
Figure 8: Ring cascade architecture for all-pass optical filter [20]
20
Chapter 3
Results and Discussion
3.1 Simulation
3.1.1 Single-stage MZI Interleaver Spectral Response
0.9
0.8
Normalized Transmittance
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1.5485 1.549 1.5495 1.55 1.5505 1.551 1.5515

Wavelength (µm)
Figure 9: Simulated spectral response in linear scale at Port 3 of the MZI-based interleaver at 1550 nm.
ΔL = 2.1 mm corresponding to channel spacing of 100 GHz
Normalized Transmittance (dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
1.5485 1.549 1.5495 1.55 1.5505 1.551 1.5515
Wavelength (µm)
Figure 10: Simulated spectral response in log scale at Port 3 of the MZI-based interleaver at 1550 nm.
ΔL = 2.1 mm corresponding to channel spacing of 100 GHz
21
The spectral response of the single stage MZI interleaver discussed herein has been
simulated in Matlab using the transfer matrix approach for variable differential length
corresponding to variable channel spacing.
3.1.2 Two-stage MZI Interleaver Spectral Response

The spectral response of the 2-stage MZI interleaver has been simulated in Matlab using
the transfer matrix approach. The simulation was carried out by varying the differential
lengths as well as the coupling ratios of the couplers.
The following observations were made:

1. The transfer function corresponding to an interleaver was obtained only for
certain values of differential lengths.
2. The periodicity of the interleaver (channel spacing) depends on the differential
length.
3. The response when the second differential length is placed on the same side as the
first was different from the response obtained when it is placed on the opposite
side with respect to the first delay line.
4. Maximum throughput power at the centre of the passband was obtained only
when the first coupler has 50:50 coupling ratio.
Normalized Transmittance (dB)
-5
0.8
-10
0.6 -15
-20
0.4
-25
0.2
-30
-35
1.549 1.55 1.551 1.549 1.55 1.551
Wavelength (µm) Wavelength (µm)
Figure 11: Simulated spectral response of a 2-stage MZI interleaver for the following parameters:
Coupler1- 50:50, Coupler2- 68:32, Coupler3- 4:96 at 1550 nm. ΔL2 = 2ΔL1; ΔL1 = 2.1mm for a channel
spacing of 100GHz
22
3.1.3 Design of Interleaver Based on the Passband Ripple
Following S.W.Kok, et al, [10] simulation has been done for the design of flat-top
interleaver based on the passband ripple. The results are summarized in the following
graphs.
30
25
Passband width at 0.1 dB (GHz)
20
15
10
-5
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Passband Ripple (dB)
Figure 12: Variation of 0.1dB-passband width with increasing passband ripple for interleaver at 1.55μm
and 50 GHz channel spacing
36
35
Passband width at 0.5 dB (GHz)
34
33
32
31
30
29
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Figure 13: Variation of 0.5dB-passband width with increasing passband ripple for interleaver at 1.55μm
and 50 GHz channel spacing
23
16
Stopband width at 25 dB (GHz) 14
12
10
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Figure 14: Variation of 25 dB-stopband width with passband ripple for interleaver at 1.55 μm and 100 GHz
channel spacing
0
Cross Talk level (dB)
-50
-100
-150
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Figure 15: Variation of crosstalk with passband ripple for interleaver at 1.55 μm and 100 GHz channel
spacing
From the above plots (Figs. 12-15) the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Passband width increases with passband ripple. This indicates that there is a trade-
off between the insertion loss and the passband width.
24
2. Stopband width also increases with passband ripple. This indicates that there is a
trade-off between the insertion loss and the stopband width as well.
3. However, the crosstalk also increases with passband ripple.
Also, for easy visualization of the effect as well as for better insight, a graphic user-
interface has been developed using Matlab.
Figure 16: Matlab Graphics User Interface to calculate the structure parameters and the interleaver
characteristics based on channel spacing and the specified passband ripple
25
3.1.4 Synthesis of Two-port Lattice Form Optical Delay Line
Circuits
Using the synthesis method proposed by K. Jinguji, et al [13], filters of various kinds can
be designed for varied purposes. Simulation has been done to calculate the structure
parameters for these designs. To validate the results, the simulation has been done for the
filters proposed therein and the structure parameters have been found to match very
closely with the results in literature.
Coupling
Coeffiecient Phase shift
Angle x  value
0 0.26699 0
0.31679 0
-5 0.80763 0
0.244 0
-10
0.88003 0
-15 0.98036 0
0.002907 0
Transmittance (dB)
-20 0.91915 0
0.10944 0
-25 0.86837 0
0.22856 0
-30
0.64306 0
-35 0.64264 0
0.22869 0
-40 0.8685 0
0.10941 0
-45 0.91893 0
0.002667 0
-50
-40 -20 0 20 40 0.98052 0
Relative optical frequency (GHz) 0.8791 0
0.24403 0
Figure 17: Linear Chebyshev filter designed using optical delay line 0.80797 0
circuits for channel spacing of 100 GHz at 1.55 μm 0.31628 0
0.26716 0
Table 1: Simulated structure parameters for

the designed Linear Chebyshev filter
26
The multi-channel selector is an optical frequency filter designed to select signals at
certain frequencies from eight frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) signals. This filter
is expected to be applied as a multiplexer/demultiplexer for FDM communications. An
optical filter designed to select three signals out of eight is shown below.
Because of the asymmetry in the filter characteristics, the coupling coefficients are
complex numbers.
1 Coupling Phase
Coeffiecient shift value
0.9 Angle x  x
0.8 0.57261 0
0.031002 0.90779
0.7
0.033352 -0.16923
0.6 0.025959 -0.16989
0.10165 0.93127
0.5
0.033703 0.9406
0.4
0.043298 -0.19176
0.3 0.034377 -0.19107
0.10618 0.94362
0.2
0.0289 0.94586
0.1 0.035181 -0.18804
0 0.033039 -0.17772
-50 0 50
0.082071 0.91982
Relative optical frequency (GHz)
0.014458 0.89201
Figure 18: Multi-channel selector filter designed using optical delay line 0.021713 -0.12747
circuits for a channel spacing of 12.5 GHz at 1.55 μm
0.4754 0.85938
Table 2: Simulated structure parameters for

the Multichannel selective filter
The values obtained by simulating the filter using this method in Matlab, match the
values given in the literature.
The group-delay dispersion equalizer is an optical frequency filter designed to equalize

group-delay dispersion of long-distance optical fibers at a wavelength of 1.55 μm.
27
2
Transmittance (dB)
-2
-4
-6
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
600
Relative Group delay (ps)
400
200
0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 19: Transmittance and relative group delay in a group-delay dispersion equalizer designed using
optical delay line circuits for a channel spacing of 12.5 GHz at 1.55 μm
Coupling Coeffiecient Phase shift Coupling Coeffiecient Phase shift

Angle x  value x  Angle x  value x 
0.53148 0 0.067461 0
0.063407 0 0.10254 0
0.098902 0 0.87911 0
0.1018 0 0.9632 0
0.036766 0 0.13243 0
0.93172 0 0.93126 0
0.86705 0 0.96441 0
0.96275 0 0.10195 0
0.12122 0 0.89845 0
0.10286 0 0.064595 0
0.93241 0 0.46847 0
0.88215 0
Table 3: Simulated structure parameters for the designed group-delay dispersion equalizer
28
3.1.5 Simulation for Optical Half-band Filters
Structure parameters for two different kinds of filters designed based on half-band
property have been calculated through simulation.
Coupling Coeffiecient Phase shift value Coupling Coeffiecient Phase shift value
Angle x  x Angle x  x
0.62799 0 0.65019 0
0.28602 0 0.24486 0
0.45467 0 0.41859 0
0.38132 0 0.42032 0
Table 5: Circuit parameters for Maximally-flat Table 4: Circuit parameters for Chebyshev
Half-band filter (N=4) Half-band filter (N=4)
The values obtained from simulation have been verified by comparing with the literature
values.
3.1.6 Optical All-Pass Filter Structures
Since all-pass filters allow manipulation of phase without affecting the amplitude, these
can be used to compensate for various kinds of dispersion. We use a structure that has
been designed to equalize group delay dispersion in a 2-stage MZI interleaver proposed
as optimum design in [10].
For a 2nd order all-pass dispersion equalizer

Relative Phase
Zeros Poles Coupling Ratios values
-8.4537 + 0.011955i -0.11829 + 0.00016729i 0.98601 -3.1402
-8.4537 - 0.011955i -0.11829 - 0.00016729i 0.98601 3.1402
Table 6: Zeros, poles and circuit parameters for dispersion equalizer for an optimized 2-stage MZI
interleaver
29
0
Insertion loss (dB)
-0.5
-1
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
9
Unequalized Group delay
8
6
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
33
Equalized Group delay
32
31
30
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Figure 20: Group delay equalization for 2-stage MZI interleaver proposed in [10]. The group delay
variation has been reduced by a factor of 15.5
Order of filter 2 4 6 8 10
Group delay variation reduced by
factor: 15.255 1572.1 2000.5 2811.4 2821
Table 7: Effect of addition of stages to the All-pass filter designed to equalize dispersion
From Table 7, we can see that the effect of addition of stages beyond four is not very
significant. Also, since, addition of more stages introduces more loss and makes the
device cumbersome, it should not, generally, be preferred.
30
3.1.7 Tolerance of Structure Parameters
Practically, it is not possible to fabricate components with the exact required

characteristics. Hence, to construct the interleaver with flat-top response it is important to
know the tolerance of the spectral response of the interleaver towards each of the
structure parameters i.e. the coupling ratios and delay lengths. Therefore, simulation was
carried out to investigate the effect of deviation of the coupling ratios of the couplers and
the delay lengths on the spectral response of the interleaver from the optimum values
predicted by the theory.
-5
-10
-15
Transmittance (dB)
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40 For optimum coupling ratios

For a change of 5% in 1st coupling ratio
-45 For a change of 5% in 2nd coupling ratio
For a change of 5% in 3rd coupling ratio
-50
1550 1550.1 1550.2 1550.3 1550.4 1550.5 1550.6 1550.7 1550.8 1550.9 1551
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 21: Spectral response when deviation of coupling ratios is 5% from the optimum values of 50:50,
32:68 and 5:95
31
0
-5
-10
Transmittance (dB)
-15
-20
-25
-30
For optimum delay lengths
-35 For a change of 1µm in 1st delay length
For a change of 1µm in 2nd delay length
-40
1550 1550.2 1550.4 1550.6 1550.8 1551
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 22: Spectral response when deviation of delay lengths is 1µm from the optimum value of 2.1mm
The simulation results showed that the tolerance towards delay lengths was minimal and
very accurate control over the lengths is required. However, there was not appreciable
deviation from optimum response due to variation in coupling ratios within the
achievable precision.
32
3.2 Experimental Work
3.2.1 Fabrication and Characterization of Fused Fiber Couplers
To construct a 2-stage MZI interleaver, we need to fabricate couplers. Fused fiber
couplers were fabricated using the in-house made rig [21] (see Fig. 23). First, the
couplers were fabricated at 632.8 nm so as to learn the process of fabrication, since it is
easier to setup the experiment and also control the process at visible wavelengths.
Figure 23: Photograph of the fusion fiber coupler fabrication rig
Then, couplers at 1.55 μm were fabricated since these are required for the construction of
the MZI interleaver for DWDM applications.
The fabrication process involves stretching a pair of single-mode fibers together, which
are held in intimate contact with each other across a short unjacketed length, in a high
temperature (>1100 0C) oxy-butane flame. The fusion followed by stretching leads to
narrowing of the two fibers into a single biconical tapered junction. The tapered region is
essentially a multimode near-rectangular region with the core formed from the cladding
of the original fibers and the surrounding air acting as the cladding. Light from the input
fiber excites the two lowest order modes of this waveguide. Coupling of light from one
33
fiber to another is due to beating between the supermodes. This fabrication technique
consists of fusion, pulling and simultaneous tapering. Hence, it is also called as fuse-pull-
taper method in the literature. Due to symmetry in the structure formed, either end can be
used as input end. Hence these are known as bi-directional couplers. First appropriate,
stable and uniform flame is created. The various valves at different levels of the gas
ensure safety while providing fine pressure control. The temperature profile of the flame
affects the characteristics of the coupler significantly. A short length of fibers is
unjacketed using dichloromethane to soften the jacket. The unjacketed region is then
cleaned with acetone or iso-propyl alcohol. The fibers are twisted over each other in this
region and placed on the holder. Light is input at one end and the light from the two
output ports are monitored. The flame is positioned under the unjacketed region. The
fibers are then pulled slowly. When the required distribution of light between the output
ports is observed, the flame is withdrawn and the pulling is stopped a few seconds later.
Then the coupler is appropriately packaged. Table 8 depicts the typical measured
characteristics of the couplers fabricated in our lab.
Wavelength (nm) Coupling Ratio Excess Loss (dB) Directivity (dB)
1 632.8 48:52 1.32 33.4
2 632.8 46:54 1.02 44.2
3 632.8 48:52 1.17 40.5
4 1550 40:60 0.74 38.1
5 1550 95:5 1.10 32.2
6 1550 45:55 1.46 35.3
Table 8: Typical measured characteristics of the couplers fabricated using the in-house rig
34
But, as can be seen from the Table 8, the fabricated couplers at 1.55 μm have a loss much
greater than the expected loss (0.1 dB). The reasons for the loss could be attributed to the
following:
1. Only one detector was used to monitor power at two output ports, requiring the
fused fiber to be taken in and out of the flame a number of times leading to lossy
couplers.
2. It is difficult to manually control the pulling process. Due to malfunctioning of the
system used for controlling the pulling process through software, the fabrication is
now being done manually.
3.2.2 Techniques to Achieve Optical Path Difference between MZI

Arms
As was seen from the simulation, to implement flat-top interleaver, precise control over
the phase difference between the arms of the MZI (which is caused due to delay lengths,
in this case) is required. There are two ways to control the phase difference i.e., by
modifying the mode effective index and changing the delay length. It requires a rather
complicated technique to induce a change in refractive index by ion bombardment, and
also, the induced changes in the refractive index slowly drift with time leading to drift in
the channel wavelength. Yonglin et al. [6] have reported technique to achieve phase
change by mechanical stretching of the fiber in one of the arms of the MZI, in real-time
while monitoring the wavelength response of the interleaver. But since these techniques
do not allow precise control on the length over which the fiber is stretched, they are at
best suited for coarse-WDM systems. Kumar et al. [11] have reported a technique of
selective heating and controlled stretching of fiber for tuning while real-time monitoring
the spectral response of the interleaver. We have adopted this method as it is convenient
and the response has been reported to be stable.
3.2.3 Tuning Channel Spacing and Channel Wavelengths

In this section we derive relations necessary to estimate the change in the differential
path-length for tuning the channel wavelengths and inter-channel spacing. In order to
35
interleave two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 in an unbalanced MZI, the differential path length
ΔL1 should satisfy
λ1λ2 (3.1)
ΔL1 =
2neff Δλ
where Δλ = λ1 − λ2 is the channel spacing. Suppose the differential path length is
changed ΔL1 to ΔL1' , and the corresponding new wavelengths, say, are λ3 and λ4 , then
λ3λ4
ΔL1' = (3.2)
2neff Δλ ′
where Δλ ′ = λ3 − λ4 .
From Eq. (3.1) and Eq. (3.2), we get the change in the differential path-length
λ1λ2 Δλ ′ − λ3λ4 Δλ
δ L = ΔL1 − ΔL1' = (3.3)
2neff ΔλΔλ ′
ITU has fixed certain fixed channel wavelengths and inter channel spacing for DWDM
networks, to set standards for telecommunication networks spread across the world, To
conform to ITU recommendations, the channel wavelengths have to be tuned to match
the ITU defined grid, and, the channel spacing has to be tuned to the prescribed values
(viz. Δν = 100 GHz, 50 GHz, or 25 GHz).
To tune the center wavelengths of the channels from λ1 and λ2 to λ3 and λ4 ,
respectively, without changing the channel spacing, we write

λ3 = λ1 + δλ , λ4 = λ2 + δλ , with δλ < Δλ and Δλ = Δλ ′ (3.4)
Substituting the Eq. (3.4) in Eq. (3.3), we get

2δλΔL
δL = ΔL1 − ΔL1' ≈ (3.5)
λ
where δλ is the shift in the wavelength channels, and λ = (λ1 + λ2 ) / 2 ≈ (λ1λ2 )1 / 2 . Note
that for shifting the spectrum towards higher wavelengths
(i.e. λ3 = λ1 + δλ , λ4 = λ2 + δλ ), ΔL1' > ΔL1 , which implies that the longer arm of the
interferometer has to be further elongated by an amount δL . Similarly, to shift the

spectrum towards lower wavelengths (i.e. λ3 = λ1 − δλ , λ4 = λ 2 − δλ ), ΔL1' < ΔL1 , and
hence the shorter arm of the interferometer is to be elongated by an amount δL . Eq. (3.5)
36
shows that in order to tune an interleaver in accordance with the ITU wavelength grid for
DWDM systems (say, 100GHz spacing), a precise control over δL ∼ 1 µm is necessary.
To illustrate tuning of the channel spacing, consider a situation in which the channel
spacing Δλ has to be tuned to a new value Δλ ′ . Using Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2),
λ2 1 1
δL ′ = ΔL1 − ΔL1' ≈ − (3.6)
2neff Δλ Δλ ′
where we have assumed λ ≈ (λ1λ2 )1 / 2 ≈ (λ3 λ4 )1 / 2 . Thus, in order to increase the channel
spacing, one has to elongate the shorter arm of the MZI by an amount δL′ . Similarly, to
decrease the channel spacing, one has to further elongate the longer arm of the MZI by an
amount δL′ . In this analysis, the higher order terms in δλ , Δλ and δλΔλ , can be neglected
as the effects of these terms are insignificant.
3.2.4 Estimation of the Differential Delays in a Two-stage MZI

If the splitting ratio of the second coupler is less than 50:50, then the differential delay
has to be introduced in the lower arm of the second stage so as to achieve the flattop
response. If the splitting ratio of the second coupler is greater than 50:50, then the
differential delay line has to be introduced in the upper arm of the second stage for
achieving flattop spectral response. In practice, when we fabricate an all-fiber interleaver,
there will be an initial differential delay between the upper and lower arms of the first-
and second stages. Before tuning, we must have a priori knowledge of the existing
differential delay between the arms of the interferometer and its location. Therefore, it is
important to identify which arm is longer, and by how much. In an all-fiber MZI (as
shown in Fig.4), the first delay line is used to achieve channel spacing, and it solely
determines the FSR of the configuration. The second delay line is used for obtaining the
flattop response. When we concatenate two fiber directional couplers to realize an MZI,
the FSR of this interleaver can be measured from the spectral response on an OSA, which
gives us the information about the magnitude of the first delay line ΔL1 . In order to
identify whether the upper arm or the lower arm of the first stage is longer, one may
elongate the upper arm by a small amount. This would result in either decrease or
37
increase in the channel, implying that the lower arm is either longer or shorter,
respectively. For example, if the upper arm was longer, then elongation of the upper arm
would result in a decrease in the FSR. But if the upper arm was shorter, then elongation
of the upper arm would result in an increase in the FSR. We then concatenate another
coupler to the single-stage configuration to realize the targeted two-stage MZI-based
interleaver.
To estimate the initial differential path length in the second stage (see Fig 4) and its
location, light is launched from port 5, and the output is measured at ports 1 and 2. This
configuration for couplers with optimum splitting ratios is then simulated for the two
cases when the second differential path length is located in the upper arm and in the
lower arm. By matching these simulated curves with the observed ones on the OSA, we
can know whether the upper or the lower arm of the second stage is longer. In this way,
one can get the information required to realize a flattop interleaver before tuning.
3.2.5 Implementation of 2-stage MZI Interleaver

The first part of the experiment consists of constructing the first MZI stage. For this, two
fused fiber couplers were used which were fabricated using our in-house developed
coupler-fabrication rig. This forms a single-stage all-fiber MZI (Fig 3).
Broadband OSA
EDF Source
ΔL1
Coupler 1 Coupler 2
Port1 Port3
Optical fiber
Port4
Figure 24: Experimental set-up used to measure the wavelength response of an all-fiber MZI
38
Figure 25: Photograph of the two-stage MZI interleaver that was fabricated in the lab
A broadband super-fluorescent EDF source was used as the source at the input (Port 1) of
the MZI. The source was found to have a nearly flat spectral response in the range 1548-
1558 nm.
-15
EDF source full spectrum
-20
Power (dBm)
-25
-30
-35
-40
1520 1530 1540 1550 1560 1570
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 26: Power spectrum of EDF broadband source used for the experiment
39
The fibers at the output ports of the MZI were connected to an OSA using fiber
connectors. Figure 27 shows the spectral response of the unbalanced MZI. In order to
achieve tuning of the FSR, the required differential phase delay is introduced by selective
heating and controlled stretching of the longer arm of the MZI; a small unjacketed
segment of the fiber was exposed to an oxy-butane micro-flame, while simultaneously
monitoring the spectral response on the OSA. When the FSR was close to but still larger
than the required channel spacing, the flame burner was withdrawn and the elongation
process was stopped after a few seconds. This was done to avoid any sagging of the
fiber. However since the spectral response was not stable when the fiber was above the
flame, the fiber was withdrawn several times and the FSR was measured when the arms
of the MZI were away from the flame to ensure that the spectral response was stable. By
slowing down the pulling rate, the interleaver was also tuned to standard ITU wavelength
grid. The wavelength response of the fabricated MZI was then recorded in the OSA (see
Fig. 29).
-39.40 EDF source over 2nm range
-39.45
-39.50
Power (dBm)
-39.55
-39.60
-39.65
-39.70
-39.75
1549.0 1549.5 1550.0 1550.5 1551.0

Wavelength (nm)
Figure 27: Power spectrum of EDF broadband source over a range of 2 nm
To achieve tuning of wavelength response, the heating and elongation was essentially
done over a fiber length of about 2cm, along which the variation in the overall diameter
of the fiber (125 μm) was ∼ 15 μm. For this extent of tapering, the physical parameters of
40
the fiber do not alter appreciably, and the fiber still retains its robustness. The device was
eventually lifted off the tuning rig and the arms of the MZI were appropriately protected
and heat-shielded to circumvent temperature-induced fluctuations in the wavelength
spectrum.
-42
-44
Power (dBm)
-46
-48
-50
-52
-54
1549.32 1550.12 1550.92
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 28: Spectral response of 1-stage interleaver before tuning
-42
-43
-44
Power (dBm)
-45
-46
-47
-48
-49
1541.34 1542.14 1542.94 1543.74
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 29: Spectral response of 1-stage interleaver after tuning
41
3.2.6 Tuning of 2-stage MZI Based Wavelength Interleaver
Fused fiber couplers of splitting ratios 45:55, 35:65 and 5:95 which were fabricated in the
lab were used. But later, the second coupler was replaced with 30:70 coupler that was
available in the lab (procured from Renka corp.). The first two couplers were initially
concatenated to realize a single-stage MZI. The initial FSR was measured, and the
differential delay was determined to be present in the upper arm.
Then we concatenated the third coupler (5:95) to the single-stage MZI to realize a two-
stage MZI. The initial output spectrum of the 2-stage MZI was recorded on the OSA. By
following the procedure, described previously for estimating the initial differential path
length in the second stage, we found that the upper arm of the second stage was longer
than the lower arm.
-40
-42
Power (dBm)
-44
-46
-48
-50
1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1551
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 30: Spectral response of 2-stage interleaver during the process of tuning
As described earlier, since the splitting ratio of the second coupler is 30:70, the required
differential delay to achieve flattop response is ΔL2′ = 2ΔL1 , and it should be inserted in the
lower arm. Following the technique described in section (3.2.3) for tuning a single-stage
MZI, the lower arm of the second stage of the 2-stage MZI was elongated. The spectrum
obtained after partially tuning the second delay is shown in Fig. 31. The interleaver was
found to have 3.4 dB to 3.6 dB loss and peak-to-peak extinction ratio of 10dB.
42
-42
-44
Power (dBm)
-46
-48
-50
-52
-54
1549.32 1550.12 1550.92 1551.72
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 31: Spectral response of partially tuned 2-stage interleaver
3.2.7 Discussion
The spectral response was found to be quite unstable when the fiber was exposed to the
flame. Hence online monitoring was not possible while adjusting differential paths of
both MZI stages. Hence, length was first increased, then, after the flame was withdrawn,
once the spectrum was stable, measurements were made. Therefore it was not possible to
tune exactly with the precision the technique allows. The peak-to-peak extinction ratio of
the interleaver was seen to increase with the FSR; this extinction ratio could be increased
further by a proper choice of splitting ratios of the couplers. The wavelength resolution
limit of the OSA also limits a precise measurement of the actual extinction ratio. The
minimum possible change in the FSR during tuning of the MZI by this technique was
difficult to estimate because of the following reasons: the smallest real-time change in the
FSR during tuning was much less than the resolution of the OSA. Further, the effect of
this small change in FSR was difficult to record in real-time during the tuning process
because of short-duration small-scale real-time fluctuations that occur in the online
response of the MZI.
43
Chapter 4
Y-Junction Flat-Top Interleaver
4.1 Introduction
Interleavers play an important role in increasing the data carrying capacity of the
networks as the demand for the same has been on the rise. Interleavers exist in various
forms which use different principles or technology, using the optical fiber. But all of
these suffer from lack of compactness and ruggedness. Planar Lightwave Circuits (PLC)
offer a workable solution to these shortcomings. Polymer based waveguides have
attracted much attention of late due to their tunability over a wide range of wavelength
and wide choice of materials with varied properties. Recently, Qiang Wu, et al.,[2] have
reported polymer optical waveguide interleaver using Y junctions. They have replaced
directional couplers by Y junction components as they have following advantages:
1. Ease of fabrication
2. Wavelength insensitivity leading to much larger overall bandwidth of the
interleaver
3. Compact length due to smaller interaction length
4.2 Principle of Operation

The structure consists of five Y junctions forming a cascade of two MZI’s similar to the
flat-top interleaver in the all-fiber form. The direction couplers are replaced by Y
junctions as shown in Fig. 23. The arms in between the Y-junctions are of unequal
lengths and form unbalanced MZI’s.
The first Y-junction (Y1) is a single-mode Y-junction, i.e., all of its branches support only
a fundamental mode. Here, its function is as a 3dB power splitter. The remaining Y-
44
junctions are of similar structure with their branches and stems being of different
dimensions. Their function is to convert, split and combine modes.
ΔL2
ΔL1
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5
S1 S2
Figure 32: Schematic diagram of Y-junction based 2-stage MZI interleaver
Consider field E1 of amplitude A input at Y1. The two signals arriving at Y-junction differ
by a phase β' ΔL1 corresponding to path difference of ΔL1, where β' is the
propagation constant of each Mach-Zehnder arm.
At Y2 the fields entering the junction would be [2]
E1 = A cos α exp (iβ' ΔL1/2) (4.1)
E2 = A sin α exp (-iβ' ΔL1/2) (4.2)

These fields together create two lowest order propagating modes in Y2 because this
junction has a larger V number and is such that it supports these modes. The fields of the
two lowest-order local normal modes in S are the same E1/√2 with propagation constants
β0 and β1 respectively. Y3, Y4, Y5 are structurally identical to Y2. Let Δβ be the
difference in the propagation constants of these two modes. It is also noted that the
branches of the junctions support the fundamental mode only. Y3 splits the two modes in
the main arm into two single modes in the branches at its output end. Field at the upper
output branch of Y3 due to field E1 and E2 is given by
E3 = E1 cos(1/2 ΔβS1) − i E2 sin(1/2 ΔβS1) (4.3)
Similarly, field at the lower output branch of Y3 due to field E1 and E2 is given by
E4 = − i E1 sin(1/2 ΔβS1) + E2 cos(1/2 ΔβS1) (4.4)
This shows that the combination of Y-junctions in the above manner acts as a directional
coupler [2].
Using the same logic as in the case of all-fiber flat-top interleaver it can be shown that
45
λ2 (4.5)
ΔL1 =
2neff Δλ
The two signals arriving at Y4 differ by a phase β' ΔL2 corresponding to path difference
of ΔL2. these fields can be expressed as
E5 = E3 exp (iβ' ΔL2/2) (4.6)

E6 = E4 exp (-iβ' ΔL2/2) (4.7)
Y4 and Y5 together act as another directional coupler. Thus the fields at the ouput
branches of the last junction are given by
E7 = E5 cos(1/2 ΔβS2) − i E6 sin(1/2 ΔβS2)

(4.8)
E8 = − i E5 sin(1/2 ΔβS2) + E6 cos(1/2 ΔβS2) (4.9)
This resulting power at the upper output branch of the last junction is
P = -2 cos(1/2 ΔβS2) sin(α) sin(1/2 ΔβS2) cos(α) cos(1/2 ΔβS1) 2 sin(β' (ΔL2+ΔL1))
-2 sin(β' (-ΔL2+ΔL1)) sin(1/2 ΔβS2) cos(α) cos(1/2 ΔβS2) sin(α) cos(1/2 ΔβS1) 2
+ 2 sin(β' (-ΔL2+ΔL1)) cos(1/2 ΔβS2) sin(α) sin(1/2 ΔβS2) cos(α)
-4 sin(β' ΔL1) cos(1/2 ΔβS2) 2 sin(α) sin(1/2 ΔβS1) cos(α) cos(1/2 ΔβS1)
+2 sin(β' ΔL1) sin(α) cos(1/2 ΔβS1) cos(α) sin(1/2 ΔβS1)
+2 cos(β' ΔL2) sin(1/2 ΔβS2) sin(1/2 ΔβS1) cos(1/2 ΔβS2) cos(1/2 ΔβS1)
-4 cos(β' ΔL2) sin(1/2 ΔβS2) cos(α) 2 sin(1/2 ΔβS1) cos(1/2 ΔβS2) cos(1/2 ΔβS1)
-2 cos(α) 2 cos(1/2 ΔβS1) 2
+4 cos(1/2 ΔβS2) 2 cos(α) 2 cos(1/2 ΔβS1) 2
+ cos(1/2 ΔβS2) 2
-2 cos(1/2 ΔβS2) 2 cos(α) 2
-2 cos(1/2 ΔβS2) 2 cos(1/2 ΔβS1) 2
+ cos(1/2 ΔβS1) 2
+ cos(α) 2 (4.10)
To achieve a flat response with the high extinction ratio, the parameters ΔL1, α, ΔβS1,
ΔβS2 have to be appropriately chosen. The channel spacing is solely determined by ΔL1.
Therefore the criterion for choosing ΔL1 is given by Eq. (4.5).
46
In the case of all-fiber interleaver the two cases considered with respect to the arm of the
second MZI in which the path delay has to be placed lead to choice of different path
lengths for those two cases. However, in this case, since the first junction does not change
the phase of the fields, both these cases lead to the same choice of second delay length:
ΔL2 = 2 ΔL1 (4.12)
4.3 Parameter Optimization

There are several design recipes to find the parameters ΔβS1 and ΔβS2. These have been
discussed in the previous section for the all-fiber case. We have used iterative method to
obtain these parameters. In this approach, for each choice of ΔβS1, the loss and flatness is
calculated for the different choices of ΔβS2. Only those values of ΔβS1 and ΔβS2 that
satisfy the requirements of loss below the specified value and flatness better than the
specified value are retained as the optimum parameters.
The optimum parameters (phase difference between the two modes in each of the straight
arms of the Y-junctions) correspond to following criteria in the passband of the response
over 15% of the FSR:
1. Intrinsic loss: < 0.05 dB
2. Flatness: < 0.05dB
Intrinsic loss is defined as the loss at the center of the passband i.e, -10 log P,
where P is normalized with respect to the input power.
∂ (10 log P)
Flatness is defined as: and is a measure of ripple amplitude.
∂ϕ1
ϕ1 = β ΔL1 is the phase difference due to first delay line.

We have found empirical relations between ΔβS1 and ΔβS2 for the combinations which
give flat-top response by curve-fitting the obtained optimum values for the two cases
with respect to the presence of second delay line in upper or lower arm of the MZI (see
Fig. 34 and Fig. 35).
47
0
-5
-10
Transmittance (dB)
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
1550 1550.2 1550.4 1550.6 1550.8 1551 1551.2 1551.4 1551.6 1551.8
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 33: Spectral response of a Y-junction based 2-stage interleaver
The spectral response of the 2-stage Y Junction interleaver is similar to the

spectral response of the directional coupler interleaver as shown in Fig.33 for the
following parameters: n = 1.5, ΔβS1 = 1.94, ΔβS2 = 0.40, ΔL1 = 2 mm.
1.2
1.1
0.9
Δβ S 2 (radians)
0.8
y = 2.3*x4 - 15.8*x3 + 41.3*x2 - 47.9*x + 21
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 Calculated Optimum Values

0.3 4th degree polyomial fit
Norm of residuals = 0.012612
0.2
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
Δβ S1 (radians)
Figure 34: Optimum values of ΔβS1 and ΔβS2 when both the delays are on the same side
48
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
Δβ S2 (radians)
2.5
2.4 y = - 2.7*x4 + 15*x3 - 31*x2 + 29*x - 8.1
2.3
Calculated Optimum Values
2.2
4th degree Polynoial fit
2.1 Norm of residuals = 0.01312
2
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Δβ S1 (radians)
Figure 35: Optimum values of ΔβS1 and ΔβS2 when both the delays are on opposite sides
4.4 Discussion
Y-junctions have several advantages over directional couplers as discusses in the first
section of this chapter. However, it is impractically difficult to fabricate them in all-fiber
form. Nevertheless, the structure proposed in this chapter is not only viable for
fabrication in planar waveguides, but also easier to fabricate compared to the similar
structure using directional couplers.
We have not considered the propagation loss in the waveguide in our simulation. But
considering the fact that the loss in planar waveguides is not insignificant, we expect that
the actual device would have loss much more than directional coupler based all-fiber
interleaver discussed in this thesis. However with newer materials and development of
the technology of fabrication of planar waveguides, this loss is expected to reduce.
49
FUTURE SCOPE
In this work we have analyzed various design recipes for interleavers and
filters in general. These can be applied to various interesting applications. Also since
we have the facility to fabricate fused fiber couplers, which form the main
components in most of these structures, it would be interesting and useful to try out
newer applications. Structures for tunable dispersion and dispersion slope
compensation, variable optical attenuation (VOA), and multichannel selection may be
investigated and implemented.
Polarization characteristics like polarization mode dispersion (PMD),
polarization dependent loss (PDL), and polarization dependent wavelength shift
(PDλ) of the all-fiber flat-top interleaver can be investigated.
The fabrication rig can be automatically controlled through instructions from a
PC. However, the system developed a few problems. The problem now lies in the
hardware interface between the motors and the microprocessor. Excess loss of the
fabricated couplers can be minimized, and couplers of required splitting ratios can be
made easily, if this problem is sorted out.
We have proposed design and optimum parameters for polymer based Y-
junction flat-top interleaver. This device is expected to have high degree of tunability
and uniform characteristics over a wide range of wavelength, while being rugged and
compact. From our preliminary discussions with the scientists of City University of
Hong Kong, it is likely that our designed Y-junction based flat-top interleaver would
be fabricated in the near future. It would be remarkable if the fabrication could be
completed.
50
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] B. P. Pal, Guided Wave Optical Components and Devices: basics, technology and
applications. Burlington: Elsevier Publications, 2006.
[2] Qiang Wu, Pak L. Chu, H. P. Chan, and B. P. Pal, “Design of all-fiber optical
interleavers with a given specification on passband ripples,” Optics Commun., vol. 267,
no. 2, pp. 373-378, June 2006.
[3] S. Bourgeois, “Fused-fiber developments offer passive foundation for optical slicing,”
Special Report in Lightwave (PennWell Corporation), vol. 17, no. 3, February 2000.
[4] S. Cao, J. Chen, J. N. Damask, C. R Doerr, L.Guiziou, G. Harvey, Y. Hibino, H. Li,
S. Suzuki, K.Y. Wu, P. Xie, “Interleaver technology: comparisons and applications
requirements,” J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 281–289, December 2004.
[5] G.Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications, 3rd Ed. Singapore: McGraw Hill, 2000.
[6] H.Yonglin, Jie Li, Ma Xiurong, K. Guiyun, Y. Shuzhong, D. Xiaoyi, “High extinction
ratio Mach-Zehnder interferometer filter and implementation of single-channel optical
switch”, Opt. Commun., vol. 222, no. 1, pp. 191-195, June 2003.
[7] H. Arai, T. Chiba, H. Uetsuka, H. Okano, and L. Mara, “Interleave filter with box-like
spectral response and low chromatic dispersion”, in Tech. Digest National Fiber Optic
Engineers Conf., pp. 1251-1264, August 29-31, 2000.
[8] J. Chon, A. Zeng, P. Peters, B. Jian, A. Luo, and K. Sullivan, “Integrated interleaver
technology enables high performance in DWDM systems”, in Tech. Digest National
Fiber Optic Engineers Conf., pp. 1410-1422, July, 8-12, 2001.
[9] N. Kumar, M. R. Shenoy, B. P. Pal, “All-fiber wavelength interleaver/slicer with
flattop response”, in Proc. Int. Conf. on Fiber Optics and Photonics- Photonics-2002,
pp.81, Dec. 14-18, 2002.
[10] S. W. Kok, Y. Zhang, C. Wen, Y. C. Soh, “Design of all-fiber optical interleavers
with a given specification on passband ripples,” Optics Commun., vol 226, no. 2, pp. 241-
248, July 2003.
[11] N. Kumar, “Analysis and development of fused fiber coupler based all-fiber
interferometric components for DWDM optical networks,” Ph.D. Thesis, Indian Institute
of Technology, Delhi, 2005.
51
[12] Q. Wang, S. He, “Optimal design of a flat-top interleaver based on cascaded M-Z
interferometers by using a genetic algorithm,” Optics Commun., vol 224, no.1, pp. 229-
236, May 2003.
[13] K. Jinguji, M. Kawach, “Synthesis of coherent two-port lattice-form optical delay-
line circuit,” J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 13, no.1, pp.73-82, January 1995.
[14] K. Jinguji, M. Oguma, “Optical half-band filters”, J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 18,
no.2, pp.252-259, February 2000.
[15] R. Watanabe, N. Nakajima, “Reflection type periodic filter with two-resonators
using Gaussian beam at millimeter-wave region,” Trans. IEICE, vol. J 62-B, no. 11, pp.
990–997, 1979.
[16] T. Saito, N. Henmi, S. Fujita, M.Yamaguchi, Shikada, M. “Prechirp technique for
dispersion compensation for a high-speed long-span transmission,” IEEE Photonics
Technol., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 74-16, January 1991.
[17] F. Koyoma, K. Iga, “Frequency chirping in external modulators,” J.Lightwave
Technol., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 87-93, January 1988.
[18] J. J. O’Reilly, M. S. Chauldry, “Microstrip Compensation of Fiber Chromatic
Dispersion in Optically Amplified Coherent Systems,” IEEE Colloquium Microwave
Optoelectron., no. 139, pp. 131-136, October 1990.
[19] R. M. Jopson, A. H. Gnauck, R. M. Derosier, “10 Gb/s 360-km transmission over
normal-dispersion fiber using mid-system spectral inversion,” in Proc. OFC’93, paper
PD3, 1993.
[20] C. K. Madsen, G. Lenz, “Optical all-pass filters for phase response design with
applications for dispersion compensation,” IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 10, no.7, pp.
994–996, July. 1998.
[21] B. P. Pal, P. Roychaudhuri, M. R. Shenoy, “Fabrication and modeling of fused
biconical tapered fiber coupler components,” in Fiber Int. Opt, 22, pp. 97-118, March
2003.
52
Appendix A
Optimum combinations of the splitting ratio of the couplers K1, K2 and K3
s12 × 100 s 22 × 100 s32 × 100 q12 × 100 q 22 × 100 q32 × 100
50 56 2 50 15 21
50 64 3 50 16 18
50 68 4 50 17 16
50 71 5 50 17 17
50 74 6 50 17 18
50 75 7 50 17 20
50 75 8 50 18 15
50 76 8 50 19 12
50 76 9 50 20 13
50 77 8 50 21 10
50 77 9 50 21 11
50 78 10 50 21 12
50 78 11 50 22 10
50 79 10 50 22 11
50 79 11 50 23 8
50 79 12 50 23 9
50 80 11 50 23 10
50 80 12 50 24 7
50 80 13 50 24 9
50 81 13 50 25 7
50 26 6
50 81 14
50 27 7
50 82 14
50 29 5
50 82 15
50 29 6
50 82 16
50 32 4
50 82 17
50 33 4
50 83 17
50 35 4
50 83 18
50 36 3
50 83 19
50 39 3
50 84 19
50 40 3
50 84 20
50 44 2
50 84 21
50 46 2
50 85 21
50 47 2
50 85 22
Table 9: Optimized splitting ratios of the 3 Table 10: Optimized splitting ratios of the 3
couplers K1, K2 and K3 in a 2-stage MZI- couplers K1, K2 and K3 in a 2-stage MZI-
based interleaver when the delay line based interleaver when delay line
ΔL2 = 2ΔL1 ± λ / 2neff is introduced in the ΔL2 = 2ΔL1 is introduced in the lower arm
upper arm of the second stage. of the second stage.
53
Appendix B
Optimum combinations of parameters of the Y-junctions
ΔβS1 ΔβS2 ΔβS1 ΔβS2
(radians) (radians) (radians) (radians)
1.69 0.33 0.79 2.07
1.72 0.34 0.8 2.1
1.74 0.35 0.81 2.13
1.76 0.36 0.82 2.16
1.78 0.37 0.83 2.18
1.8 0.38 0.84 2.21
1.82 0.39 0.85 2.24
1.84 0.4 0.86 2.26
1.85 0.41 0.87 2.28
1.87 0.42 0.89 2.33
1.9 0.44 0.9 2.35
1.93 0.46 0.93 2.4
1.94 0.47 0.94 2.42
1.97 0.49 0.96 2.45
1.98 0.5 0.98 2.48
1.99 0.51 1 2.51
2 0.52 1.01 2.52
2.06 0.58 1.04 2.56
2.07 0.59 1.05 2.57
2.08 0.6 1.06 2.58
2.09 0.61 1.07 2.59
2.1 0.62 1.08 2.6
2.12 0.65 1.09 2.61
2.13 0.66 1.1 2.62
2.14 0.68 1.11 2.63
2.15 0.69 1.12 2.64
2.16 0.71 1.17 2.68
2.17 0.72 1.2 2.7
2.18 0.74 1.21 2.71
2.19 0.75 1.26 2.74
2.2 0.77 1.33 2.78
2.21 0.79 1.35 2.79
2.22 0.81 1.42 2.82
2.23 0.83 1.47 2.84
2.24 0.85 1.52 2.86
2.25 0.87 1.55 2.87
2.26 0.89 1.58 2.88
2.26 0.9
Table 12: Optimized parameters for a 2- Table 11: Optimized parameters for a 2-
stage MZI configuration using Y-junctions stage MZI configuration using Y-junctions
when the delay line is in the upper arm when the delay line is in the lower arm
54

Design and Fabrication of All Fiber Flat Top Inter Leaver in DWDM Applications

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Design and Fabrication of All Fiber Flat Top Inter Leaver in DWDM Applications

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Design and Fabrication of All-Fiber Flat-Top

Interleaver for DWDM Applications

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Under the guidance of

Prof. B. P. Pal & Dr. R. K. Varshney

Departments of Physics and Electrical Engineering

Prof. B. P. Pal Dr. R. K. Varshney

I am greatly indebted to my supervisors Professor B. P. Pal and Dr. R. K. Varshney for

Interleaver Types and Design Methods..........................................................5

Results and Discussion ................................................................................21

Y-Junction Flat-Top Interleaver...................................................................44

FUTURE SCOPE ........................................................................................50

Figure 1: Schematic of a typical DWDM optical fiber long-haul link ............................... 2

1.2 DWDM Operation

Laser Diode at ITU

A genre of high-quality semiconductor lasers, called distributed-feedback (DFB)

1.3 Technical Requirements and Specifications

1.4 Role of Interleavers/De-interleavers in Present day

Interleaver Types and Design Methods

2.2 Interleaver Types

Figure 2: Schematic of different interleavers.

2.3 Single-stage MZI Interleaver

The transmission characteristics of an interleaver based on MZI can easily be described

M MZI = M coupler 2 M ΔL1 M coupler1 (2.4)

where ci = cos(κz ) i , s i = sin(κz ) i , i = 1, 2.

2.4 Desired Characteristics of an Interleaver

Low Polarization dependency: The various kinds of polarization dependencies like

2.5 Two-stage MZI Interleaver

E14 = EC = j (c1 s 2 e jϕ1 + s1c 2 ) (2.14)

Position of the Second Delay Line

⎛ E15 ⎞ ⎛ c3 − js3 ⎞⎛ e jϕ2 0 ⎞⎛ c 2 − js 2 ⎞⎛ e jϕ1 0 ⎞⎛ c1 − js1 ⎞⎛1 ⎞

P15 = − 2 c 1 s 3 c 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2 ) + 2 c 1 s 3 s 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2 )

P16 = 2 c 1 s 3 c 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2 ) − 2 c 1 s 3 s 22 s 1 c 3 cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2 )

βΔL2 = 2 βΔL1 ± nπ (2.24)

βΔL2 = 2mβΔL1 , c 2′ < s 2′ and s3′ > c3′ . (2.26)

P16′ = 2 c 1′ s 3′ c 2′ 2 s 1′ c 3′ cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2 ) − 2 c 1′ s 3′ s 2′ 2 s 1′ c 3′ cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2 )

channel streams λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. emanating from ports 5 and 6, respectively, P15 = P16' .

λ 2 , λ 4 , λ6 .. emanating from ports 6 and 5, respectively, P16 = P15' . This gives us

⎛ E15 ⎞ ⎛ c3 − js3 ⎞⎛ 1 0 ⎞⎛ c 2 − js 2 ⎞⎛ e jϕ1 0 ⎞⎛ c1 − js1 ⎞⎛1 ⎞

T16 = − 2 p 1 q 3 q 22 q 1 p 3 cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L 2′ ) + 2 p 1 q 3 p 22 q 1 p 3 cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L 2′ )

response and constructive interference for channel wavelengths λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. and

λ2 , λ4 , λ6 .. to emanate from ports 5 and 6, respectively, would be met when

βΔL2′ = 2mβΔL1 , p 2 > q 2 and p3 > q3 .

T15′ = 2 p1′ q 3′ q 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L2′ ) − 2 p1′ q 3′ p 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L2′ )

T16′ = − 2 p1′ q 3′ q 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 + β Δ L2′ ) + 2 p1′ q 3′ p 2′ 2 q1′ p 3′ cos( β Δ L1 − β Δ L2′ )

channel wavelengths λ1 , λ3 , λ5 .. to exit from ports 5 and 6, respectively, and

to the channel wavelengths λ 2 , λ4 , λ6 .. to emanate from ports 6 and 5, respectively,

making T16 = T15' . Such a comparison yields

p1 = p1′ , q1 = q1′ , p 2 = p 2′ , q 2 = q 2′ , p3 = q3′ and q3 = p3′ . (2.37)

βΔL2 = βΔL2′ ± (2n − 1)π (2.38)

2.6 Design Approaches

Figure 6: Configuration of coherent two-port lattice-form optical delay-line circuit

Where G (w) is transfer function; w0 is angular frequency period.

2.9 Dispersion Compensation

2.10 Optical All-Pass Filter Structures

Mathematically, if the frequency response of a filter is written as

arbitrarily close to any desired phase response.

A continuous linear system characterized by an impulse response function h(t ) has a

Figure 8: Ring cascade architecture for all-pass optical filter [20]

1.5485 1.549 1.5495 1.55 1.5505 1.551 1.5515

3.1.2 Two-stage MZI Interleaver Spectral Response

The following observations were made:

Stopband width at 25 dB (GHz) 14

Table 1: Simulated structure parameters for

2.4 y = - 2.7x4 + 15x3 - 31x2 + 29x - 8.1