^University

MANUAL

tutorial

OF

Series.

PSYCHOLOGY.

tttnivereitv)(Tutorial Seriea*

OF

MANUAL

PSYCHOLOGY,

BY

GK F.

FKLLOW

LATE
IN

M.A.

STOUT,
OF

IN
MENTAL

IN

PHILOSOPHY
AT

"MIND";

UNIVERSITY;

AUTHOR

PSYCHOLOGY

LONDON

13

W,

B.

BOOKSELLERS

OF

EDITOR

PRESS.

COLLEGE
NEW

YORK

"

HINDS
4

Row,

STRAND,

OXFORD

ETC.

CORRESPONDENCE
CLIVE,

READER

WILDE

OF

"ANALYTIC

OF
"

UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY

THE

LONDON

COMPARATIVE

ON

ABERDEEN

OF

UNIVERSITY

LKCTURER

UNIVERSITY

AND
LECTURER

ANDERSON

ABERDEEN,

LL.D.

OXON.,

CAMBRIDGK,

LATE

THK

EXAMINER

M.A.

COLLEGE,

SCIENCK.s;

PSYCHOLOGY
IN

JOHN'S

ST.

MORAL

THE

GAME.,

"W.C.

1899.

NOBLE,

COOPER

INSTITUTE.

COPYRIGHT,
1899,

BY

W.

B.

CIvIVE.

91383

FEB

3\

1959

PREFACE.

THE
from

genetic

will

contents

successive

ideal

of

by

lower

of

races

The

is

this

sake

dreary

and

papers

by

on

r.nd

formulas

real

for

the

has

the

passed

condition

but

the

in

are

of

the

study

of

student

unless

he

is able

to

who

him.

of

has

is

ought

ming
skim-

An

effective

in

sake,

own

to

interest

with
to

genuine

essential

it
be

even

able

gift

in

the

when
to

do

more

read
books

crammed
a

the

for

than

done

most

real

and

is

evidently

flesh

living

Nothing
examiner

never

The

statements

clothed

be

the

psychological

avail.

no

acquire

to

as

on

dried

must

has

so

himself

of

are

dealing
He

problems,

and

who

to

the

for

to

anxious

most

examinations.

beginner

power

been

student's

thinking.

fail

which

through

that

cut

candidate

psychological
to

the

to

convinced
the

thinking

exasperating
a

the

earlier

reference

mental

of

of

The

world

have

am

to

use

success

Psychology,

imparted

questions

both

his

of

Psychology

to

blood,

the

to

purpose

important

and

the

table

is that

by

phases

psychological

of

introduction

followed

illustrated

which

no

into

For

the

at

mankind.

power

topics.

Psychology

development.

and

reference

is of

himself

real

Self

of

of

glance

order

The

sketchiness.

Psychology

mental

animals.

shortcoming

avoid

the

copiously

construction

illustrated

of

exposition

an

view.

that

been

life

of

point

stages

mental

contains

show

have

stages

live

work

present

bit
to

of
be

subject,
familiar
riders

in

PREFACE.

via

Psychology
there

who

students

are

riders

lie does

as

natural

endowment.

enough

to

be

But

and

over

feverishly the

day

that

they

slip

do

needs

much

learn

to

greatest debt

My

Professor
I have
Text-Book
on

found

Psychology

for

educational

to

leave

the

In

and

with

volume

much

help

in

the

Royee,

and

Mr.

Welton,

J.

Lloyd Morgan.

College,Victoria
of

the

M.

C.

in

Irvine,

Mental

In

Professor

invaluable,

owes

much

Mr.

J. F.
for

to

the

Stout,
the

and

in

has

press,

rendered

and

has

J. S.

Science
I

particularI

suggestions of
me

Mr.

the

Wales,

University Correspondence College.

services

I have

been

in

Moral

have

Welton.

the

1899.

Ladd,

by

Yorkshire

Mackenzie,

and

by

Tutor

My

Mr.

in the

found

great assistance

compiled

found

read

feel that

their

the

book

brother,
in

paring
pre-

Index.

GK
May,

Ebbing-

Baldwin,

Professor

and

Poster's

abbreviated

general

South

teacher,

my

are

Education

of

altogether

tions
special sensa-

proofs have

University,by

the

specialchapters

James,

My

University College
W.

of

writings

Lecturer

The

from

Grundziige der Psychologie.

order

purposes

Professor

Sound-Sensation

haus'

in

to

the

of

useful.

modifications

read

Certainly

is

treating

fourth

be

way.

elsewhere

as

full

to

subject alone

the

external

of Physiologyvery

adapted

have

examination

an

of

is better

mind.

here

Light-Sensation

and

before

Ward.

James

which

statements

merely

rememberable

so

out

lack

treatment

the

better
it in

far from

so

that

is true

of

not

may

who

would
than

dogmatic

It

them

for

even

interesting and

arid

Euclid.

advance

cannot

than

teacher

in

F.

STOUT.

CONTENTS

OF

VOL.

I.

INTBODUCTION.

CHAPTER

THE

SCOPE

I.

OP

PSYCHOLOGY.

PAGE

"

The

1.

Psychological

other

Point

of

View.

Sciences.

"

Presented

1.

of

II.

METHODS

AND

Objects

Data.

as

"

"

Mental

OF

Introspection.

2.

in

Process

PSYCHOLOGY.

Others.
"

and

Observation.

"5.

"

from
1

CHAPTER

DATA

Distinction

2.

Consciousness

"3.

"

THE

"

"

"

"

"

3.

festations
Mani-

Experiment

4.

Methods

Quantitative

10
..

CHAPTER

III.

BODY

1
.

Physiological
"

"

"

Xervous

Psycho-Physical

"

3.

MIND.

and

Consequents

of

the

Function

2.

Mechanism.
and

AND

Antecedents

"

"

4.

of

Metaphysical

Parallelism.
"

Mental

Sub-Cortical

"5.

cess.
ProNervous

of

Correlation

Immediate

Process.

..

Conscious

Explanation

of

Conclusion

34
..

..

CONTEXTS.

BOOK

GENERAL

I."

ANALYSIS.

CHAPTER

I.

MODES

ULTIMATE

OF

CONSCIOUS.

BEING

PAGK

1.

Cognition.
Introductory.
Attitude.
The
Conative
4.
"
" 2.

"

" 3. The

"

"

"

Feeling-Attitude.

Sentience

5.

or

"

sciousness
Sub-Con56

CHAPTER
LAWS

PRIMARY

"

1.

II.

OF

MENTAL

PROCESS.

Eelativity. " 2. General

Unity and
Continuity. " 3.
Conative
Unity and Continuity. " 4. Retentiveness.
Conative
Continuityand Retentiveness.
" 6. Primary
"5.
"

"

"

"

"

Meaning.
" 7. Association
Reproduction. J 8.
of
Modes
Acquirement of Meaning.
" 9. The Various
duction.
SpecificReproduction, (#)Complication,(i)Free Reproand
Arrest.
Habit
Facilitation
10.
11.
"
"
and

"

"

"

"

and

"

Automatism.

"

Dispositions
"12. Physiological

CHAPTER
THE

"

1.

III.

PSYCHOLOGY"

"FACULTY

71

..

AND

ASSOCIATIONISM.

Introductory. "2. /'The Faculty Psychology." " 3.

Associationism.
Criticised, Mental
" 4. Associationism
"

"

l'

"

103

Chemistry"

BOOK

II."

SENSATION.

CHAPTER
DEFINITION

Sensation
Mere

and

Sensation.
from

OF

Stimulus.
"

"

4.

I.

"

"

SENSATION.

2.

Sensation

Sensation

as

Sensory

Elements.

Cognitive
Cognised Object
as

"

State
.

"3.
tinguished
dis.

117

CONTENTS.

xi

CHAPTER
THE

II.

SENSATION-REFLEX.
PAGE

"

1.

distinguithedfrom

As

frcm

Conative

"

Perceptual

and

Hedonic

Relative

4.

PhysiologicalReflex."

Distin" 2. guished
Ideational-Reaction
" 3.

and

"

Aspect of

Purity of

Sensation-

the

OF

"

Reflex
..

CHAPTER
DIFFERENTIATION

Sensation-Reflex.

the

125

..

III.

SENSE-EXPERIENCE,

AND

ITS

PSYCHICAL

SIGNIFICANCE.

"

1.

Differentiation

and

Integration. "

2.

"

Differentiation

of

Sense-Organs

134

CHAPTER

IV.

LIGHT-SENSATION.

1.

Nature

Introductory. " 2.
"

of

Eye.

the

of the

Stimulus.

"

"

ture
Struc-

3.

Descriptive Analysis of LightSensatioiis.

Retina's
own
" 5. The
Light. " 6. Total
Colour- Blindness.
^ 7. Partial Colour- Blindness.
" 8.
Effects
of the Mixture
of Lights of Different
"WaveEffects
of
Contrast.
Lengths." " 9. The
" 10. The
image,
Negative After-Image, etc.
"11. The Positive Afterof
etc.
" 12. PhysiologicalTheories
Light4.

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Sensation

141
.

CHAPTER
SO

"

1.

Nature

of

Noises

Intervals."
different

Stimulus.

the

and

Musical

"

sources.

"

"

SENSATION

"

2.

Sounds.

and

OTHER

Taste

and

Smell.

Sensations."

"

" 2.

Organ of Hearing. $ 3.
" 5. Musical
" 4. Pitch.
"

Sounds

Musical

Dissonance.

"

General

10.

from

ence-Tones."
"8. DifferTheory of

Sensation
..

..

CHAPTER

1.

of

"

..

"

"

"

"7. Beats
Timbre.

V.

Combination

6.

"9.
Sound-

tJND

..

..

..

171

VI.

SENSATIONS.

Cutaneous

Sensations."

-" 4. Organic Sensations

" 3.

Motor
182

..

..

..

CONTENTS.

arii

CHAPTER
THE

WEBER-

VII.
FECHNER

LAW.
PAGB

"

1. The

Experimental Facts.
" 2. Interpretation." 3.
Questions.
" 4. Limitations of Weber's Law
"

Further

"

199

"

..

..

CHAPTER
THE

"

1.

VIII.

FEELING-TONE

Common

OF

SENSATION.

Sensibility." 2. The Special Sensations.

" 3.
and
Surplus Excitation.
$ 4. Feeling-Tone
Organic
Welfare.
5.
and
Conative
Feeling-Tone
"
Tendency.
General
6.
"
Theory
"

"

"

"

"

BOOK

III."

PERCEPTION.

DIVISION.
PERCEPTUAL

I.

PROCESS

IN

"

1.

CHARACTERISTICS

Definition."

OF

GENERAL.

I.

CHAPTER
DISTINCTIVE

210

THE

PERCEPTUAL

CONSCIOUSNESS.

and

Continuity of Perceptual
Process.
" 3. Attention.
" 4. Persistencywith Varied
Effort.
" 5. Free Adaptation to Varying Conditions.
" 6. Learning by Experience. " 7. Reproduction by
"

2.

Unity

"

"

"

"

"

Perceptual Process.
Process.-

-"9.

"

"

8. Ideas

Impulsive

accompanying Perceptual

character

CHAPTER

of

Perceptual Process.

211

II.

IMITATION.

" 1. Introductory. " 2.

by Imitation
"

The

Imitative

Impulse. " 3. Learning

"

269

CHAPTER

III.

PLEASURE-PAIN.

" 1. Introductory. "2. Feeling-toneof Attention.

and
Defeat
and
as
Determining Pleasure
Feeling-tone as due to preformed Associations
"

"

Success

" 3.
Pain.
.

"

4.
.

276

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER

xiii
IV.

EMOTIONS.
PAGE

"

1.

General

Characteristics.
to Pleasure-Pain

Relation

6.

Analysis of

Emotional

"

"

Fear.

General

2.

and

Qualitative Differences.

"

"

"

Conation.

Dispositions.
"

" 7. Analysis of Anger.

"

"

"

8.

..

284

312

...

..321

..

GENERAL.

IN

" 2. Analysisof

Extension.

"

"

3.
330

Movement

IV.

CHAPTER
PERCEPTION

SPATIAL

III.

PERCEPTION

Active

..

..

..

CHAPTER

Extensity." " 4.

II.

Reality

"

..

..

CHAPTER

of the Problem.

I.

Categoriesof PerceptualConsciousness

SPATIAL

1L

CHAPTER

External

PEKCEPTS.

SPECIAL

Nature

"

Emotional

5.

DIVISION

" 1.

"

Gestures
.

Perceptionof

Theory. " 3.
" 4. Ultimate

BY

TOUCH.

" 2. Extension as Physically

" 1, SpatialPerceptionof the Blind.
Real."
" 3. The SpatialSignificanceof Free Movements.
isation
" 5. Local" 4. Perceptionof the Organism as extended.
and
Perception of the
Projection."" 6. Tactual
Third
Dimension.
" 7. Origin of SpatialPerception
"

"

"

"

" 1. Perception of
Dimension,

(") as

(b]as dependent on

BY

PERCEPTION

Surface.

"

"

2.

use

of two

SIGHT.

Perception of

Visual

conditioned
the

342

V.

CHAPTER
SPATIAL

by

Tactual

eyes,

Third

Experience,

(c]as monocular.

363

CONTENTS.

xiv

VI.

CHAPTER
TEMPORAL

PERCEPTION.
PAGE

"

1.

Experience of
Introductory. " 2. Immediate
" 3. Perception of Lapse of Time.
"

"

sience.
Time-Tran-

"

"

"

Organism

Time-keeper.

as

"

"

Past,

Present,

5.

4.

The
and
384

Future

IY."

BOOK

CONCEPTUAL

AND

IDEATIONAL
PKOCESS.

I.

CHAPTEE
IDEAS

1.

IMAGES.

AND

Introductory. " 2. Distinction and

Idea.
" 3. Likeness of Object as
"

Relation

Imaged.

Image

"

Relative

of

Independence

Object

Percept and

Aspect

and

"

"

Dreams

393
.

CHAPTER

II.
OF

TRAINS

to

Activity. " 5.
lucinations,
Image.
" 6. Hal-

to Motor

Percept

Illusions,and

Two-fold

of

and

(a)Intensity,(4) Distinctness, (c) Relation

SubjectiveActivity, (d]Relation

1.

and

Differences

" 4, Characteristic

Image

Perceived

"

as

of

of Ideational

IDEAS.

Process.

"

" 2.

Association

of

of the Association
of Ideas
" 3. Different Forms
(a)Contiguity(Continuityof Interest),
(V) Similarity.
" 4. Competition of Divergent Associations.
$ 5. Ideal
in the flow
Construction.
of Ideal
" 6. Obstructions
Activity

Ideas.

"

"

"

"

..

..

..

CHAPTER

..

..

..

418

..

III.

MEMORY.

1.

Definition

Decay

of

Memories.

of

Memory.

Memory
"

$ 6. Memory

"

5.

and

"

with

" 2.

Good

Lapse

Improvement
Past-Time

and
of

of

Bad

Memory.
$ 3.
Time.
" 4. Variety of
Memory by Practice.
"

"

"

435

CONTENTS.

xv

CHAPTER
IDEATION,

"

IV.

COMPARISON,

AND

CONCEPTION.

1. Ideal

Pre-arrangement distinguishedfrom
adjustment. " 2. Conceptual Analysis
" 3. Comparison.
"

..

..

"

1.

and

..

CHAPTER

LANGUAGE

Perceptual

Pre-

Synthesis.
"

..

..

447

..

V.

AND

CONCEPTION.

of Conceptual Analysis and

Language as an Instrument
in Ideal
Revival.
Synthesis. " 2 The Motor Element
" 3. Tendency of Motor Reproduction to pass into Actual
Movement.
Signs. " 5. Natural Signs as
" 4. Natural
Instruments
of Conceptual Thinking.
" 6. Conventional
in Gesture -Language.
Element
tional
" 7. Origin of Convenother
the
theories of
Language. " 8. Certain
Origin of Speech.
" 9. Advantages of Conventional
Language
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER

THE

"

EXTERNAL

1. Unification

of

as

3.

" 7.

"

Space

"

6.

as

"

AS

"

1. The

Personal
of

the
"

Many
" 5.

The

Series.

"

IDEAL

" 2.

"

External

" 4.
and

as

Ideal

Re-

"

"

as

4.

Ideal

Construction.

"

490
.

VII.
CONSTRUCTION.

The

Social Factor

in the

ment
develop-

" 3. The One Self and

Pathology of Self -Consciousness.

Self -Consciousness.
Selves.

Causality

" 6.

Process
Co-operative

CHAPTER
SELF

Construction.

Ideal

as

and

Verification

" 2.

Thinghood

Ideal Construction

CONSTRUCTION.

IDEAL

"

Construction

Ideal

Construction.

AS

Perceptual Data.
"

Time

VI.

WORLD

interpretation."

459

the

"

Internal

Self

517

xvi

CONTENTS,

CHAPTER

BELIEF

VIII.

AND

IMAGINATION.
PAOB

"

1.

Distinction

between

Conditions

Belief

of

and

Belief.

importance

of

Belief.

"

"

features

of

Primitive

the

"

"

Feeling

"

Some

5.

544

OF

of
of

-tone

IX.

Revived

2.

Feeling-tone

3.

"4.

"

"

"

of

Factors

Factor."

PEELING-TONE

Introductory.

relative

the

Belief

CHAPTER

1.

General

2.

Objective

Social

"

in

and

Subjective

Influence

4.

of

the

"

"

Variations

3.

"

"

Imagination.

IDEAS.

conditions

of

Feeling-tone.

Ideational

Activity

itself.

Ideational

Activity

itself

Belief.

nation.
Imagi.

"

"

5.

Sentiment

and

Emotion

562
.

CHAPTER

1.

Ascending
of

Aspect
"

"

the

Decision.
"

and
Ideas."

12.

in

"
the

Bodily
"
True

of

"

Fixity

Self

Freedom

"

"

line

of

of

greatest
"

Self.

the

Decision.

Activity.
10.

Development.

Conception

6.

DECISION.

Conative

Voluntary

4.

Action

of

levels

X.

VOLUNTARY

"

"

9.

-Control."

5.

"

ef

Decision.

"

"

8.

Action.

Voluntary

"

"

resistance.

11.

Conative

forming

Voluntary

"

2.

Deliberation.

3.

The

Involuntary

"

"

7.

Volition
Fixed
Attention.
581

MANUAL

PSYCHOLOGY.

OF

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER

THE

"

1.

that

The

Let
looks
the

is

he

it;

at

crackle

which

in

into

words

play

such

smelling,

and

he

far
will

he

is

of

his

aware

own

Psych.

man's

is

of

object.

cigar.

and

ear

he

smells

smoke

to

smelling and

procedure,

to

it before

by

these

it ; he

thus
Now

tasting.

have

we

He

listens

discouraged

not

proceed

functions

the

dryiiess

suppose

had

to

use

testing, looking,feeling, listening,

These

all

are

standing

terms

for

facts.
the

as

listening,

he

then

tasting.

think

not

if

examining,

as

of

of

quality
his

us

material

it to

puts

mark

may

the

psychological
So

he

"

examining
the

Let

View.

of

testing

smoke
he

describing

in

is

is

to

preliminaries,
brings

he

feel* it;

commencing

Point

engaged

that

say

PSYCHOLOGY.

OF

Psychological

man

us

SCOPE

I.

etc.

of

The

is

man

of

his

pre-occupied

qualities

throughout

sensations,

as

acts

own

of

the

the

of

sensations
1

the

object,

looking,

feeling,

cigar

process.

such;

with

He
are

itself
is

are

not

what
aware

qualifications
1

PSYCHOLOGY.

of his
as

he

consciousness,and

own

is

thinkingof

the

[CH. i.
not

of the

cigar,he

does

cigar; inasmuch
not

think

about

sensations.
On

the other

the

bystanderwho describes what the

is doing, naturallyuses
He
is
man
psychologicalterms.
in relation to
thinking,not only of the cigar,but the man
he has to describe
it. What
is just this relation in its
with either the
varying phases ; he is not concerned
the cigarindependentlyof each other.
thinks
He
man
or
of the cigarmerely as an objectto which
the man's activity
is directed

hand,

; and

in consequence

he thinks

of the

man

as

of the qualities
of this object,
aware
subjectwhich becomes
and adjustshis actions accordingly. But the man
himself
takes no
note
of the fact that the cigar is an object,and
that he is a subject; he could not take note of the one
fact
without
taking note of the other. But he is so wholly
absorbed
in the object,that he does not stop to consider its
relation to himself as subject; in other words, though it is
His
an
object to him, he does not think of it as such.
with
the same
that of the
point of view is essentially
The
physical sciences.
point of view of the spectator
is essentially
that
of psychology. Psychology is concerned
with the relation of what is perceived,
in any way
or
thought of,to the percipientor thinker.
It thus appears
that psychology must
take into account
not only the subjectbut also the object. This is necessary
because
be adequately
states and processes cannot
subjective
described
without
reference
to their objects. It is impossible
to name
a
thought without
naming it as the
But
thought of something or other.
psychology is only
concerned
with objects,
if and so far as they are necessarily
implied in the existence of correspondingstates and processes
in the subject. The
object with which it has. to
.

SCOPE

$ 1.]
deal is
some

always an

individual

OF

PSYCHOLOGY.

objectas perceived or
at

time.

some

Of

thought

course,

a:i

about

by
object is

much
than this; the sensible qualities
more
always actually
of the cigarbelong to it both before and after the man
has

smelt,touched, and

tasted

it. Not

onlyis this true as

a
physical fact ; but it is also recognisedby the subject
himself
in perceivingor
thinking about the object. The
ing
man
onlyperceivesthe odour of the cigarin actuallysmellit ; but he regards it as a permanent quality,existing
and persisting
independentlyof his momentary perception.
The
him
unless
he
to
occurs
question never
begins
to philosophiseor
psychologise. But if anybody should
tell him
that
the odour, flavour,texture, dampness, or
he
in which
dryness of the cigar,only exist in the moment
thinks
of them
at
or
once
perceives them, he would
recognise,though perhaps dimly, that he had perceived
them
or
as
thought of them
being something different
had
He
from
what
said to
be.
now
they are
ceived
perthem
or
thought of them as having a permanence
irreconcilable with the
and independence which
is entirely
suppositionthat they exist only if and so far as he is
But psychology
actuallyperceivingor thinking of them.
is mainly concerned
with the perceiving
or
thinkingitself,
of the objectso far as
and it therefore only takes account
It is concerned,in
it is actuallyperceivedor thought of.
seen,

the

first

instance,not

with

what

is

known,

but

with

the

knowing, not with what is willed,but with the

is agreeable or disagreenot with what
able,
process of willing,
but with the process of being pleased or displeased.
of the object,except in so far
Hence
it takes no
account
as
somebody is supposed to be actually knowing it or
willingit,or being satisfied or dissatisfied with it. For the
physicalsciences the object is something that is to become
process

of

PSYCHOLOGY."

known;

for

in process
processes

psychologyit
of being known.

whereby

is

something which,
Psychologyis the

individual

an

[en. I.

becomes

aware

is

actually

science

of

of the

world

of

his actions accordingly.

and adjusts
objects
have
already
" 2. Distinction from oilier Sciences. We
The
all physical sciences.
off psychology from
marked
is the object of
facts and
of material
world
processes
this object
physicalscience; its whole aim is to know
trary,
more
completelyand precisely.Psychology,on the condoes not directlyand
primarilyaim at increasing
"

our

The

knowledge of the
cognitiveprocess

world

material
itself is

an

or

any

part

of it.

object of psychology.
the place or fulfil the

itself take
psychologycannot
it investigates. In
function of the cognitive
process which
turning its attention upon the function of knowing, it
its attention from the specialnature
necessarilywithdraws
It must
indeed constantlyrecognise
of the objectsknown.
of these objects; but this is only because
the existence
their existence is involved in the very conceptionof cognitive

But

process.
This
but

line of demarcation

also

other

separates not only psychology,

departments

of

the
philosophy, from
to
distinguish the

We
have
now
physicalsciences.
point of view from that which characterises
psychological
logic,theory of knowledge, ethics,and aesthetics. These
with
all concerned
are
knowledge, feeling,and will,
their attitude
with
their objects. But
is
than
rather
that of psychology. Logic is a normative
different from
the distinction between
science ; it is pre-occupiodwith
It has to show
truth and error.
how
thought must proceed
in order to represent its objectcorrectly. Psychology,
on

the

contrary, deals only with

cognitiveprocess

as

it

the laws

actuallytakes

that

govern

place.

It

is

the
no

SCOPE

"2.]

OF

PSYCHOLOGY.

psychology to inquire liow it ought to take

which
it lays down
account
equally
place. The principles
for correct thinking and for incorrect thinking. It deals
with objectsas they are
actuallypresentedto consciousness.
of the objectas it may
with the nature
It has no
concern
be apart from its actual presentation.It cannot, therefore,
inquirewhether or not the actual presentationcorresponds
of the object as it exists in the real
nature
to the true
business

of

world.

knowledge pushes the questionof truth and

truth
falsehood
further back
than logic. It inquireshow
and
falsehood
are
possible at all ; in other words, it
individual
the privatethought of an
how
can
investigates
individual
apprehend a realityindependent of his own
a
existence,either truly or falsely
; how, for instance, can
finite consciousness,
composed of a series of fleetingstates,
beginning to exist at a certain date and ending at a certain
date, connected with and dependent on a body which forms
of the
only a small fragment of the infinite extension
material
such
finite and
world, how
can
a
particular
being contain in itself the thought of the universe as a
whole ?
How
it becomo
can
a
spectatorof all time and
all existence?
far
Obviously, such questions are
very
removed
from the provinceof psychology. The possibility
of thought is assumed
by the psychologist. The relation
of subject and objectis pre-supposed by him as a datum.
He simply investigates
the actual laws which
regulatethe
in knowing,
the subject passes
processes through which
in relation to the object.
willing,
feeling,
Ontology may be regarded as an offshoot from theory of
knowledge. Theory of knowlege inquireshow the finite
individual can be aware
of the universe to which he belongs.
Theory

of

"

It appears

to

some

that
philosophers

this

questioncannot

bo

PSYCHOLOGY.

unless

answered
universe

well

give

we

an

account

of the individual.

[CH. I.
of
But

the

nature

of the

give
of the nature
of the universe, as such, is ontology.
account
an
from
Evidentlythis is very far removed
psychology,which
has
only to do with the natural history of subjective
as

as

processes

as

they

What

has

been

an

attempt

to

in time.

occur

said of

logic,theory of knowledge, and

ethics.
Ethics
inquires how we
actuallydo will. It may push

ontology appliesalso to
ought to will,not how we
its investigation
further, and inquire how the distinction
between
rightwillingand wrong willingis possibleat all ;
and
it may
this question by
finally,
attempt to answer
giving an account of the nature of the universe as a whole.
the
other
hand, deals only with the
Psychology, on
reference
process of volition as it actuallyoccurs, without
to the ultimate
conditions
to its Tightnessor wrongness,
or
make
which
rightnessand wrongness
possible.
Aesthetics
is precisely
analogous to ethics, except that
the distinction between
beauty and uglinessis substituted
between
for that
right and wrong.
Psychology has
It only
nothing to do with this distinction,as such.
beautiful
to appear
or
inquireshow things actuallycome
with
such
questionsas whether
ugly ; it has no concern
beautiful
what
really is beautiful,or how the
appears
between
distinction
beauty and ugliness is constituted.
beautiful
therefore
is beautiful ;
Perhaps what appears
then
if this be
psychology solves the problems of
so,
aesthetics ; but it does so only by accident.
It cannot
itself show
that it has solved these problems. In order to
do so, it would

have

realitycoincide
is certainly
beyond
the question.
and

to prove
; but

the

that in aesthetics

whether

this be

true

appearance
or

provinceof psychologyto

false,it
discuss

SCOPE

" 3.]

" 3.

OF

Consciousness.

PSYCHOLOGY.

If

analyse suck processes

as
those of looking, listening,
smelling,or tasting,we find
that they involve
distinct and
two
of
disparate groups
On
the one
facts.
of consciousness,
hand, they are modes
kinds of experience on the other,they imply
specific
;
occurrences
taking place in the bodily organs of sense
which do not, as such, enter into the conscious
experience
of the subject. For
in looking at an
instance,a man
his eyeballs; this involves the existence and
objectmoves
operationof a muscular
apparatus; but the operationof
this muscular
apparatus is not, as such, a constituent of his
"

conscious

state.

It

we

exists

for

the

consciousness

of

the

analysing the visual

part of the act of looking at
process ; but it does not form
an
objectso far as this is an experienceof the subjectwho
the object. The
sees
subjectiveexperienceis conditioned
We
by, but it does not contain the muscular
process.
cess
proexpress this by saying that though the muscular
may
that it is a fact
is a psychologicalfact,in the sense
that psychology must
take
account
of, yet it is not a
The
term
psychicalfact,viz., a fact of consciousness.
facts are
all psychical
is wider than psychical
:
psychological
facts are
psychologicalfacts,but not all psychological
or
psychicalfacts. A psychicalfact must be in some
way
other
an
experience of the subject whose processes the
psychologistis investigating.
is
A psychicalfact is a fact of consciousness
; but what
consciousness
? Properly speaking,definition is impossible.
Everybody knows what consciousness is because everybody
is conscious.
It is not, however, enough simply to say
psychologistor

this.

Confusion

question by

who
physiologist,

would

in this

has

be

sure

manner.

manifold

modes

is

The

passed the
is that consciousness
difficulty

and

degrees ;

to

arise if

we

and

there

is

PSYCHOLOGY.

[CH. I.

the term
so
as
always a danger of restricting
and
degrees and not
apply to certain modes
has been used by certain
the word
Historically,
the

which

awareness

experiences,as
a

inner

an

justas
perceptionof

the

views, we

only

not

of

awareness

he

though

does

that he is angry,

know

and

in which
of

wood,

As

division

between

contrasted
and

''

with

what

outside
come

crisis
"

we

are

more

tardilyarouses
out

"f

of the

Elements

not.
even

he

does

of

sciousness,
con-

sleep,

less and

sleep,or
us

"the

from

midnight

that
we

as

profound

it is to be

scious.
con-

sink

swoon

the noise

gradually
slowlyaway :
of the crowd

after-dinner

darkness

of the

The

fessor
Pro-

awake,

are

our

of Psychology,p
f Psychology,
Descriptiveand

point of

quote

sink into

we

log

and

as

more,

To
we

we

or

sense

common

...

less,as
as

table

it is the

when

in the

degree is present.

or

when

are

and

to

is

it

that is consciousness.
*

modification

not-mind."*

are

we

are

into dreamless

down

we

we

perfectlydreamless
we

states
or

If

is angry.

states

and

What

what

he

mode

some

says,

mind

What

and

in

of all mental

form

them

total unconsciousness

Baldwin

necessary

Ladd

that

of

these

of consciousness,

state

unconsciousness

consciousness

Professor

cognisance

includes

same.

is not

attribute

we

regarded as

consciousness

that is another

the

not

there

Wherever

is

know

not

own

our

consciousness

states, but

own

have

that

is angry,

man

of

we

our

we

for

writers

been

has

that
definitely

themselves, whether
If

and

others,

to

and

Indeed,

it

perceivethe mind and its

for
hearing are outer senses
facts.
In oppositionto all such

material

state

must

self.

sense,

by which
sight and

specialfunction

processes

of the

states

called

lias been

of ourselves

have

we

make

to

nap,

or

as

typhoid-fever
becoming conscious

57

Explanatory, p.

30.

SCOPE

" 3.]

and

becoming

the

gradations

unconscious
of

states

unconsciousness,

sleep,

become

If,

as

of

stage
of

stage

It

There

gradual

become

mav

some

the

suppose,

accompanied

by

some

dim

be

noted

that

are

not

into

is

that

dreamless
is

already
but

begin

to

dreamless

feeling,

feeling

vaguest

consciousness,

it

for

such

no

awakening,

fuller

consciousness,

between

are

sinking

dim

it

with.

itself

sleep

this

of

states

not

states

and

and

phases

are

transition

dimmest

very

their

They

they

last

first

consciousness.

cannot

The
the

the

or

all

unconsciousness.

states.

accompanying

in

are

are

and

transition

consciousness.

nor

consciousness

PSYCHOLOGY.

OF

feeling

is
dim

is

consciousness.
It

should

facts
is

which
derivative
of

account

in
in
into

the

them

proper

consciousness.

and

sense

if,

and

far

which

they

as,

of

explanation
psychical,

character
takes

psychologist

The

so

psychological

are

psychological

their

subsidiary.
only

formulation

the

psychical,

and

there

though

processes
in

some

are

necessary

which

way

are

enter

CHAPTEE

DATA

THE

1.

"

Presented

mental

and

such

the

sensation,*
conceived

of

individual

subject

then

occurring,
of

development

individual

to

the

mind.

also

are

of

the

are

Being

the

effects

of

world

and

psychological

starting-point

in

these

In

psychology

to

other

sciences

biology.
crust:

this
of

Geology
it

inquires

finds

by
*

This

what

respect

finds

actual

an

certain

this

exception

will

be

explained
10

that
are

previously.

The

this

same

time

the

to

that

development

that
for

data

as

formation

psychology.
form

the

nature
an

the

strata,

arrangement
ii.,Ch.

has
1.

an

of

analogy

geology
of

of

Book

presented

they

presents

such

in

at

any

possible presentation

arrangement

processes

to

which

investigating

development,

it

for

causes,

indispensable
causes.

attending

presented

from

important

be

attend,

or

possible
as

or

presented

the

as

its

It follows

essential

most

of

real

is at

world

limits

its consciousness.

objects

mind

pure

exist

processes

occurred

objective
The

limits

the

have

of

cannot

exists

subjective

individual

an

of

development

of

which

or

We

is

moment

any

virtue

in

only

moment

either

can

which

object

attention,

case

perceiving1, willing,

the
at

the

object.

presented

Now,

something.

in

except

discuss

to

perception,

processes

"will,without

or

has

Psychology

"

But

PSYCHOLOGY.

sensation,

as

these

from

OF

Data.

like.

none

apart

perceive,

METHODS

Objects as

processes,

volition,

to

AND

II.

and

earth's
and
arisen.

it

DATA

" 1.]

AND

METHODS.

Similarly,
psychology finds
let
nineteenth

us

to

say,

certain

it

to be

of

world

objectspresented,
Englishman of the

educated

an

century, and

11

inquires how this world has

geologistfinds different strata

presented. The
tion.
arranged accordingto the successive periodsof their formathe psychologist
finds different psycholoSimilarly,
gical
The
world
of the young
strata.
child,or the world
of the Australian
aborigine,are comparativelyprimitive
formations
the psychological
problem is to discover
; and
come

how

the transition
the

to

later

is disturbed

by

take

place in
insanity.
us

take

volcanic

the

is asked

mind,

A
he

would

look

man

sees.

in the
solid.

in

of

looks
He
same

He

earlier

adults

stages

are

now

of

geologicalstrata
similar upheavals also

arrangement

of

case

these

civilised

singleexample

what

from

conditions

cathedral,looking solid
cathedral

made
which

the

psychologicaldatum.
he

been

stages with

Sometimes

familiar.

Let

has

the

various

forms

presentedobjectas
into

manner

go

stereoscope,and

repliesthat
may

of

as

on

he
an

sees

actual

to describe

object in detail,and he need not at any point in

his description
He
will speak,
use
psychologicalterms.
and sensations,but of the spire,
not of perceptions,
feelings,
Now
the roof,the windows, etc.
spire,roof,and windows,
whether
of an
actual church, or of one
seen
through a
not
subjectiveprocesses ; nevertheless,
stereoscope,are
the

portant
through a stereoscopeis a most imdatum
for the psychological
theory of the processes
The
of space.
by which we perceivethe third dimension
is produced,not by a solid thing,but
of solidity
appearance
of
representations
by two flat surfaces on which are drawn
different
from
the
other object as
cathedral
seen
or
points of view ; we know, therefore that the perception
solid

figureas

seen

PSYCHOLOGY.

12

of

solid

involve
the

object depends
their

as

of

organ

find

by

which

processes

condition

of

that

solid

exclusion

of

process
which

on

necessary

vision

[en. n.

that

do

not

the

operation on
object itself. We
the

only

essential

tive
operativein producing the distinccertain
peculiar experiences
stereoscopiceffect are
of the two eyes.
These
connected
with the use
experiences
of course
not
are
part of the object; they only become
known
through the psychologicalinquiry which attempts
for the presentation
of the object. The
to account
special
importance of this case arises from the presentationof the
object taking place under experimentalconditions which
be preciselyanalysed.
can
is by no
confined
to
But
the general method
means
"Since
whole
the
it
world, as
experimental cases.
conditions

for

exists

an

be

can

individual

from

consciousness, whether

aesthetic point of view, has come

or
theoretical,
practical,
be said
to exist through piior mental
so
process, it may
is not capableof being
that there is no objective
fact which
utilised by the psychologist. From
this point of view we
may

and

furniture

of

far

earth,'so

as

choir of heaven

the whole

they

known,

are

data

are

'

jBritannwa,9th ed.,vol.

So too, are all works

p. 38).
Grimm's
Iliad or Hamlet
or
Fairy

xx.,

imagination,e.g., the

Tales,and

all rules of
four

the
ritual,

mental
far

as

is best
a

books

of Confucius

law,

and

man
the Brah-

Mencius.

We

examination
of
carefullynote that mere
products is valueless for psychology,except in so
it helps us to trace mental
This purpose
process.
served when
the productsas parts
we
can
arrange

historical

goal

conduct, e.g., Roman

however,

must,

of

psychology. (Article Psychology,' Encyclopaedia

for

of

that

with Dr. Ward,

say,

of

series,in

preceding,and

which
the

each

may

be

treated

as

the

of succeeding,
starting-point

" 1.]

DATA

AND

Thus

development.

METHODS.

13

the
profitablycompare
views
of the
world
it presented itself to Homer,
as
to
Socrates, and to Darwin
the
respectively.Hence
great importance of philology and anthropology to the
science
of
mind.
The
bodied
emproducts of thought are
in
language, so that the comparison of the
of the
vocabulary and
syntactic structure of different
of comparing different stages of
languages is a means
mental
and

evolution.

other

we

The

beliefs

of

comparative study

reference

any

object as
mind

to historical

under

which

space

as

it

different

the

religious
kind

same

of

may

different

conditions.

minds,
This

the

same

to the

same

compare
or

portant
yieldsim-

course

assign definite circumstances

the variation
depends. Thus, by comparing
exists for persons
possessedboth of sight and

touch, with
valuable

the

holds

same

order, we

presentedto

results,when
on

the

of

good as regards
artistic productions. Again, apart from

and

it is

has

primitiveraces

psychologicalvalue, and
their technical

may

as

space

data

experience in

for
the

of

we

can

it exists for the

blind,we

obtain

may

determining the part played by visual

development of this perception. A flood
the conditions of mental
on
development

lightis thrown
abnormal
of the cases
of such
in generalby examination
Under
individuals
Laura
as
Bridgman or Helen Keller.*
the same
the data suppliedby mental
head come
pathology,
includingcases of aphasia,psychicblindness,and so forth. "f
It should be borne in mind
that a presentedobject as a
in the
datum
of psychology need have no actual existence
*

Laura

of the
.mental

Mind,

Keller
were
Bridgman and Helen
of sight and hearing ; and
senses
yet
Bridgman
development. For Laura

O.S.

iv.,p.

adv.,p. 305, and

f

149.

For

Helen

Keller

i.,p. 574, ii.,

p. 280.
AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,pp. 9-11.
N.S.

deprived
both
see
see

almost

reached

from

high degree

Hall's

Stanley
Mind, O.S.

birth
of

article in

xiii.,
p. 314,

PSYCHOLOGY.

14

real world.

The

actuallypresent ;
is all with
presence

or

which

solid
but

[CH. ir.
in the

figureseen
it is

none

the less

psychologyhas
is

absence

matter

any

stereoscope is

and
perceived,
concern.

not

that

Its real

physical fact,not of
important for psychology
of

psychicalfact. Its absence is

only because it involves the absence of certain conditions
which
might otherwise be supposed to be essential to the
presentationof solidity.
" 2. Introspection.To introspectis to attend to the
instead of asking
mind.
When
workings of one's own
what
we
perceive or will,we inquirehow we perceive or
far
to perceiveor will,the answer,
so
will,or how we come
be obtained
it can
as
by direct observation,depends on
the case
of the
more
introspection.Thus, to take once
the solid object is not
physically
stereoscope. Because
is merely
that its presence
present, someone
say
may
From
inferred.
a
purely logicalpoint of view, this may
deceived
be true. If a man,
by the stereoscopic
appearance,
the
for believing
called upon
to define his reasons
were
doubt
solid object to be physicallypresent,he would
no
He
reallyso.
say that it looks solid,just as if it were
then be assigning a peculiarvisible appearance
would
as
But
if it is
for assuming a physical fact.
reason
a
is
that the actual visible presentationof solidity
meant
to introspection.
be made
itself an inference,appeal must
Inferringis a mental process with which we are familiar.
is mentally
In it we
proceed to a conclusion, which
distinguishedor distinguishablefrom its premises. But
in the
stereoscopicillusion there is no distinguishing
between
premises and conclusion,or transition between
of introspection,
On the evidence
them.
therefore,we say
that inference
a
as
psychologicalprocess is not present.
shows
Take
another
us
a
pretty chess
example. A man
"

DATA

" 2.]

problem

and

AND

its solution.

METHODS.

Neither

!5

his mental

attitude

nor

while
he
is tellingus
about
the
introspective
problem. But suppose that he goes on to describe how he
he came
to discover its
to invent the problem, or how
came
solution ; he will then be describingthe workings of his
will speak of his disappointment and
mind.
He
own
his renewed
hopes,his despairwhen all possible
perplexity,
appeared futile. He will perhaps tell us how the
ways
problem flashed upon him
understanding of the whole
is

ours

with

suddenly

key-move,

element

every

that

in

it then

his

subsequent mental
All this is introspection.
smooth
and easy.
activitybecame
Consider
next
an
example from the sphere of practice.
A general gives an
important order, or a responsible
scheme
of policy.
statesman
a
puts before the world
the
statesman's
Neither
the
nor
general's order
scheme
psychicalfacts ; but if the
directlyexpresses
led to give the
general begins to tell us how he was
describe the process of his
order,he will,in all probability,
assuming

its

the

right place, so

He

consciousness.

own

oscillated between

one

appearing better, and

that

the

of

state

an

end

to it

his mind

that

lines of conduct
the

other.

indecision, where

there

now

; and

unbearable

prompt action,became
put

us

alternative

time

us

tell

may

by fixingon

one

that

definite

He
was

he

for
;

now

may

tell

need

for

suddenly

decision,without

again,he may
describe
how
the decision emerged gradually out of his
previous hesitation,so that he awoke one morning with a
the rightone.
clear conviction that a certain course
was

any

real conviction

Much

has

worthiness

been
of

that it

written

was

about

the best.

the

far
in

as

an

and
difficulty

untrust-

urged that
basis,
it rests on
an
introspective
unsatisfactorycondition. But it

introspection. It

in so
ps}Tchology,
must
always be

Or

is

often

PSYCHOLOGY.

16

be remembered

must

he

command

his

that

from

receive

may

vast

[nun.

quite apart from any aid which

physiology,the psychologistlias at
of data

mass

which

due

not

are

to

have
This we
brought out in the preceding
introspection.
section on
presentedobjectsas data for psychology. It is
conceivable

that this class of data

alone

would

serve

as

the

hypotheses explanatory of the development of

mind.
Thus
we
might have a kind of psychology without
and
physiology.
yet quite distinct from
introspection,
What
introspectiondoes is to supply us with a direct
instead of a hypotheticalknowledge of mental
process.
is
It thus forms a source
of psychologicalmaterial
which
basis

of

invaluable
ultimate

and
test

explain how
mind.

unattainable
of

other

any

world

to

comes

ultimate

data

of

exist

the

But

the

power

to

means.

psychologicaltheories

the

The

by

is their
for the

science

individual
therefore

are

objectsas presentedto the individual mind, in successive

phases,and under varying conditions of its development.
to the alleged obscurities,fallacies,
and
Turning now
difficulties of introspection,
note
at the outset
that
we
may
do not
exist when
it has to
these
the questions which
made
broad
and simple. There
is
are
answer
sufficiently
that
no
fallacy,
obscurity,or ambiguity in the statement
I have

when

afraid

toothache

when

I dislike

it very

much,

or

that

white

figure in a churchyard.
There
is no
that
fallacyor ambiguity in the statement
that
or
feelingpleasedis different from feelingdispleased,
when
that an
action is totally
are
we
fully convinced
impossible,we cannot
voluntarilydetermine to perform it.

was

Facts

by

of this kind

everyone.

witli such

be

can

Now

simple and

of essential value.

saw

be observed
if

with

ease

could
introspection
obvious
It would

and

only supply

data, it would

supplyus

certainty

with

none

the

us

the less

general

DATA

" 2.]
which

in

terms

AND

METHODS.

describe

to

17

mental

The
more
process.
process in detail might be
other data as the ultimate

of such
precisedetermination
and dependent on
hypothetical,
To a largeextent
this is the
test of its correctness.
In this respect psychology is on
a
footingwith
If

sciences.

for

ask

we

the

actual

observations

case.

other

of the

theory
process of natural selection on which the Darwinian
find what
is based, we
very slender foundations
appear
of fact for a very
large superstructure. There are the
The real
experiencesof the breeder,and very little more.
data which
support the weight of the theoryconsist in the
of the actual productswhich the process is assumed
nature
to explain, the actual constitution of animal and vegetable
speciesin their higher and lower forms.
The deliverances of introspection
are
not, however, limited
obvious
issues as we
have
to such simple and
mentioned.
of observation,it is capableof being
Like all other modes
immensely improved by systematictrainingand practice.
The
plain man, as Dr. Sidgwickcalls him, has, as a rule,
no
permanent and absorbing interest in the workings of
His attention is mainly engrossed by other
his own
mind.
attitude is unfamiliar
to
objects. Thus, the introspective
is the chief reason
This unfamiliarity
him.
so
why he seems
"

called

helplesswhen
own

mental

illumination
discern
may

operations. Like a person passing from

at
he can
into a dimly-lightedroom,

little;

but

again, and
gradual progress.

the basis of

time

his

them

with

The
a

new

result

of

advance.

each

other, he

previous
This

peculiarto introspection.A man

beginningto observe in a systematicway

no

way

Psych.

full
first

of discrimination
power
repeatinghis observations again and
in

By
comparing

increase.

becomes

the finer details of his

to observe

on

makes

observation

is of
who

course

is

in

only

fine distinctions
2

PSYCHOLOGY.

18

tastes,smells,and

between

helplessness. Advance
of

series

It is indeed

it is

when

even

see

the

as

efforts of

notices

practisedobserver
to

colours,shows

is made

of successive

for the next.

the way

[CH. II.

at

cumulative

same

result

attention,each paving
a

But

pointed out.

that the

commonplace

what

once

at first tlie

fail

the untrained
besides

individual

of the
practicethere is yet another element in the training1
introspective
help from
psychologist.He derives immense
what
the work
of his predecessors. They teacli him
to
look

for,and

how

and

where

to look

for it. Thus

\vhat the

of one
introspection
generationhas achieved becomes the
of the
for f resli progress
in the introspection
starting-point
The
that has actuallybeen
made
in this
next.
advance
is immense,
at once
on
as
comparing from
way
appears
of Aristotle,
this point of view
the work, let us
say,
with

that of William

Nevertheless,it

James.

must

be admitted

that there

are

certain

drawbacks

attaching to the introspectiveprocess which

cannot
even
by sustained
wholly be overcome
practiceand
is that
systematictraining. The most important drawback
the mind
in watching its own
necessarily
workings must
have its attention divided between
two
objects, on the one
hand, the mental operationitself which is to be observed,
and on the other, the objectto which
this mental
operation
"

is directed.
attend
I

at

observe

attend

If I

once

what

observe

to what

takes

the

is seen,

place

process
and
in

of

to the

seeing, I
seeing of

attending, I

must

must

it.

If

first

something, and then to the process of attention.

if the introspective
and strenuous,
Thus
effort is sustained
it is examining.
it is apt to destroy the very object which
the mental
For by concentratingattention on
process, we
the objectof that process, and
it from
arrest
withdraw
so
when
it is directly
the process itself. Thus, introspection,
to

DATA

" 2.]
concerned

with

AND

METHODS.

19

mental

operationthat is in itself more

less absorbing, can
or
only proceed by taking a series
of transient
is, however,
side-glimpses.This difficulty
serious as it appears ; for, in the first place,retronot
spection
so
is to a large extent
free from it. By callingup a
immediatelyafter it is over we are often
process in memory
able to notice much
that escaped us when
it was
actually
In like manner
the astronomer
call up in
can
going on.
the
has
image of a star which
just passed
memory
before

his vision ; and

'escaped him
In

the

the

at

isolated observation

psychology,but

which

rather

is of

its actual

in mind

bear

must

details which

notice
of

moment

place,we

next

then

can

that

appearance.
the

it is not

importance in introspective
of

accumulation

the

had

vast

number

helping the others. Thus, what is

important is to acquire a general habit of alertness,a
perpetualreadiness to attend to the workings of our own
of

observations,each

minds
be

opportunitypresents itself ; and it must

constantlypresenting
opportunitiesare
have to observe
which we
subject-matter

whenever

noted

that

themselves

the

be set down
This may
as
a grand
perpetuallywith us.
compensatingin a high degree
advantage of introspection,
to be effective
for its drawbacks.
Finally,introspection,

is

for

the

advancement

carried

of

observation, be

in

co-operation.Each

own

results,for

an

essential

in

such

He

part

form

must

be

able

how

to

look

most

easy when

from

mere

for what

they
point out
he

the method

or

business

that
to

number

communicate

must

his

by

on

confirmation
of

modes

science, must, like other

of

can

of

the

experts
rest

rejection.Thus,
to

be

to others

himself

to

of

has

state

his

his

it is

results

by others.
exactlywhere and

tested

observed.

This

is

experiment,as distinguished

observation,is followed,and

constitutes

one

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

20

the main
of

true

advantages of that
one
individual,A, may

[en. n.
method.
not

Of course,

hold

good

what

of

is

another,

A by his own
to confirm
inability
experience
should
deter A from
settingdown as true for all men, or
holds good only for some
what
most
men,
persons, possibly
only for himself.
of Mental Process in Others. No one
" 3. Manifestations
observe what
is passing in the mind
of another.
can
directly
He can
only interpretexternal signs on the analogy of his
own
experience. These external signs always consist in
kind of bodily action or attitude.
Thus
when
some
a man
clenches his fist,stamps, etc., we
infer that he is angry.
When
its tail,
infer that it is pleased. The
a dog wags
we
guished
knowledge acquired in this way must be carefullydistinfrom
that which
is obtained
communicati
through interof language. When
tells
by means
a man
that he is or was
he is not directlyexpressing
us
angry,
his anger, but his knowledge of his anger.
He is conveying
to us the result of his own
of
introspection.This source
information
is in no way
peculiarto psychology. It does
B

but

B's

"

differ from

not

by

any

other

of words.

means

The

communication

of observed

facts

inference
peculiarly
psychological

signswhich may or may not be noticed or understood

On the other hand, comby the subjectwho displaysthem.
munication
of language necessarily
by means
pre-supposes
that the person communicating the information
is himself
of the meaning of the words
which
he uses.
He
aware
rests

must

on

first understand

understand
the

direct

him.

himself

It may

expressionof

in

happen
the

order
that the

mental

state

the

assertion about
it. He
own
subject's
unambiguous symptoms of anger, and
declare vehementlythat he is not angry.

make

others

inference

from

to

may

may
at

the

contradict

show
same

most

time

DATA

$3.]
In the

AXD

of the lower

case

METHODS.

animals

21

and

children,it
to
difficult,

young

and in the case

of savages
it is
impossible,
of their own
obtain verbal descriptions
mental
states and
This is partly because
they either do not use
processes.
language, or use a language inadequate for the purpose,
and partlybecause
Under
such
they are not introspective.
conditions
is to rely on
the interpretation
our
only course
of the appropriateexternal manifestations
of the processes
themselves.
difficult in
more
Interpretationbecomes
the mind
of the
proportionto the difference between
and the mind
which
he is investigating.The
psychologist
must
rest on
some
analogy between the two.
interpretation
But if the analogy is only partialand
accompanied by
It is in
a constructive
great diversity,
process is necessary.
mind
alone that the psychologist
has the constituent
his own
be framed.
elements
from
which
can
an
interpretation
of his own
"All depends on accurate
resolution
complex
and on
consciousness
into its constituents,
re -compounding
and in such proportionsas to explain
these in such a way
the nature
indicate to him the
and order of the signswhich
is

mental

savages
odds

and

of others."

processes

wide-spreadbelief
ends

to

For

in the
the

influence

finds among
of all kinds of

instancejhe
power

of

fortunes

the

person

This is a prevailingtendency of savage

possessingthem.
thought ; if the psychologistlooks for analogiesin his own
But they
he will find them few and far between.
mental life,
are

likelyto

not

which

he

inclined

either
to

be

be
has

There

wholly absent.
been

influenced

influenced,by

or

are

has

considerations

meaninglessas those on which the savage

fall of a picture,or the spillingof salt,or
as

of thirteen

at

table, may
*

make

him

uneasy

AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,p.

15.

moments

felt

in

strongly

in themselves
relies.
the

The

presence
in spite of

PSYCHOLOGY.

22

If lie has

reason.

been

ever

[CH. II.

by the gambling
irresistibly
prompted
having an essential

carried

away

impulse,he must have been almost

to regard quite irrelevant
details as
bearing on his winning or losing. In
the

mental

of

state

he

savage,

analysethese transient and

he approximates to
in which
are

overborne

so

attitudes

He

then

must

tendencies,that,in him,

conditions

other

by

construct

mental

savagery.

in which

mind

to

carefullyobserve

must

occasional

and

attempt to representa

order

to be

as

transient

and

unchecked
are
occasional,
by opposing forces,and for that
reason
happens
prominent and permanent. It sometimes
that

is

man

tendency himself,

in condemnation
the criminal
The

of the
have

must

snare
besetting

to

assume

be

the

that
natural

act

an

be

never

been

mental

that

us

say

its
his

anything

crimes,except

that

eccentric.

very

is the tendency
psychologist

of the

of

manifestation

in himself

which

attitude

or

tells

brought to

atrocious

most

of

understand

to

Lamb

Thus, Charles

friend,George Dyer, could

kind

certain

is unable

he

that

in others.

presence

of

destitute

so

certain

mental

would
process

of
meaning in the case
The
another.
fallacylies in taking this or that isolated
action
apart from the totalityof the conditions under
the
seductive
when
It is particularly
which
it appears.
of a
is the object of inquiry. The
animal mind
economy
beehive
to ends, as to
displayssuch adaptation of means
faculty
previsionand political
suggest stronglyfar-reaching

therefore,have

must,

of

kind

human

to trust

the other

in the

this first
actions

examine

in detail

perform

the

constitute the

the

same

impression.

of bees
how

separate

and

it would

But

bees.

We

must

acts

orderlyscheme

first consider

similar insects ;

the individuals

which
of

in

be very

we

concerned
their

must

rash
all
also

severally

combination'

of bee society.
organization

DATA

$ 3.]
We

shall

then

AND

find

METHODS.

that

behaviour, especially
on

the

23

essential

most

the part of the

modes

queen-bee, are

of
due

congenitaltendencies,which operate independentlyof

previousexperience. We must further take into account
the physical organisationof the bees.
Their
nervous
from
the
system differs so widely and in such a manner
to

human,
very
human

to make

as

us

hesitate

before

large a share of processes

beings. Finally,we find

which

makes

the

ascribingto them
characteristic
especially
that the division

so

of

of labour

bee

community possible,is directly

determined
by congenitaldifferences of physicalorganisation.
The
queen-bee, the worker, and the drone,
differ not only in their actual
behaviour, but in their
The
bodily constitution.
bodily constitution is so prearranged
to be
as
by nature
adapted for certain special
functions.
Here all analogy with the political
organisation
of human
This is a typicalinstance.
beings breaks down.
The
lesson to be learnt from
it is that in investigating
the
mental
conditions
of persons
animals
or
widely
removed
in their general circumstances
conditions
and
from

our

can

must

assume

an

have

taken

into

we

until

suspense
which

own,

we

have

warning is the more

constructed
to
language is especially
states of human
beings,and this means
the

workings

the
are

to

so

human.
almost
go

on

introduce
often

are

as

to mislead

of minds

critical

everything

problem.
important because

This

constructed

account

of

the

bearing on

attitude

us

when

describe

we

that differ in any

the

that it is

attempt

human
mental

especially

to describe

great degree from

implicationsof the words we

compelled to use in describingwhat we suppose
in the mind
of a dog or a cat surreptitiously
wiiich may
be quite false, and
interpretations
all things necessary
It is,therefore,above
so.
The

very

PSYCHOLOGY.

24

[CH. n.

language, avoiding popular

phraseology,and substitutingtechnical terms with fixed
A horse, having had a feed
meanings carefullydefined.
accord at
at a certain place on
one
day, stops of his own
the second
that place on
journey. People say that it
remembers
being fed there before, and infers that it will
with
be fed there again. In all probabilitythese words
their human
implicationsare quite misleading. Suppose
in these

to criticise

cases

that the driver

a

drink

of the horse
of

matter

as

our

is

bibulous
whenever

course

he

takes

who

person,

to

comes

public-houseon the road. In order to do this he need not go

through the process of remembering that he has had a
drink at a public-housebefore,or of inferringthat he can
drink at a public-houseagain. He
have
a
simply has a
bias to stop at a public-house whenever
he comes
to one.
ing
Probably the horse's act impliesjustas little of rememberor
inferring.

" 4.
observe

under

conditions

The
the

issue

that

is to

is the introduction
such

as

are

may

of

observation

involves

be

more

of

experiment

have

we

ourselves

is intended

to

is to

arranged.
pre-

simplify

decided, by excluding irrelevant

sense

apparatus and

employed by
be

used
which

than

one

primary question may

under

To

"

psychologyhas always been

is especially
modern
experimental. What

extent

some

which

pre-arrangement

In this wide

conditions.
to

Observation.

and

Experiment

certain

the

of

have

with

any

described.

them,

be, what

measurement,

physical sciences.

in connexion
we

of exact

and

kind

often
of

periment
Ex-

of the modes
It

generally

all three.

objectwill

The

be presented

A
assignable conditions.
simple
illustration is afforded by the old Aristotelian experiment
of holding an
the second
objectbetween
finger and the
of the hand, not in their usual position,
but with
forefinger

"4.]

DATA

AND

METHODS.

25

second

the

fingercrossingbackwards
over
these circumstances,there
arises

the

forefinger.
a
perceptionof
doubleness, so that we appear to be touching two distinct
Here
the questionis,what
objectsinstead of one.
object
do we
perceiveunder the given conditions ? Is it singleor
double ?
We
also put a question to introspection
may
Under

and

proper,
that

which

ask

how

far

exists in

our

mental

attitude

in which

ordinarycases

resembles

objects

two

perceivedby touch, e.g., when two oppositesides of the

In my
same
own
fingerare touched.
case, for instance,
I find that when
two
oppositesides of the same
fingerare
are

touched, the
unmistakable.
of

sense

of doubleness

appearance
With

the crossed

strangeness and

is

definite and

more

is

fingersthere

hesitancy which

is absent

certain
in the

Another
in which
case
ordinaryperceptionof doubleness.
the primary questionrelates to the presentedobjectis that
of our
stock example
the stereoscope.Here the conditions
of perception are
of a special
pre-arranged by means
these conditions,
apparatus, and the question is, what, under
is the nature
of the objectapprehended ?
Here,
too, the introspective
inquirymay be also raised,if we ask
whether
our
apprehensionof the objectis direct or due to
of inference.
It is also possibleto make
a process
ments
experiin which
the primary issue is introspective.
Thus,
we
attempt to will something which we know to bo
may
do so or not.
in order to find out whether
can
we
impossible,
taneously
Or again, we
deliberately
attempt to attend simulmay
disconnected
to two
objects,with the view of
discoveringwhether attention can be so divided.
Finally,we may experiment on the connexion between a
"

mental
it is
of

state

and

possibleto

mental

its external

discover

process

many

which

manifestation.
subtle
evade

signs

In this way,
and

symptoms

ordinary observation.

PSYCHOLOGY.

26

instance, variations

For

in

[CH.ir.
circulation

the

of the

blood,

and in muscular
accompanying
respiration,
power,
be accuratelymeasured
various
phases of emotion, may
this kind
of experiment
by physical apparatus. In principle,
Whenever
in ordinary life.
often
occurs
we
in order
do a thing to a person,
to see
say a thing or
he will take
how
are
it,we
performing a psychological
experiment.
It is clear that the experimentalmethod
does not disclose
of psychologicaldata.
It is
new
source
essentially
any
under
test conditions,deliberately
only observation
prearranged
of settlinga definite question.
for the purpose
It is not quite accurate
to define it merely as observation
and

in

Helen

or

deliberate
things, without
any
preour
come
part. All pathologicalcases
In such cases
as those of Laura
Bridgman
have
we
an
opportunity of observing,

on

this head.

under

under

Keller

test

of

But the test conditions

are

the

blind

the

conditions,what

effect,in the absence

by

psychologist. He
and

arise in the

may

of

ordinary course
arrangement

test conditions

For

test conditions.

under

deaf

from

of touch

sense

alone

can

sight,hearing, smell, and taste.

such as could not be pre-arranged
is not permittedto make
people

their

birth

in

order

to

watch

the

consequences.
The
but

experimental method

it has

which

we

also
wish

in the normal

by
the

artificial

certain
to

course

are
investigate

of mental

arrangements.
of ideas

which

interests

is determined

subjectsthe

in
mind

often

drawbacks.

association

question

has

labour
us

The
often

and
life,
For

is how

great advantages;
such

conditions

as

conditions
occur

interfered

are

only
with

instance,experiments on
under
the

this

which

defect.

succession

ordinary thinking.
to

very

But
are

The

of ideas

experiment
quite remote

DATA

" 4.]
those

from

of

the

isolated

presentedto
idea which

AND

normal

words

which
interest,

as

this is to cultivate

27

of

thought. In experiment,
objects are
successively

other

and

of them

of

flow

or

person,

each

METHODS.

he is called

on

to

suggeststo him.

the first

name

Thus, continuity

is

all-importantin ordinarythinking,is
excluded.
Another
the experimental
question in which
method
is seriously
defective is that relating
to the mental
of words.
When
we
imagery accompanying the use
select a word, and ask ourselves what imagery
deliberately
it calls up in our
minds, we are by the very process of our
inquiryinterferingwith the result. We are looking for
mental
imagery, and we have no right to affirm that the
imagery which we find would be present if we had not
been
in such a case
looking for it. The only safe course
frequentlycatch

may
a

natural

in

manner

perpetual readiness
minds,

own

that

or

the habit

most

The
been

without

Titchener.

at

of

it

the

possiblefor

exact

observer

If

we

say

investigatorscan
judge whether our

we

so

enthusiastic

to

out

get

ditions
specialconbeing (1) to render

performed,and (2)to
disturbinginfluences during
first

at the desired

preciselyhow
go through
conclusions

trial,test,or

repeat the test,in the

will to
was

advocates,

certain

conditions

it

psychologist.
introspective
has
experimentalmethod

under

who

to rule

his observation,and
form.

the

difficult and

most

experiment is

An

in which

manner

help the

one

any

of its most
"

objectof

once

the

observation, carefullymade
:

that

in the act of

of the

equipment

specialfunction
well stated by one

Professor

watchfulness,so

using words in
the ordinarycourse
of thought. This
is taking place in our
to notice what
deliberatelyresolvingto do so, on this
ourselves

specialoccasion, is

necessary

of

we

the
are

have
same

rightor

result in

worked,

pure

other

processes, and
j and if
wrong

PSYCHOLOGY.

28

in

do the work

[CH. n.

instruments,
lilting
place,with, fitting
without
hurry or interruption,guarding against any
influence
which
is foreign to the matter
in hand, and
which
might conceivablyalter our observation,we may be
of obtaining pure
follow
sure
results,results which
from the conditions
laid down
directly
by us, and are not
due
to the
or
operation of any unforeseen
unregulated
of observation,
causes.
Experiment thus secures
accuracy
we

'

'

and

the connection

while it enables

of every

observers

result with

its

own

conditions

in all parts of the world

to work

togetherupon one and the same

psychological
problem."*
A
science
becomes
more
" 5. Quantitative Methods.
it deals
in proportion as
with
exact
exactly measured
effort has been made
quantities.Of late years, a strenuous
the duration
and intensity
of psychicalprocess.
to measure
called reaction-time
What
are
experimentsare intended to
of simple mental
the duration
measure
operations. "It is
two
the
agreed between
experimenter and
persons,
"

'

the

'

'
reactor, that

on

the

of

occurrence

certain

sensory

stimulusf(givenby the experimenter)a certain movement

shall be made
(by the reactor).
"J The time elapsing
between

the

execution

of the

measured.

"be

or

formed

responsivemovement
of the
becoming aware
in

until

An

"fSuch
acting on

' '

sensory.
Outline
as
an

the

In

the

the

of Psychology,p
sound

organ

Op. cit.,
p. 319.

of

of
sense

In

two

"

and

follow

former

the

accurately

it is

effect of the

at

once

stimulus,

have
case,

been
we

compound, reaction.""

forms,

the

muscular
the

muscular,

reactor

and

is

35

falling body.
such

may

the

latter,of

has

to

connections

certain

consciousness.

speak of a simple,in
The
simple reaction
the

in response

movement

restrained

stimulus

sensory

The

the

upon

of the

occurrence

as

the eye

Ibid,p. 320.

sensory
or

the

stimulus
ear.

is a stimulus

" 5.
directed

to

hold

AND

METHODS.

his

attention

from

which

movement

stimulus."*

is

In the

his attention
and

DATA

sensor

from

to withhold

the

stimulus."!One

the

muscular
than

reactor

waits

outset

of these
in

occurs

When
sensory.
is fixed in preparationfor
he

upon
to

response

the

sensory

stimulus,
sensed

experiments is that
distinctlyshorter

the
a

the

is directed to hold

until he has

movement

the

until

the

upon

result

outset

in

the reactor

"

reaction

the

made

y,

the reaction

that

time

be

to

29

attention

of

the

coming sensation,he

is

of the presence
of the
aware
distinctly
before
sensation
reacting. On the other hand, in the
muscular
reaction, the reactor, being pre-occupiedwith
making ready for his own
reaction,need not wait tillhe is
of the presence
of the sensation.
Hence
he
fullyaware
becomes
with
practiceable to react before he has any
distinct consciousness
of it. The
it
as
stimulus, as soon
begins to operate, produces simultaneouslysensation and
The
reaction.
time taken
by the simple reaction varies
sensorial
The
of the stimulus.
according to the nature
reaction to light lasts about
270-thousandths
of a second.
letter
of a second is symbolisedby the Greek
A thousandth
The
muscular
The
reaction
to light lasts 180"r.
a.

sensorial
1200-.

reaction

The

sensorial

the muscular

sound

lasts 225

reaction

to

a,

and

pressure

the

muscular

lasts 210"r

and

llOo-.

Accuracy of
An

to

measurement

electric clock

is secured

apparatus.
by special
it is called,marks

chronoscope,as
thousandths
of a second.
The
productionof the stimulus
sets this clock going. The
finger of the reactor all the
he makes
time rests lightlyon the button.
The movement
by way of reaction consists in a slightpressure on this
button, which immediately stops the clock.
*

or

Op. cit.,
p. 325,

f Ibid.,
p. 323,

PSYCHOLOGY.

30

In

the

The

between
them.

the black

of the

white

either white

when

white

as

he has
; but

he

of

one

either

cognised
does

not

two

black

or

be further

may

although he
only. "Thus

is

looked

that he has

which

react

for.

on

knowledge

when

of the

him,

to

them,

and

be told that he will be shown

that he is to react

measurement

of

one

one

light
has cognisedthis
colour ;
particular

he

particularbrightnessor
is said."f
nothing more
explicit

The

conditions

submitted

as

The

definite

no

be

to

are

expected to
he may

stimulus,and
stimulus

is to be

varied,so

alternatives

the

but

to

brightnessqualitiesto expect in
particular
experiment."* In this case, he knows that

each

of

the

or

nate
discrimi-

to

on

he will be shown

that he is to react

black

which

called

be told "that

he may

as

be

may

complicationsare

sensations,reacting only

white, and

or

know

reactor

two

Thus

black

reaction,various

compound

introduced.

[CH. ir.

of psychicalstates
intensity

is

attended
of the
of

due to the intrinsic nature

by peculiardifficulties,
The
quantityto be measured.
degree of loudness

sound

be

can

direct

be broken

cannot

marked

off from

comparison

quarter, or
sounds

which

be

with
can

between

of

be

inches

difference

them.

In

between

long,is
between
*

that

loud
so

as
as

one

is

half,

the other.
to

make

The

the

or

two

fainter

part of the louder, leaving a remainder

regarded as the quantitativedifference
this

quantity. The
quantities is itself

ten

as

superposed

extensive

difference

sounds

two

third, or twice

cannot

coincide

up into fractional parts which

each
other.
We
cannot
say by

two

respect intensive
difference
an

lines,one

itself

Op, cit.,
p.

328.

two

from
sive
exten-

quantity. The
foot long and the other
the
inches long. But

extensive
a

line two

the loudness

between

differs

of two

sounds

f Ibid.,p.

329.

is not

itself

DATA

$ 5.]
sound

having

each,

from

differs from

the

as

one

desperateas it
intensive quantityas

but

we

interval

take

in loudness
difference
a

we

of measurement

between
in loudness

of others ;

the difference

able
A

to

and

between

and

/3. Thus, if

we
increasinggradationsof intensity,
pointof departure any given intensityin

our

We

then

can

arrange

or

are
Suppose that we
sounds, two pairs of sounds.
and 11,the other by
and /3.
judge whether the difference
B
is or is not equal to the

scale of

as

take

cannot

intensities.

two

are

Clearlywe

magnitude

the unit of measurement

unit

as

between

find that

horses

two

intensive

measure

appears.

instead of two
considering,
Symbolise the one pair by

We

between

horse."*

so

may

"The

quantities,in fact,differs

difference

Nevertheless,the attempt to
is not

31

assignable loudness.

intensive

two

much

as

METHODS.

certain

between

difference

AND

other

intensities

have

we

take

may

the scale.

in relation

this,

to

proceedingby intervals which we judge to be equal. By

counting these equal intervals we can assign a numerical
value to any intensity
is of
in the scale.
The
unit which
ence
is the least perceptible
viz. that differmost
use
difference,
between
makes
it justpossible
two
intensities which
for

to be

us

aware

that

there

is

difference

class
perceptibledifferences in the same
are
regarded as equal to each other,because
equal when compared.
Instead of measuring psychicalprocess, we

least

its external

to the

Ti.,p.

conditions,and

of intensities

they
may
we

measurement

Russell
334.

"On

of variations
the Relations

of Number

in the
and

appear

measure

also

may

objectswhich are presentedby means

example of the first kind of procedure,we may

an

*B.

or

All

all.

the

measure

As

manifestations

at

circulation

of it.
refer
of the

Quantity,"Mind,

N. S.

PSYCHOLOGY.

32

[CH. n.

of the

lungs,under varyingphases
and pleasantor painfulfeeling. The
of emotion
ment
measureit can
be
of the presentedobject is of value when
brought into definite relation with varying conditions of
presentation.The best example is supplied by recent
certain geometricalillusions of visual
attempts to measure
perception. The following is a good illustration. Two
each intersected
lines in realityparallelare
by slanting
cross-lines,the cross-lines of the one
being opposed
The
in direction to the cross-lines of the other.
parallel
but as diverging
then not perceived
lines are
as
parallel,
blood, and

in
if

in the

direction

the

action

in

X
X

XX

X
X

XXX
XXX

the

cross-lines

converging in

produced, and

XXXX

which

the

X X XXXX
\ \
X X X

XX
X X

X
XX

XX

meet

oppositedirection.

X
X

XXX

XX

would

XXX

rig. i.

Now,

the

of

have
we
illusion,
only
substitute for parallellines lines reallyconvergent
to
in such
and
a
manner
degree that they appear parallel
under
the same
conditions.
The
degree of convergence
the
of
amount
required for this purpose
measures
the illusion. By this means
it is possibleto trace the
to

measure

variations which

take

amount

placein

the

amount

of the illusion

DATA

" 5.]
with

variations

in

AND

the

accordingto the number

It exists in

fainter

METHODS.

conditions.
and

33

It

is

obliquityof

degree when

the

found
the

to

vary

cross-lines.

cross-lines

merely
when
the parallelswithout
meet
or
intersecting,
they
definite
approach them without meeting. By establishing
values for these varying cases
valuable data
quantitative
sion
the process on which
the illuare
suppliedfor discovering
depends. Actual experiments of this kind of course
be
contrived apparatus. The lines may
requirea specially
be readily
threads, which can
representedby moveable
adjustedat will so as to be parallelor to deviate from
in varying degrees,the deviation being accurately
parallelism
measured
by a scale. In this particular
case, the
solution of the problem has not been
reached,
definitely
has far
method
but there is no doubt that the quantitative
a

the best chance

Psych.

of

success.

III.

CHAPTEE

1.

"

It

is

"

mind,

the

without

see

without

But

satisfactory

no

reference

the

to

they

reference

the

to

objects.

determining

the

mind

when

we

psychological
of

of

best

make

This

have

is not

this

point

of

easy
this

on

and

chapter

returning

to

on

student

the

first

having
34

side

as

arise

re.ad. the

but

book

the

For
a

all

relation
cations
modifi-

produce
only

recommended

reading,

in

and

only

volitions

is

to

body

produce

ear

or

act

we

motion.

difficulties

The

it after

eye

without

difficulty

regarded

conscious

Serious
subject.

be

must

Impressions

an

and

the

relations

no

bodily

sensation

of

contractions.

the

on

or

between

relation

without

which

spatial

our

practically

the

view

in

consciousness,

understand

to

of

agencies,

can

and

sense

by

the

We

life
of

move

motion

mental

movement

is

cannot

and

organs

change

There

purposes

interaction.

muscular

and

nature

the

external
of

cannot

impossible.

the

of
from

instruments

peripheral

of

account

world

surrounding

be

We

we

This

regards

as

motion.

sensation

would

receive

far

so

ears

without

mechanism

external

and

of

organ

it woiks.

true

without

construction

impressions

the

hear

consciousness

of

give

on

or

eyes,

evidently

sensation

of

organs

muscles.

process

is

Mental

of

is the

body

which

through

matter

peripheral

Consequents

the

that

saying

instrument

the

of

account

the

the

"

old

an

and

Antecedents

Physiological

Process.

HIND.*

AND

BODY

to

should

when
do

his

certainly

through.

BODY

" 1.]
\we

push

"of

nervous

.traction follows

"

MIND.

is excited
of

disturbance

conscious

to

the

of

matter

grey

transmitted

to

the

system,may

Consciousness

either

which

the

is
which

occurrences

are

brain.

take

the

from

Tegarded, like

impulse

which

nervous

and

in consciousness

inversely. The
mediating function

the
The

process.

as

senses,

relation

change
nervous

produces change

which

the intervention

immediately,without
This

occurrences.

conscious

in the

of

one

in the

"

Viewed

nuclei
sheet

broadly,the

of grey

matter

mainly, if

is found

cortex, which

is the

brain

of any

nervous

is

of grey matter, .about

one-fifth of

in
a

tions.
sensa-

those

and

in
exclusively,

of white

deeply imbedded

sense,

neural

highestpart of
mass

set up

other material
of

not

action.
inter-

consciousness

with

connexion

unmediated

occurrences

the cerebral

connected

are

be

may

organs

is

sequences
con-

mediate
inter-

constitute

and

processes

of

directly

and

or

volition

is

mechanism,
change in the nervous
in the first instance by impressionson the organs of
produces changes experiencedin consciousness as
for
different
is essentially
the case
But

:mechanism,

is

parts

some

that

change
They thus

change

the muscles

Conscious

produce

sense

consciousness,or

with

fulfil this

."service of mental

of

this process

consciousness.

which

system.

nervous

an

up

nervous

peripheral organs,

mechanisms

the

organs

In

directlyconnected

stages between
in

con-

regarded as intermediate links.

with
the
immediately connected
These
occurrences
placein them.
conditions
of the nervous
changes

antecedent

with

Muscular

be

not

ensuing
connected

the relation

the
change in consciousness
only when
by an impulse which has its originin a

nervous

examine

process.

.Similarly,
impressions on the
sensations
only when
they set

are

35

inquiryfurther back, and

our

process

muscle

AND

the brain.

matter, with

it,and
square

with
meter

in

PSYCHOLOGY.

36

between

and

area

folds,fissures,and

overlyingsheet

and

two

For

of

present

our

far

so

they

as

Before

cortex.

are

convenient

give

to

causes

or

conscious

lie beneath

of nuclei

called
of

nuclei

The

matter.

the

of grey
of

sub-cortical

nerve-fibres,serving to
and

cortex

cortical

the

conduct

sub-cortical

the relation
it will

which

f
Mechanism.

"

lies below

cranium.

the

This

imbedded

tion
por-

in white

constitute
white

be

parts of the

Nervous

what

are

consists

matter

impulses between

centres, and

themselves.

centres

The

centres.

in the

processes

those

matter
matter

grey

only

the cortex.

" 2. Function of the Sub- Cortical

The
portion of the nervous
system
is partlycontained
within
cortex
the
consists

consciousness

process,

of

serious

parts

questionof

account

which

structure

nervous

and

cess.
pro-

other

effects of

to the vital

some

without

may

with

of the

conscious

taking place in

connected

This

cortex

or

with

we

as

cortical process

between

connexion

purposes,

coming

its surface."*

is the rind

processes

system

nervous

of

matter

grey

thick,coveringthe

mm.

convolutions

inaccuracy regard all

of the

three

is in immediate

brain, and

[CH. in.

between

Running through

the

the subthe

trunk

body, behind the viscera,there is another important

the spinal cord.
At its
portion of the nervous
system

of the

"

end

upper
receives

it enters

separate name,

simply, the

or

and

the

strands

bulb.

surface

Dr.

f The

of

of nerve-fibre

the sub-cortical
*

the

Waller,

should
in

and

and

this

portion

is called the medulla

Nerve-fibres

connect

of it

oblongata,

the

muscles

the

body with the spinal cord, and

pass upwards along the cord itself to

centres.

Human

student

cranium,

Physiology,
p.
make

518.

point

of

reading the chapters

good Physiology. Lessons I. and

Elementary Physiology(Macmillan " Co.,price 4s. 6d.),

on

the

nervous

system

Davis's

Elementary Physiology(Blackie'sScience Text-Books, price 2s.),

some

XI.
and

in

Huxley's

Ch.

IX.

in

AND

BODY

$ 2.]

MIND.

37

portions of the nervous

system
and
to
serve
modify impulses passing between
convey
peripheralorgans and the cortex ; but they also discharge
which
functions
are
independent of their connexion with
the cortex.
They are organs of what is called reflex action.
such
take
actions
Reflex
are
as
place in a fixed and
in response
to an
uniform
manner
appropriate external
sub-cortical

These

the

Without

stimulus.
stimulus

they

do

not

operates they
they are interfered

on
seen

in

the

interference

when

excluded, which

be

the

external

whenever

invariably,

by the simultaneous
tions
operastimulus,or by processes going
typicalcharacteristics are best

the part of the cerebral

on

may

external

with

Their

cortex.

of the

inevitably and

occur

external

of another

presence

and

occur,

stimulus
unless

actual

effected

cortex

by simply removing

is
the

"We
hemispheres from the brain of an animal.
perhaps broadly describe the behaviour of a frog,from
may
which
the cerebral
hemispheres only have been removed,
by saying that such an animal, though exhibiting no
of appropriate
spontaneous movements, can, by the application
stimuli,be induced to perform all or nearly all the
entire frog is capable of executing.
which
movements
an
Left to
to crawl.
It can
be made
to swim, to leap, and
be called the natural posture of
what may
it assumes
itself,
the fore limbs erect,and the hind limbs flexed,
a frog,with
cerebral

an
angle
body makes
it is resting. When
surface on which
placed on
it immediately regainsthis natural posture. When
so

will

that

put

the

him

in

line

of

the

possessionof

the

most

essential facts.

deeply into the matter, Dr. "Waller's

be safelyrecommended.
Green, " Co.),may

more

Parts
"

III. and

IY.

of Dr.

Co.) are necessary.

and can
possiblesketch,

M.

Foster's

What

have

only serve,

at

said

For

most,

in
as

its

the

back,

placed

wishes

to go

Physiology(Longmans,

Human

Text-Book

If he

with

the

advanced

student,

of Physiology(Macmillan
is the roughest
the text
a

reminder.

PSYCHOLOGY.

38

on

board, it does

[en. in.

fall from

not

the board

displacethe animal's
up the board until it gains a new
of gravity is restored to its

is tilted up
it crawls
its centre

so

movements

exactly those

are

they need

to

as

the latter
of

gravity;
positionin which
place. Its
proper
entire frog,except that
call them
forth.
They

an

stimulus

external

an

of

when

to

centre

fundamentally from those of an entire

frog in the followingimportant feature : they inevitably
end
the stimulus is applied; they come
follow when
to an
the stimulus
when
to act.
ceases
By continuallyvarying
which
it is placed,the frog
the inclination of a board
on
be made
to continue
crawling almost indefinitely
; but
may
such a positionthat
to assume
directlythe board is made
the crawling ceases
the body of the frog is in equilibrium,
;
the animal
will remain
be not disturbed
and if the position
differ,moreover,

impassiveand

for

into water, the

thrown

in the

about
swim

quiet

which

it

to

placedon

the water

with

wood,

the

begins

creature

there

exhausted, if

come

can

indefinite time.

If

rest.

swim

will continue

nothing present
small piece of wood

it,and

upon

to

once

When

be

frog will,when

the

crawl

at

and

regular manner,

most

until it is

almost

an

it
so

on

be

in contact

comes

come

to

to

rest.

If

by being placed on
its back, it immediately strugglesto regain that posture ;
only by the applicationof continued force can it be kept
Such
a
frog, if its flanks be gently
lying on its back.
stroked,will croak ; and the croaks follow so regularlyand
disturbed

from

its natural

surely upon

the

strokes

played upon

like

posture, as

that

the

musical, or

movements

if it be

have

not

of the animal

urged to

move

at least

an

may

almost

acoustic

be

ment.
instru-

and their
opticnerves
the
been injuredby the operation,
to be influenced by light;
appear

Moreover, provided that

arrangements

animal

in any

the

it seems
direction,
particular

BODY

" 2.]
in its progress

to

strong shadow
sometimes
careful

AND

avoid

obstacle.

cast

as

left

right or

In

fact, even

between

such

a
or

to

frog and

frog,which was
slightand
appear

would
the

least such,

to the

course

differences

observer, the

entire

an

its
the

over

39

obstacles,at

; it turns

leaps

MIND.

animal

without

its

stimulus, and

every

movement,
to

result,will
The

simply very stupidor very inert,

unimportant except in this,that
cerebral hemispheres is obedient to
each

that

stimulus

with

whereas

evokes

an

appropriate
possible
entire animal, it is im-

the

predictwhether any result at all,and if so what

of this or that stimulus."*
follow the application

characteristic

of reflex action which

Foster

Professor

going
emphasises is its lack of spontaneity its thoroughdependence on the actual present operation of a
stimulus
external
to the
nervous
Experiments
system.
of the kind he describes have been performedon birds and
well as
rabbits
on
as
frogs. The results are, broadly,

here

"

similar, except
of

appearance
time

to

that

in

the

spontaneitywhen
from

recover

the shock

spontaneityis too small

invalidate

in
the

of the

degree and
general

to

function

of the sub-cortical centres

characteristic
the

same

way

the results of

sort

of

in., "The

conclusion

sufficient
this
in its

that

working by

the

selves
them-

Closelyconnected with lack

and
is another
equally important
in
It takes place invariably
action.

of reflex

without

being

past actions.

modified

Whether

accordance

in

it is

with

accompanied by

at least affirm

that it

process of learningby

of Physiology. By Dr. M. Foster.

Central Nervous
System," pp. 1000, 1001.

Text-Boole

some

operation.But
too ambiguous

when

experienceor not, we may

is characterised
by the absence of the
experience.
any

is

wholly reflex.

spontaneity there

of

there

has had

the animal

nature,

is almost

birds

of

case

Sixth

Edition.

Part

PSYCHOLOGY.

40

[CH. in.

and lack of the

spontaneity,
by experience,do not necessarily
imply
Lack

of

in the widest

consciousness

of

power

the absence

of the word.

sense

learning
of

It would

all
be

dogmaticallythat the frog

without
its hemispheres is entirelydevoid
of any kind of
has
it is so or not is a questionwhich
feeling. Whether
been
much
shall not
here
disputed, and we
attempt to
decide
it. But
there is one
point which emerges
clearly
from
the experiment: this is that the working of the
sub-cortical mechanism, togetherwith whatever
ness
consciousit,is capableof takingplaceseparately
may
accompany
from, and independentlyof,processes in the cortex. If this
the hemispheres are
removed, it may also
happens when
happen when they are present. In so far as the sub -cortical
ness
centres
operate independentlyof the cortex, any consciousvery

which
from
the

affirm

rash, therefore,to

their action will be disconnected

accompany

may

the

consciousness

cortex.

But

which

the

accompanies

the

which

consciousness

action

of

accompanies

cortical process.
with
intelligentaction is associated
Now
intelligentconsciousness, capable of learning by
in all but
the lowest
grades of
experience,constitutes,
animal
of consciousness.
stream
Thus,
life,the main
though the independent action of the sub-cortical centres
it
be wholly unconscious,whatever
consciousness
not
may
involves
life in

does

and

man

sub-cortical

form

not

the

centres

part of the main

higher animals.
ceases

to be

Only

and

form

part

This

is borne

injuryto
lower

of the conscious

the

and

out

by

when

separate and

manner
brings into play in a marked
cortex, is it accompanied by conscious

of mental

current

spinalcord, the
higher parts of

the action of the

modifications

experience.

functional
the

cord

in

independent,

life of the individual

human

process

as

In

connection
may

be

which
a

whole.

cases

of

between

destroyed.

BODY

"2.]
If
are

under

conditions
will

tickled,they

himself
he

these

is in

no

be

aware

might

AND

the

be

41

soles of

jerked
of

aware

way

MIND.

patient'sfeet
but

away;

what

of the movement

the

the

man

takes
of

place,except as
foreignbody. Quite

apart from

this sort,reflex actions

are

involve in any

conditions of
pathological
constantly
going on, which do not
way

the

The

pupil of

and

similar

consciousness

of the

individual

as

able
apprecia

whole.

the eye is

constantlycontracted and expanded

in accordance
with
varying degrees of illumination. In
eating,morsels of food are swallowed
by reflex action. We
reflex way.
These
are
constantlybreathing in the same
processes
of
matters.

On

and

can

the

individual

the

other

do
is

hand,

go

on

while

the

pre-occupiedwith
there

are

certain

sciousness
con-

other
reflex

such as sneezing,coughing, and withdrawal

of the
actions,
hand, when
or
scalded, which usually
suddenly burned
involve
consciousness.
A
for instance,produced
sneeze,
by Cayenne pepper, can hardly take place unconsciously.
But whenever
such actions are
unmistakably accompanied
by consciousness, it is evident that the stimulus which
produces them excites in a conspicuous way the cortex
wrell as
the sub-cortical centres.
as
Intelligentattention
is either
it is
the situation,or
on
brought to bear
disturbed
and
deranged by the violence of the shock.
When
a
pin is suddenly plunged into a man's leg, he
But
at the
same
time, there
jumps, by reflex action.
is a marked
consciousness.
disturbance
of his intelligent
been
The
have
train of thought, with
which
he
may
his
off and
is broken
pre-occupied at the moment,
whole
attitude
mental
changed. The sensation which
violent disturbing
has not the same
introduces a sneeze

effect ;

by

but

so

far

as

consciousness, it

it is
tends

conspicuouslyaccompanied
to

attract

attention

and

to

PSYCHOLOGY.

42

[CH. in.

The
produce intelligentadaptation to circumstances.
man
pulls out his handkerchief,or the like. When
the main
of consciousness
stream
is very
intentlypreoccupied,
external
excite

cortical

reflex

action

Thus,

when

stimulants
fail to

process,

which

of

the

which
do

would
and

so

otherwise

merely produce

individual

is

unconscious.

much

some
pre-occupied with
without being
absorbing object,we may cough or yawn
the facts we
of it. From
have stated,
aware
clude
conwe
may
that the cortex
is pre-eminently,
if not exclusively,
the seat of those processes which are immediatelycorrelated

with

individual

Besides
cortical
which

consciousness.

being
cortex

mechanism

complex
The

centres.

mechanism

constitute

centres

the

The
of

are

we

is

complex

playingupon
simple constituent
and

action,the

by

apparatus

an

subof

means

of the organism.
produces movements
for the
relativelysimple constituents

activities

cortex

reflex

of

contained

activities

the lower

co-ordination

of movements

Simultaneous

co-ordination

It

are

in

which
a

sub-cortical

produced by

the

evoke

the

to

as

taneous
order, simul-

certain

is, above
of

the

centres, so

movements

successive.

in

all, the

is due

complex

to

successive
the

cortex.

is involved

kind

cortex

purely reflex actions.

a
biologicalpoint of view, the function of the
is adaptation to
irregularlyvarying conditions.

Reflex

action will suffice to maintain

which

has

in many
From

way

on

the

the life of

merely to perform simple actions

recurrence

of uniform

external

in

an
a

animal
uniform

conditions.

But

fluctuatingadaptation to fluctuatingconditions is
inadequate, and often
required,reflex action becomes
Action must
be varied in correspondence
actuallyharmful.
not be
with the results of previousaction,so that it may

where

BODY

" 3.]

circumstances

repeated in
For

with

Bhuns

fire,and

the moth

so

3.

and

In

"

the

between

nervous

brought

face

cortex

least

at

fact,and

to

at all certain

The

be

can

of

as

process
cortex

are

life.

To

that there

connected

with

It

also

removal

loss
than

any

other.

of mental
when

before

as

definite
mass

of

other

direct relation

this is

extent

question
there

But

be

cannot

he has

that

tion
general correla-

whole

as

and

cortical

specialparts

of

mental
among

function,"

specialmental
result

Just

as

was
a

man

not

involve

process

the

rather

general impairment
still breathes

as

only one lung, except that he does so

was
supposed that a part of the brain
be

substituted for the

side, the phrenologistsmaintained

theory of

the

of

dischargedeach
that injurydone to

substance,did

only

power.

only

whole, so

it
so
efficiently,
manner
might in the same
the

Nervous

and

that the cortex

of any

The

less

On

action is reflex,

this "localisation

of part of its

impairment

or

candle-name,

specialconstituents of the
the prevailingdoctrine

held

was

of its separate functions

it,or

have

some

process

but

whole,

it is called.

the

Conscious

we

is not

generation ago
was
opposed to
physiologists
as

; but

by specialevidence.
in which we
speculation,

conscious
a

burns

conclusions.

our

facts show
between

future

settled

field for

wide

child

so
process and conscious process, and are
the question of the ultimate
face with

of their connexion.

nature

burnt

moth's

of

jurious.
in-

The

.againinto

Correlation

proved

organization

nervous

required.

singed every time. The

child is intelligent.

Immediate

Process.

is also

the

it has

itself from

saves

again

43

which

it is

that of the

of

are
intelligence

will dash

though

"

nnder

and
this,intelligence,

correlated
the

MIND.

AND

localisation.

and
psychological

But

their

doctrine

crudities.
physiological

whole.
a

very

was

They

PSYCHOLOGY.

4*

[en.m.

mapped out the brain into organs

corresponding-to
complex faculties,such as
acquisitiveness,combativeand
the like.
orderliness,constructiveness,
ness, ideality,
Such
scheme
is a
of
a
psychologicalabsurdity. Each
these faculties involves
the cooperationof a vast number
of fundamental

varying
of

Thus

the

who

man

alphabet for
obvious

enter

processes

constitution

assume

piecesfor

every

word.

every

same

different

game

Besides

of

board

chess,or

this

in

of the different

procedure of phrenology is like

should

different set of

the

into the

combination

faculties.

and

processes,

there

that

and

separate

is

very

anatomical

objection against the

supposed
evidence adduced
by the phrenologist. This consisted in
the reading of character by the feelingof bumps ; but as
of fact,the external
conformation
of the skull is
a matter
far from
accuratelycorrespondingto the development of
the

brain.

But

the

most

supplied by
about

the

localised.

what

modes
So

far

good evidence, it
among

crushing
has

been

in which
as

the

is found

different parts

refutation

of

ascertained
cerebral

cortex

that

has
the

not
corresponds,

phrenology
in

recent

is

years

functions
been

actuallyare
mapped out on

division
to

of

function

complex faculties,

One
bodilyorgans of sensation and movement.
portionof the cortex, anatomicallyconnected with the eye,
correlated with visual consciousness,
in the way
is specially
mental
of sensation
or
imagery. Another, anatomically
connected
with the ear, has a similar relation to auditory
touchconnected
with
is specially
experience. Another
The
of
the
limbs.
with
movements
sensations, and
based
is partly
these conclusions
which
evidence
are
on
gathered from experiments on animals, and partly from
is most
The
pathologicalevidence
pathologicaldata.
but

to the

BODY

" 3.]

important

and

AND

MIND.

45

Diseases

unambiguous.
ideas by means

munication
affectingcomof
of language have
been
the general name
aphasia are
especiallyuseful. Under
defects of varying kinds.
embraced
The patientmay
many
to articulate words, although he
be simply unable
can

understand

he

when

them

hears

them.

This

is motor

connected
with lesion of
aphasia,and it has been definitely
volution.*
a
specialpart of the brain called the third frontal conand yet
Again, a man
maybe able to articulate,
words
such when
he hears
lack the power
to distinguish
as
them.

hears

He

sound,

but

they

indeed

them
not

are

as

for him

confused

words.

of

stream

is sensory,

This

perceptualaphasia,and it is connected
accurately,
with lesion of a special
portionof the auditoryarea of the
to
cortex.
recognise written words
Similarly,inability
with lesion of a special
for what
they are is connected
or,

more

portion of

visual

the

indications

These

area.

serve

may

by localisation!of cerebral
functions, and the methods
by which it is determined.
that our
But
be remembered
it must
ignorance is still
incomparably greater than our knowledge. The student
also be warned
must
againstsupposing that localisation is
various activities
"The
definite and precisein its nature.
making up the business of the brain do not take placeall
show

to

what

its

over

the

are

Of

of

country without

industry go

different

the

left

hemisphere

hemisphere in left-handed
t In localisation what
brain

and

the material

conscious
its connexion

process

with

the

in

in

on

activities

spots, as if in walled

certain
*

meant

in

surface,as

all kinds

where
nor

is

towns

and

villages,

every

hut

or

tent

absolutely restricted
brain

The

towns.

right-handed

persons,

the

to

is

cortex
of

and

right

persons.
is

locallymarked

off is

certain

place in it.
is not, strictlyspeaking, localised.
localised
brain-processremains to

processes

which

take

portionof

The

the

ing
correspondThe

nature

be discussed.

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

46

[cir.irr.

its
comparable with either of these extreme
cases;
Avith
be recognised as
possessing towns
territorymust
with
lapping
stragglingand overspecialindustries,but towns
not

and

suburbs,

predominant

each

of

industries

all other

other

that

in

centre,

industries

other

described

kind

of the

that

given centre,

in which

centres

Data

in

industries

indeed,

are,

but

exclusive

not

excluded

nor

from

predominate."*
efficient help
us
no

afford

how
cortical process
is
precisely
related to the correspondingconscious process.
There
are,
in the main, three alternative
interaction,
possibilities,
On the interaction
one-sided
action, and simple concomitance.
hypothesis,a cerebral process may produce a state of
produce a
consciousness,just as a nervous
may
process
muscular
or
as
contraction,
change in one part of the cortex
produce change in another part; and, inversely,a
may
when

we

to consider

come

"

conscious

process,

the cortex

justas

such
acts

volition,
may

as

on

the cortex,

centres, and

sub-cortical

on

act

these

on

the muscles.
The

objectionto this view is that the

pre-supposed is utterlyincongruous

main

interaction

kind
with

of
the

conceptionof causation on which the whole system of our

knowledge both of physicaland psychicalprocess is based.
take
of science to explain how
It is the function
events
their
occurrence
place, or, in other words, to make
far as we
can
intelligible
; but this is only possiblein so
discover
enable
cause;
as

such
to

us

connexion

of

explain is

and

one

ideal
*

how

words,

to exhibit

is the

between

understand

or, in other

parts

This

of

the

the

same
as

cause

continuous
the

effect

effect follows

resultant

science,and

Waller's

and

exhibit

must

we

fact

cause

Physiology,
pp.

it is

never

534-535.

will

as

from
and

process.

the

effect
To

of its factors.

completely

BODY

I 3.]
But

attained.
is felt to be
Now

we

of

and

process

total

and

the

nothing

of

and
be

of

connexion

the

on

molecules
the

have

processes

The
and

space,

laws

which

of their

ponent
com-

evidently have

between
No

occurrence.

assigned why

find

we

entirelyoutside
the one
on
hand,

bodies

relation

conscious

lies

other.

in

between

process,

two

physicalnature

positionof

with
a

conscious

continuity.The

Their

and
do

to

occurrence

knowledge

the direct connexion

process

change

atoms

world

of

knowledge

of conscious

govern

47

unattained,our

correlated

factor.

common
our

it is

as

to

come

complete solution

no

far

so

MIND.

incomplete.

when

nervous

in

AND

material

in the

reason

the

change produced in the

of the cortex
pulpy substance
by lightof a certain
grey
wave-length should be accompanied by the sensation red,
and why that produced by lightof a different wave-length
should
be
It is
accompanied by the sensation green.
that a state of volition should
be
equally unintelligible
followed
by a change in the substance of the cortex and so
mediatelyby the contraction of a muscle.
The same
is felt from a practical
well as from
as
difficulty
theoretical
The
in his
a
point of view.
physiologist,
endeavour
to make
necting
organic processes intelligible,
by conthem
with
the general order of physicalnature,
does not
but regard the presence
of a factor which
cannot
serious stumbling-block,
into this order as
most
enter
a
which

can

upset all his calculations.

may

puttingthe objectionfrom
the intervention
would
This

is not

is

law

this

of conscious

contradict

the

process

law

expresslyfor

factor is introduced

which

favourite

point of view, is to
of

in

conservation

is not

material

of

way
say

that

physiological
cess
proof energy.

the conservation

strictly
true, because

framed

system

of energy
; when

material,though

the law

PSYCHOLOGY.

48

be

not

may

it
applicable,

conditions
interfering
is not

violated

when

[CH. in.

is not

violated.

Apart

from

will fall to the earth ; this law

stones

I lift a stone

in my

hand.

Similarly
no
change in the material world, as such, produces loss or
ferred
gain'of power to do work; the power being merely transfrom one
portionof matter to another.
Nevertheless,
it is quite conceivable
that loss or gain of energy
might
from the operationof a factor w^hich does not belong
ensue
world at all. But, though no contradiction
to the material
is involved in such a supposition,
it is clear that the fresh
creation of material
would
by conscious
energy
process
introduce
incalculable
and disturbingfactor,seriously
an
scientific discovery and
of
interferingwith the work
explanation. Nor is this objectionlimited to the law of
conservation
of energy ; it applies to all the ultimate
which
our
on
principles
knowledge of the physicalworld is
based.
So far as the conservation
of energy
is concerned,
it might be supposed that there is a transfer of energy
material
from
to conscious
Physical
process
process.
into intensity
and complexity
might be transformed
energy
and vice versa.
of consciousness,
But there is no
sufficient
evidence
of this,and
all that we
know
trary
pointsin the condirection.
calculable

in

Intensive

such

quantity is
to make

not

measurable

and

it

comparable with
of energy.
other forms
The hypothesisof interaction,
it
is clear,labours under very serious difficulties,
and though
be pronounced impossible,
it cannot
yet it will be well to
avoid it,if we
find some
alternative which
is on
the
can
whole

more

To

the

matter

on

way

as

tolerable.
second

mind,

one-sided
alternative,
or

of mind

on

action, either

matter, the

of

theoretical

have
been
objectionswhich
brought against interaction
apply with equal force. It also involves the additional

BODY

" 3.]
that
difficulty

Yet

MIND.

49

all other action with which

is interaction.
to

AND

One-sided

action

would

general experienceof

our

we

are

acquainted,

therefore

the

order

be

trary
con-

of nature.

the

hypothesisthat matter
sciousness,
causallydetermines conwithout being itselfdetermined
by consciousness,
is one
which has so much
that it requiresspecial
currency
criticism.
This
doctrine of materialism,as
it is called,
seems
incapable of any precise statement; whatever
it possesses, arises from the use, or rather from
plausibility
the misuse, of the word function. Digestionis a function
of the alimentarycanal ; breathing is a function
of the
lungs ; why cannot we simply affirm that consciousness is
of the brain?
The objectionis,that we
do not
a function
make
two
word
to
things the same
by applying the same
in their own
nature
them, when
they are radicallyand
different.
When
we
essentially
say that digestionis a
function
of the stomach, we
that digestionis the
mean
stomach
that
we
engaged in digesting. When
say
that
mean
breathing is a function of the lungs, we
In describing
the process
breathingis the lungs at work.
of digestion,
itself as
ipsofacto,describe the stomach
we,
engaged in the process. In describingthe process of
breathing,we, ipso facto, describe the lungs as filling
themselves
and expelling
with air by a certain movement,
if we
describe the
it by an
alternate
But
movement.
consciousness at
brain at work, there is no need to mention
all ; and
in naming and
describingconscious processes,
there
the

is

need

no

brain

as

the contraction

to

mention

the

physiological
organ
of muscles

in

process

of consciousness

Psych,

is to

function

The

cannot

to

mention

of

the

move

is the result of neural

have
describingit we
system, includingthe cortex, as

and

brain.

body ;
impulses;

the

engaged in it.
be analysedor

nervous

But

the

resolved
4

PSYCHOLOGY.

50

[CH. m.

physicalchanges in
is supposed to be produced by
nerve-cells.
If consciousness
the nervous
process, the productionis simplycreation out of
nothing. An objectionof an equallyserious kind is that
of agency
the materialistic theorydestroysall possibility
on
the part of conscious beings. According to it,the appearance
into

such, processes

connexion

of causal
itself is
of

illusion ;

an

reasoning;

sole

in

cause

view,
lifted

consequence

of emotion.

interfere

only
makes

that

man

that

but

by

with

We
from

now

the
as

is called

what

to

do
This

of

train

The

motives.

can,

No

of the
this

on

ever

man

No

so.

tears

were

questionis
materialism

times
some-

would

free-will;in truth, it

of
operationof consciousness
is not only
whatever.
The
logicalconsequence
does anything freely,
conscious being never
as
a
does anything at all.
no
man
ever
to the third hypothesis. This differs both
come
much
theory of interaction and from materialism,inasit

separates the

real

The

formula

which

it

uses

of

consciousness

the facts without

and
one

emerge

conscious

creates

for this purpose

which
psycho-physical
parallelism,

modifications

theoretical

of facts from

statement

explanation.Its first problem is to state

nervous
implying direct interaction between
change, and without
implying that the
other.

to

modification

action.
to

due

process

suppositionthat

the

impossible any
kind

any

due

Similarlyconscious
external

of consciousness

ever

certain

he willed

confused

was

ever

fingerbecause

the

ever

was

was

determine

never

the process

judgment

no

case

every

and

within

volition

no

system.

nervous

chemical

as

the

is that

simply states that

contemporaneously

of
nervous
corresponding modifications
process.
The
nervous
changes are
supposed to be
parts of
the total continuous
of the physicaluniverse, so
process
conditions to
but material
that science will require none

with

" 4.]

the

other

the

moving
process

concomitant

muscles

in

When

the external

what

and

volition

with

the

the

movement.

regarded as

which

appropriatemuscles

of the

account

; but

us

it is not

an

do not

matter

contain

of the

their

own

conscious

it is simply a
principle,
sets

in motion

facts

with

if it were

cause

of the cortical

Similarly, the
of the

cause

the

ment,
move-

cortical process
This

in contraction.

facts

they are
formulating these

merely a way of
explanatorytheory. On

of cortical and

which

the

covers

it is

formulation

true

if it were

it is correlated

as

the

the

the sensation.

cause

sensation.

volition may
be
inasmuch

to

sets

produces

so

but does not

with

correlated

sets

such.

which

impressionmaybe regarded as
it.is a cause
as
sensation,inasmuch

process

nexion
con-

as
itself,

external

of the

is causal

impression is followed by a sensation,

impressionproduces is a cortical process,

"which is concomitant
The

the

with

contraction
external

an

there

hand,

parallelwith the material,

When
a bodily action,such
as
volition,it is the cortical
upon

finger,follows

51

runs

itself material.

is not

MIND.

of consciousness

process

psychicalcausation

This
but

AND

On

explain tliem.
within

BODY

as

known
facts ;

the contrary, if it is

it is evident

that these

facts

explanation. If the concomitance

process is regarded as an ultimate
miracle.

the muscles

That

the cortical process

moving

the

fingershould

accompanied by the conscious volition to

the fingerwithout
causal connexion
between
move
them,
is in itself utterlyunintelligible.
If we
to find an
are
explanation,we must frame some
hypothesis to account
for psycho-physicalparallelism,
and in so
are
doing we
compelled to plunge into ontology.
ism.
Parallel" 4. MetaphysicalExplanation of Psycho-Physical
If the doctrine of psycho-physical
parallelismis true,
happen

to

be

"

the

reason

of the connexion

between

conscious

process

and

52

PSYCHOLOGY.

the

correlated
and

nervous

be

nervous

the

and

it is within

of their

reason

the individual

in

Both

the

must

comprehensive system

more

this

connexion

found

be

to

themselves.

processes

regarded as belonging to
;

is not

process

conscious

of conditions

[en. in.

system

is to

be

consciousness,as

as

whole

that

In

cular,
parti-

sought.
know

we

be

it,must

regarded as a fragment of a wider wTholo,by which its

As
the
determined.
brain
origin and its changes are
forms
only a fragmentary portionof the total system of
material
the stream
of
must
assume
phenomena, so we
individual

consciousness

immaterial

system.

immaterial

system

world

in

related

its

to

world

individual

in
with

correlated

total

sphere of

process

acts

have
as

the

is
of

cortex

system the individual

:

within

this

interaction
and

is
the

system

virtually
material

which

to

system

this relation

within

yet
whole
be

in the cortex.

occurrences

nervous

its own

system

consciousness

process

immaterial

this

the

belongs is correlated with material

general,as the individual consciousness is

volition sets the

We

conscious

that

consciousness

phenomena
a

the

individual

this

an

the material

to

taking place in

But

part of

assume

related

immaterial

on.

manner

further

determining factor

between

for

is

in like

is
totality
the

the

is acted

interaction

its

processes

Within

and

be

must

totalityas

consciousness
it acts

We

in

nervous

the brain.

to

When

fingermoving, the volition acts within

influence,and the correspondingcortical
its

own

sphere of

to consider

to

the

relation

the material

regarded

influence.
of the immaterial

system
of

as

whole.

If

parallelismor
far from being
so
concomitance,the fundamental
difficulty,
removed, is aggravated. To obtain lighton this ultimate
point of departure.
question,we must take an entirelynew
consider the problem of the ultimate
of
nature
must
We
as

one

mere

BODY

" 4.]

but

wo

do

To

matter.

The

53

length,is of course
impossible;
explanationof psycho-physical
lelism
paralon

an

idealistic view

of material

sensible

exist only
qualitiesof matter
which, have certain experiencesin the way
of
The extension,configuration,
and other qualities

for minds
sensation.
of material

bodies

of conscious
constituents

scientific theories
mind.

MIXD.

at

ultimatelybased

phenomena.

modes

here

say that the

may

is

so

AXD

In

are

abstract
that

consciousness

Matter, as perceivedand

constructions
makes

of the

which

presupposes
cognisanceof it.

takes

conceived

science, is essentiallya

simply

or

appearance

human

material

matter

by common
phenomenon ; and

means

of certain

the ultimate
experience. In like manner,
of matter
as
they are recognised by

general,all

some

the existence

all pre-suppose

sense

and

phenomenon

presentation.There

can

be

presentationapart from a subject to

the nature
which an objectappears
or is presented. Hence
of matter
known
is constituted by its being known, or at
as
On the other hand, it is equallycertain
least knowable.
no

appearance

or

that the existence of what

is known

to

us

as

matter

depend on our knowledge of it. ^Ve do not

material
as
Only its appearance
phenomenon

make

does

not

matter.

is

dependent
it follows that, so far as it exists independHence
us.
on
ently
of its presentationto a cognitivesubject,it cannot
have
material
properties,such as extension, hardness,
which
It is an
colour, weight, and the like.
agency
is an essential condition of material
phenomena, but is not
led by a quite
Thus
itself a material phenomenon.
we
are
conclusion
which
different line of investigation
to the same
was
suggested by the relation of conscious process to
The
world
of material
nervous
phenomena presupposes
process.
a

system of immaterial

system

the

individual

agency.

consciousness

In

terial
this imma-

originates.To

PSYCHOLOGY.

54

the sensational

it,in

some

form

the basis of

is

it the

on

way,

changes in
the

of

individual

as

of the material

consciousness

the material

matter, in

world.

as

produces
is possiblebecause

of immaterial

Some

agency.

what

we

exists

independently
perceiving subject.

matter

possible presentation to a
theory has been purposely stated in
are
varying views as to the nature

There

It

it

is identical with

its

This

which

world.

when

acts

All this

agency
far

so

due

experiencesare

knowledge

our

system of immaterial

know

[CH. in.

say that it is

vague
the

of

form.

system

will,others that

thought, others that it is unknowable

; in any
guard againstthe assumption that
case, the student should
immaterial
the
system is a sort of repetitionof the
material
sort of interactions,
system, involvingthe same
it is absolute

and

similar distinctions

thing seems
speaking of

clear,
"

it

and

that

relations

we

are

its

in

parts.

One

truth

the

nearer

consciousness,than

as

of

speaking

of it

in
as

matter.

" 5.
the

Conclusion.

immediate
Of

process.

"

We

have

connexion

these,what

discussed

between
we

have

three

conscious
described

theories
and

as

of

nervous

materialism

and
other
two, interaction
rejected. The
advocates
the
best psyeach
have
parallelism,
chologist
among
and metaphysicians of the present day. The
to avoid hastilydeciding between
student is recommended
The
them.
hypothesisof parallelismis that to which we
the known
inclined.
It certainlycovers
ourselves
are
convenient
working hypothesis.
facts,and forms the most
attach to the theory of
the difficulties which
It escapes
that it does so only
be admitted
But it must
interaction.
bold speculation.
by somewhat
of psychothe doctrine
For
psychologicalpurposes
good
is,as we have said,a sufficiently
physicalparallelism
must

be

BODY

hypothesis,

working

in

validity

the

student

forward

in

Hence

writers.
is

facts

one

other

or

it
take

note

general

profoundly

is

to

be

these

of

we

indication

important

theories.
be

to

necessary
that

interpreted

do

not

of

as

pretend
the

topic.

main

to

lines

in

put

popular

thought

for
of

favour
stood
misundershould

reader

given
of

place,

formula

the

have

of

are

being

But

explicit.

rest

by

give

avoid

To

rule,

and

decision

the

second

fashion
to

attempt

in

concomitance

air

dogmatic

mere

as

the

the

to

the

interest

simple

in

upon

because

cannot,

In

are

less

or

apt

the

processes.

more

of

subject

the

on

and

mind,

passed

advisable

first,

keen

planation
ex-

entered

thought
:

feels

statement

mental

and

theories

the

the

been

its

have

and

reasons

and

body

with

nervous

two

always

between

satisfied

has

of

theoretical

we

proper,

mode

assume

the

indicating

It

for

course

as

accordingly

psychology

of

merely

parallelism

speculation.

intelligent
relation

In

55

it

shall

psycho-physical

this

adopt

We

limits

ontological

MIND.

take

we

work.

this
of

beyond

if

facts.

formulating"

AND

than

more

on

this

BOOK

I,

GENERAL

ANALYSIS.

CHAPTEE

ULTIMATE

"

1.

Introductory.
with
and

thinking

about

which

towards
way

more

fully
say

that

They
time

"
very

are

2.

not

they

are

in

distinct

of

sense.

or

knowing,

total

same

states

which

word

The
It

cognisant

state

of

an

object.
56

of

and

we

being

conative

probability

consciousness.
each

here

in

other

whole.

concrete

used

degrees
word

it

striving;

the

all

succeed

The

in

Thus,

and
in

and

feel

we

bringing

by

and

is

We

tendency

modes

one

in

emotionally

feeling,

of

or

(1)

(2)

reverse.

cognition
all modes

covers

of

object

either

normally

are

ways

object.

feeling attitude,

are

three

are

ultimate

cerned
con-

something

its

the

or

partial constituents
"

life, we

otherwise

or

it,

three

the

the

waking

experience

we

are

three

Cognition.

wide

it,

(3)

object:

an

united

always

aware

there

These

attitude.

the

transform

or

cognitive attitude,

the

of

consciousness,

into

of

conscious

it ;

alter

to

some

to

with

normally

there

related

cognisance

is

perceiving

Now

is

displeased

or

affected

may

of

In

always,

something.

kind

some

CONSCIOUS.

other.

or

perhaps

BEING

consciousness

Human

"

consciousness

our

pleased

OF

object

some

usually,

have

MODES

I.

of

in

being

object must

MODES

" 2.]
be taken

not
we

can

to

in any
before

see

mean

way
me

on

to

me,

I think

whenever

CONSCIOUS.

57

merely material object,but

be aware
of or cognisantof.
the table is an object to me,
The
immortalityof the soul

perceiveit.
objectto me whenever
as

BEING

OF

word

the

use

of it.

Nothing

nothing

whatever
The

book

inasmuch
is also

is

and

an

an

object

attach

To
meaning to it ; so is a Centaur when I imagine one.
perceiveor think at all is to perceiveor think of something,
it is perceived
and this something,justbecause
or
thought
of, is an objectpresentedto consciousness.
The use
of the words
presentedand presentationrequires
to be
we
perceiveor think of an
explained. Whenever
the objectmust
have its specific
nature
by which it
object,
the specific
is distinguishable
from
other objects. Now
nature
of the object as
perceived or thought of presupposes
of the
a
correspondinglyspecificmodification
individual
consciousness
which
perceivesor thinks of it.
of consciousness
As the stream
successivelytakes cognisance
itself pass
of various
through
objects,it must
correspondinglyvarying states. The distinctive nature of
the object is apprehended only in so far as the object is
of consciousness
qualifiedby the specificmodifications
which
exist in the moment
of cognition. This leads up to
the

definition

of

word

the

presentation. Whatever

stituents
con-

directly
experienceat any moment
determine
the nature
of the object as
it is perceivedor
thought of at that moment, belong to the cognitiveside of
of

our

total

our

nature, and

called

are

Suppose that what

sensible quality,such
the sensation
red.

The

the sensible

red

as

presentations.

perceive at

I could

sensation

Here

given

is therefore
a

moment

is

will
difficulty

having
sensible quality
presentationof

Without

red.

perceivethe

not

of red

quality.

colour

the

no

doubt

occur

PSYCHOLOGY.

58

r.

the
distinguishbetween
not say
and
the sensible quality? "Why do we
sensation
is itself the
is one
sensation
that the
object? There
which
makes
consideration
obvious
plain the need for this
distinction.
I can
perceivethe sensible qualityagain and
again on different occasions,and identifyit as the same.

student.

the

to

do

[BK. I., CH.

"Why

separate occasion

But

on

each

The

sensations

are

so

we

I have

separate sensation.

distinct events

many

or

occurrences

historyof my individual experience. The sensible

qualityis not an event in the historyof my experienceat
be perceivedand identified
It is an objectwhich
aH.
may
different phases of my
the same
in many
as
life-history
The
distinction becomes
same
widely separated in time.
if we
take other instances.
If I perceive
still more
obvious
a
triangle,my
perception is not triangular, it is not
made
angles. On the other hand, the
up of lines and
I see it is not an occurrence
triangleas it appears to me when
in the historyof my
individual
consciousness
; it is a
geometricalfigure,which is a very different thing. Again,
in a moment
think of eternity
of time I may
: it is obvious
modifications
of consciousness
that the specific
which
exist
wThile I am
and disappearafter I have
thinkingof eternity,
in the

"

ceased

to think

of

it,are

not

themselves

eternityor

eternal.

I may
think of non-existence
Similarly,
actually
; this is an
modes
of consciousness
existingthought ; and the specific
which
nature
must
give it its specific
actuallyexist. They
therefore be identified writh the objectof the thought,
cannot
is non-existence.*
The
be
which
object itself can never
identified with

It may
and

twice.
purposes

the

nevertheless

present modifications
be

true

presented object we
they form

Doubtless
the

distinction

must

are
an

that

in

of the

individual

distinguishing between
tion
presentain a sense
counting the same
thing over
inseparableunity ; but for psychological
be made.
If we
are
counting the same

MODES

" 2.]
consciousness
when

even

by
we

are

consciousness.
think

of another

partiallydistinct
think.

we

OF

which

BEING

it is

CONSCIOUS.

cognised.

thinking about
The

"Whenever

This

modifications

holds

true

of

own

our

conscious

conscious
from

59

the
we

we
experience in which
experience is always at least
conscious
experienceof which

try

to

think

of

an

immediate

do so
as
such, we can
experience of our
only by
own,
investingit with attributes and relations which are not
themselves
For
immediately experiencedat the moment.
in consciousness
example, I may think of a momentary
appearance
in my
mental
as
an
occurrence
history,an
incident in my
experience. But neither my experience,as
a
whole, nor the positionsand relations of any part within
that whole
be given as a transient phase of individual
can
consciousness.
The
consciousness
is only one
momentary
link in the series which
constitutes my
experience."*
and its objectare
not to
Though cognitiveconsciousness
be identified,
the less intimatelycorrelated.
they are none
Differences
in the nature
of the object as presented presuppose
modifications
of
correspondingly differentiated
consciousness.
These special
modes
of subjective
experience
the direction of thought or perwhich define and determine
ception
to this or that specialobject
are
presentations. We
choose, that the object itself is presented,
say, if we
may
but we
must
not
say that it is a presentation
; and when
we
say that it is presented,it is better to say that it is
presented to consciousness,than that it is presentedin
consciousness.
In the perceptionof a tree the reference
"

thing over twice,we are at least regarding it from two essentiallydifferent

In the one
case
points of view.
we
are
regarding it as qualifying the
of
which
individual
the
is cognisant ; in the other,
consciousness
object
we
are
regarding it as qualifying the stream of individual consciousness
itself.
*

vol. i.,
Analytic Psychology,
p.

44.

PSYCHOLOGY.

60

objectis

circumscribed

I., en.
[BE:.

and

1.

directed

by a plexus of
visual and other presentations.The
objectthought of is
It is a material thing and not
thereby made determinate.
to

an

mental

occurrence,

tree

and

not

oak

stone, an

and

not

elm."*4

an

Besides having cognisanceof

-Attitude.
" 3. The Feeling
pleased,
object,we are usually,if not always, pleased or dis"

an

satisfied

partiallythe

one

or

and

dissatisfied

with

partiallythe

it, and

other.

sometimes

This

feeling-

not
cognition. We canhave no
we
a thingwhen
cognisanceof it. Even when we have no cognisanceof it,
it may
produce an agreeableor disagreeablefeelingin us ;
but this causal relation is quitedifferent from that between
subjectand object.We may feel displeasedwith a glaring
our
displeasureis caused by vibrations
light. Doubtless
know
in the luminiferous
ether; but if we
nothing of
the objectof
cannot
these vibrations,
we
say that they are
in the psychological
our
meaning of the word
displeasuref,
object.Therefore,from a psychologicalpointof view, we
feel displeased
with them.
cannot
say that we
total consciousness
be entirely
at any moment
Can
our
?
This is a question
of pleasure and
devoid
displeasure
be
first sight tempted to answer
at
which
we
may
I may,
it would
decidedly in the affirmative.
seem,
perceive a stone, or a clod of earth, or a geometrical
diagram, without feelingeither agreeablyor disagreeably
the
towards
these
affected
objects. But
apparent
look
of
this answer
we
disappears when
plausibility
do we
notice these
more
closelyinto the case.
Why

the existence
attitude pre-supposes
with
feel pleasedor displeased

of

Analytic Psychology,vol. i.,p 47.

is ordinarilyused to signifyresentment.
+ The
term
displeasure
make
it signifysimply the opposite of being pleased.
work we
shall
see
later,is ambiguous.
pain,as we

In
The

this
term

" 3.]

MODES

OF

BEING

CONSCIOUS.

61

objectsat all ? Perhaps \ve do so merely with the view of

settling
by experiment the questionwe are now
discussing.
But if that be so, the issue of the experiment itself is more
less satisfactoryor
in some
are
or
unsatisfactory. We
own
firmed,
degree pleased that our
pre-conceivedview is conor
displeasedbecause it is apparently upset. If
have
pleased
no
are
we
pre-conceivedview, we
pleased or disdo
because
do riot succeed
in obtaining
we
or
the questionproposed. Thus, the affirmative
to
an
answer
under
these
turns
out
answer
special conditions
due
have
taken
to
into
to be
not
an
oversight. We
in relation to the object,
total consciousness
account
our
but only a small and unimportant part of it. Now, suppose
motive
for noticing
that, instead of having a pre-existing
the object, we
simply take cognisance of it because it
Here
it may
be said
happens to pass before our
eyes.
that we
are
purely neutral in regard to it. But there are
tilings
presentedto our bodilyvision of which we take
many
no
cognisance. The more
pre-occupiedwe are, the more
If this or
that object so
entirelythey escape notice.
itself when
obtrudes
minds
our
are
pre-engaged on some
other topicas to divert the current
of our
thoughts,it must
have
interest of a pleasantor unpleasant character.
some
If it does not
divert the current
of our
thoughts, the
cognisancewe take of it will be slightand transient,and
will form
only a small and insignificant
portionof our total
consciousness.

Thus

our

total consciousness

may

involve

pleasantor painfulinterest,
although this small portionof
it does not
contribute
in any
appreciabledegree to its
pleasantnessor unpleasantness. Again, our minds may be
comparativelydisengaged,so that they are free to attend
to surrounding things but it is the characteristic
of these
;
idle moods
bored by
that we
less amused
or
are
more
or

PSYCHOLOGY.

C2

[BK. I., en.

I.

objectswhich obtrude themselves on our senses.

to be that .our
total
On the whole, the presumption appears
The
student
is never
consciousness
must
entirelyneutral.
here be warned
fallacy: we are apt to
againsta common
when
that we
are
we
only pleased or displeased,
suppose
expresslynotice,at the time, that we are, or remember
afterwards
that we have been, pleasedor displeased.But in
when
the pleasantness
fact we
or
only notice or remember
is a
or
unpleasantness is speciallyconspicuous. There
customary level of agreeableor disagreeablefeelingwhich

the trivial

apt to

treat

we

are

not

notice that

cold

hot

are

state.

In like manner,

cold,unless

or

we

feel

do

we

hot

more

or

usual.

is shown

when

we

to appear

ceases

fact,sound

of

to

us

sort

some

what

from

pass

complete absence

stillmore
then

neutral

Similarly,what we call silence is not

silence,but only a comparative absence of sound.

than

absolute
This

we

as

of sound.
as

is

call silence to

The

previous state

of silence. As

one
never

we

wholly absent
probabilitythe

matter

from

of
our

is in all
with
case
experience. The same
pleasure or displeasure. One or the other or both, are
always in some
degree present, although we by no means

always

notice their

When

belongs

wish

we

this

to

presence.
to

or

say

that

that
mental

pleasure
process,

displeasure

or
we

say

that

is

Feelingpleasantlyor unpleasantlytoned.
is a generic word
for pleasure and
tone
pain. It is
less
not
only
ambiguous than
feeling alone, which
other
has
applicationsin ordinary language, but
many
in psychology is to some
extent
even
required for other
shall
Hence, as a technical expression,we
purposes.
henceforward
the reference
is
when
speak of feeling-tone
the process

to

pleasure-pain.
Are

there

other

kinds

of

feeling-attitudebesides

?
displeasure

and

pleasure

It is difficult to

are.

would

It

that

such

as

there

anger

and

and

love

as

63

seem

bring emotions,

sentiments, such

fear, and

CONSCIOUS.

BEING

OF

MODES

$4.]

hate, completely
emotion, like anger,

head.

an
Certainly,
be said that
kind of cognition
involves some
; but it cannot
the
the specific
qualifies
experienceof being angry directly
ob ject ; in other words, this experience
of the presented
nature
is not a presentation.So, too, anger has feeling-tone,
mostly
But its specific
of an
qualitycannot be
unpleasant kind.
resolved
into pleasureor displeasure.Again, it involves

under

other

any

active tendencies

certain characteristic

peculiarand unanalysablemode
be

cannot

resolved

these.

into

; but

is in it

there

of

being conscious,which

We

clude
must, therefore,con-

complex emotion of anger there is included

distinct from
being pleased or
feeling-attitude
specific
that in the

the

The

reverse.

" 4.

said of the other

The

emotions.

designatedby
craving,longing,yearning,endeavour, effort,

as

desire,wish, and
In all of them

be

may
Attitude.

Conative

The

words

such

same

will,have

there

is

"

characteristic

one

inherent

an

states

in

common.

pass beyond
This tendency

tendency to

something different.
mode
is not only a fact but an experience; and the peculiar
constitutes the experience,is
of being conscious, which
and

themselves

called

conation.

become

The

process

is

of consciousness

process

change ; the changes are partlydue to the play

and to other conditions extraneous
external impressions,
if ever,
itself. But this is rarely,
consciousness
entirely

of incessant
of
to

part self-determining. The successive

phases have, by their very nature, a tendency to pass into
so.

other
and

The

process

phases.
its

in relation

The

stream

is determined

course

but

is in

by

its

to the

own

of consciousness
not

drift at

merely by
any

has

current

external

ditions,
con-

Considered

moment.

presentedobject,conation

is

tendency

PSYCHOLOGY.

64

to alter

make

it,or

consciousness,or
before

difference

some

to

[BK. I.,

bring

it

more

en.

i.

in

it,to expel it from

vividlyand completely

consciousness.

also produces or tends to produce changes

activity
in the body and in the external world.
But we
must
fully
careconation.
separate these changes from
They are
The end to which
it
by which it may work.
merely means
is directed is always some
itself.
change in consciousness
If I will to blow a candle out, the mental
does not
activity
of my
lie in the contraction
muscles, nor yet in the effect
It is the
produced on the candle as a physicaloccurrence.
of it,which
is
resultingdarkness, in so far as I am aware
the end attained by my
volition.
In other words, it is a
which I strive to attain in
change in the object,as presented,
It is not necessary
that I
willingto blow out the candle.
have
should
actual experienceof the physicalresult.
I
make
a
will, leaving property to a certain person.
may
Here, what I am
aiming at or endeavouring after is that
this person shall enjoy my
dead.
property after I am
By
of the case, I can
have
the nature
direct experienceof
no
Mental

the

result.

volitional

What

satisfies
is

process

the

and

me

terminates

so

that
"belief

my

property

the
wrill

into the hands

of the legatee. Before
I
actuallycome
the will, this was
made
only a floatingpossibility.In
making the will,I transform it into a practical
certainty.
It may
happen that the end to which conation is directed
is,from the nature of the case, unattainable.
Thus, I may
wish

to recall

cannot

much

or

realise itself.
as

if it could

consciousness,it
to blow

undo

out

Conation

is

the
But

This

past.
none

is

the less

realise itself.

tendency which
it is a tendency as
a

Considered

as

mode

of

just as much a conation as the desire

a candle
standingbefore my eyes.
attain its end by merely mental
may
process,

MODES

"4.]
without

BEING

OF

CONSCIOUS.

6.3

bodily action. In part or whole, it may bo

satisfied by fuller knowledge of its object;and this may
be brought about merely by a train of thought or observation,
without altering
the nature
of the objectas it actually
exists apart from
its being presented to consciousness.
From
this point of view we
can
bring under conation all
that is covered by the word
attention. Attention
is simply
overt

conation

in

far

so

as

it finds

satisfaction

in

tho

fuller

presentationof its object,without actual clianjoi:i tho

object. This may bo possibleonly in part. Thus, wo may
for tlio sake of
end in view, and we
have a practical
may,
of its attainment.
this end, attend to the conditions and means
I may
wish to climb a rock, and I first observe it
So far,
carefullyto determine the best mode of ascent.
all I have gained is more
completeknowlodgo. This is a
It carries
partialsatisfaction of my
original desire.
end ; but it does so only because
to my
me
a stage nearer
it makes
further steps possible. On tho other hand, my
I may
interest may
be purely theoretical.
simply desire
In this case,
the geological
of the rock.
structure
to know
will be

observation

mere

sufficient.

If it is necessary

to

of
climbing will be merely a means
just as in the previouscase
making observation possible,
of making climbingpossible.
observation
is merely a means
climb

the

Sometimes

rock,

the

it would

appear

as

if attention

were

not

directed

presentationof an object,but merely to the

"Perhaps
keeping of it unchanged before consciousness.
attitude is found
the closest approximation to this mental
in the case
of attention to a simple object of sense
or
of the immediate
imagination,on account
pleasureit
allow here that the end of attention
we
yields."* Now
is not
the less,its end
is in a SCTLJQ
cognitive
; none
to the

fuller

Psych,

AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,pp.

126-7.

66

PSYCHOLOGY.

the

fuller

presentationof
pleasuregiving capacityof
makes
be

difference

presented

consciousness
We

the
the

It

not.

or

is

i.

whether

it continues

to

when

only fully presented

is satiated.

repeatedlyused
tendency of a state

itself into

en.

object. So long as the

objectis not exhausted, it

to consciousness

have

intrinsic

[BK. i.,

different

realised,it ceases

to

the word

Conation

end.

of consciousness
Just in

state.

far

so

in other

exist,or

is the

beyond
tendency is

to pass
as

the

words,

finds its end.

completely realised its end is completely

attained,and it completelydisappears. Hunger disappears
after a full meal ; intellectual curiosity
disappearswhen a
Thus
the word end, used in
problem is solved,and so on.
else it may
reference to conative tendencies,whatever
imply,
implies also its ordinary literal meaning. The end after
When

which

it is

is,when
strives,

consciousness
of the

striving. This

to refer later.

is

It is obscured

first is,that there

are

some

attained,the

tion
termina-

point to which we shall

by two circumstances.

ends, such

as

the

moral

have
The

ideal,

second
The
is,
completely attained.
that while we
are
actuallystrivingafter the end, we think
about its own
logical
positivenature, and not about the psychowould
result which
follow its complete achievement.
We
do not consciously
strive after the cessation of our
own
in
we
activity,except when
try to go to sleep or when

which

any

other

means

directed

we

way

less,it remains
end

be

never

can

the
towards

endeavour

after

repose.

None

the

of any
complete achievement
complete cessation of the specialactivity
fact that the

that

specialend.
has two phases,pleasureand displeasure,
As feeling-tone
and the second negative,so conation has a
the first positive
and
a
negative phase, aversion.
positivephase, appetition,
and
It is either directed
to maintain
further develop a

MODES

" 4.]

OF

the

presented object,or
Hobbes,

it is either

BEING-

CONSCIOUS.

To

reverse.

endeavour

an

67

use

towards

or

an

phrase

of

endeavour

coincides with pleasure,

by no means
Appetition
frontwards.
feel a very keen
aversion with displeasure. We
or
may
desire for an
object,and yet feel nothing but displeasure
if we
I may
are
delayed or obstructed in its attainment.
But
desire food, and this is a positiveconation.
if no
food
is to be
had, the feeling-toneof consciousness
will be
have
aversion
an
disagreeable. So we
may
of a person ; and this is very
to the presence
unpleasant
if

cannot

wo

pleasant,if
him

we

of

throw

can

downstairs.

because

rid

get
It

him

him

out

made

disposesof
to identify
conation
have
finallyto

after

an

but

certain

it may

of the

while

is worth

it

to

bo

window,
note

attempts which

very

or

this
have

kick

point,
been

with

feeling-tone.
deal with
Wo
the question whether
conation in some
form or degree is invariablya constituent
of consciousness.
The
problem is beset with the same
difficulties as
and
in the case
similar
of feeling-tone,
remarks
that
are
apply here also. We
apt to assume
consciousness
is absolutelyinactive,when
it is only comparatively
Wo
so.
only notice that we are endeavouring
end,

when

endeavour

our

pitchof intensity.Thus
consciousness

object and
Xone

the

this

case,

The

is active
attend

to

less,conation
as

best mode

well
of

as

rises above

certain

generallysay that our

when
we
happen to catch sightof an
it in a slightand
transient way.
be, and probably is,present in
may
wo

in the

do not

most

intense

mental

effort.

approaching the question introspectively

is by comparing different degrees of conative
tendency; a
state of consciousness
would appear
which, taken by itself,
it
to be purelypassiveand inert,ceases
when
to appear
so
is compared with one
which
is stillmore
passiveand inert.

PSYCHOLOGY.

68

[UK. i.,

cu.

i.

example, tlie followingseries: (1)In a state of

delicious languor I enjoy the organic sensations produced
bath.
by a warm
(2)In an indolent mood, I let my eye
from objectto object,and amuse
wander
myself with what
I see, without any definite plan or purpose.
(3) Without
plan or purpose, I give the rein to my own ideas,following
less casual associations.
the train of more
or
(4) I repeat
metical
the multiplication
out
some
table, or work
simple arithquestion of a familiar kind.
(5) I work out an
arithmetical questionwhich
is more
it is
of a task because
more
complex,though it is of a familiar type, and presents
of a puzzle. (6) I attempt an
nothing in the nature
for a time baffles me, because
arithmetical questionwhich
which
it contains
a
difficulty
requiresto be overcome
by
I
repeated trials. (7) In a critical point of my career
for

"Take,

endeavour
whole

to decide

of my

course

decision.

Of

between
future

these,(7)is

two

life
mental

of

courses

action,
"

being dependent
state

on

the
the

characterized

by a
(2),(3),

intense

feelingof activitythan (1); and

(4),(5),(6) constitute an ascending scale of transitions
mediating between them."*
must
between
and the feelingof
We
distinguish
activity
can
sider
conactivity.The only question which introspection
is whether
immediate
we
always have some
experience
of striving,
end.
Even
if this
or
an
tendency towards
in the negative,it may
still remain
questionis answered
that conscious
true
of fact, always
process, as a matter
involves tendency towards
an
end, though the tendency is
of being conscious.
not always a mode
far

more

" 5.

Sentience

considered

or

Sub- Consciousness.

consciousness
if

objects. But
*

we

only

analyse

"

"We

in its relation
our

total

AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,
pp.

have

so

far

presented
experienceat any
160-1.

to

MODES

"5.]
moment,
the

OF

'BEING

CONSCIOUS.

shall find in it much

we

69

material

which

is not

at

the

contributingto

of
cognitive function
without
consciousness, and is to that extent
objective
reference.
It is the specialfunction
of presentationto
of consciousness
present objects; but those modifications
this function may
which
exist even
are
capable of fulfilling
of cognisingobjects. They
when
they are not the means
for discriminative
exist as possiblematerial
thinking
may
without
being actuallyutilised to the full extent in which
I am
they are capable of being utilised. At this moment
thinking about psychological
topics. I receive at the same
multitude
time
of diversified
rounding
sura
impressions from
total
into
things which
certainly enter
my
experience. But if I refer them to an object at all,I do
in a very
indeterminate
so
My thought-discrimination
way.
is very far from keeping pace with the differentiation
of the sensory data as immediately experienced. To quote
the
Tucker
Abraham
"We may
leaves fallingfrom
see
:
trees, birds flyingin the air,or cattle grazing upon the
ground, without affirming,or denying, or thinking,anything
being
concerningthem ; and yet, perhaps,
upon
moment

"

'

....

asked
had

seen.

window
it

minute

were

exhibited

afterwards
man

hundred

square

times

single sweep

of the

of

But

which

beheld

without

every

to

time

takes

eye

make

for thought
significant
successive

remember

in

looked

an

each

would

acts of attention.

he

field

what
from

we

his

observing whether
yet the figure was

ever

pentangular, and

to his view

details.

have

may

or

could

wTe

indefinite
these

of

require

Of course,

upon

long

.A

it '
...

multitude

severally
series

of

impression
in
as
significant,
begin to observe

the total

constitute may
be
they collectively
first glance at a landscape before we
our
its component parts. The essential point is the antithesis

PSYCHOLOGY

70

between

perhaps

even

arising

from

constantly

perhaps
of

trains

in

the

tired,'
most

our

'I

or

we

point,

judgment

are

'I

feel

not

Analytic

as

do

well,'

that

so,

the

created

Psychology,

rule

'I

'I

or

we

are

it,
vol.

"

dull.'

which

48-49,

prior

all.

at

for

of
if

determino

to

'I

or

But

aware,

are

our

ill,'

always

i., pp.

life

if

note

but

to

enter

definite

sensations

by

waking

feel

feel

any

is

appear

way,

or

and

sensations

they

vaguest

take

not

of

the

bright,'

do

we

the

in

feel

When

on

only
say

part

condition.
reflect

we

But

the

These

state.

i.

presentation
by

moment

every

sleep.

thought

Occasionally
feel

in

present

even

bodily

general

our

CH.

discriminative

of

illustrated

strikingly

more

I.,

presentation
of

independence

relative

The

thinking.

of

indeterniinateness

comparative

the

be

dcterminateness

detailed

the

[BE.

it."*

our

we

CHAPTER
PRIMARY

1.

"

LAWS

Relativity. "By

H.

OF

PROCESS.

HEXTAL

principleof relativity. .it is

that any psychic factor,or complex psychosis,*can
denied
exist without
definite quality,quantity,tone
having its own
value in combination, and influence upon
taneous
simulof feeling,
"

successive

or

the relation in which

the

factors

psychoses,determined

and

it stands

by

factors and

to other

psychoses
entire mental
Or
in the
life.
stated positively every
is what
it is
individual element,or state,or form of mental life
only as relative to other elements,states,and forms of the same
mental life"f More
brieflywe may say : Mental development
"

"

beingdetermined ly their psychological

relations and subject
to modification
accordingly This
ately
comprehensive,is proportionstatement, though sufficiently
lies mainly in the phrase
The
vagueness
vague.

depends on

modes

of consciousness

What
"psychological relations."
relations through which
psychological
enabled

are

to

interact ?

To

is the
modes

understand

of

nature

the

of consciousness
this

we

must

sider
con-

This topic
unity and continuityof consciousness.
under
two
heads, (1) general unity and continuity,
(2) the specialunity and continuity constituted by
the

falls
and

conation.
*

Psychosis

total

state

of consciousness

and
f Ladd, Psychology,Descriptive

as

existing at

Explanatory, pp.
7i

any
6G1-2.

one

moment.

PSYCHOLOGY.

72

"

General

2.

of

Unity

disjoinedfrom

"

life are,

Dr.

as

n.

tuents
partialconsti-

Continuity. The

and

conscious

our

[BK. i., en.

Ward

puts it,not

by something which is disparate

in nature
from consciousness.
They are not separated"as
island is separatedfrom another by the interveningsea,
one
in a melody from
note
the next
one
or
by an interval of
silence."*1
The
ceived
unity and continuityof consciousness conin this most
abstract and generalform, enables us to
recognisewhat we may call relations of immediate contiguity.
into the
Whatever
enter
components of any given moment
diately
immeare
compositionof a single state of consciousness
contiguous. Similarly,successive states are in
immediate
of
contiguityif and so far as the termination
coincides

one

another

one

with

the

of

commencement

"At

another.

given moment," says Dr. Ward, we have "a 'field of

and continuous
one
consciousness,psychologically
; at the
field but a partial
new
next, we have not an entirely
change
Inasmuch
within this field."f
of the new
as the emergence
of the old, they are continuous
and so far
is a modification
have
not
contiguous. We
merely A and
psychologically
any

'

then

such

as

but

also the passage

is

modification

B,

is itself

of consciousness.

this passage

The

transition

an

itself constitutes

from

between

they may

be.

givenby

Dr. Ward

in another

the scent

from

"the

case

Article

part

relation

unlike

however

into B ; and

experience. It is the more

obviously so the
abrupt it is. The interruption,
being a feltinterruption,

more

of A

of

bee."J
of

so

to the

rose

Professor

abrupt

"Psychology,"

Take

in

the

context

of
well

transition

"

the

gong

an

tration
illus-

"passing
a
or
sting

remarks,
in the

states,

that

content

in

and

EncyclopaediaBritannica, 9th edition,

xx., p. 45.

Ibid.

two

instance

for

sound

Ladd

the

\ Op. cit.,
p.

50.

MENTAL

"3.]

feeling-toneof

the

would

rose

the sound

be

not

The

illustrated.

successive

two

relativitywould

PROCESS.

mental

states, the

violated, but
of

amount

influence

of the gong,

73

and

redistribution

of

amply

more

absorptionin

our

the

the

law

the scent

of

of attention

to

the

sting of the bee ;

succeeding sensations of

to

even

the
pain which
sounds
would
be
enhanced
or
smarting gave
by the
results of
preceding pleasure; the control of the motor
sensation
would
bo
[movements prompted by] the new
determined
the sensation
by the perceptions,
etc.,into which
abruptlybroke ; and so on, and so on."*
Thus there are relations arising
out of the unity of a single
the

of

degree

state
are

of consciousness
also

relations

to

another.

state

contiguityin
existence
kind
in

it exists at any

as

These

time

psychicalconnexion
time, and arisingout

consciousness

" 3. Conative
playing chess
critical

between
and

that

between

has

been

of

of the

flow of

Continuity. Suppose that,while

"

am

to

suddenly
meet

called

visitor

consciousness

interruptsit.
disparate and

that

on

immediate

discussed.

about

there is another

phases

the

move

If,

on

which

on

But

matter

of

relation

interrupted

relation

exists

disconnected

processes,
contiguityin time which

the

of

the

at

chess,or

contrary,

process

and
Psychology,Descriptive

this

is

at

away

as
such, constitutes
interruption,

state

successive

But

is characteristic

game

otherwise

depends

mind

whist, I

or

which

and

the

Unity and

The
the

simultaneous

of

way

immediate

general.

stage of the

business.

the

one

independentof direct proximity

of a more
specialand intimate

that which

in

in

there

from

involve

succession.

of

continuitythan

transition

relations

either

of continuous

or

of the

arisingout

and

moment,

of

we

of

consider

making
settlingthe

Explanatory,p.

663.

up

the

matter

PSYCHOLOGY.

74

of

find

business,we

[BK. i..
and

different

called conative
be
continuity,which
may
or
continuity of interest. From
continuity,
view, my state of mind when I have finished

with

my

state

returned

and

visitor

the

with

when

of mind

to
was

my

kind

intimate

more

game

cir.

n.

of

appetitive
this point of

or

business

my

is continuous

rather
interrupted,

than

The very word

flow of consciousness.
intervening
of
impliesthis. It is clear,then,that continuity
interruption
less independent of direct proximityin
interest is more
or
is essentially
with
connected
time.
This kind of continuity
mental
activityin the strict sense, with the striving,
Its generalcondition
side of our nature.
conative,appetitive
is that the successive
phases of a conscious process shall
end.
towards
constitute a movement
an
By an end is
with

the

meant

natural

state

of consciousness

termination

"

in which

the termination

the process

finds its
it by its

prescribedto

conditions.

Each

phase
is incomplete,and
of the process before the end is reached
inherent
constitution to pass beyond itself.
tends by its own
is displacedby a disparateand disconnected
If the activity
process before it has attained its goal,it tends spontaneously
itself out, starting
and work
after the interruption
to recur
short.
it was
cut
the stage at which
from
If, while it
its progress
is in any way
to occupy
continues
consciousness,
checked
pleasantness
or
arrested,an experienceof dissatisfaction or unSo long and so far as its progress
is
arises.
unchecked, but not yet completed,consciousness is unsatisfied,
and
ceteris paribus the experienceis
but not dissatisfied,
pleasant.
Conative
unity depends upon conative continuity. If we
take any momentary
phase in the flow of conative process,
own

we

nature, and

find

not

total state
are

by

extraneous

of consciousness

irrelevant

to

the

main

in

which

direction

some

of

stituents
con-

thought,

MENTAL

" 3.]
and

others
in

Thus

PliOCESS.

75

essentiallyconcerned

are

playing
due

of

game

chess

in
the

its

progress.

modifications

of

surrounding objects
irrelevant to the main
of consciousness.
current
are
Only
the experiencesconnected
with the position
of the pieceson
the board
are
relevant, and only these experiencesare
embraced
This
in the conative
unity of consciousness.
distinction correspondsbroadly to that between
thought
consciousness

and

of

impressionsfrom

sentience.*

mere

The

to

total process
succession

of consciousness

of processes,

is,in general,composed

each

has

of which

certain

appetitive
continuity.Some of these may be very transient
and involve only a slightand evanescent
But in
interest.
far as they involve interest or attention at all they are
so
rambles
conative.
from
Even
when
the mind
essentially
objectto objectin a desultoryway, its slightand transient
degree of
occupation with each in turn involves some
attention
without
conative

and

interest.

conative

another.

one

In

process
the

itself constitutes
old process
is

and

the
as

sort
new.
an

part of it,an

But

of

transitions

which

are

transitions

from

one

these

even

in

are

sense

of
interruption
the interruption
of interruption,
the
conative
continuitybetween
as

occurs

moment
a

experienced

constituent

the

continuity are
to another.

process

conative,if

Thus

Just in

so

marked

far

interruptionof
incident

as

the
the

new

process

old, it

is

in its progress.

conative unity and

development of the mental life,
continuityis of altogetherpredominant importance. Such
psychicalrelations as depend on mere
proximity in time
in a
of mental
broad
view
are
subsidiary,and
may,
evolution,be neglected. Thus, in what follows,we shall
almost
mental
attention
to those
entirely confine our
In the

Discussed

in

"

5 of last

chapter.

PSYCHOLOGY.

76

connexions
elements

arise

which
as

constituent

from

[UK. i., CH.

the

combination

parts of the

of

conative

same

mental

process.

in some
form
" 4. Retentiveness. Hetentiveness
indispensablecondition of development or progress

is

"

kind.

Advance

would

n.

an

of any

be

impossibleunless the results of

of
priorprocess persistedas the basis and starting-point
In marching, each step has its point
subsequent process.
of departurefrom the new
positionsecured by the previous
step. In marking time there is continual reversion to the
No house
could be built if
same
positionand no advance.
it was
laid and had to be replaced
each brick vanished
as
A
be formed
of dry sand, which
cannot
anew.
rope
it is put together. Similarly,mental
crumbles
as
away
development would be impossibleunless previousexperience
left behind
it persistentafter-effects to determine
the
and course
of subsequent experience. These
effects
afternature
are
dispositions,
called, in psychology, traces or
and the psychological
bo stated
law of retentiveness
may
follows : when
and
so
as
far as mental developmenttakes
because specific
it does so
place through mental conditions,
modes
of consciousness leave behind them specifictraces or
sequent
ivhich determine
and
the nature
course
of subdispositions,
process, so that ivhen they are modifiedit is modified.
of dispositions
The persistence
is not absolute ; they tend
to decay, and
perhaps disappear altogetherif they
may
maintained
of the
not
are
corresponding
by renewal
mental

processes,

these.

In this

different
others.
to fade

of mental

or

respect there is

individuals.
But

away

even
:

processes

"so

Some

in the most
that if

a
are

great
more

retentive

they be

not

connected

difference

between

retentive

minds,
sometimes

with

traces

than
tend

renewed

by repeated exercise of the senses, or reflection on those

kinds of objectswhich
at first occasioned
them, the print

"

MENTAL

PROCESS.

at last there

remains

5.]

out, and

wears

Thus

the

experiences,"as

often

die

before

tombs

to

the

which

brass

effaced

in

marble

the

least,

at

be

remarks,

sand."

than

difference

in

represent

seen."

youth,

our

to

those

us

approaching, where, though

are
remain, yet the inscriptions
imagery moulders
away."* The

differences

others

to be

children,of

as

minds

our

retentive

minds

some

marble,"

better

the

explainedon

nothing

fast

are

by time, and

cannot

"like

we

and

differences

part

; and

us

well

77

of

power

individuals

are,

in

in

original endowment, and

psychologicalgrounds. As Locke

retain
"like
The

the

characters

drawn

freestone,"and
ultimate

originalendowment

others

them

on

"little

explanation of this
take a physiological

must

form.

" 5. Conative Continuityand Rctentiveness. The kind of

called conative
have
involves
in a
continuitywhich we
All
characteristic
the
principle of retentiveness.
way
end depends on
the persistence
of the
an
progress towards
the basis
of succeeding
results of previous process
as
change. So in this case, continuityof interest is only
possible if and so far as each succeeding stage of the
"

movement

of consciousness

towards

an

end

is determined

left behind
qualified
disposition
by the cumulative
by
time this cumulative
position
dispreceding stages. At the same
is itself subjectto modification
mode
by each new
Dr. Ward
of consciousness
it emerges.
has given an
as
illustrates this point.
example which partially
of a few minutes
take
we
"Suppose that in the course
half a dozen glancesat a strange and curious flower.
We
have
which
not
as
we
complex presentations
might
many
symbolise as F^ J?^ F3. But rather, at first,only the
general outline is noted, next the dispositionof petals,

and

Locke, Essay Concerning

Human

Understanding, ii.x., 5.

PSYCHOLOGY.

78

r.,
[r.i:.

stamen, etc.,tlien the attachment

the ovary,

and

persistthat
and

an

addition

It is because

on

so

to

of tho

the

later

are

n.

of

anthers, form

the earlier apprehensions

advance

an

en.

them

upon

them."*

excellentlyillustrates the working of

But it
where
there is continuityof interest.
retentiveness
The
does so only partiallyand
for a specialcase.
case
in which
adduced
"earlier apprehensions" recur
is one
as
This

part

example

of the

simultaneous

same

whole

with

the

The

later.

the
"earlier
by which
apprehensions" were
formed
is not itself repeated,inasmuch
the
as
originally
left behind
by previousexperience
preparatory dispositions
render
it unnecessary.
for further
Hence, there is room
advance, for growing distinction and definition within the
total presentation. But with the new
distinctions the old
combined
in the same
This is
also are
complex whole.
of the ways
in which
one
preformed dispositionsmay
the only way.
The
operate. But it is by no means
sistent
perof
traces
modify present
past experience may
of
experienceand be modified by it,without reappearance
of the past experiencein the actual moment
the content
of
process

"

present consciousness.
The effect of rhythmic repetition
of the
because the external
instructive,
peculiarly

same

is

stimulus

occasion

of each

successive

fications
impressionis throughout the same, so that modiof consciousness
of the
arising in the course
be due to the working of retentiveness,
process must
the cumulative
to
dispositionleft behind
by previous
impressions.The sequence of physicalstimuli is a, a, a,
"

the
fact

sequence
that

the

as
repetition,

of mental
second

states
a

another
*

Article

comes

of
"

the

is a^

a.^ a3,

before
same

The

Psychology,"p.

47.

mere

consciousness

kind,

constitutes

as

a
an

MENTAL

"5.]

importantdifference
be

PROCESS.

it and

between

79

the first a.

But, besides

gradual modification of consciousness

in which
the series advances, until a point is reached
as
each new
so
small,
impressionproduces an effect relatively
result of previous
the accumulated
in comparison with
is well brought
to be inappreciable.This
as
impressions,
what is called the "span of
in certain experiments on
out
The
of these experiments is to
consciousness."
purpose
ascertain how
objectsof a certain kind can be appremany
hended
this,there

may

at

once.

It is found

that,after hearingas

many

as

regular intervals of
from 0-2 to 0- 3 seconds,the subjectcan
or
distinguish
identify
whole
another
from
this series as
a
equal or unequal
to it. Counting is not admitted, and the successive sounds
at
all simultaneouslydiscriminated
of
not
course
are
fifteen

the

sixteen

or

the

of

close

sounds

successive

series.

at

"

sensation-mass

"

alone

distinctly
perceived. This is evidentlya cumulative
effect. Apart from
specialexperimentsin the laboratory,
successive
that
can
easilyverify the statement
anyone
close be
at their
series of a
can
rhythmic character
without
mentally reproducing
apprehended as a whole
of
and
apprehension
discriminatingin the moment

is

the
in

sequent parts which

several

walking,

we

mentally

may

steps into distinct groups,

and

when

another

even

series ends

one

know

the

within

walking

and

number

of

divide
aware

We

of paces

our

without

begins.

steps which

single series.

certain number

be

them.

compose

We

Thus,
successive

counting
need

not

nected
mentally consimply begin by
may
without
countingthem,
are

the
the pointsat which
proceed mark
initial series has repeateditself.
We
have so far considered
only the regular sequence of
identical impressions.
But the most
important
physically
and

then

as

we

PSYCHOLOGY.

80

of

cases

of

rhythm

uniform

in which

of

long
syllables,
may

line from

hearing a

have

moment

than

Yet
and

Milton

more

in
diversity
depends on a

and

short

serve

as

or

one

is

That

from

heaven,

of

true

music.

ruin

Yet

ear.

in the

we

it

to

and
In
any
sciousness.
con-

present

acquiresin

it,

unpremeditatedart."

"unpremeditated,"
in place of another.

more

of
are

word

at

aware

consciousness

melody
as

the

the

part of

On

the
the

What

is

case

of

often is the
it strikes

moment

is in

and

ness
is for conscious-

rhythmic structure.
obviously true in
melody may be and

in it the entire

before

comes

whole

last note

the

near

of the wrong

of the

of which

of

word

one

is still

The

or

for

occurrence

only note
It

thy

profusestrains

merely

verse

at

less

full heart

"unstudied"

contrary, the
the

or

this

Pourest
In

result is not

more

Vergil we need not

word
actuallypresent

quitedifferent value for consciousness

in a dictionary
that which
from
sentence
or
Shelley'slines :

Substitute

respects.

illustration.

an

"

other

of accented

or

ir.

singleword appears as part of the

qualifiedin a quite specific
by its place
way
sound
The
of the word
"unpremeditated"

in the whole.
has

en.

similarityin

recurrent

with

which

verse,

recurrence

unaccented

whole

those

are

respectsis combined

certain
The

rhythm

[BE. i.,

present.
quite specific

sense

a
a

its place in
character
from
specific
The cumulative
that whole.
generated by the
disposition
of previous notes
ordered
cooperates with the
sequence
stimulus to the organ of hearing,and the ensuing state
new
is the jointproductof both factors mutually
of consciousness
modifying each other. If a wrong note be struck,the whole
The same
happens if a note is
melody is at once marred.
unduly prolonged. Throughout the process the part is

whole

and

derives

MENTAL

" 6.]
determined

reading a
final

the

by

whole, and

sentence

the

word,

TliOCESS.

or

81

the whole

paragraph,when

of the sentence

meaning

by
we

the

part.

In

to the

come

paragraph as a
consciousness.
whole is present to our
But it is only as a
cumulative
effect of previousprocess. What
is directly
given
datum
is the last word itself and its meaning.
as
a
special
In a similar way, the cumulative
effect of one
paragraph or
and determines
the meaning of
chapterof a book qualifies
another.
set by the side of this highly complex
We
may
Pronounce
the words
case
a very
simpleone.
successively
terminate
identify,
fructify,
mystify,
simplify
; all these words
sound.
in the same
When
we
are
just finishingor have
item of
of each word, the special
justfinished the utterance
sensation before consciousness
is the final sound they have
in common.
The
preceding sounds in which they differ
have
"case

vanished
we

are

This

only be
the

when

by

the

have

said

one

and
fructify

not

we

said

have

we

can

is modified

consciousness;nevertheless,in
that

aware

another,that
on.

from

or

in each

because
final

sound

cumulative

word

each

and

not

mystify,and

instance

so

sciousness,
con-

our

is

being pronounced,
effect of the
preceding

sounds.

This

cumulative

precedingphases of a
conative process on the succeeding,
be called primary
may
in order to distinguish
it from the retentiveretentiveness,
which
is involved
in reproductionand association,
ness
effect of

the

"

processes to be discussed later on.

" 6. Primary meaning. Primary retentiveness
"

with
sum

up

what

call primary
may
the result of the last section

all processes

we

or
having appetitive

meaning.
as

conative

is

lated
corre-

We

may

(1) In
and
continuity,

follows

cumulative
of a series of distinct steps, a
consisting
is gradually formed
is the productof
which
disposition
Psych.

PSYCHOLOGY.

82

antecedent

mental

change,
change.

[BK. i.,

and

en.

cooperativefactor

n.

in

(2) The after-effect of preceding

mental
is not
reproduced, but simply
process
persistsor is retained.
(3) Its persistencein no way
involves
the
the
resuscitation
of
the
persistenceor
items of sensation
mental
or
specific
imagery which have
contributed
it. These
do not
to form
persist,but only
denote
the sequences
of specific
their effects. If we
items
of sense-experience,
be, of ideal imagery, by
or, it may
means
adequately symbolises
#, 5,0, d, then a, J, c, d, by no
the process as a whole.
b occurs, the resulting
For when
is the jointproduct of b and
the
state of consciousness
after-effect left behind
larly,
or
disposition
persistent
by a. Simid occurs,
the resultingstate of consciousness
when
is
left
due to d in cooperationwith the persistent
disposition
behind
by a, 5, and c. We may denote the after-effect of
b by w2, and so on.
The
a by niij the after-effect of a and
then
series may
be represented by a, bmlt cm.,,
whole
succeeding mental

dm-A.
Now

does

what

stand

for ?

What

change or
does it represent?
modification
of consciousness
Clearly,
items 5, c, d, to the
it representsthe relation of the specific
of which
whole
they are part, a peculiarcharacter which
belongs to them in virtue of their being part of this whole.
the only generalword
which
is at all appropriatefor
Now
is the word
meaning
expressingthis kind of consciousness
or
significance
m, then, stands for meaning or significance.
The meaning which
is essentially
involved
in all conative
be designatedprimary meaning, to distinguish
continuitymay
it from
that which
depends on association and
m

"

reproduction.
" 7. Association
am

told that

and

it has

Reproduction.
"

certain

name,

On

seeinga flower,I
Afterwards, I hear

MENTAL

" 7.]
this

pictureof
It

is

it may

again :

name

the

clear

PROCESS.

then

flower,though
that

if I

S3

call up to my mind
a mental
flower is actually
no
present.

had

never

the

seen

flower,the

mental

pictureof the flower would not have arisen.

the originalperceptionof the flower had
suppose
trace behind
it after itself ceasing to exist, that
"

flitted

the surface

over

surface

of

result.

The

without

stream,

mind

of my

would

like

shadow

producing
have

left

no

it had
the

over

permanent

as
justthe same
if I had never
the flower.
The
seen
mere
hearing of the
would
be inoperativeunless there were
name
something
for it to act on,
an
appropriatetrace of past experience
for future experience.
a preparatory disposition
constituting
13ut primary retentiveness
is not in this case
sufficient.
More
is implied than
the mere
effect of the
cumulative
previous phases of a continuous
determining
process
in this instance
works
succeedingphases. Retentiveness
The
of reproduction and
association.
by way
specific
nature
call the perof the originalexperience which
we
ception
case

then

any

Now

been

"

of the

image

of the flower.

mental

image. It
perceptionof

actual

continuous

in the

reinstated
flower,is partially
The

as

name,

this

does

we

through

the flower occurred

reproducesthe

association.
as

part of

the

The
same

the

hearing of the name.

the name
occurs
Hence, when
again,it may re-excite the
mental
by the perception,and
dispositionleft behind
that the mental
re-excite it in such a way
image of the
flower rises before the mind
although no actual flower is
present to

conscious

say,

mental

the

process

In

senses.

certain modification
constitutes

the

so

as

far

as

of consciousness

mere

has

already occurred

general possibilityof

retentiveness takes

the form

of recurrence
possibility

of

fact that

the

its

recurrence,

reproduction.The general

is for the most

part actualised

in

PSYCHOLOGY.

84

[BK. i., en.

n.

The
by association.
dispositionleft
specialcase
be re-excited
behind
if
by the previous experiencemust
the experienceitself is to be reproduced. The
ment
re-exciteis mostly, though not always, effected by a presentation
similar to some
presentationwhich has formed part
total process
with
the
of the
same
experience which
is to be reproduced. This is expressedby saying that the
takes place by the previous association of
re-instatement
the reproduced and
reproducing presentation. In the
example given,the association is between the perceptionof
its name.
The
the flower and
repetitionof the name
revives the mental
image of the absent flower.
" 8. Acquirement of Meaning. Reproduction has a great
modes
and
degrees, according as the original
many
less fully and
instated.
or
experience is more
independently reThe least that can
happen, in order to make the
word
reproductionapplicableat all,is found in a process
of fundamental
ment
importance which we may call the acquiremust
of meaning. We
distinguishbetween
meaning
which
is primary and meaning which is acquired. Primary
of any
series
meaning accompanies the first occurrence
panies
having continuityof interest. Secondary meaning accomits recurrence,
and
depends on the fact that it
each,

"

occurred

has
on

its first

cumulative

whole

is

In

the
has

occurrence

dispositionleft
that

suppose

now

before.

on

the

behind

future

am3.

lmlt

the

dm3,

cm*,

meaning due
by a, b, c.

occasion

the

to

Now,

process

as

Its

of the whole
previousoccurrence
The
of the series
starting-point
but

a,

point of departure is in #, but a

cumulative
produced by the
disposition

repeated.

excites

series

In other

words,

previous experience* Let

".

has
us

series a,
is therefore

bm^

cmZl

dm-6.

longer a,
acquiredmeaning through

consider

the

no

example

of

MENTAL

" 8.]

value

significance,a
"

with

connexion
has

85

first hearing it,the successive

On

tune.

PROCESS.

the

for consciousness
whole.

Now

have

notes

derived

suppose

each

from

that

their

the

tune

repeatedoften enough to become

recognisable.
In order to recogniseit,it is not necessary
to go through
the whole
again. You know what the tune is as soon as
This stands for or
a certain portionof it.
you have heard
the rest ; and if you are only interested in recognising
means
the tune, it is quite unnecessary
to go further, or
even
So, if I begin to
mentally to reproduce what follows.
been

Twice

"

say,
for

go

further.

table

knows

what

to

me

is two, twice

one

two"

hearer

there

"

knows

who

follows

is

as

whole

beginning of the
repetition. The
equivalentto the whole, and it is just because
whole

that

it is unnecessary

to

plication
multi-

the

detailed

the

need

no

without
series
it

is

means

repeat the whole

in

detail.
take

which

belongs to quite a low

A
chick
conscious
life.
level of
on
emerging from
without
the shell, and
previous experience, tends to
all small
objects*. This is
peck at, seize,and swallow
Let

now

us

conative

process,

case

has

which

appetite for food.

first,distinguishbetween

the

of
at

is not.

This

it has

to

for its end

Now

learn

the

what

the

chicken

is edible

cessation
does
and

by experience.

not,
what

It

will

and
pillars
caterpeck at and seize all worms
indiscriminately.There is a particularkind of
this is
called the cinnabar
caterpillar.When
caterpillar
it is pecked at and seized
first presentedto the chicken
it is fairly
similar
like other
as
objects. But as soon
the chicken
next
seized it is dropped in disgust. When
and refrains
it looks at it suspiciously
the caterpillar,
sees
the

at

This

outset

example

is taken

from

Lloyd Morgan's

Habit

and

Instinct,
p.

41.

[BE. i.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

86

en.

n.

pecking. Now, what has happened in this case?

re-excites the total
The
sight of the cinnabar caterpillar
by the previous experience of
dispositionleft behind
pecking at it,seizingit,and ejectingit in disgust. Thus
The
effect of these
the
sight
experiences is revived.
has
of the cinnabar
acquired a meaning. It
caterpillar
from

experienceswhich in the first instance followed

less
it may
them
more
or
it; and just because it means
dispense with the necessityof actuallyrepeating them.
determine
the course
of action that repetition
or
It may
so
items of the previousexperiof the specific
re-instatement
ence
To this extent, it is practically
is needless.
equivalent
means

the

to them

When

thing means

one

or

another.

instead

it functions

in reference
If

along with

means

it

or

to

another, it
certain

b, this
about

of them.

does

with

can,

for certain purposes,

end, be substituted

not

it.

imply
We

that

for

carries b

might as
always have

well

five
five-pound note must
wrapped up in it. The note will pass
sovereignsliterally
the
instead of five sovereigns,
and in like manner
current
of the cinnabar
will,
caterpillar
peculiarvisual appearance
in some
degree,pass current instead 'ofthe peculiarsensation
has previouslyfollowed
it. It re-excites
of disgustwhich
left behind
the whole disposition
by the previous process,
and it re-excites this disposition
ithas been modified in the
as
of previousprocess.
course
Consequently,this process will
stand
But to undernot take placeagain as it took placebefore.
the special
kind of transformation
which it undergoes,
take into account
must
the essential nature
of appetitive
we
This lies in its being directed to an end, in the
process.
of the chicken,the satisfaction of the appetite
for food.
case
This tendency towards
end is manifested
in one
an
general
character of all appetitive
Lines of action,
if and
process.
suppose

that

"

MENTAL

" 8.]

so

far

as

varied

they are

; and

In this way,

unsuccessful,tend

those which
for

PROCESS.

S;

to

be

discontinued

to
successful,

prove

instance,accuracy

in the

be maintained.

act

of

attained

the

unsuccessful
an

pecking is
tries again

When
it misses, it
by the chicken.
again with slightvariations until it succeeds,and
successful adjustments which
tend to persist,
and

and

which

end, whether

ipsofacto an

holds

causes

the

end

endeavour

Everything in
success,

eliminated.

are

the way

be
to

The

endeavour

consciouslyforeseen
avoid

of check

dissatisfaction

and

failure
or

or

and

impediment

it is
the

towards
or

not, is

obstruction.
or

altered behaviour.

want

of
This

in its primary occurrence

good of appetitive
activity
;
characterised
is
w
ith
varied
effort.
it
always
by persistence
also hold good for its repetition.Here, too,
The same
must
the lines of action which
proved unsuccessful on its primary
will be suppressedwhenever
the conditions under
occurrence
which
recognisable.
they previously led to failure are
Thus, the sight of the peculiarmarkings of the cinnabar
will, at the outset, by its acquired meaning,
caterpillar
In other words,
repress the tendency to peck and swallow.
far as the end of action is concerned, the sight of the
so
is superior to the actual taste of it, just as
caterpillar
cheques and paper money generallyare for certain purposes
superiorto coin.
called the acquirement of
The
have
we
process which
in the way
of reproduction
meaning is the minimum
learningby experience. All
requiredto explainintelligent
modes
of reproduction
more
it,and
specific
pre-suppose
their guiding efficacyto it. All revival of specific
owe
items
and
the like,in so far as it makes
of sensation
possibleintelligent
adaptation to the result of previous
make
definite and
more
explicitthe
experience,must
which arises from the re-excitement
peculiarconsciousness

PSYCHOLOGY.

88

[BE. i.,

CH.

n.

dispositionleft behind by previous process

have
The
case
we
explained in a
analysed is sometimes
the chick sees
It is said that when
different way.
again
the caterpillar,
which
it has previouslyejectedin disgust,
the previoussensation of disgustis reproducedby the sight
The primary
of the peculiarmarkings of the caterpillar.
of the caterpillar;
experienceof disgustprompted the ejection
sensation
will lead the
hence, it is argued, the revived
morsel.
chicken to refuse the unsavoury
Now, it is probable
enough that something which may be called a revival of
the disgustingsensation,actuallytakes place; but this is
and possiblynot necessary,
to account
for
not sufficient,
the result.
According to the proposed explanation,the
chick has (1) a primary sense
experience,the sight of the
and
(2) a faintlyrevived sensation of disgust.
caterpillar,
of

What

tlie total

must

follow

the other

Each

of the

two

sensations,the

one

secondary,independentlyprompt to
kind of action,and the result can
a certain
only be a sort
of mechanical
not intelligent
interference,
guidance. The
visual experience prompts to picking and
seizing. The
revived
distaste prompts to the act of ejectingor dropping
The tendencyto ejection
from the beak.
ought to interfere
with the act of pecking only in so far as the two
ments
moveare
mechanicallyincompatible. One would expect
alternation
blend of the two movements,
or
an
a nondescript
be a product
them.
behaviour
cannot
between
Intelligent
of such conditions.
Two
motor
impulses of a quasi-reflex
and
character
are
brought together in a mechanical
way,
resultant.
nothing can ensue
except a sort of mechanical
It is true that if it be granted that the sightof the cinnabar
the first,
a
has, from
meaning, this
specific
caterpillar
meaning may be rendered more
explicit
by re-instatement
of disgust. But the mere
re-instatement
of the sensation
primary, and

MENTAL

" 8.]
of

the

of

sensation
for the

account

PROCESS.

80

disgust taken

result,whereas

by itself does not

ing
acquirement of mean-

the

for the result apart from

the revival
might account
sensation.
In the case
of the specific
are
we
discussing,
there probably is a certain revival of sensation,though
and not by direct association.*
it takes placein a peculiarway,

Acquirement of meaning is that

which
nearly in
approaches most
It might indeed
be
retentiveness.
the

existence

phases
their
process

of

of

must

deduced

effect,the

tend

form

to

concur

renewal

to re-excite

of

reproduction
to primary

its nature

primary retentiveness.

process

cumulative

mode

priori from

If the
total
of

successive

as
disposition

part

of

the

disposition.Just as in
the specific
items of previous
succeeding experience,but
this

primary retentiveness it is not

experience which persist in
due to the cumulative
only a modification of consciousness
position
disthe re-excitement
of the cumulative
so
disposition,
involve revival of the specific
does not necessarily
items of previous experience,and it must
involve
thing
somedifferent from this.
It must
involve
what primary
of conretentiveness
sciousness
involves, that peculiarmodification
which
we
can
only call apprehensionof meaning
the part
of the peculiarcharacter
which
or
significance
"

"

derives

We

from
have

its relation

to

the

consider

whole.

modes

of

reproductionmore
in their nature
of a
than the general re- excitement
specific
These more
total disposition.
modes
of reproduction
specific
manifold
and
forms
assume
gradations,which are to be
regarded as stages in the evolution of meaning towards
definiteness and
explicitness.Meaning unfolds into them
the seed unfolds into the plant.
as
now

to

Cf.end

of

"

9.

PSYCHOLOGY.

90

"

9.

[BK. i.,

en.

ir.

plication.
of Specific
Reproduction. (#) Com-

Tlie various modes

Being reproduced is something different from

being produced again. Repeated production involves a
But
of the producing conditions.
renewal
reproduction
conditions of production
exists onlyin so far as the original
are
inoperative(see" 7). Apart from the renewal of these,
of the reproducedexperience
of itself
the previous
occurrence
This necessarily
of recurrence.
constitutes the possibility
has left behind
a
implies that the previous occurrence
persistenttrace or disposition.But previous occurrence
of recurrence.
constitutes
only the general possibility
The
excitingcause, in so far as the revival depends on
"

is
association,*

^4,

found
has

which

relation
psychological

consist

association

consciousness,as
conative

relations which
in

parts
The

process.

of another

occurrence

previously existed in some

which
to B, the presentation

main, the

In the

of

in the

the

or

union

the

of

phases of

readiness

operateas
the

with

same

which

two

tion,
presentakind

of

is reproduced.
conditions
modes

of

continuous
associations

formed, and their strength,depend largely on the

the
to
importance of the
presentationsin relation
whole
activityof which they form a part. The strength
of the association is also,to a very great extent, dependent
are

on

the

number

of

times

associated

has
presentations
Specificreproduction may
forms and degrees. Let us

A,

and

that with which

the

connexion

been

repeated.

assume

it has

the

great variety of

call the

between

reproducing presentation,

been

associated,B

the

reproducedpresentationmay be denoted by I. Now, the

the
forms
of reproductiveprocess depend (1) on
various
varying relation of I to A, (2)on the varying degrees of
completenessin which I correspondsto B. These points
*

This

is

by

no

means

always the

case.

MENTAL

I 9.]
of view

PROCESS.

91

intimatelyconnected.

are

integralpart of A, or it may have a

when
to be capable of persisting
so
as
the

second

and

clearness

the

is

be

may

distinct
has

of

either

an

individuality,
vanished.

In

free

reproduction:
b is an
when
pendent
integralpart of A and incapable of indethe process is called complication,
because
existence,
the result is merely a change in the constitution of A, and
for the most
part an increase in its complexity. The facility
case,

colour

as

intimate

is the

characters

is hard

We

which

of

union

be

can

form.

of

In

with

take

more

whether
as

or

not

general,

the

partialand
reproductionof B, so

to decide

may

is from

A, the

is the

one

and sepadistinguished
rately
attended
admits of many
to in the wThole complex A
gradations. It may be as intimatelyinterfused with the
whole as the red and blue which
each other
interpenetrate
t"e as easilydisenin purple. On the other hand
it may
gaged

modified

with

process

other

the
that

there

typicalexample
of quality which

more

constituent

profoundly

more

in

the

some

cases

it

is any
of

reproduction.
complicationthe

attach
sounds
to
peculiar differences
accordingto the various modes in which they are produced.
We
distinguish clapping, crashing, clashing,hissing,
ling
bursting,splitting,
rending,grinding,rushing, and whistnoises.

Now

these

sounds

doubtless

have

distinctive

considered
qualities,

But it
merely as auditorysensations.
clear that they also have acquired modalities
due to
seems
association.
In producingthem we have in each case
certain
distinctive experiencesof movement
and in
and resistance,
seeingthem produced similar experiencesare excited in a
the sounds
When
are
partialand inchoate way.
merely

heard

their

modified

qualityis partlyconstituted by
reproduction of these sensations.

element

is not

partialand
The

duced
repro-

without
usuallydistinguished

an

PSYCHOLOGY.

92

[BK. I., en.

n.

act of

But
it is none
the less
analyticattention.
present as a peculiarmodality of the auditoryexperience.
ing
Perhaps this will be most clearlybrought out by considerthe imitative words
by which the nature of such sounds
word
is commonly expressed. The
"clap" resembles the
"hiss"
the sound
of hissing,
sound
of clapping,the word
the sound of tearing. But on examination
tear
and the word
that the resemblance
it soon
by no means
appears
considered
lies wThollyin the sounds
tions.
merely as ear-sensathe movements
of articulation.
It depends also on
In saying clap,"the lipsare clappedtogether; in saying
hiss,"the breath is driven through a narrowed
aperture ;
from
the
in saying "tear," the tongue is pulled away
express

"

"

"

"

similar
instances
do
and
not
we
palate. In these
the motor
and the purely
distinguishbetween
ordinarily
So in the originalexperienceswhich
auditory imitation.
imitated

are

the

two

factors

distinction,
constitutinga complex
escapes

analysisuntil the
is brought to bear

sound

the

associated

such

as

motor

reflective

it.
upon
is the dominant

element

combined

are

appears

without

qualitywhich
logist
scrutinyof the psychoIn this complex quality
constituent,and the
sensory

as

modification

of the

sound.

cation
(1) to the qualifiand
of sight by touch
resistance,and (2) to the
of touch and resistance by sight.
qualification
"The
sightof a suit of polishedarmour," says Dr. "Ward,
all that we
instantlyreinstates and steadilymaintains
For

further

illustration

we

may

refer

11

retain of former

coldness*."

and

But this
*

Article

57.

sensations
The

armour

peculiar
appearance

of its hardness
looks
to the

and

smoothness

hard, smooth, and cold.

eye does not necessarily

"Psychology," EncyclopaediaBritannica, 9th edition,part

xs.,

MENTAL

" 9.]
involve

distinct

any
of

sensation

They

hardness, smoothness,

separate

itself.

The

modification

and

other

reproduction

manifests

of

the

visual

we

have

felt it to be cold.

visual

looks

been

the

touch,it would have looked warm.

is it a
is not a suggested idea ; nor
sensation.
It is something which

duced
repro-

experience
rather

addition

an

"

If it had

not

The

consciousness.

itself

experience
ice
unanalysed complexity. Similarly,

separate

or

coldness.

or

distinct modes

and

from

of the

idea

experiencesare

discriminated

not

are

93

representationor

correspondingtactile
as

PROCESS.

cold

as

to

distinct

its

because

always warm
Yet

its cold

to

look

temperature-

presented as if
included
in the visual appearance
an
as
integralpart of it.
Any attempt to separate it destroysboth its own
specific
character and that of the visual experience.
If (2)we
turn to the converse
now
case, the qualification
of actual touch experienceby revived visual experience,
we
find the union of the constituents of the complex much
looser.
This does not mean
that they are
more
easily separable;
human
for the association in normal
experienceis almost,
if not quite,indissoluble.
the tactual experience
But when
is primary,the reinstated
visual experienceis much
more
prominent, more
readily distinguishableand separately
when
than
is the reproduced tactual element
appreciable,
of
have here a case
the visual experienceis primary. We
complicationwhich approaches most closelyto free reproduction.
close our
When
we
we
eyes and touch an object,
distinct picture of the surface
need
indeed
have
not
a
touched.
But the slightest
reflective scrutinyis enough to
that the total impression is complex, containinga
show
visual
cases,

tactual

as

that
or

well
the
even

as

tactual

visual
more

constituent,and

constituent
so.

is

is

as

also, in

prominent as

most

the

PSYCHOLOGY.

94

[BK

i., cii.

n.

Reproduction. In free reproduction,the reproduced

of consciousness,b, is capable of existing
mode

Free
(Z")

"

the

apart from,

its

of
follow
has

which

in

Dr.

says

sightof

suit of

sensations

former

all the

actual

discussed

how

to observe

the

perceptionsare

at

later

stage.

tion,
complicais bound

difference,'
the

retain

we

of
and

sightgradually

same

of

now

crusades,and
The

of romance."*4

distinction

of their

nature

the

smoothness

and

changing imagery
and

far

first how

all that

of tournaments,

example, instantly

for

this

fore
there-

when

this

observe

to

its hardness

characteristics of ideas
from

only

polishedarmour,
of

coldness,and then
calls up
ideas, now

through

need

dividual
in-

an

can

In
of

realise

"To

it

supply by

existence

steadily maintains

and

reinstates

so

of A.

"we

Ward,

the

hand,

the existence

with

up

other

the

on

ideas

has

exist

to

important illustration.

and

familiar

of

Trains

and

A,

time, continuing

disappeared.

most

distinct from

own

it.

reinstates

topics which

wrill be

fully
here

It is sufficient to notice

reproductionwhich can be called an idea,

have sufficient independence to be capableof forming
must
be
distinct link in a train of thought ; (2) that it must
a
relation,
the thought of an object,such as a thing,quality,
(1)that

any

event, and

or

(3)

that

not

just

crude

mere

because

an

idea

faint;

sensation,however
from

differs

actual

an

reproduction!is always of a partial

The mental
character.
image of the flower,
" 7).
by the name, is a typicalillustration ("/.,

perception,ideal
modified

and

called up

as

in every

Is free revival

take

other

forms

ever

re-instated ?

In
Can

sensational character
*

Ibid.

case

ideal

revival,or

are
particular,

they

without

f Reproduction

be

which

sensations,as
in their

recalled

recurrence

takes

does

of the
the

form

it also

such,

original

appropriate
of

an

idea.

MEXTAL

" 9.]
stimulus

external

This

Broadly speaking, we
of
abnormal

of

may

sensations, as

event.

But

of

certain

sensations

PKOCESS.

the

there

is

important question.

an

affirm

that

such,*
is

95

an

class may

is

the

direct

duction
repro-

exceptionalaii.l
indirect process by which
be re-excited,
although
an

conditions

determiningtheir first occurrence

sensations
are
by no means
operative. Some
belong to
the class called organic. It is characteristic of these that
they are immediatelyexcited,not by impressionsupon the
external
of sense, but by the changing states of
organs
the internal organs, such as muscles, glands,and
the like.
Now, change in the state of these internal organs
is, in a
determined
from within the body
very importantmeasure,
by changing conditions of the nervous
system. Any strong
disturbance
tends
to
the
nervous
discharge itself over
whole
heartbeat,tension of
organism,affecting
respiration,
some

the
a

muscles, circulation
disturbance

nervous

by
But

external

an

it may

be

of the
may,

blood, secretion,etc.

in the

impression such
afterwards

first
as

instance,bo
wound

or

Such
set up

blow.

less

reproduced by
association without the external impression,
and it may
then
internally
generate organic sensations bearing a marked
to those which
rence.
similarity
accompanied its originaloccurThese
sensations
without
improprietybo said
may
The
to be
reproduced,though in a circuitous manner.
is indirectly
it
re-instated,and
physiologicalstimulus
directlyproduces the sensation.
Tickling is not merely
skin- sensation.
The
skin-sensation
sets
a
changes
up
the

in

central

more

or

system which

nervous

determine

diffused

organic disturbance, including spasmodic movements,

what
and
the
constitutes
resultingorganic sensation
*

and

such,
as
By sensation,
liveliness which

acting on

is meant

it possesses

sense-organ.

sensation

when

with

the

produced by

an

peculiarintensify
external stimulus

PSYCHOLOGY.

90

is most

in
specific

the

similar

effect may

be

[BE. I.,
tickled.

experienceof being
induced

actual

without

en.

n.

But

By

contact.

merely making believe to tickle a sensitive person it is

the
disturbance
with
possible to produce the nervous
resultingorganic sensations and convulsive movements.
food may
the mere
In like manner,
sight of nauseous
duce
prointense
and
nausea
even
vomiting. The
organic
be occasioned
discomfort
which may
by merely looking on
ments,
at a surgical
by seeing surgicalinstruoperation,or even
has the same
origin.
In actual
reproduction,
" 10. Facilitation and Arrest.
"

mental

one

reinstates

process

actual re-instatement,we
mental

one

into

process

have

may

favour

may

But

another.

of the

entrance

other

actuallyintroducing it

consciousness,without

of

facilitation.The

mere

the

instead

into

consciousness.
Facilitation
under

assume

may

diverse

many

characteristic
concentrated

conditions.

of attention.
the

on

whatever

sign or
accordingly. Her

forms

many

sick

The

is

it

movement

mind

It

and

in

to

general

place

essential

an

attention

is

notice

pre-disposedto

makes,

is set

is

whose

nurse

child

take

and

take

action

attitude

of

to her from
this
impressions come
This
to a certain
source.
general attitude of response
kind of stimulus may
persisteven when conscious attention
The
who
has itself ceased.
nurse
goes to sleepwith her
concentrated
be
attention
child
is likely to
the
on
awakened
by the slightestcry from it, though more

response

sounds

intense
Under

bring
paper

to whatever

the
a

on

fact
' '

fail to disturb
head

her

repose.

of facilitation due

noticed

by

Forgetfulness.

Mr.

Verdon

'

* '

*Mwd,

'*

to

in

attention
a

Individuals

449.
Q,S. ii.,

very

we

may

interesting

often remember

MENTAL

" 10.]

PROCESS.

97

clearlyand well up to the time when

they have to use
their knowledge, and then, when
it is no longerrequired,
extensive
there follows a rapid and
decay of the traces.
Many schoolboysforget their lessons after they have said
barristers forgetdetails got up for a particular
them ; many
case.
Thus, a boy learns thirtylines of Homer, says them
that he could not say
and then forgetsthem
so
perfectly,
five consecutive
lines the next
morning, and a barrister
be one
learned in the mysteries of making cogweek
wheels,
may
but in the next
he may
be well acquaintedwith
the

anatomy

of

general direction

the

ribs instead."

In

other

words,

the

of interest facilitates the recall of certain

experiences. It makes
more
readily excitable.
depend on direct attention

the

corresponding dispositions
This
seems
only partiallyto
to
to the specialsubject-matter
be remembered.
barrister who
The
keeps in mind for a
week
"the
mysteries of making cog-wheels" does so
through generalinterest in the case which he has in hand,
and not by constantlythinking of cog-wheels. In other
tained
mainare
words, the corresponding mental
dispositions
in an
excitable condition,not so much
by attending
thing
directlyto the subject matter, as by attending to someSo
it.
connected
with
long as the need for
of having something
remembering remains, there is a sense
When
the need
the mind.
no
on
longer exists,
of
a
feeling of relief is experienced, and the power
remembering disappears.
of verse,
If we
learn something by heart, e.g., a page
afterwards so far forgetit as to be unable to recall
we
may
the words

in their proper

learningit anew.
very
The

much

less

But

on

time

originallearningby
Psych.

order.

We

the second
to

do

heart

so

has

may

then

occasion
than

on

set about

take

it may

first.

the

the second.
facilitated
7

PSYCHOLOGY.

98

The

[BK. i.f

of facilitation is well

nature

carried

illustrated

by Professor
words
Printed
variously mis-spelt were
for a period of about
exposed on a screen
The
second.
subject of the experiment was
of

experiments

read

and

often without

most

here

have

We

nothing to
What

mistakes.

of the

word

was

made.

be

The

number

in the

few

very

most

noted

the

before

observed

were

does

interest

latter

was

to

on

rectly,
part incor-

spelling.
frequency

and

suggest the word

and

seen,

quiteas frequentlyas
between

printedword was
helped the entrance

after the

the results of the

confirm

is the effect produced

us

called out

relation

the

cases,

association

called

wrong

the nature

of

word

did the word

cases

shown

In

be

to

noticingthe

do with

one-fifth

for the most

so

series

association with
having some
shown
immediately before the exposure
result of this was
always a great increase
overlooked.
of mis-spellings
"In
only a

by callingout
the

did

n.

Pillsbury.*
successively

out

He

words.

off these

in

CH.

In

seen.

the

at other

such

word

times.
was

cases,

the

It seemed

to

impression,and

the

prints
mis-

words

two

of the word.

visual

that

the

then

to

to

give a

the

word

feeling of

confidence

intended."

called, though they did not of

actuallyreproduce other words, yet facilitated
The

themselves

Arrest

be

may

one

direction

process

as

"

of her

tends to hinder
it does

Study

in

not

negative side

the

interest.
the

In

occurrence

facilitate their

Apperception,"American

the

on

The

child,is apt

connected

not

certain

of others.

occurrence

are

of facilitation.

of

occurrence

concentrated

impressions which

of another.

than

the

as

facilitates

attention

with

overlook

fir

rather

processes is a bar to the

nurse,

main

word

regarded

Whatever
mental

was

words

of
perception

the

seen

with

to

the

general, any mental

of others,if and so

occurrence.

Journal

of Psychology,viii. 3.

MENTAL

"11.]

"11. Habit
attention

they

^Automatism.

and

In

such

automatic,to

go

on

in

engages

crowded

street

that

probably

in

of

itself.

music,

while

absorbed

is

clearest

more

and

or

the

less

What

there
details

is

the

diversion

be

said

of

The

he is

of

examples

those

are
a

person

the

samo

through
be

It should

of attention

musician,

is
for

playing a piece
is not
utterly

walker

he is in

be

to

crowded

street

and

in

is that in such
confidently
and discriminatingattention to
persistent
This
distinction helps us
action.
the
to
can

no

that

aware

absent-minded

motion.

understand

requiring

his way

thought.

absolutelycomplete.

of the fact that

the

action

threads
in

instances

oblivious

cases

"The

conversation,or

such

never

instance,is
of

instances,the

taking place apart from attention

attention is otherwise
occupied,as when
plays on a musical instrument, and at

knits,or

noted

at first

action

in which

Actions

"

performed without attention when

similar
frequently repeated under
sufficiently

conditions.

time

99

be

to

come

are

habitual

PROCESS.

another

asserted

of

group

habitual

actions

which

do

to fall into the state of secondary automatism,

appear
however
much
they may be practised. Fencing supplies

not

good

afford
train

instance
to

of

allow

in

himself

thought

contrary, the

point.
while

keenest

The

to

most

be

he is

expert fencer

absorbed

engaged

watchfulness

in
in
is

an

duel.

cannot

irrelevant
On

required.

the
The

only certain component parts of the action

have become
selves
thoroughly habitual ; these do not of themrequireto be attended to. The practisedfencer has
not
about
the proper
modes
of thrusting and
to think
parrying; what requires attention is the tactics of his
he discerns by sightor feelingthe
as
opponent. As soon
direction in which
his antagonist's
rapier is moving, the
automatically.Thus, attention is
proper reply is made
reason

is that

PSYCHOLOGY.

100

for

demanded

the

[BK. i., CH.

combination

proper

series

of

severallyautomatic,a combination
has to be adjusted to constantlyfluctuatingconditions.
union
of attentive adaptation to relatively
The
with
automatic
stances
circumstances
adaptationto circummore
uniformlyrepeated is found in all ordinary
which,

movements

which

novel

are

Thus, the decision

voluntary action.
requireattention,but the process
may
it and

volition

volition

in their

are

When

we

will,"we

of
or

the
We

attention.

into

blow

of

out

walking

bodily actions.

to

of will.

have

speak
do not

seen

of

of

that

which

There

candle

towards

"habit

that

of
the

are

thought

course,

that

processes

mean

processes

total process

Of

nature

very

specialtrains

fencing, "automatic
parts

and

thought

attention.
habit

confined

is not
of

habits

to

is automatic."*

blowing

Habit

"

of

n.

also
and

involve

thought" or
specialacts

of

thought can go on without

in such bodily activities as
enter

may
a

as

whole

as

component

is very

far from

inverse of this is seen

in habits of
The
being automatic.
a
comprehensive habitual
thinking and willing. Here
of
tendency realises itself on specialoccasions by means
specialprocesses which are not habitual."! We may take
an
as
example the habit of answering letters on the day
received.
which they are
Here, what is habitual and
on
is not the actual process of writingthe reply
automatic
but the writingof the
this,of course, requires attention
day on which the letter is received is a
reply on the same
automatic
and
habitual
procedure. It takes place as a
The
alternative
of postponing it to
of course.
matter
another day is not entertained without
exceptionalmotives.
A
good instance of a habit of thought is that of the
There
are
some
continually
making of puns.
persons who
"

"

Analytic Psychology,vol. i.,pp.

260-261.

f Ibid,p. 262.

MENTAL

" 11.]
make

simply because

puns

Of course
doing1so.
but the general trend
of

than

in other

The

PROCESS.

each

formation

of

is

habit

distinct conditions.

they have fallen into the habit

singlepun requiresattention ;

of attention

directions

The

if and

walk.

Let

This

cease,

take

us

at the

the

as

involves

outset

series of contractions

proportionsand
the

aimed

end

in

two

second
which

their

as

the child

end

is

learningto

full attention.

At

"

of intention

of certain

the

only

muscles, in

proper

order, is capable of realising

proper

at, with

far

so

example

an

; the

conation,accordingto

outset, performance falls far short

certain

operationof

first is retentiveness

conative

rather

of habit.

involves

of

attained.

in this direction

matter

lies in the essential nature

processes

101

the

maximum

of

rapidityand

of obstruction
and
failure,
certainty,and the minimum
At the outset of the process of
and correspondingeffort.
muscles
contracted which
are
are
superfluous,
acquisition,
and
which
therefore
disturbing conditions.
operate as
Others
and in the
not contracted
at the rightmoment,
are
the effort
that action is deranged. Now
so
rightmeasure,
to attain

the

obstruction

end

is,eo ipso,an

; hence

will

there

effort to
be

avoid

failure

and

tendency

constant

to

alter muscular

ful.
adjustmentsin so far as they are unsuccessHence
arise gradual approximationsto success, and
it is these which
are
permanently retained,while all that
belongs to the process of trial,as such, disappears. In

this

way

fixed

and

organised, which
effort, without
"

It will be

seen

of facilitation.
conation

can

series

uniform
go

trial and

on

of

facilitate

movements

itself without

of habit is

left behind
dispositions
subsequent conation in the
*

is

conscious

failure.*

that the formation

The

of

Op. cit.,
pp.

267-268.

example
by previous
an

attainment

of

end.

its

point
the

at

"When

12.

becomes

them
we

are

conscious

When,

be

taken

view

there
from

the
the

is

in

into

with

of

nervous

physiological

and

hand,

other

physiological
place.

it

both
is

Ibid,

p.

in

of

also

view.
as

are

23.

sidering
con-

When
of

trace

of

desire
the

in

are

psychological

psychical

appropriate

psycho-physical disposition."*
*

purely

we

side,

WTien

account,

operation

merely

it

They
Their

pre-condition

call

may

of

point

disposition

regarded

facts.

advantages

many

so

structure.

by

us

conscious

be

may

mode

as

process,

physiological

to

words

as

nervous

as

and

are

we

process,
on

necessary,

such

But

dispositions

consciousness,

exclusively
disposition

of

considering

previous

"

and

revealed

But

evidence.

n.

maintained

view.

correlated

modifications

instance

first

hitherto

of

inter-connexion,

existence,
the

is

point

persistent

en.

reaches

longer

no

using

"

have

we

point

traces

another

from

traces,

general

In

Dispositions.

psychological

psychological

is

I.,

automatic.

and

in

process

facilitation

of

process
endeavour

Physiological

dispositions

strictly

this

conscious

which

action

"

are

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

102

further

disposition.
to

consider

physiological

term

simultaneously
to

speak

to

of

CHAPTER

1.

"

PSYCHOLOGY"

"FACULTY

THE

Introductory. There

of them

obsolete

"

and

the

other

these

pre-suppose

theories

the ways

popular mind, and,

fallacies

said

to

two

"

"

But

2.

ASSOCIATIONISM.

general theories of
development of great historical importance. One
the "Faculty Psychology
be pronounced
may

obsolescent.

"

AND

are

"

mental

account

HI.

so

of

obtained

they

as

is

"

least

at

speaking and thinking which

have

far

natural, that

so

Associationism

"

hold

on

the

false,they represent

are

it is worth

such

while

to

give a

critical

of them.
The
be

statingthe

"An

"Faculty Psychology"

"

individual

explainedby pointing out

its cause,

that

law

of which

its

laws

of causation

fact is

is, by

production
Thus
is an instance.
is explained,when
a conflagration
it is proved to have
arisen from
a
spark fallinginto the
in a similar manner,
And
midst of a heap of combustibles.
law
is said to be explained
a
or
uniformity in nature
when
law or laws are pointed out, of which
that
another
law

or

itself is but

deduced."*

Now

two

terms,

own,

product.
by which

Where

"

this

cause

from

of causation

and

effect,antecedent

can

condition
*

and

law

Each
it

case,

of these
be

must

states

process

have

103

and

character

fulfilled there

Mill,Logic, 9th edition,vol. i.,p.

be

relation between

conceived
definitely

is not

it could

which

540.

and
is

ing
resultof its

described.
no

causal

PSYCHOLOGY.

104

law,

and

explanation

be its

own

cause,

is

and

[BE. I.,

impossible.

An

en.

effect

cannot, therefore,afford its

nr.

not
canown

it is a
fallacy of not infrequent
explanation. But
what
turns
tion
examinato assignas a cause
out on
occurrence
to be
only the effect itself,expressed in different
of the fallacy called
language. This is a specialcase
and it usually consists in adducing
argument in a circle,"
the cause
of a specialfact the generalconceptionunder
as
which
The
classical instance of this
it is comprehended.
confusion
is the replyof Moliere's physicianto the question,
11
Why does opium produce sleep?
Opium," lie answers,
"produces sleepbecause it has a soporific
tendency." It
is to be noted that the fallacydoes not lie in reducing the
assumed
to the general,for this is the form
particular
by
all explanation. The
generalisedeffect (soporific
virtue)
is adduced
the cause
of the specialeffect (the producas
tion
of sleep by opium). But
to explain,we
in order
be
the fact
to
require a generalised relation between
other fact
which
determines
it
some
explained and
Thus, we may
explainwhy a person goes to sleep by his
having taken opium, but not by his possessionof a power
"

"

"

of somnolescence.
In

psychology,the fallacywe have described needs to be

The
form which
it is
guarded against with specialcare.
is that of referringa mental
state
to a
apt to assume
corresponding "faculty." To say that an individual mind
possesses a certain facultyis merely to say that it is capable
of certain states
To assignthe faculty as a
or
processes.
cause,

or

as

real

condition

of the

states

or

processes,

is

it is
evidentlyto explain in a circle,or in other words
failure to explain at all. Thus, it is futile to
mere
a
is due
to Will
say that a particularvoluntary decision
as a faculty. It is equallyfutile to say that extraordinary

PSYCHOLOGY.

FACULTY

" 2.]

105

in a voluntarydecision is due to an extraordinary

persistence
strength of Will, or of Will-power, or of the Faculty of
Will.
AVe
explain nothing1 by asserting that certain
mental
of

Reason,

have

that

the

one

certain

statements
a

in

have

man

that certain

or

their

true

processes

in

source

the

their

other

in the

source

processes

Faculty

in lower

of Instinct.

Faculty
animals

It may

be

Compound Faculty includingon

the other
of judgment, and
hand
the power
on
But such
of feelingor sentiment.
susceptibility
for the actual generation of
in no
account
way
is

conscience

scrupleor

twinge

of conscience.*
"

FacultyPsychology
A
take either a positiveor a merely negative form.
may
regarded as an agency or real
facultymay be explicitly
condition, producing its own
specialmanifestation, and
faculties
as
similarlyconceived
interactingwith other
But
such
a
position has
agencies or real conditions.
without
disguiseor equivocation.
rarelybeen maintained
The

What

fallacyof

we

reference

what

has been

find is rather
of this

or

called

tendency

that state

or

* '

to

rest

process

to

satisfied with
a

corresponding

inquiryfurther so as to raise
to
the
a
explanation. Reference
question of causal
faculty,
though it is futile from the point of view of causal
the less have
a
none
good and useful
explanation,may
meaning from another pointof view, that of classification.
kind
of classification is a primary necessityfor
Now
some
faculty without

pushing

the

"

of the will,"has brought

Locke, in criticisingthe phrase, "freedom
of this fallacy. "We
out
as
properly say,
may
clearly the nature
very
the
that it is the singing faculty sings, and
dancing faculty dances, as
usual
that the will chooses,or that the understanding conceives
; or, as is
that
the
the will directs
understanding, or the understanding obeys, or
to say
and
intelligible
obeys not the will ; it being altogether as proper
of
of singing,or the power
of speaking directs the power
that the power
of speaking."
Essay on Human
singing obeys or disobeys the power
Understanding,bk. ii.,ch. 21, " 17.
*

PSYCHOLOGY.

106

psychologist. To divide and

modes
of consciousness
fluctuating
the

that

each

receive

[BK. I.,
arrange
in

CH.

the various

distinct and

in.

and

orderly

appropriatename,
small
achievement.
this is in itself no
Many of the
absorbed
in inquiries
of this
earlier psychologists
were
so
for discussingquestions
that they ignored the need
nature
that
of origin and
development. They tacitlyassumed
of classification. .If they had
the whole
one
problem was
there
held and
expressed this view with full distinctness,
with
would
have
been
a
no
ground for charging them
fallacyof confusion, and the Faculty Psychology could
of reproach. But they were
not be justlyused as a term
by
no
means
completelyclear as to their own
position. They
and
did not fullyrealize that they were
only classifying
not explaining. They would
probablyhave repudiatedthe
charge that they treated faculties as real agencies if the
formulated.
But none
the less,
charge had been distinctly
implied causal
language which
they frequently used
both
between
relation
faculty and special process and
manner,

so

between

different

may

an

"

faculties.

expressionhad a disastrous
of explanationwithout
effect. It created
an
appearance
and in this way
the reality,
seriouslyretarded the progress
the word
of knowledge. For this reason
"faculty" has
almost
psychology. But the
passed out of use in modern
fallacydoes not necessarilydisappear with the word in
often found
which
it has so
are
by no
expression. We
in the present day. It is,
secure
means
againstit even
student
the
to warn
therefore, necessary
against this
peculiarmode of explanationin a circle,and to insist on
the necessity of real explanationby definite conditions,
giving rise to definite results,accordingto a fixed order.
Faculty Psychology is valuable,
" 3. Associationism.
Indulgence in

such

modes

"

of

FACULTY

"3.]
if

at

all, only

ultimate

aim

becomes

what

as

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

scheme

science

of

107

classification.

But

the

is to

explain and not merely to

once
classify.Hence, when
explanatory principlescame
be
to
and
clearly conceived
expounded the Faculty
in
Psychology tended to disappear. Its greatest enemy
modern
times
has
been
the theory of reproduction as
determined
This theory,when
by Association.
pushed to
of explanati
an
extreme, so as to exclude all other modes
:"n,
Mill

James
TIerbart

"Associationism."

is called
in

and

England,
Germany, may

in

be

in
taken

assumption which

lies at the basis

mental

can

if and

conditions
so

far

state

parts and

by

of

writers

different

very

of Associationism

only give rise

to

way

types of it.

as

mental

as

The

is that

product,

in the product as its components.

they reappear
this point of view, to explainthe originof

as

From
a

Such

consciousness
show

how
As

association.

is to

they
all

its constituent

enumerate

with

to cohere

came

words

are

each

other

together out

put

of

alphabet,so all derivative mental states

and processes
are
put together out of primary and simple
stimulation
modes
the
of
consciousness, arising from
of sensitive
inside the body.
surfaces
either outside
or
the

letters of the

In

consciousness
ordinary human
in
occur
rarely if ever
have
all acquired associations,so
embedded

cluster

of

revived

these

elementary

their
that

They

purity.
they

residua

now

sations
sen-

appear

of

previous
experiences. Thus, when an orange is perceived,what is
be only
immediately given in the way of sensation may
yellow colour. According to the theory we are considering,
the perceptionof the orange
or
wholly consists in the more
of past sensations
less complete re-instatement
by the
in

present

sensation.

nucleus

of

cluster

The

present

of revivals.

sensation
The

forms

immediate

the
ocular

PSYCHOLOGY.

108

[KK. i.,

en.

nr.

of the orange
experiencereproducestlie visual appearance
It reproducesthe smell, and
from
other points of view.
of the
the taste, and
the character
as
pulpy contents

touch.

presentedto sightand
It is admitted

part the simplecomponents

that for the most

only be ascertained by
psychicalcomplex can
ness
laborious investigation
; that the ordinarystates of consciouswhich common
sense
regards as ultimate are reallynot
an
ultimate, but have
origin and development due to
The essential point is that these
psychologicalconditions.
conditions
held to operate only in one
are
specialmanner
;
is the effect which
they
they combine, and their combination
produce. On this theory,causation and compositioncoincide.
" 4. d.ssociationism criticised. "Mental Chemistry" In all
of such

"

psychicaldevelopment
is involved.
tionism.

kind

some

So much

Its defect lies in

of association
be conceded

may

making

and

the whole

duction
repro-

to associa-

process

merely

of psychical
of other modes
to the exclusion
reproductive,
and not merely reproduced
interaction,
giving rise to new
of nature
causation and comresults. In the generalcourse
position
Conditions
by no
by no means
always coincide.
in their productas its component parts.
means
always persist
form part of
the sculptor's
chisel nor
its movements
Neither
tegral
inThe
fire does not remain
the completed statue.
an
as
part of a burnt house,or a knife as an integralpart of a
The
reduce
all mental
wound.
theory which would
duction
proselfto reproduction,
a
is,therefore,by no means
Its claims to acceptance rest entirely
evident truth.
the
on
it may
verification which
receive from
experience. What
kind

of verification

and

attainable

It would

sight that this question is easy to answer.

exist in the product itself we
If the producing conditions
ought to be able to find them by analyticscrutinyof the
seem

at

first

is necessary

FACULTY

" 4.]

product.
because

In material

about

compounds

the components
to be

cease

PSYCHOLOGY.

discernible

bo

may

by

109

this may

so

But

senses.

our

be

possible,
intermingledthat they
not

it is the

tinctive
dis-

of the combinations
which
are
peculiarity
brought
by mental association and reproduction,that both

the

It
components and their union exist in consciousness.
would
therefore,that it ought to be as easy to detect
seem,
the

components

of such

compound

as

to

spella

To

exist

word

on

phoneticprinciples.
But

this

conclusion
is

identified

one

is too

thing.

hasty.
To

be

in

discriminated

sciousness
con-

and

is quite another
object of consciousness
thing.
Spoken language is composed of a limited number
of elementary sounds.
But
spoken long
language was
and
before
discovered
these
were
elementary sounds
the sound
representedby an alphabet. So in articulating
of each
letter combined
of the throat, lips,
movements
involved.
The
corresponding
palate are
tongue, and
the
utters
sensations
who
are
experienced by everyone
But
sounds.
they are only discernible by an express
effort of analyticattention.
Most
of us never
notice them
of a musical
is due to its
note
at all. Again, the timbre
fundamental
united
with
are
a
complexity. Overtones
cernible
disrule separately
tone.
These
not
overtones
are
as
a
learn to
But he may
by an unpractisedobserver.
If
discriminate
them
by adopting an appropriatemethod.
is produced by itself and then compared with
a simple tone
of which
it is an
the complex note
overtone, and if this
sufficient frequency,it becomes
is repeated with
process
the overtone
as a separate component
possibleto distinguish
of the complex to which
it belongs.
It is illegitimate
that the constituents of a
to demand
complex mode of consciousness shall be immediatelyobvious

PSYCHOLOGY.

110

[KK. T.,

cu.

ill.

simple inspection.But it is both legitimateand necessary

that they shall be ascertainable
to demand
by a systematic
favourable
under
process of reflective scrutiny conducted
To
affirm their presence
where
conditions.
no
scrutiny
before
is simply to refuse
to
detect
them
can
appear
of
the bar
by
experience, and
judgment must
go
default
such
assume
a
position. If
against those who
certain mode
of consciousness
is alleged to consist of
a
certain constituents,#, b, c, the only criterion of primary
importanceby which we can test their presence is systematic
comparison. "We must
c, severally,
a, b, and
compare
is alleged to be a
with what
and, if possible,
collectively,
product constituted by their combination.
to bring the general plan of explanation
It is necessary
School to
the procedure of the Association
which
governs
this test.
Brought to this test it certainlycollapses. One
of the school,J. S. Mill,has virtually
of the ablest members
doctrine
"Mental
its bankruptcy in his
of
confessed
impressions or ideas are
Chemistry." "When
many
takes
together,there sometimes
operating in the mind
place a process of a similar kind to chemical combination.
often
When
so
experienced in
impressions have been
of them
calls up
readily and
conjunction, that each
the ideas of the whole
instantaneously
group, those ideas
melt and coalesce into one
sometimes
another, and appear

to

not

several

ideas, but

one

; in

prismatic colours
rapid succession,the sensation
the

But

seven

as

in this last

case

the

same

manner

as, when

presented to the
produced is that of

are

it is correct

to

say

that

the

eye

in

white.
seven

another, generate
they rapidly follow one
white, but not that they actuallyare white ; so it appears
that the Complex Idea, formed
to me
by the blending
together of several simpler ones, should, when it really
colours, when

FACULTY

"4.]

PSYCHOLOGY.

Ill

simple (thatis,when the separate elements are not

in it),
be said to result from, or be
consciously
distinguishable
Our
generatedby,the simple ideas,not to consist of them.
idea of an
reallyconsists of the simple ideas of a
orange
certain colour,a certain form, a certain taste and
smell,
we
etc.,because
by interrogatingour
consciousness,
can,
appears

perceiveall these elements in the idea. But we cannot

in so apparentlysimple a feelingas our perception
perceive,
of the shape of an
objectby the eye, all that multitude of
derived

ideas

ascertained
had

from

that

discover

those

shown

visual

in

nor,

frame,

in

which

it is well

perceptioncould
idea

our

which

without

senses,

elementaryideas

muscular

our

such

no

existence;

other

of

have

ever

Extension,

can

of resistance,derived
been

it has

we

from

conclusively

that the idea

originates.These, therefore,are cases

of mental
chemistry; in which it is proper to say that the
simple ideas generate, rather than that they compose, the
complex ones."*
It is well
some

We

care.

of the

while

worth
must

inadequacy of

examine

this statement

that it contains

note

of facts from

the stress

to

the Association

one

of its most

reluctant

with
sion
confes-

theory, wrung
devoted

by

adherents.

grudging nature of his

the Association theoryif and so far
He maintains
admissions.
he
Thus
he can
find any plausible
as
pretext for doing so.
consists of the simple
holds that our
"idea of an orange really

Mill

shows

ideas of

his

reluctance

certain

smell,etc.,because

colour,a
we

can

by

the

certain

form, a

certain

our
by interrogating

taste and

ness
conscious-

This is very
perceiveall these elements in the idea."
ask ourtrue that when
selves
we
plausible.For it is certainly
ing
what
an
is,we can only answer
by enumeratorange
such characteristics as those assigned. But the real
*

vol. ii.,
Logic,9th edition,
pp.

441-442.

PSYCHOLOGY.

112

questionat

issue

is

in every

whether

characteristics

quite different.

it for

The

in which

moment

know

and

orange

[BK. I., CH.

an

catch

we

orange,

real

m.

question is
sight of an

all these

distinctive

be

actuallypresentedto consciousness.
that the necessity
of such a collective
It will be seen
at once
ever
of our
resurrection
previousexperiencesof oranges, whenobvious.
one
happens to catch our eye, is by no means
No

the

doubt

must

visual

in which

moment

appearance
become

we

bed is

all this to

means

aware

of the

in the

us

object.

But

to

thing ; to say that it drags

To
bed along with it is something altogetherdifferent.
said before,like supposing
the contrary is,as we
suppose
that a five-poundnote must
always have five sovereigns
wrapped up in it. The note will pass current
literally
five
the
instead
of
sovereigns, and in like manner
that

say

means

visual

appearance

current

instead

it

has

been

certain

of
of

one

the
the

orange

will

in

manner

special experiences with

conjoined.

It

determine

will

in

certain

ways

pass

which
and

action,thought, and

feeling,
these experienceswill determine
action, thought, and
as
feeling,if they are actuallypresent or actuallyreproduced

to

in the

extent

form

of ideas.

Though Mill clingsto reproductionand association with

all his might, he is in spiteof himself compelled to confess
of the most
vital questions
their impotence to solve some
is constrained
to introduce
of geneticpsychology. He
a
new
principleof fundamental
importance,which is,in a
In the productsof
way, the contrary of that of association.
the producing factors persistin the result as
associations,
Mill
its components. In the process of "generation" which
the generating factors effect their own
assumes
ance
disappearin giving birth to their product. Its life is their
Yet Mill is by no means
that he is
death.
clearlyaware

FACULTY

" 4.]

PSYCHOLOGY.

desertingthe association
that he is modifying1and

doctrine.

He

113

is rather

of

opinion

improving it. This is shown by

his use
of the term
Mental
Chemistry." A chemical
of
compound reallyis a compound. It really consists
its components
and
is not merely "generated" by them.
Its weight is equal to their weight. By appropriate
means
"

"

"

the

chemical

combination

be

can

dissolved

so

that

the

It is true that
again exist in a separate form.
the compound has propertieswhich
do not belong to the
components taken separately. But the components do not
for the new
to exist in order to make
cease
properties
way
the generatingfactors in mental
as
chemistrycease to exist
in producinga new
product.It may be said that though they
do not cease
to exist,
they disappearjustas the psychological
factors disappear. But this is equivocation.The
factors is equivalentto
disappearanceof the psychological
of chemical
their non-existence
factors
: the disappearance
certain ways
in which
that there are
merely means
they
The
their presence
to us.
to manifest
cease
analogy

components

between

the chemical

process

and

the

mental, as

the mental

plausiblefrom another
and hydrogen may
In order that oxygen
pointof view.
to form
combine
water
they must first be brought together.
Similarly,
accordingto Mill, the generatingfactors of a new
first be brought togetherin a firmly
mental
product must
each other
cluster before they annul
associated
or
group
this
For
and
give place to something radicallynew.
still
to
have
he appears
imagined that he was
reason,
followingthe lines of the association theory. But in so
thinking he evidentlyfell into a "fallacy of confusion."
What
he affirms is that a preliminary
process of association
and reproduction
precedesthe generationof a new and simple
is that
mode
What
he tacitly
of consciousness.
assumes
is conceived

Psych.

by Mill,appears

more

PSYCHOLOGY.

114

[UK. i.,

of
process
association and

generation itself is
reproduction. But

of

Generation

the

"

thought.

which

that

from

process

"

prepares

fallacyhad alreadybeen
Brown's

Thomas
of

Condillac,as

when

he

has

remains

the

it appears

to me,

the

shown

for

way

it.

Mill

"The

consists in

circumstance

confusion

mere

before

criticism of Condillac.

to

altogetherdistinct

an

pointed out

in.

reducible

somehow
this is

CIT.

The
in

wrote

great

error

supposing that
which

from

any

the
essentially
which
with
the circumstance
same
produced it. Certain
sensations have ceased to exist,certain other feelingshave
feelingsare, therefore,the
immediately arisen ; these new
another
others under
shape. Such is the secret, but very
doctrine."*
false logic,
which
to prevade his whole
seems
He
held
that
mutandis
This
to Mill.
applies mutatis
elements
because
certain grouping of mental
a
precedes
all of
each and
the emergence
of a product distinct from
effect results he has

be

them, this product must

which
The
as

have

than

more

Things

and

"melted

metaphor
which

of

"

this result to be

shown

the

veiy

coalesced

elements
into

themselves

one

another."

melting and coalescence,"if it is taken

literaryflourish, is quite unmeaning.

"melt

and

coalesce

into

one

another"

hydrogen and
which
unite to form water, persist,
accordingto the
oxygen
of the indestructibility
of matter, in the compound.
principle
It is only because
of their
persistencethat they can
properlybe said to be compounded or to have coalesced.
structibil
But
there
is no
principlecorresponding to the indeof matter
applying to modes of consciousness.
They do not persistin their product,and therefore they do
remain

"

not

We

in existence

melt

and

have
*

after their

coalesce

"

union.

in it.

assumed
provisionally

Philosophyof

The

the Human

Mill's

Jfind,Lecture

theory
xxxiii.

that

the

FACULTY

$4-]
"

"

generation

of

conditions

PSYCHOLOGY.

mode

new

115

of consciousness

be

preceded by
generating factors. But,
must

grouping of the
self-evident
assumption is neither
experience. Mill,at this point,merely

by psychological
associative

an

in

this
reality,
nor
justifiedby
the strength
shows
led him to affirm the Association theory,
of the bias which
in the act of denying it. From
another
even
point of view
of "mental
also, his account
chemistry" is, in the main,
condition entirely
fictitious. He holds that the co-operative
This
disappears in giving rise to something new.
may
happen in certain cases : but it is certainlynot the prevailing
rule, and above all it does not apply to the special
he refers
which
to.
class of cases
Spatial perception,
forms
and modifications,
tactual and visual,in its various
is undoubtedly due to a vast
complexity of co-operative
do

which

conditions

not

appear

in the

But

result.

it is

contributoryfactors are discernible.

or
Magnitude, as perceivedby the eye, is colour extended
spread out. Shape, as perceivedby the eye, is constituted
In such perceptionthere is
of colour.
by the boundaries
always present at least visual sensation, and generally

untrue

that

none

of the

The

experiences accompanying eye-movements.

which
character
belongs to these visual

and

spatial
motor

of
and
datum
not
derivative
a
experiences is indeed
It belongs to them, at least in the
primary sensation.
of human
case
beings, only in virtue of their previous
with other specific
in specific
combination
experiences,
ways
ocular
None
the less, the
tactile,motor, and visual.
and magnitude does not float
form
perceptionof extended
loose in detachment
to

is

its

origin.
played by

become

endowed

all the

from

For

among

these

the

visual

and

with

contributed

factors which
factors
motor

an

essential

part

sensations, which

spatialcharacter

as

the

result

PSYCHOLOGY.

116

the

of

them.

of

has,

profoundly

What

denial,
is

the

the

course

all

them

an

is

true

express

only

so

modified

or

principle
of

is

mental

that

that

not

rather
with

the

CH.

m.

d,

c,

e,

recognition
all
of

one

others,
it

whenever

I,

from

that

I.,

a,

beyond

disparate

quite

interaction

through

in

is

disappear

happens

modification,

peculiar

in

conditions,

What

conditions

happens

behind

leave

and

What

process.

antecedent

the

[BK.

or

any
these

acquired
it

recurs,

recurs

form.
doctrine

the

implied,
of

that

fundamental

development.

of

mental

chemistry

reproduction
importance

by

is

the

association

controlling

BOOK

II,

SENSATION.

CHAPTER
DEFINITION-

"
of

Sensation

1.

what

we

production. It is
stimulus
is always

OF

SENSATION.

Stimulus.

and

agree

I.

"

One

in

is
calling sensation
caused
by what we call a

condition,external

some

mark

characteristic
its mode

of

stimulus.

to the

nervous

system itself and

operating upon it. This stimulus may

consist in physiological
change originatingin the organism
in the case
of organic sensations,or in physical
as
itself,
the
conditions
external
to the organism, which
act
on
of sense,
and
of afferent
by means
peripheral organs
affect the central nervous
nerves
system. The change in
the internal state of the body which
gives rise to organic
sensation
be initiated,in the first instance, by an
may
external
of

case

modes
in

the

within

stimulus

tickling.We
of stimulation

nature,
the

dependence
to the

acting on

and

have

peripheral organs

also to count

some

conceptionof

in

the

the various

among

the irritant effect of certain variations

the

distribution

brain, leading
on

as

kind

to

117

the

blood-supply

hallucinations.

of external

sensation.

of

condition

Causal
is essential

PSYCHOLOGY.

1 18

It is above

[BE;,n.

CH.

i.

all

the cause
thingsimportant to distinguish
of sensation
from the object of sense-perception.A man
examining a material thing present to his senses
may
successivelyor simultaneouslysee it, feel it,weigh it in
his hand, hear the sound
it makes, smell it,and
taste it.
In so doing he perceivesits sensible qualities,
such
as
He
does so
colour,hardness, weight, odour, and flavour.

by

of the sensations

means

the

varying
object. But

relations
the

sensible

identical with

means

of

the

which

produced in him by
his sensitive
organism to the
qualitiesperceived are by no

cause

sensation, for instance,is due

particlesof
chemical
so

to

or

of sensation.

The

colour-

vibratorymotion of the
the luminiferous
ether, giving rise to certain
physicalchanges in the organ of vision,and

certain

system.

nervous

are

modification
But

these

to

of

connected

conditions

are

parts
not

what

of
a

the
man

perceivesthe colour red or blue. Similarly,

the weight of the objectas perceivedis by no means
to be
identified with the changes produced by it in the skin,
the
occasion
sensations
muscles, tendons, etc., which
to the perceptionof the weight.
necessary
essential to the perception of things
Sensations
are
and
their qualities
in the conceptionof what
stitutes
con; but
abstract from the cognitivefunction
we
a sensation
which
belongs to it as an element in the perceptionof an
object. The vital point on which we fix attention is that
sensation
is a mode
of consciousness
a
produced by a
mode
of stimulation,and having its own
specific
specific
nature
ultimatelydetermined
by the conditions which produce
it. We
have noted that the producing conditions may,
in the first instance,be external to the organism. But they
can
only affect the nervous
system by firstoperatingon those
parts of the organism,which we call the organs of sense.
sees

when

he

SEXSATIOX

" 2.]
Thus

the

changes in
by

system,

constitute

" 2.

for

one

case

the

of

sensation

be

If

of

and

the

nervous

I have

grass,

I have

the

is that

The

difference

way

in which

of white

and

can

only be

my

eye

the

tion
sensa-

psychologicalreason

why
in

the

accounted

is affected

the
light. So in all cases
for by
ultimatelyaccounted

by
qualitiesof

reference

to

the stimulus.

actuallysee grass
picturesof them in my

greenness

subsequent

of the sensation.

at

at snow,

I do not

mental

the

affect

If I look

"

the sensation

different kinds

the nature

and

changes

assign no

can

different

must

of sense,

If I look

that of green.

by

119

the essential antecedents

of green.

of white.

other

these

Sensory Elements.

sensation

in the

the organ

which

processes

DEFINED.

whiteness

are

or

mind's

present

but

summon

up
of
eye, the qualities

snow,

mental

in my

image

these
they are present in actual perception. Now
would
not be present in the mental
image unless
qualities
they had been previouslyproduced by the operationof an
as

external

stimulus.

apply the

term

For

sensation

this reason,
to these

some

waiters

qualitieseven

when

would

they

perception
and in the mental
image they defy psychologicalanalysis,
for only by reference to
and
be ultimately accounted
can
There
external
stimulation.
is,however, an objectionto
sensation
to both
indifferently.
cases
applying the word
both
in the perceptionand in
Though greenness
appears
the mental
image of grass, it appears in a different manner
The
in each
instance.
present operationof the external
stimulus
steadiness,and other
gives it peculiarintensity,
do not belong to it in the
distinctive characters,which
mental
image. It is better to restrict the term sensation to
which
the specialform
of consciousness
accompanies the
of sensation
The qualities
actual operationof the stimulus.
appear

in the

mental

image.

Both

in

actual

PSYCHOLOGY.

120

as

they

appear

elements,but
that

their

in mental

imagery

sensations.

not

[BK. n.,

The

accounted
reference

to

that
existence

an

external

their

stimulus.

existence

psychologically
only be explainedby
The

word
the

pre-supposes

not

follow

from

formulate

it
?

seems
on

this that

cognitivefunction.

separately considered

is based

previous

of

exist without

which

dicates
in-

sensory

"

sensation

indicates

be

correspondingsensations.
In
Sensation.
denning sensation
" 3. Mere
disregarded the cognitivefunction which it may
constituent
element
in the perceptionof
as
a
It does

I.

called sensory

elements

term

cannot
peculiar nature
for, that ultimatelyit can
"

be

may

CH.

as

We
to

the

stimulus

without

this is

may

follows
owe

its

on

Is

to

fact

This

there

such

within

We

thing

Stumpf

question in

that

is

discharge
an
object.
can
actually
questionto be

merits.

own

Professor

settle this

sensation

have

we

may
as

mere

argument

an

the affirmative.

limits

we

can

vary

It
a

producing any perceptibledifference in

is
the object cognised. If this variation
in the stimulus
then we
accompanied by variation in the sense-experience,
makes
variation
in the sense-experience
which
have
no
a
is a difference
difference
in mere
to cognition. There
sensation,but not in perception. That, as a matter of fact,
so

be

demonstrated

as

follows.

We

may

vary
musical

physical conditions on which the pitch of a

note
depends, so as to produce a graduated scale of notes
increasingor decreasingin pitch. Symbolise the series by
PnP!, P2, P3, P4, P5,
Now, if the variation of the
gradual,Pl may be quite
physicalconditions is sufficiently
from
be quite
P2, and similarlyP2 may
indistinguishable
from Ps, and P3 from P4. None
the less,
indistinguishable
different from P,.
But
P4 will be perceivedas distinctly
unless the change in the physical
this would be impossible
the

DEFINED.

SENSATION

" 3.]

121

accompanied by a change in the sensation,

the change is imperceptible.If the pitch-senwhen
sation
even
Pl is regarded as identical with the pitch-sensation
from
the one
note is indistinguishable
P2, merely because
the other, and if in like manner
P2 is regarded as identical
conditions

were

with

P3, and P3

with

Pn,

with

it would

and

should

difference

P4, and

on, then

so

arise.

The

be identical

must

impossibletha.t

be

ever

Pl

perceptible

any

argument

same

be

may

gradual increase in heat or weight or

back may
on
a man's
pressure or brightness. The burden
be increased
gradual additions from an
by sufficiently
his noticing the successive
without
stone
to
a
ounce
applied

to

increments.
difference

to

successive

If

these

his

sensation,the

to him
weight would be all the same
produced by an ounce.
merit of Stumpf's argument lies
The

may

be

brought

It is easy
coincidence

which

into

form

out

that

show

to

by

between

"At

the

appeal to common
there is by no
means

the

existence

this moment

the sensation

in the

an

They may
cognitivefunction.
for perceptual consciousness,
utilized.

as

But

it is thrown.

no

produced by

sensation

stone

cogent

made

increments

and

exact

point
experience.
a
complete
same

of sensations

and

their

possiblematerial
without
being actually
logical
am
thinking about psychoexist

as

of
time a multitude
topics. I receive at the same
diversified impressions from
surrounding things which
certainlyenter into my total experience. But if I refer
them
to an
object at all,I do so in a very indeterminate
discrimination
is very far from keeping
My perceptual
way.
pace

with

the

differentiation

of the

sensory

immediately experienced."* The room

is shining in at the window.
and the sun
*

AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,
p.

48.

is

data

as

well-lighted,
But, with, my

PSYCHOLOGY.

122

[BK. n.,

en.

i.

occupied,I do not notice this. My

thoughts otherwise
thoughts might be similarly occupied in the twilight
without
noticingthat it was
twilight. But my total
my
The
kind
experiencewould be different in the two cases.
and degree of illumination
modifies my consciousness,
even
I
though I do not take cognisanceof it. In like manner,
of a sound, am
at the same
time
often, in becoming aware
been
time
that I have
aware
hearing it for some
past
without
of it. The
being aware
corresponding sensation
was
though I did not notice
present in my consciousness
the

sound.*

" 4.

Sensation
as

sation
CognitiveState distinguished
from Senledge,
must
CognisedObject. We
distinguishthe knowas

"

which

of

knowledge

which

It

that

is true

knowledge of
know
by means
We

sensations
has

for its

without

them

but

the

are

vehicle, from

object sensations

the

sensations

it is not

of sensations

true

we

themselves.
can

that

have

whatever

knowledge of
what
distinguishbetween

must

the

is

these
a

no

we
sations.
sen-

sense-

and what it is in its own

intrinsic nature.
experiencemeans
The
image thrown by an objecton the retina of the eye
in magnitude as
the
distance
of the object
decreases
This
involves a correspondingdifference in the
increases.
When
fix our
attention
visual sensation.
we
deliberately
and
with practice
the sensation and its phases,we
on
may,
notice
We
this difference.
by using appropriatemeans,
and
become
that a man
aware
entering a room
may
But for
approaching us apparently increases in stature.
the most
part we ignore these variations in our experience.
the less,they fulfil a cognitivefunction.
None
They help
to determine
our
perceptionof the distance of the object
seen.

It is the

business
*

of the

artist to

Cf.Bk. i.,ch.i., "5.

attend

to

these

SENSATION

I 4.]
and

other

differences

them

in his

effect

an

of colour

in

visual

123

sensation,and

in this way

pictures. Only

artistic illusion.
and

DEFINED.

He

must

is he

reproduce
enabled

to

reproduce differences

of

shading, etc.,and differences due to the

varying way in which objectsin varying positionsaffect
the eye.
But
for all this he needs
a
specialtraining.
He has to learn to notice what nobody notices in ordinary
life. In ordinary life,people attend
the
only to what
The
artist must
sense-experiencepracticallymeans.
of attendingto the intrinsic nature
of
acquire the power
the sense-experience
itself.
in psychology,we
have to attend to sensations,
Similarly,
such : we
their attributes as psychical
have to examine
as
not
states, and
merely their meaning as vehicles of
coincide.
knowledge. The two pointsof view onlypartially
If we
the colour red as a qualityof a material
compare
objectwith the colour red as a qualityof the corresponding
sensation,we find that redness as immediatelyperceivedis
an

attribute

different

As

common

relations

to

into

both.

which

The

difference

it enters

in the

lies in the
two

cases.

quality of the thing, it is considered in relation to

other qualities
of the thing, its shape, texture, flavour,
odour, etc. As a psychicalstate, it is considered
as
a
peculiarmodification of the consciousness of the percipient,
in relation to the generalflow of his mental
life. But this
is not the only difference.
When
are
we
attending to
redness
take
as
a
sensation, we
cognisance of many
characteristics which
are
usuallyignored when we are only
interested
in it as
a
quality of material objects. The
manifold
goes
variations
which
the colour of an
objectunderunder
varying phases of illumination are, to a large
because
extent, ignored in ordinaryperception,
they make
no
practicaldifference in the nature of the objectas a
a

"

PSYCHOLOGY.

124

physical
the

thing.

The
alone

illumination

and

like

he,

the

Sensations,

we

they
the

attend

are

process

to

by

them

which

the

in

such,

of

attention

objects,

objects

are

the

only

cognised.

and

not

in

the

them.

objects
way.

I.

logist,
psycho-

psychical

become

CH.

importance,

upon
are

but

n.,

same,

and

primary

introspective

an

for

sensation,

therefore,
as

the

as

But

are

fix

must

states,

themselves

not

in

such,

as

regarded

varying.

variations

artist,

psychical

These

is

these

object,

is

as

interest

whose

physical

colour

[BK.

states.

only

when

Otherwise
constituents

of

CHAPTEE
SEXSATIOX-llEFLEX.

THE

"

1. As

PhysiologicalReflex.

distinguishedfrom

define

may

II.

reflexact"

says

"

Dr. Waller,

"We

the immediate

"as

centripetalexcitation."* The emphasis

The
reaction
here
immediacy of the response.
it always
that
the
stimulus, so
depends directlyon
motor

in

occurs

stimulus
the

the

is

leg

thus

jerked

irritate with

we

is

it

away

in

comes

it

hot

this happens,
plate; when
again. On being again irritated,it

away

and

when

it is

more

once

in

conies

again withdrawn;

until the limits

is

contact

and

so

A reflex act may

by change in consciousness, or at least

change. Coughing and sneezing are
irritation
sneeze

or

of

the

mucous

cough

either

*IInman

acetic acid

is
once

with

membrane.

125

jerked back
more
jerked
the hot plate,
may

go

acts, due

reflex
But

294.

with

on

being accompanied
by any conspicuous

unconsciously
Physiology,p.

contact

the process

fatigueare reached.
be performed without

of

the

hemispheres have
By using
jerked away.
be arranged that whenever

it may

apparatus

when

cerebral

whose

leg

whenever

manner

is discontinued

If

operate.

frog

removed,

suitable

the

to

of

inevitable

and

repeated, and

is

ceases

thigh

been
a

invariable

an

stimulus

the

to

response
the
is on

a
or

person

to

may

consciously.

PSYCHOLOGY.

126

the

Perhaps
but
other
of

hand

the

with

is sometimes
membrane

described

as

consciousness

There

is

The

and

for

is violent.

Now

conditions
sensational

the

on

the

irritation

those

reflex

which

described

as

believingthat

the

take

place

sensational.

physiological

other than

those which

effect the sensation-reflex.

is the most

primitiveform of mental
is distinctly
recognisable. If,then, we fix the
the physiological
under
which
passes into the
under
reflex,we
thereby fix the conditions

mental

conditions

be

through nerve-fibres

sensation-reflex

life which

which

when

keen,

physiological
; those
may

reason

no

reflex is effected
convey

consciousness
as

very

n.

complete ;

not

case

CF.

which, roughly speaking,take placeunconsciously,

be

may

The

nearly so.

very

mucous

actions

is in any

unconsciousness

it is often

[BK. n.,

life first appears

appear

to

be

in

two-fold.

definite
In

the

form.
first

These

place,the

reflex is found where

the action takes
merely physiological
place regularlyand uniformly in response to stimulation
which
is uniformly and regularlyrecurrent.
The sensationthe
other
a
paratively
comhand, takes
reflex, on
place on
which
is only of occasional
specialemergency,
In the second
occurrence.
place,much
depends on the
degree in which the mind is pre-occupiedby higher processes.
A
he is
man
cough unconsciously when
may
absorbed
in some
interestingtopic,although in a less
pre-occupiedcondition of mind the cough would have been
sensation-reflex.
The
a
more
pre-occupiedhe is,the more
the irritation be in order
must
intense
to
produce an
sensation.
appreciable
Taking up the first point,it is plain
that those reflex movements
which
belong to the ordinary
routine of the vegetativelife of the organism
and normal
almost
are
wholly physiological.The heart's beat and
its

modifications,the

constriction

and

dilatation

of the

SENSATION-REFLEX.

" 1.]

127

blood-vessels,breathing1,
swallowing,the secretion of saliva,
and

the

like,are

normally accompanied by distinctly

I say distinctly
appreciable
sensations,

not

appreciablesensations.
because, in all probability,
they
to determine

the

do

in their

contribute
totality

of consciousness

state

as

whole,

giving it a certain tone or modality. But the effects of the

various organicprocesses blend into a vague total experience.
several effects are
Their
not
separatelyappreciable. The
most

whole
be

say is that,as Dr. Michael

can

we

of

abdominal

our

of the loss

aware

viscera

as

Foster

removed,

were

change

in

puts it,"if the

our

commoYi

should

we

general

or

sensibility."*On the other hand,

comparativelyoccasional occurrence,

when

combination

specialemergency,
disengage itself from

the

of movements

to

meet

mass

consciousness.
intense

more

stimulus

prompts

is of

special

concomitant

the vague

and

experience may
salient in
of general sentience and become
The
more
specialthe occasion, and the
does the
the stimulation,the more
definitely

sensation-reflex

stand

out

in

its

own

proper

character

as

reflex.
from
the physiological
Coughing is
distinguished
and then, when
act requiredonly now
an
irritatingmatter
Hence
in waking life
happens to be lodged in the throat.
it is

when
usually a sensation-reflex,
much

too

intense

when

pre-occupied,or

enough

to counteract

the mind

even

the

is not

irritation

of

act

is

strong pre-occupation.

swallowing belongs to the fixed

vegetativelife,and is not in the ordinary course
The

wise
other-

routine
of

of

things

separatelyappreciableexperience. But
tickle
if we
touch the back of the tongue with a finger,
or
it with a feather, this is an interruption
of routine requiring
a
specialadjustment adapted to the specialemergency,
accompanied by

which

cannot
*

be made

Text-Book

without

well-marked

of Physiology,book

modification

ch. vi.,p. 1421.

iii.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

128

if any

or
difficulty

it at

process,

en,

n,

So, breathing is normally unconscious

of consciousness.
but

[BK. n.,

obstruction

becomes

once

;*

in the

occurs

and

accompanied

respiratory
prompted by

painfulsensations.
On

the

second

mind

the

need
not
point we
pre-occupied,we

is much

otherwise

reflex where
As

reflex.
mental

pre-occupationwe

the heat
most

of the battle is

concerns

may
unaware

is the

us

fact

have

refer to the
of
that

logical
physio-

had

soldier

who

being wounded.
at

in

What
levels

lower

the

sational
sen-

effect of

of the

example

extreme

an

Where

have

may

should

we

much.

say

of

action is largely or mainly reflex,so

organic life,where
that higher processes
play a comparatively small part,
there can
be very little mental
pre-occupation. Thus, the
lower we descend in the scale,the stronger is the presumption
that a reflex act adapted to meet an occasional emergency
is
of a sensational and not merely of a phsysiological
character.
from PerceptualReaction and Ideational
" 2. Distinguished
In sensation-reflexes
Reaction.
coordinated
ments
movespecially
"

follow the
and

existence

mere

of

sensation

as

an

isolated

transient

not prompted
are
experience; the movements
and guided by any meaning which the sensation may
convey.
Where
is determined
movement
by what the recognised
qualityof the sensation pointsto, by what it giveswarning
not
of,the reaction is to that extent perceptualor ideational,
The distinction may
be illustrated by
merely sensational.
the difference between
sneezing and repressinga sneeze.

The

follows

sneeze

is

This

existence
This

the irritation of the

sensation

of the
that

-reflex.

feelingof
the

It

irritation.

mucous

arises
On

from

membrane.
the

mere

the other hand, the

breathing-sensationsare normally merged in

not
mass
general
normally prominent
they are
;
when
is
obstructed.
as
are
breathing
consciousness, they
*

of

means

sentience

the

in

SENS'ATION-KEFLEX.

" 2.]

repressionof
head

inconvenient

an

similar

aside,or

of

the

turningof the
at least
are
precaution,

sneeze,

measures

129

or

perceptualacts and may involve distinct ideas. The agent

performs them because he recognisesthe irritation as of a
certain kind
which
pointing to certain consequences
are
inconvenient

at the moment.

"What

determines

his conduct

is the

cognitivefunction of the sensation,not its mere

existence as a feeling, a transient and isolated experience.
The presence of ideal representations
in the way
of mental
We
not
be able to spare
imagery is not necessary.
may
mental
time
to call up
a
pictureor a verbal description
of the consequences
of sneezing in a person's face.
A
before
the mind
as
recognised sensory
quality comes
it presents itself
:
having a certain specialsignificance
as
a
fragment of a whole ; it points beyond its own
existence ; in virtue of this cognitivevalue
which
it
"

possesses, it prompts to a
the repression
of the sneeze.
In this case,

sensational

certain

line of

impulsecomes

action,such

as

into conflictwith

and it is a matter of doubt which

will prevail.
perceptual,
tensity
Many sensational impulses,when they reach a certain inbecome
quiteuncontrollable even in human
beings;
this may
the almost mechanical
help us to understand
way
in which
without modification
they repeat themselves
by
of the lower animals,whose
experiencein some
perceptual
consciousness
is comparativelylittle developed. For the
of learning
by experiencefirstarises with perception,
power
with meaning and the acquisition
of meaning. The purely
ness,
unguided by higher modes of conscioussensory reaction,
its appropriatestimulus.
Thus
follows inevitably
a
moth
or
a
daddy-long-legs flies again and again into
the flame in spiteof the obviouslypainfulresult.
Here

"

we

have
Psych.

apparentlya

"

sensory

reaction

uncontrolled
9

by

PSYCHOLOGY.

130

[BK. n.,

en.

n.

The
perceptual consciousness.
brightness of the flame
in its direction.
produces an immediate
sense-impulseto move
But the light-sensation
is not correlated with other
experiences; it does not acquirea warning significance.
From
the biological
point of view, the action requiredin

response
life and

to

stimulus

is

which

one

well-being of

to maintain

serves

the

the

organism. The appropriate

be determined
of the
by the specialnature
response
may
or less
actingon the organism ; and it may be more
agency
delicatelydifferentiated according to the varying nature
of this agency.

In

far

so

this is the case,

as

perceptual rather than sensational.

agents differingin their own
many
the organism in a similar manner,
similar

In

response.

so

far

On

the

nature

and

the reaction

so

other
may

give

is

hand,

impress
rise to

this is the case, the reaction

as

purely sensational type. Thus, when

otherwise
a
or
part of the body is cut or bruised
suffers direct
the
not
at
moment
injury, it matters
whether
a
stone, a piece of wood, or
a
piece of iron,
does
the mischief.
In each
case, the rapid withdrawal
of the part of the body affected,or
of the body as
a
whole, is the appropriatereaction,and follows directlyon
the unpleasant sensation.
existence
It depends on the mere
of the sensation as a painfulexperience; it does not depend
the specific
of the sensation
nature
on
being recognisedor
known
for what
it is; this is only necessary
the
when
of the sensation pointsto something beyond
nature
specific
itself to some
specialkind of material agent ; and when
the organism has to adjust itself in reference
not
to the
immediate
operationof this agent, but to its other qualities
and
modes
of behaviour, as when
animal
an
perceivesits
in the
distance.
Such
adjustment requires a
prey
approximates to

the

"

attitude
prospective

of

mind,

state

of

expectant attention

SENSATION-REFLEX.

" 3.]
and

131

preparationfor future aetion. It is the beginning

of a systematiccoordination
of successive
mined
actions,deterby the whole nature of the objectwhich thus reveals
the appropriatereaction takes place,
its presence.
Where
the spur of the moment,
and
is not the
to speak, on
so
of a systematic combination
of successive
commencement
remoter
some
good or avert
acts, so directed as to secure
remoter
some
evil,it need be determined
by nothing but
immediate
the sense-experience
as
an
feeling,
independently
of its cognitivefunction.
" 3. Conative and Iledonic Aspect of the Sensation-Reflex.
The movements
arisingfrom sense-impulsesdisplay in a
antithesis which
an
simple and distinct manner
pervades
all manifestations
of mind.
They are directed either,on
the one
of
hand, to the removal, avoidance, or abatement
which
the stimulation
excites them, or, on the other,to its
The
first kind
of
detention, maintenance, or increase.
reaction may
be called positive,
and the second
negative.
The psychical
states which
find expressionin these antithetic
fold
types of movement, show a correspondingcontrast of a twocharacter.
The reaction of avoidance
is the
or repulsion
outward
manifestation
of disagreeableconsciousness,and
also of aversion,or, as Hobbes
would
endeavour
say, of
of
fromward;" the positivereaction is the manifestation
and
also of appetition,
deavour
"enor
r.greeableconsciousness
of

"

"

toward."

fundamentally
their contrast
or

Appetition and

antithetic

is

striving aspect

directions

contrast

of

which

are

the

of

psychicalactivity;
belongs to the conative

consciousness.

the fundamental

aversion

antithetic

Pleasure
modes

and
of

pleasure
dis-

feelingTheir
tone.
is a contrast
contrast
which
belongs to the
hedonic
In the purely sensory
aspect of consciousness.
impulse,appetitionalways actuallycoincides with pleasure,
are

PSYCHOLOGY.

132

and

aversion

[BK. n.,

always actuallycoincides

"with

en.

pain.

n.

At

between
higher levels of psychicallife,the coincidence
and between
tone of feeling,
positiveconation and positive
negative conation and negative tone of feelingis by no
means
complete. After a fashion,the sensation-reflex may
be described
it has a conative
as
as
an
activityinasmuch
But
the
of appetitionor
aversion.
aspect in the way
involved
is of a rudimentary and primitivekind,
activity
just as the process itself is of a rudimentary and primitive
kind.
The
sensation-reflex
consists in a single simultaneous
with perceptual
act ; in this respectit is contrasted
and usually does, combine
a series of
may,
process, which
distinct and successive acts in the unity of a singleaction
directed towards
a singleend.
Thus, in the case of perceptual
we
activity,
speak of progress towards an end,
may
which
in its
not be interruptedor obstructed
or
may
may
In the

course.

the word

case

of the

on
sensation-reflex,

the contrary,

progress" has little or no meaning. It is for

that in it appetitiveconation
this reason
and
agreeable
feelingcompletelycoincide. This is not the case in perceptual
arise
disagreeablefeeling may
process, because
which
the
none
through obstruction of appetitiveactivity,
less remains
appetitive
although it has become disagreeably
toned.
We
are
endeavouring to hit the nail on the head
when

even

We
in

may

"

we

miss

it.

describe
briefly

sensation-reflex

equilibriumof

the

as

the

physiological
process involved

follows.

stimulus

disturbs

The

the

subsequent process
consists in the recovery of nervous
equilibrium. When
this is accomplishedthe end of the whole activity
is attained,
To put it simply,the excitement
and it ceases.
is allayed.
The tendency to equilibrium is the physiological
correlate
of what on the psychicalside we call conation, the striving
nervous

system.

"

SENSATION-

"4.]

REFLEX.

But

aspect of consciousness.

the

133

system

nervous

may

It may
be that
regain its balance in two oppositeways.
it can
only do so by removal of the stimulation which starts
On the other hand, it may happen that
the whole process.
of the stimulation
for a longer or shorter
the continuance
of the reattainment
of equitime is a positivecondition
librium.
In the first case, we
have
pain and aversion ; in
the second, pleasure and appetition. As a rule,the more
important is the perceptualfunction of a sensation,the less
and the more
it approximates
emphatic is its feeling-tone,
concerned
in merely sensory reaction,
to a mere
sensation
the more
emphatic is its feeling-tone.
same
" 4. Relative Purity of Sensation- Reflex. The
existence
sensation
as
a
by its mere
momentary
may,
experience,issue or tend to issue in a certain movement,
and at the same
time it may
also determine
action by its
mingle with the
significance.Thus the perceptual may
sensational impulse, so that in practiceit may
sometimes
"

be difficult to draw

the line between

of consciousness

degrees.*
other.
the

The

In

blend

in

intricate

general,they

lower

we

them.

bear

descend

ways

The
and

inverse

an

in the

modes

two

in

ratio

varying
to

each

scale of animal

life,

importantis sensation ; the higher we ascend, the

more
importantis perception.It should,however, be clearly
them
is
understood
that in theory the distinction between
sharp and clear. This is peculiarlyevident when the perceptual
impulse depending on the meaning of a sensation
is contrary to the sensational impulse itself,
when
we
as
repress a coming sneeze.
*

more

This

appliesalmost, if

consciousness.
adult

human

The

beings

if it
pain,especially

for it beforehand.

nearest

is the
occurs

not

quite,universallyto
approach

to

the

reaction

which

suddenly

without

pure

the

developed

sensation-reflex

accompanies
the

human

intense

in

bodily

subjectbeing prepared,

CHAPTEE

DIFFERENTIATION

OF

HI.

PSYCHICAL

ITS

SIGNIFICANCE.

and Integration.The
" 1. Differentiation
"

in the scale of animal

AND

SENSE-EXPERIENCE,

the
life,

lower

we

descend

important is sensation ;
the higher we
mount, the more
important is perception,
in other words, the intrinsic intensityand feeling-toneof
for less; its meaning counts
for more.
sensation
counts
reaction

The
the

which

maintenance

to the

it sets

or

attainment

more

is directed

up

removal

of the

of remoter

not

present

much

so

stimulation

to
as

ends.

This

graduated difference in the relative prominence of

and
sensation
perception is accompanied and manifested
of senseby a correspondingvariation in the nature
ence
experiitself. The more
developed is perceptualconsciousness
the more
delicatelydifferentiated is sense-experience. In
other words, there is a finer correspondencebetween
ences
differin the nature
of the external
stimulus,and differences
in the

sensation

is connected

discriminated

produced.

more

With

definite restriction.

sensations

are, the

co-existingsimultaneouslyin
mutual
Dr.

says

that

"

interference

Ward,

except

as

this finer differentiation

"are

the

regards the

more

delicately
capable they are of

same

consciousness

more

amalgamation.

or

with

The

us

drain
134

so

distinct

upon

out
with-

"Colours,"
from

attention

"

sounds
there

is

SENSE-DIFFERENTIATION.

" 2.]

135

nothing in the intensest colour to affect the simultaneous

of a sound.
But, at the beginning,whatever
presentation
we
regard as the earliest differentiation of sound might
have been incopresentable
with the earliest differentiation
of colour,if sufficiently
a field of sight
diffused,justas now
all blue is incopresentablewith
all red.
one
Or, if the
stimuli
active together, the
appropriate to both were
been
what
should
we
resulting sensation
might have
describe as a blending of the two, as purple is a blending
of red and

violet;"*

Thus

to be

intimatelyconnected

With

differentiation
of the

and

and

"

increased
with

differentiation

increased

restriction there

seems

'restriction.'

"f

tensity
is loss of the in-

intrinsic

pleasantnessor painfulnessof
itself. The
the sensation
intensityand feeling-toneof
need
the
to
sensation
be
strongly emphasised, where
existence
of the
reaction
depends directlyon the mere
In so far as the reaction depends on
sensation,as such.
the meaning of the sensation,and not on its mere
existence,
the importantpoint is that its special
spond
qualityshould correaccuratelyto the specialquality of the stimulus.
intrinsic intensity
Any direct effect produced by its own
would
interfere with its value as a vehicle
and feeling-tone
indication of something beyond its own
of meaning
as
an
becomes
existence.
Thus, as perceptual consciousness
relativelymore
prominent and important, sensation is
more
more
restricted,
definitely
delicatelydifferentiated,
of pleasure
less intense,and less stronglytoned in the way
"

or

pain.
native
of Sense- Organs. Degree of discrimi" 2. Differentiation
sensibilitycorresponds broadly to the complexity
"

and

differentiation
*

Article
Ibid.

"

of the

organs

of

sense.

If the

Psychology,"Encyclop.Brit.,ninth ed.,part

nerve-

xx., p. 46.

PSYCHOLOGY.

136

[BK. n.,

CH.

in.

running to the skin in human

beings are laid bare
stimulated, then,however
directly
they be stimulated,

fibres

"

and

be the stimulus
at

weak

affection

all,the

examination
that

takes
of the

called

be

can

strong, if consciousness

or

the

on

result
subjective

sensation

form

of

be affected

of

pain; logical
psychodiscloses nothing

touch.

"*

sensations,delicatelydifferentiated

Touch-

or

they are,
neutral in tone, and capable of combining in
and almost
of consciousness
moment
a
one
great varietyof qualitative
can
differences,
only be developed by the help of special
terminal
But cutaneous
and
all
pain-sensations,
organs.
and stronglyorganicsensations which are vague, diffusive,
the help of specially
differentiated
toned, arise without
end-organs. Now, in the ascending scale of animal life,
of the
find a growing complexity and
differentiation
we

pressure-

terminal

of

organs

and

sense

of

their

as

nervous

nexions,
con-

marking a correspondingly
graduated displacement
of sensational by perceptualconsciousness.
In followingthe ascending scale of animal
find a
we
life,
for the reception
structures
gradual evolution of specialised
of external
of specialkinds
stimulation ; beginning with
those which are
from
the general
scarcelydistinguishable
surface of the body, and ending with such elaborate organs
as

the human

from

eye
sight,because

understood

that

or

The

ear.

most

best

is known

illustration
about

it.

is drawn

It must

be

the word

"sight" is here used to mean

merely sensitiveness to light." It must not be assumed
that the sensations
vibrations are
produced by luminous
in the higher organisms as in the lower.
the same
In some
lowlyorganisms which have no eyes the general
surface of the body appears
to be sensitive to light. This
"

is the

case

with
*

earth-worms

Foster,Text-Book

and

newts.

"It

of Physiology,
p. 1427.

is easy

to

SENSE-DIFFERENTIATION.

" 2.]

imagine," says Lubbock,

skins

whose

are

more

or

in

unpigmented animals
the light
semi-transparent,
though it
system even

"that
less

137

directlyon the nervous

could be
could not produce anything which
Certainly it would be misleading to call

might

act

of the

earth-worm

visual

the

"We

experience
rather

must

generalorganicdiscomfort.
The
most
rudimentary beginning of a specialstructure
consists simply in
for the receptionof light-stimulation
connexion.
of pigmented cells with
a
nervous
groups
The
pigmented material occurring in a semi-transparent
the
limpet
light. The
organism arrests and absorbs
side
the outer
has
eye-spots of this simple kind "on
suppose

it to be

of

tentacles

the

kind

sensation.

called vision."*

of

where

the

eyes

are

situated

in

more

into a
"f The skin is thrown
highly organised species,
pit within which the epithelialcells are elongatedand
pigmented.
The next step is the development of a lens for condensing
of a burning-glass. Some
the lightin the manner
species
others have a concenhave only pigmented cells,
of worms
trating
simple eye-spots, consistingof
apparatus. These
pigmented cells and a vitreous body or condensing lens,
the general surface of
exist in great numbers
over
may
called "Polyin a speciesof worm
the organism. Thus
ophthalmians there is a series of eye-spots "along the
sides
of the
body, in pairs from the seventh to the
eighteenthsegments."J Such rudimentary organs can only
nation,
sensitive to degree of illumithe creature
to render
serve
to the transition from
lightto darkness ; they thus
"

reaction when
possiblea protective
approaching objectfalls on the animal.

make

The

Senses

J Op. cit.,
p.

of Animals,p.
134.

207.

the shadow

fLubbockj

"P-

cit-"
?"

of

139"

an

PSYCHOLOGY.

138

The

[BK.n.,

CH.

in.

mentary
important step is the development of a rudiretina,essentially
consistingin a layerof rod-like
nerve-endings. The eye of the snail is situated on its hinder
horn

next

It consists

tentacle.

or

of

cornea

transparent

or

horny integument, a lens,and a retina composed of three

layers,(1)the rods, which are the proper organ of vision,
(2) a cellular layer,(3) a fibrous layer. "In all probability
the

does

eye

distinguishbetween
be

to

of

aware

little

the

merely render
directions

an

these

its tentacle."*

the animal

the

is
The

the
does

In

all

animals

many

formation

of

an

seem

within

of the retina

rods

in

snail to
not

brought

sensitive
differentially

light.

retinal rods

"It

terminates

optic nerve

of the

enable

lightand dark."
object unless it

quarter-of-an-inchof
in which

than

more

probability
to different

which
in

image

possess
any

way

comparable to that thrown on the retina of the human

eye
is impossiblefrom the positionand convexityof the lens.
These
less sensitive
more
or
eyes with rudimentary retinas,
be spread in great numbers
the
to direction,may
over
surface of the body. There
certain speciesof a genus
are
of sea-shore
which
have
these
slugs called Oncliidium
scattered eye-spots in varying numbers, some
a
hundred,
others

few

as

individuals

twelve.

as

of the

growing
the

by

Onchidium
minute

warned
out

by

of the

shower

next
*

and

contains
pore ; and

the

shadow
to prey

sea

of spray

The

same

and

so

The

number

differs in different

tinually
species,and the eyes "are conbeing reabsorbed."f The back of
number
of glands,each opening
a
it has been
suggested that when
which
of certain flying-fish
come
them, the little slugs emit a
upon

drive

stage in the

off their enemy.

development

of

the

Lloyd Morgan, Animal Life and Intelligence,

p.
The
Senses
Lubbock,
of Animals, p. 143.

eye

293.

is the

" 2.]

SENSE-D.IFFERENTIATIOX.

formation

of

than

three

or

have

very

often

seen," says

139

retinal

of a lens ; it is
image by means
for this that each diverging pencilof
necessary
rays from
a point in the
objectshall be brought again to a focus in
one
point, and in only one
point, of the retina. The
delicacyand perfectionwith which this is effected depends
the complexityof structure
of the retina,on
on
the nature
of the lens,and on
the power
of adjustingit for different
distances.
Cuttle-fish and their allies have well-developed
apparatus for the formation of images. So have vertebrate
in varying degrees. Many fishes
animals, but of course
do not distinguish
their food (worms) at a greater distance
a

four feet.

On

vision

accurate

Mr.

the other
for

short
"

hand,

of them

some

distances.

"

have

search the
largeWrasse
sand
for shrimps, turning sideways, and
looking with
either eye independently,
like a chameleon.
Its view is so
the
see
a
good that it can
shrimp with certaintywhen
whole
body is buried in grey sand, exceptingthe antennae
and antennae
and amphibians have
plates."* Some reptiles
similar

main

this

leads

which

organ

of vision

accuracy

Besides

Bateson,

at short

line

of
the

to

up

distances.

development
eye

of

of

the

visual

vertebrates,with

its

of a lens
forming a distinct image by means
sensitive retina,there is a branch
and delicately
line which
leads to the compound or facetted eye of insects and of

apparatus

Crustacea

for

such

compound
hexagonal

areas,

stated to have

Beneath
towards
*

each
the

and

lobsters.

is divided

eyes

insects

some

crabs

as

twenty
facet
facet

into

little lens.

thousand

is

and

kind

of these

Animal

turned

of
in

dragon-flyis
hexagonal facets.

crystalline
cone,

its apex

Quoted by Lloyd Morgan,

is

surface of these

great number
called a facet,and

up
of which

each

forms

The

of

with

inwards,

its base
where

Life and Intelligence,

p. 287.

it

PSYCHOLOGY.

HO

in

ends
is

nerve-rod.

lens

and

by
and

eye-spots,

cells

separate

crystalline
these

But

dispute.

the

taken

office

same

of

rays
affect

cone

as

cones

spot
view,

light

and

with
form

higher

such
must

the

to

All

that
"

eyes
be

is
far

its
from

coming

eye

point
stippled

much

the

by

The

only.

accurate

and

and

vertebrates.
*

Op.

cit., p.

290,

the

that

way

Only

vertebrates.

through

each

in
is

result

the

image

distinct

field

what

vision

which
than

of

Lloyd
of

range

of

minute

single

point

the

strike

Thus,
a

the

crystalline

which

rest

The

image."*

much

different

pigment.

single

which

been

nerve-rod

own

smaller,

less

of

straight

go

absorbed

are

from

calls

Morgan

in

nerve-rod.

the

conveys

of

lens

which

light

obliquely

cones

the

single

in

out

in

the

way

has

fulfil

such

while

form

made

of

pound
com-

of

lenses,

there

collectively

the

at

to

clearly

there

consisting

eye

the

in.

each

number
of

function,

these

arrive

regards

pretty

now

of

en.

round

coalesced

As

n.,

of

form

number
lens

their

is

organs

those

the

it

developed

midst

should

the

rod."

perform

is

we

each

and

the

together

increasing
beneath

in

simple

bringing

cone

eyes

facetted

from

nerve-fibre,

eye

pigment

Starting

cones.

cells

Dark
"

the
of

elongated

great

[BK.

they
in

the

CHAPTEE

IV.

LIGHT-SEXSATIOM".

1.

"

Introductory.Having

given

"

the nature

of

of the

sensation,and

general

sense-reaction,we

to the

specialsenses, beginning with those

most
about, sightand hearing. Sight is a vehicle
of the
perception,and it is so in part because
pass

of visual

nature

of this
with
At

sensation.
of

part

we

differences
call

In

other

intermediate

"
is

medium

purposes,
the

of the

undulating

diffused

we

end,

and

As

the

of

course

only

may

which

waves

jerked

words,

called

"

of

movement

ment
treat-

to

deal

consciousness.

the

to

deal

colour-

with

tints,white, black, and

the

Physicallyconsidered,light
the particles
of a generally

luminiferous

ether.

represent this undulating

along

pass
up

and

the material
form

have

we

neutral

Stimulus.

traverses

wave

spatial
peculiar

greys.

2. Nature

an

of

fications
peculiarmodispecifically
corresponding to
the physicalstimulus
which
we

of

sensations, including the

know

we

come

we

with

now

postpone

sensational

from

concerned

nature

shall

we

subject,until

consciousness

in the

light.

only

are

of

the

distinct

perceptual as

present

But

of

account

of movement

rope,

down

the rope,

by
what

of
particles
which
141

hand

at

travels

the rope

at

one

other.

the

along

our

by

movement

it is fixed

when
the

For

it is not

themselves, but

is transmitted

from

one

PSYCHOLOGY.

142

[BK n.,

The hand
to another.
particles
quicklyit moves,
quickly; the more
In the undulating1movement

set of

less

move

may

en.

more

the shorter

are

iv.

or

the

the

particlesof the
and then fall beneath
their position
rope first rise above
the rope is -at rest.
of equilibriumwhen
They rise to a
The
is
length of the wave
crest,and sink into a hollow.
the point at which
this
measured
by the distance between
it terminates.
movement
begins and the point at which

waves.

Longer
shorter

traverse

waves

hence

ones;

repeatedin

the

as

due

to

time

rope

shorter
same

wave

time.

it takes

in

the

same

must

be

Thus

the

time
more

shorter

as

quently
frethe

complete itself. The

must
be carefully
from
amplitudeof the wave
distinguished
its length.The
ments
hand, while continuingto repeat its movein the same
time, and consequentlyproducing waves
take a more
less extended
of the same
or
length, may
extended
the swing, the greater is the
swing. The more
that traverse
The
the
amplitude of the waves
rope.
particlesof the rope rise higher and sink lower; their
crests are
higher and their hollows deeper. Suppose now
that the hand, in making its excursion
to and
fro, also
different kinds
trembles.
Two
then comof impulse are
municated
to the rope, each of which
separatelywould give
of different length. The result is waves
rise to waves
of a
more
complex form which can be mathematicallyexplained
the

wave

shorter

the

the

combination

impulses would

of the

to

waves

which

the

separate

severallyproduce.
Thus we
three characteristics of an undulating
can
distinguish
movement:
(1) wave-length, (2) amplitude, (3)
of light,each of
simplicityor complexity. In the case
characters
these
of the physical undulation
is specially
connected
with a correspondingcharacteristic of visual sensation.
Differences
of wave-length
connected
are
specially

LIGHT-

" 2.]
with

differences

143

of

other than
those which
colour-quality
by degrees of paleness or darkness, viz.

constituted

are

SENSATION.

less resemblance
black.
Colourto white
or
or
by more
is called colour-tone.
For
quality in this restricted sense
yellow and green, or
example, the difference between
between
yellow-green and a still yellower green, is a
The
difference between
difference of colour- tone.
yellow
and
yellowish-brownis difference in saturation due to a
the
amplitude of
darkening of the
yellow. The
with
is speciallyconnected
the
wave
intensityof the
sensation.
Any specificcolour-tone, such as green or
red, produced by light of a certain wave-length, may
be
made
brighter or less bright by increasing or
diminishing the intensityof the light,viz. the amplitude
become
ation
It may
of the vibration.
brighter without alterof

colour-tone.

its

If

have

we

series of greys

including what we call white, arranged in a graduated

it is possibleto fix the brightnessof a
scale of brightness,
given colour, such as green, by comparing it with the
of them,
It is judged to be equallybrightwith one
greys.
less bright than the rest.
The complexity
of a
and more
or
determines

wave

purity of
seen,

compare

another
the

correspondingcolour.

the

intensityor

brightness:

in

free it is from

It must

we

It

we

grey,

any

pure

also

admixture

we

as

wThite in

it in

grey

The

or

the

of grey,

the

it

more

is,and

it

have

resembles

green

green.

or

respect of

compare

greenish

the less saturated

apparent

saturation

can,

far the

be

apparently a

AVe

can

how

may

degreeof

or

grey

but
ask

can

quality.

greyish green, or
approximates to
saturated

with

green

respect :

grey

is called the

what

more
more

it is.
not

be

supposed

that

colour-tone

is determined

solely by wave-length, intensitysolely by amplitude,

PSYCHOLOGY.

U4

degree of

[BK.

n.,

CH.

iv.

solelyby complexity. It is
only within certain limits that the physical intensity
be
varied
without
of light can
affectingcolour-tone.
in
the
Variation
intensityof the light also affects
makes
the
colour
saturation; increase
whiter, and
makes
it darker.
decrease
mines
Wave-length not only detercolour-tone,but also helps to determine
ness.
brightSome
colour-tones
are
brighter than others,even
and

the

though

saturation

of vibration

is

determining colour-tone.
produced by simple waves
waves
also, though in
White
all

of

grey

or

is

physical stimulus

results

The

same

be

can

less

from

indeed

colours

in

which

are

produced by complex

pure

saturated

or

combination

plexity
Com-

intense.

important factor

very

less

form.

of

lights

various
other
binations.
comwave-lengths,and also from
In
ordinary daylight,all wave-lengths are

combined.

of the Eye, For anatomical detail we

of physiology. The eye as a
refer to the text-books
is analogous to
a
photographic apparatus. "In

" 3.

camera

Structure

or

dark

that which

part, and

a
a

must

"

chamber

of notable

size exists

photographer uses, having

sensitive

curtain

at

whole
it

similar

lens in the

the back

to

fore

When

the

he sees
on
photographerlooks in at the back of his camera,
he wishes
the ground glassplatethe image depictedwhich
delineated
to photograph,placed upside down, but faithfully
in all its colours ; and such an
inverted landscape is

formed

in like

eyeballs. And
his

instrument

screwing it nearer
the focus

of the

of

our

in the

manner

as

the

by
or

eye

back

part

of each

photographer adjusts the

altering the position of

further

from

the screen,

instinctively
accordingto

objectlooked at,not

indeed

so

of
focus

the
we

the

our

of

lens,
adjust

distance

by changingthe position

LIGHT-

" 4.]

SENSATION".

its form
by altering
required."*1

of the lens but

weaker

or

as

sensitive curtain

The

is

there

respects by
retina,and
Near
it,on

the

to make

it stronger

retina; in its

centre

far

the

discriminative

most

part of

the

gives distinct vision of an object.

enters
the nasal side, the optic nerve
the
this point,not being sensitive to light,
is called

and

the blind

it alone

spot.

retina

The

is called

as

depression called the fovea centralis.

its immediate
margin is also called the yellow
its colour.
In ordinary light this is in all

spot, from

eye,

so

circular

pitand

This

145

essential

is

an

constituents

expansion
are

of

certain

the

Its

opticnerve.
cells

minute

of

two

kinds, called

and
The
rods
cones.
yellow
respectively
closelypacked together. In
spot consists mainly of cones
other parts the rods predominate. The
number
of cones
decreases from the yellow spot to the margin of the retina.
must
of Light-Sensations. We
" 4. Descriptive
^Analysis
neutral
tints and
colours
distinguishbetween
proper.
"

Neutral

tints consist

with
Starting

greys.

of black
pure

and

black,we

white
can

and

intermediate

arrange

the greys

by gradual transitions to pure

be interposedbetween
Each
others
two
white.
grey may
it resembles
which
so
closelyas to be barely distinguishable
from them.
It differs from the one
which
precedesit
and from the one
in being a little lighter,
follows it
which
in being a little darker.
Thus, though the greys differ,
the generalform of transition between
them
is throughout

in

series,so

as

to pass

identical.
The
of

about
700 shades
capable of distinguishing
brilliant
the deepest black
to the most
should be noted that though black is not due

eye is
grey, from

white.

It
*

and Sensation,pp. 77,78.

Cleland,Evolution,Expression,

Psych.

10

PSYCHOLOGY.

146

[BK. n.,

CH.

iv.

positivephysicalstimulus, as other visual sensations

sees
eye which
are, it is yet a positiveexperience. The
the back
darkness
of the
is not
at all comparable with
for believing
hand, which sees nothing. There is reason
is present to consciousness
in the
that the grey field which
of light is due
and
absence
directlyto a brain-process,

to

does

involve

not

Differences

excitation
of

of retinal elements

colour-tone, apart

from

at all.

differences

of

in the order in
best studied
are
intensity,
in the spectrum. The spectrum is formed
which
they occur
by passing ordinarywhite lightthrough a prism, and so
and projecting
breaking it up into its component simplelights,
The simple components of the white
these on a screen.
lengths.
lightare then arranged in a series in the order of their waveAt one
end are the longestwave-lengths,giving
the sensation
of red, at the other the shortest,giving the
tween
sensation
of violet,viz. a blue
tinged with red. Bethe red end and the violet end are interposedall the
various
colour-tones,*with the exceptionof the purples.
The
purples can be formed
by intermixing red and violet
lightsin varying proportions. In what follows we shall
of these
the spectrum completed by the addition
suppose
purple tints,so as to form a closed figure.
saturation

We
which

and

have

said that colours

they

occur

in the

are

best studied

unfortunatelythe
respects for the analytic

spectrum.

in
spectrum is unsuitable
comparisonof colour-tones.

other

in the order in

But

comparing a series of colours

their brightness
merely with reference to their colour-tones,
and saturation ought to be kept as uniform
as
possible.But
the colours of the spectrum differ greatlyin brightness,
Hence

in what

arranged
*

in

Not

follows
the

of course

order
all

In

shall suppose

we

of

the

spectrum,

degrees of saturation

and

series of colours
but

uniform

intensity.

in

LIGHT-SENSATION.

" 4.]

147

Such, a series may

be made
brightness and saturation.
by takingbits of transparent coloured paper, and adjusting
their degree of brightnessand saturation
by placing bits
of grey
The

or

white

whole

paper

series of

underneath

them.

colour-tones,
beginning with

red

and

returningto red, is continuouslygraduated, like the grey

series of which
have
we
just spoken. But there is an
lengths,
important difference. In the region of greatest wavethe
member

of

transitions
the

but
perceptible,
and

of

from

the

transition

from

red

yellow;

to

each

others
two
interposed between
so
closelythat the difference is barely
in being redder,
differs from
the one

series is

it resembles

which

are

it
other

ia

the

in

being yellower.

the

Thus

form

throughout,and

series is uniform

Gre"n

Fig. 2.

"

Circle

serial order
illustrating

is quiteanalogous to that between

after

passing yellow, there

occurs

of colour-tones.

black

what

and

white.

may

be

But

best

PSYCHOLOGY.

148

described
continuous

change

as

it

of direction.

The

transition

iv.

en.

is still

place between
yellow and
We
begin with, greenishyellows,and pass by the
green.
smallest perceptible
transitions to yellowishgreens, and so
After passinggreen there is another change
to pure green.
have
of direction ; we
a
now
green-blueseries. There is
still another
turning-pointafter passing blue ; the series
which
follows is blue-red,passing from blue through violet
and purple to red.
The change of colour in the spectrum
that it is not possibleto fix
is throughout so continuous
the
these
exact
point at which
changes of direction
be
said is that they begin somewhere
begin. All that can
in the
region of red, yellow, green, and blue,
it
respectively. Since the change of direction occurs,
At
somewhere.
the
must
occur
precise point of its
there
be
must
a
simple colour-tone, such
occurrence,
For
as
red, pure yellow,pure green, or pure blue.
pure
instance,pure yellow is the point of transition between
red is
the red-yellowsand
the green-yellows,and pure
the purples and the redthe point of transition between
yellows.
It may
be well to note here a question of some
logical
psychointerest which
has been much
discussed.
Is it right
of blue and green,
to say that a blue-greenis a combination
of red and yellow?
It has
or
a red-yellowa combination
become

; but

[BK. IT.,

the fashion

now

takes

of late to say

that

such

and

green,

blue-greenmerely resembles

blue

contain

elements.

them

as

constituent

colour
but

does

colour

The

as

not

itself,

it is

maintained,is perfectlysimple. Now it is natural for

to distinguish
common
sense
one
blue-greenfrom another,
less of blue in it,or more
or
by saying that there is more
or

less of green

writer

that

any

in it.

It does

not

cogent arguments

appear
have

to

the

been

present

brought

LIGHT-SENSATION.

" 4.]
to show

forward

that

this

149

point of

is untenable.

view

approach so very near to pure green as to

from
bo barely distinguishable
it, so that the casual
It seems
observer would
regard it as a pure green.
strange
to say that such
a
blue-green contains no green at all.
of those
who
is probably in the mind
What
deny the
be
is that
combination
a
blue-green cannot
simply
The
blue -f green.
denned
as
components by entering
modified
combination
in a peculiar
into so intimate
a
are
blue-green may

modification

This

way.

is

element

new

which

may

bination
experience of the comis a
of blue
and
simple experience,
green
the experienceof
and
to be identical in kind with
seems
other such pairs.
of yellow and red, and
the combination
But the components abstractly
regarded are not the less*
of blue and green.
discernible as partaking of the nature
is something new
and
Because
there
simple in the
experience,we have no right to infer that there is no
that
complexity in it. It must, however, be admitted
the balance
of
the question is not
an
one
easy
; and
I
to be
am
against the view which
authority seems

be

regarded

inclined

combination
to

of

speak
believe

of blue
hand

one

such

and

that

interpretthe

may

in

blue

of

The

But

favour.

to
to

inclined

simple.

as

colour

the

green

it resembles

case

it is most

as

blue-green

If

green.

the

student

venient
conas

is not

colour

statement

and

any

as

actuallyis complex he
that blue-green is a combination
merely meaning that on the

blue, and

the

on

other

resembles

green.
*

Of

course

they

are

but they
separable,

not

The respect
distinguishable.
to

resemble

green

and

to

me

each

other

when

compared

blue-green resemble

sufficient

reason

for

in which

each

are

blue

is different
other

when

under
and
from

ditions
appropriate conblue-green are seen

the

respect in

which

This
compared.
appears
inferringcomplexity in the blue-green,

PSYCHOLOGY.

150

far

So

have

we

but

difference

all the colours of the

these

respects so

of them

be

made
If the

increased

or

less

diminished
the

result

great, the

too

may

is

that

in either

or

all the

of

Each

admixture

an

the illumination

the

increase

iv.

colour-

series.

pale by

while

CH.

saturation

vary

continuous

a
or

if

in

intensityand

general intensityof

and

being examined,

form

more

light.

in

difference

spectrum

to

as

be

may

of white

not

considered

only

tone, apart from

[BZ. n.,

spectrum is
diminution

colours

is

in the

brightnesswhile remaining the same

But the change in brightnessis in general
in colour-tone.
Increased
accompanied by a change in saturation.
a colour
paler,and decreased brightness
brightnessmakes
spectrum

it darker

makes
the

increase

are

it to be mixed

causes

"

decrease

or

is made

with

black.

When

sufficiently
great,

the

whiteness
ness,
blackor
disappear in mere
and
respectively.
They may be mixed with white light,
that both changes
lowered
increased in intensity,
so
or
All the colour-differences
combined.
recognised in

colour-tones

also

in

vary

tend

ordinary life

to

be

may

They are constituted

in intensity,
and in
whitish

reds ;

diminished

differences

saturation.
is

intensityas
is

dark

for in these

to

green.

in

Pink
dark
be

various

primary
and

ways.

colour tone,

rose-colour

red, i.e.,a

red

are
so

strongly infuse^ with

We
usually call a pale

The series of colourlightgreen or blue.

modifications
obtained
by making a colour-tone,such as
blue, paleror darker is psychologically
quite analogous to
to such a series as that of the blue-greens. Here, too, the
question of simplicityor complexity arises. Those who
maintain
that no
two
distinguishableparts of the bluegreen

green
that

or

blue

by

maroon

in

Olive

black.

accounted

series

they are

have, qua sensations,any

all

common

element,but

simple and independent colour-qualities,

LIGHT-SENSATION.

"$ 5, 6.]
must

maintain

the

must

maintain

that

blue-black

for the

same

black

in which

tinge of blue has no

black, or with black that

detects
pure

151

only the

element

series.

has

in

They

artist's eye
with

common

barely appreciable

tingeof green.
In the
Intensityis by no means
independent of colour.
spectrum, the physicallightis most intense in the region
of red.
But for our
the
experiencethe yellow is distinctly
colour.
The blue is less bright than the red,but
brightest
the difference

by no
of the
intensity

in the

It
not

is

should

be

the difference

proportionto

illumination.

noted

that

the

red

of the

is

spectrum

Hering pointed out, is tingedwith

red, but, as

pure

in

means

yellow.

"

5.

absence
which

Light. In the total and continued

of external light,there still exists a field of view
does not consist of mere
darkness.
ground
Upon a backof medium
seen
specks and clouds
grey, there are
The

Retina's

This

of colour.
are

own

"

is due

continuallybeing

to

the

fact that

stimulated

of heat.

This

internal

external

stimulation.

objectswhich

and

stimulation

internal

cesses
pro-

the re-distribution

sensation

in the

It arises when

stimulate

elements

is called the retina's

The

der Retina}.
light(Eigenlicht
in its purest form
not obtained

such

by

the circulation of the blood

as

retinal

of

black

complete absence
the

eye

passes

own

is
of

from

object which fails to

stimulate it except in a slightdegree.
The extreme
" 6. Total Colour- Blindness.
margin of the
colour-blind.
Let the eye be fixed upon an
retina is totally
objectimmediatelyin front of it,and let someone
gradually
it,to

some

"

introduce
view

from

view,

the

an
one

unknown
side.

objectwill

coloured
On

objectinto

its first entrance

appear

white, grey,

the

field of

into the field of

or

black.

Its

PSYCHOLOGY.

152

colour

will

only become

centre

of the

[BE. n.,

recognisableas

it

en.

iv.

approaches the

field.

Again, when the illumination is sufficiently

faint,the
whole
of the retina,with the exceptionof the yellow spot,
is totallycolour-blind.
All the colours of the spectrum
into

when

the

dim
light is made
enough.
When
we
ordinarydaylight into a dark room,
pass from
not at first able to discern objects: but after a time
we
are
the eye adapts itself to the faint illumination.
It then
becomes
able to discern objectsbut not their colour-tones.
It sees
It has
been
everything in black and white.
experimentallyascertained that this twilightvision depends
the portionsof the retina which
surround
the yellow
on
adapted to
spot. The yellow spot itself does not become
If a small patch of colour is seen
the faint illumination.
of the yellow spot, decreasing illumination
only by means
does not
the colour to disappear altogether,but
causes
been
Cases
have
transform
it into
a
patch of grey.
showed
of persons
and recorded
who
carefullyexamined
of sensibility
entire want
to colour-tones, not
an
only
under
all
conditions.
faint
under
illumination, but
In
most
everything in black and white.
They saw
of these
pathological cases, though not in all, there
of lightis an alteration in the distribution of the intensity
For the normal
sensation in the spectrum.
eye the region
of greatest brightness is that of yellow light; for the
totallycolour-blind,it lies in the green rather than in the
pass

grey

yellowportionof
spectrum,
shows

the

can

same

seen

under

change

It is

notable

faint
sufficiently
in the

distribution

fact that the

illumination,
of the

ness
bright-

totallycolour-blind cannot for the

part bear illumination of ordinary strength. They
well in a dim light,but are
see
painfullydazzled
of its

most

as

the spectrum.

parts.

The

LIGHT-SENSATION.

" 7.]

153

full

dition
light. This indicates that their ordinary conis analogous to that of a normal
whose
person
blindness
Colourhave
been
adapted to twilight vision.
eyes
is common
to both
cases.
Probably a special
visual apparatus is brought into play in twilight
vision,and
exists in the
this is the only apparatus which
in most
cases
research seems
to
colour-blind.
Recent
eyes of the totally
show that this special
apparatus is constituted by the rods
of the retina as distinguished
from the cones.
the outer margin
Between
" 7. Partial Colour-Blindness.
of the retina and the yellow spot,there is a region which
colour-blind.
It is sensitive to blue and yellow,
is partially
be tested by an
but not
and
to red
This
may
green.
experiment similar to that described in the previoussection.

by

"

When

the

that

they

colours

spectrum

are

sideways, so

seen

partiallycolour-blind
blue-green region appears
grey.

fall

retina, the
divides

of the
the

on

the whole

spectrum into

two

parts.

of

zone

This

The

the
grey

part

taining
con-

lightof greater wave-length appears yellow,that

containing light of smaller wave-length, appears blue.
Bed

and

It is well
whole

known

green
other.
to red

there

are

whose

persons

many

consisting
by a partialcolour-blindness,
and
red
inabilityto distinguishbetween
tinguish
considered, this inabilityto disabstractly

an

Now,

between
ways.

that

retina is affected
in

green.

discernible.

not

are

green

and

who

person

could
But

red

not

of

the

same

not

to

and

green

arise in either of two

insensitive

was

both

to

distinguishthem

course

might
green,

may

or

hold
to

true

green

of

and

red

sensitive

person
to

yellow to be due to a combination

suppose
retinal processes
which
are
produced by red

red.

If

of

the

we

green

lightrespectively,
persons

insensitive

each

from

not

to

and

light
red

and

would

PSYCHOLOGY.

154

all

yellows as green, and

red.
would
all yellows as
see
partial colour-blindness
see

[BK. n.,

advocated.

On

the

whole,

those

insensitive

Both
have

it

seems

modes

been,
most

of
and

to

en.

iv.

green

ing
explainstill are,

probable that
equallyincapable

the retina is
partiallycolour-blind
either of red or
of giving rise to sensations
green.
evidence
But
the question is full of difficulty.The
shows
distinct
two
clearly that there are
types of
and it has been
maintained
that
partialcolour-blindness,

in the

in the

one

type the sensation

type the sensation

which

only

one

being normal.

green.
has

eye

But
been

in the other

have

occurred

colour-blind,the

other

in
eye

sensations

have

both

of red

and

green,

we

explanationof the difference between the

the oppositeview distinguished
two types which
are
on
as
and
red-blindness
green-blindness.In both types it is
by mixing in varying proportionslightfrom the
possible,
short-waved
end of the spectrum with lightfrom the longwaved
end, to produce all the colour-tones which they are
mediate
capable of seeing when their retina is affected by intersimplelights. In type i. (the so-called red-blind),
the rays at the extreme
end of the spectrum, which
give
of red to the normal
distinct sensations
eye, produce no
appreciableeffect of any kind, and other reddish rays
must

find

of the

instances

instances

and

belonged to the type

be classed as red-blindness by those who
tinguish
diswhich would
between
red-blindness
and green-blindness.
Now
the colour-blind
themselves
that the
in such cases
testify
colours they see with the abnormal
eye are yellowand blue,
and those they fail to see, red and green.
They see the
spectrum as composed of yellow and blue, with a grey
region in which normal persons see blue-green.
that partialcolour-blindness
If we
consists in
suppose
the absence

These

red is absent

some

faint

produce only
in

sensitive

intense

of

the

yellowwith
the

intensityof

about

four

kind than

some

times

reddish

rays

in

type i.

retina

end

type

i.

for

as

is
the

of

produce more
In comparing
free from red,

yellow almost
yellow light must

for

great

as

red

the

at
rays
general, reddish

in

certain reddish

type ii.,the

to

way

sensation

155

In

sensations.

some

and

spectrum;
a

SENSATION.

LIGHT-

" 7.]

be

made

type ii.,in

able
resultingsensations may be indistinguishin intensity
and colour-tone.
Clearlythere is a great
difference in sensitiveness to red light in the two
types.
But it by no means
follows that the red lightproduces the
order

the

that

sensation

in

red

ii. and

type

in

not

type i.

The

probable explanationis that the red light has

yellowin type
power of producing the sensation
type

greater

ii.than

correspondingdifference is found in normal

in regard to sensations
of yellow. "If
by means
of
specialarrangement we bring a certain amount
of the

spectrum and

part of the spectrum

result is

we

can

and

sensation

bring on

can

make

green,

match

the

on

one

certain

the

to

on

of

of the actual

amount
we

eye

yellow.

the

between

same

parts of the spectrum

the

with

Professor

this takes

nesorgane,

The

Gr. E.

place.
Band

Miiller

See

XIV.

sensation

given

to

Heft

3 und

4, p.

distinguished
to

confuse

the

ment
arrange-

time

certain

In this way

derived

from

derived

two

from

of
adjustthe quantities

elaborate

seems

explanation

of the
of

Physiologieder

how
Sin-

182.

from

two

green

same

the mixture

an

the red

spectralred
spectralyellow on the

Zeitschrift
f. Psychologicund

as

are
Physiologists
apt

has

of

sensation

single(yellow)part. We have
red lightand green
light until

of

time, the

same

spectrum.
mixture

and

hand,

the

By

to the eye at the

yellow of

the

at

persons

of the

amount

other, comparing the mixedf sensation

in

i.*

part

most

the

things.

stimulua

is not

mixed.

PSYCHOLOGY.

156

hue

tlie

CH.

iv

brightness as the yellow, not

When
this
showing either a reddish or a greenish tone.
that
different
is done
it is found
people differ very
materiallyas to the proportionof red and green, the proportion
of the intensities of the two
lights,necessary to
with yellow."*4
make
the match
" 8. Effectsof the Mixture of Lights of DifferentWavelightsof all wave-lengthsare intermingled
Lengths. When
the result is grey
in due proportion,
white.
If in the
or
is a relative predominance of some
there
mixture
one
light,such as green or blue, the result is a whitish green
same

and

[BK. n.,

same

"

or

If
find

whitish

select any

we
some

other
will

of

blue.

the

colour

colour

is

spectrum, it is possibleto

which, mingled

neutral

yielda

mixture

of the

present

tint.
in

If

one

with

it in due

of the

portion,
pro-

components

greater quantity than

grey, the

is

predominant lightgivesits
The other lightdiminishes
colour to the mixture.
the
own
degreeofsaturation. Thus, if goldenyellow and blue be mixed
in proper
proportions,they yield the sensation of white.
As the proportionof blue is increased,the white becomes
white ; as the proportionof yellow
and more
a bluish
more
and more
is increased,the white becomes
more
a yellowish
Colours
white.
with each other,yield
which, intermixed
white,are called complementary. Yellow is complementary
The red of the spectrum is not complementary to
to blue.
It should
be remembered,
green, but to a bluish green.
however, that the red of the spectrum is not pure red, but
yellowish. As every discernible colour of the spectrum
its complement, either
within
the
spectrum
possesses
in the
or
purple series,the pairs of complementary
colours are
If the simple lights
numerous.
indefinitely
requiredto produce a

Foster, Text-Boole

of Physiology,
part iv.,pp.

1240-1241.

correspondingto
from

SENSATION.

LIGHT-

" 8.]

each

colours
in

other

which,
the

are

157

spectrum

far

too

not

removed

mingled,

are

the

intermediate
corresponding to an
light. The wider the interval separating the mingled
the whiter
is the resultingcolour.
the
When
colours
in proper
interval
becomes
wide, mixture
sufficiently
For instance,by mingling
proportionyieldspure white.
the simplelightswhich
severally
produce blue and green,
obtain
all the blue-greens. A larger proportion
can
we
of the blue lightyieldsa bluer green : a largerproportion
If we
blue.
mix
of the green
light yields a greener
obtain
blue
with
a
mingled
yellowish-green,we
green
is

result

with

the

colour

white

due

the

to

combination

of

blue

and

it may
be
or
relatively
pure
bluish
or
yellowishaccording to the proportion of blue
of
The
combination
or
yellow light in the mixture.
of pure blue w7ith pure yellow yields
white.
If,proceeding

yellow.

This

further,we
contained

green

mix

in the

blue

be

may

with,

red, we

obtain

new

colour

not

purple.By mixing the red light

of the spectrum with the green
in certain proportionswe
produce yellow: by increasingthe quantity of red light,
redder
the yellow is made
; by increasingthe quantity of
The
laws of
light,the yellow is made
green
greener.
combination
which hold good of simplelightsapply also to
those
mixtures
which
colours
the
as
produce the same
simplelights.
If we
select three colours so related that by combining
obtain a colour which
is complewe
can
mentary
any two of them
to the third,it is possible,
by varying combinations
of the three, to produce all the colours of the spectrum.
But
there is only one
tripletof colours by which the
be produced in a high degree of saturation.
rest can
This triplet
and
is red, green,
bluish violet.
For this
a
spectrum,

"

PSYCHOLOGY.

158

and

red, green,

reason

[BK. n.,

violet,have

been

called

CH.

IT,

primary

colours.
method

best

The

so

to

as

allow

two

same

part

lengths,
mixing lightsof different waveascertain the resultingsensation,is to

different

way

is

the

colours

of

the

by using the

of

parts
retina

of the

spectrum

the

at

colour-wheel

or

be

same

to

time.

fall

on

the

Another

colour-top.Sectors of
disk.
a
placed on

investigatedare
The
be
as
as
pigments used in colouring must
pure
possible; in other words, they must as nearly as possible
reflect simple and not compound lights.* The disk is set
rapidly spinning so that one kind of light is brought to
bear

If

the retina before

on

the

Thus

to

different

sector

one

if the

colours

modes

the effect of the other has ceased.

of stimulation

superposed.
of the disk is blue, and another
yellow,and
the rapidly
are
present in due proportion,
are

rotatingdisk will appear grey.

passing a street" 9. The Effectsof Contrast. A man
is cut
That which
lamp in moonlight casts two shadows.
off from the lightof the lamp and only illuminated
by the
blue.
Now, moonlight is white or nearly
moon,
appears
"

The

so.

with

the

blue

of the shadow
is due to contrast
appearance
yellow illumination thrown by the lamp on the

surrounding field of view. The excitement of the retina by

affects that portionof the retina
the yellowlightindirectly
of the central nervous
which is not directly
excited
matter
or
by it. The influence thus exerted by the yellowlightproduces
effect
similar
to that which
would
be produced by
an
blue is complementary
a blue
lightactingdirectly.Now
to yellow. The
generallaw of contrast is that a colour in
any part of the field of view tends to tingeadjoiningparts
*

The

mixture

them, is by

no

means

of

the

pigments themselves,in the way that artists mix

equivalentto a mixture of the lightswhich they reflect.

LIGHT-

" 10.]
with
a

its

colour.

complementary

large field

small

SENSATION.

of uniform

159

effect is

The

colour

acts

on

greatestwhen

small

one.

relativelyextensive field of blue,

stituted
yellowish. If a small spot of red be subdistinctly

spot of grey

appears

for the

on

colour.

the contrast

its

it will combine

grey,

colour

own

yellowishred

It will appear

with

or

dish
red-

at the
yellow. The effect of contrast is most marked
It is interfered with by
meeting-pointof the two colours.
lines of demarcation
separating them, such as a pencil-

mark

round

drawn

also interfered
coloured

with

surfaces.

clearlywhen
texture

the

conditions

For

are

these

the

on

in the

obtained

it

reasons,

minimum.

blue

field.

in the

The

out

comes

most

differences

of

favourable

most

of coloured

case

It is
of the

texture

obliterated,and

are

to

spot

differences

by

contours

reduced

red

shadows,

or

by projectingthe lightfrom coloured glasseson a wall, or

disks in rapid rotation
of coloured
with the
by means
is to
A
colours
in concentric
zones.
simple method
place a small piece of paper on a larger sheet, and
to

cover

paper

both

obliterates
The

in

with

contrast

affected

darker

on

direct

it is

experiment with than

also operative
between
appear

conceals

effect is of

the

by

of tissue

and

contours

proportion as

retina

sheet

white.

The

of texture.

general stronger
part of the

of the

thus

tissue

grey

influence

is better
of contrast

to

is

grey will
background, and lighteron a black

black

white

excitation

weaker;

difference
in

course

The

paper.

and

white.

The

same

background. If contrasted colours are complementary to

saturated.
each other,the contrast renders them
more
" 10. The Negative After-Image,etc. "If, after looking
steadfastlyat a white patch on a black ground, the eye
for some
be turned to a white ground, a grey patch is seen
white
A black patch on
little time.
a
ground similarly
"

PSYCHOLOGY.

160

[BK. n.,

CH.

IT.

gives rise when the eye is subsequently turned towards

a
patch. These
grey ground," to the image of a white
of the primary
after-images,which follow the removal
stimulation, are

called

negativeimages.

"When

red

subsequently turned to a
white or to a grey ground, the negativeimage is a greenish
blue; that is to say, the colour of the negative image is
complementary to that of the object. Thus also orange
produces a blue, green a pink, yellow an
indigo-blue,
The
conditions
for the
negative image, and so on."*
favourable,
productionof the negativeimage are the more
intense and persistent
the more
is the primary stimulation.
is very transient,it may
When
the primary stimulation
give rise in the first instance to a positiveimage, as we
shall see later.
Negative images arise also when the eye
well as
is simply closed after the primary stimulation
as
it is turned to a different background.
when
of
for the occurrence
It is not
absolutelynecessary
should
be
negative images that the primary stimulus
The
result may
be brought about
removed.
same
by
diminishingits intensity.If we steadfastly
gaze at a red
spot on a yellow ground, and then diminish the intensity
the light or otherwise,
of the illumination
by turning down
blue
a
a
ground will appear
spot upon
green
instead of the red spot on a yellow ground.
patch is

The

looked

same

at, and

process

the

eye

is manifested

in

different way

while

actuallysubjectto the primary stimulation in

undiminished
at
intensity.If we gaze long and steadfastly
less saturated ; the effect
any colour,it graduallybecomes
of steadfastly
that produced
as
gazing at yellowis the same
and
by graduallymingling the yellow light with more
of its complementary blue.
It becomes
more
paler. We
the

eye

is

book
Foster,Text-Boole of Physiology,
part iv.,

iii.,
chap, iii.,
p.

12GG.

LIGHT-

$11.]
may

gather these
of the

facts under

mode

same

SENSATION".

161

formula.

one

of stimulation

The

tends to

not onlyon adjoiningportionsof

effect,

also
This
when

that

on

portionwhich
effect takes

contrast

the

the
the

primary stimulation

weakened.

When

maintain

the

stimulus
form

of

produce a
the

trast
con-

retina,but

directlyexcites.
negativeimage
or
sufficiently

is withdrawn

stimulus

ance
continu-

is continued

so

to

as

its

positiveeffect,the contrast effect mingles

with this,so as to produce loss of saturation.
In this way,
the yellow illumination
of a gas-light
candle practically
or
becomes
it is long continued.
to white lightwhen
equivalent
It is noteworthy that negativeimages modify each other's
colour-tone
it
in cases
in which
by contrast,and this even
is difficult to obtain

contrast

effect under

ditions.
ordinary con-

The

negativeimage of a red patch on a white

ground is blue-green; the negative image of the white
This
ground which surrounds it is reddened
by contrast.
is important,because
it shows
that contrast
phenomena
of judgment, as has been maintained
not due to errors
are
by Helmholtz.
" 11. The Positive After-image,etc. Light actingon the
and
retina takes a certain time to produce its full effect,
the retinal excitement
takes a certain time to disappear
"

after the
disk

with
the

As
grey.
successive

stimulus
a

has

white

whole
the

been

removed.

sector, and

disk
white

portions of

the

the

retina,but

round,

by

black

rapid

as

eye

is whirled

sector

take

we

set it in very
to

appears

If

no

tion,
rota-

uniform

it affects
means

so

intenselyas if it continued to act on the same

part.
Owing to the rapidityof the rotation,it returns again to
the same
pointbefore the effect of the previousstimulation
has become
The result is a uniform
appreciablydiminished.
grey

identical with, that which

Psych.

would

be

produced 12
11

tlio

PSYCHOLOGY.

162

white

lightfrom

the whole

the

surface

were

of the visual sensation

after the stimulus

some

time

are

most

been

favourable

withdrawn

when

from

the

an

eye

over

sistence
per-

as

of

the

briefly
it. The

which

influence

iv,

has ceased

to what is known
givesrise,under certain conditions,
positiveafter-image.To obtain this,the eye must
instead of steadfastly
glanceat an object,
gazing at

conditions

CH,

equally distributed
rotatingdisk at rest. The

sector

of the

[BK. n.,

has

for

light is

Thus
momentarily exposed to a somewhat
strong stimulus.
if immediately on waking from
sleep in the morning the
for an instant and then closed,
eye be directed to a window
and darker
with its bright panes
an
image of the window
colour as the
sashes, the various parts being of the same
object,will remain for an appreciabletime."*
Theories
of Light-Sensation.
Very
" 12. Physiological
is known
and experilittle indeed
by direct observation
ment
about the physiological
either in the retina
processes
The
in nervous
matter
or
correspondingto light-sensation.
theories on the subject
are
hypotheticalconstructions based
on
physicaland psychologicaldata. The two which are
''

"

best

known

are

those

connected

with

the

names

of

of these is
Neither
Hering respectively.
more
on
a
plete
comsatisfactory
; but that of Hering is based
safely
survey of facts ; and if it is not right,it may
It has recentlybeen
be said to be on rightlines.
greatly
but his views
modified and improved by Prof. Or.E. Miiller,
too complex and too recent for us to deal with
at once
are
them here.
"We shall therefore refer to Bering's theory

Helmholtz

and of

mainly in its originalform.

is primarilybased on the facts
The theory of Helmholtz
of colour combination
regarded from a physicalpoint of
for the
The aim is to account
in the simplestway
view.
*

Foster,op. cit.,
p. 1265.

LIGHT-

" 12.]

SENSATION.

163

colour by many
different combinations
productionof the same
of physicallight. Helmholtz
believed that this could
be done
by assuming three, and only three, ultimate
Each
of these
takes
physiological
processes.
processes
placein the first instance in the retina and is conveyed by
its own
it produces a
to the brain,where
specialnerves
excitation.
The
corresponding specificnervous
cesses
proseverally
correspondto the sensations of red, green,
and blue.
in equal proportionsyields
Their combination
the sensation of white or grey.
tion
Every kind and combinaof lightexcites all three processes.
Hence
colour
no
under
is ever
ordinary conditions of stimulation
quite
saturated.
certain intermixture
It always contains
of
a
white.
By combining in various proportionsthe red and
the

green

the

blue, all

processes,

the

the colours

green
of the

and

the

blue, the

red

spectrum, togetherwith

and
the

purple,may be obtained.
This theory seems
of the
account
a
highly satisfactory
results of combining lightsof different wave-lengths,so
long as we do not test it by psychologicalanalysisof the
But
when
do this, a difficulty
we
resultingsensations.
in the case
of white and yellow. By mixing green
occurs
lightwith blue light,we obtain a blue-green. This, says
Ilelmholtz,is due to a compounding of the physiological
corresponding to blue and green respectively.
processes
His account
of the matter
is borne out by a scrutinyof the
sensation itself. A blue-greenpartakesof the nature
both
of blue

and

resembles

green

it resembles

both

of them

at

once.

It

each in

varying degreesaccordingas blue or green

preponderates. But by mixing red and green lightswe
produce,not reddish green but yellow. The yellow does
not partake of the nature
both of red and green,
blueas
green

of
partakes

the nature

both

of green

and

blue,

No

PSYCHOLOGY.

164

analyticscrutinyof
a

reddish

sensation
The

green.

is

does

tones, red, green,

compound

not

partake at

and

blue.

white.

of

iv.

as

White,
ultimate

fact,the

of the three

once

CH.

colour

of all three

matter

as

such

of

is true

But,

physiological
processes.

discover

can

same

accordingto Helmholtz,
of white

[BK. n.,

tion
sensa-

colour-

Objections of this kind will probably have different

it so happens that
But
weight with different persons.
they are confirmed by some
very important facts connected
If white arises through a combination
with colour-blindness.
of the three
elementary processes, all the colour
when
the sensation of white
sensations ought to be possible
is possible.
But, as we have seen, there are well-established
all three elementary
of total colour-blindness.
Here
cases
are

processes

absent,

and

yet

sensation

of

white

we
theory of Helmholtz
must
elementary processes are really
say that the three
present,but that they are on all occasions excited in equal
able
by all kinds of light. This is a rather improbproportions
increased
assumption,but the improbabilitybecomes
when
consider
that the
of impossibility,
to the verge
we
be applied to a number
of other
same
hypothesis must
colour- sensibility
is absent, and
in which
cases
sensibility
is preserved. All lights of whatever
to white and black
wave-length,produce only neutral sensations,when they

remains

act

on

the

unimpaired.

the retina for

spectrum

The

the

when

the

short time.
grey

They

illumination

outer

extreme

very

into

pass

diminished.
sufficiently

white

On

the

margin

when
pass

is
of the

white, but totallycolour-blind.

All
the

the

colours

illumination

of
is

almost

completelyinto
intensified.
sufficiently
retina

Under

is sensitive

all these

to

varying

accordingto Helmholtz, suppose that

the three elementary colour-processes
are
present,and that
conditions

we

must,

the

SENSATION.

LIGHT-

" 12.]

only reason

why
the

is that

colours are
corresponding
are
always excited
processes
the

proportions.
ATI equallyserious objectionarises
It is evident

colour-blindness.
absence

the

of

one

white, which

more

or

involve

must

processes

135

of

to their combination

is due

in

ceived
per-

equal

of

partial
is right,
that,if Helmholtz
of the elementary colour-

absence

the

from

not

cases

the

sensation

of

in

equal proportions.
is green-blind ought, upon
this
"A
who
person
in white
tuents,
to see
only its red and blue constisupposition,
hence
and
white ought to look to him
as
purple
As long as his defect made
him incapableof
looks to us.
this might perfectly
well,for
explainingto us what he felt,
But we
know
now
aught we knew, have been the case.
who
is green-blind in one
that a person
eye only sees
white
with his defective eye exactly the same
he sees
as
it with his normal
eye."* A similar argument applies
also to yellow. The
partiallycolour-blind usually retain
the sensations of yellow and blue,although they are without
the

sensations

marginal zone
and

of red

or

of the retina
and

green

at which

or

the

both.

There

to
sensibility

is

red

that to

yellow and blue is retained.

of illumination,
red
So, with great increase in the intensity
and
still discernible
in the spectrum, though
are
green
compati
yellow and blue disappear. Such facts as these are inwith the suppositionthat yellow is due
to a
ceases,

green

combination

of the red process and the green process.

If the theory of Helmholtz
is unsatisfactory
in its account

of

colour-combination,its

sensation
lightcontrast
*

effects

failure to

explain other facts of

for
conspicuous. It accounts

is still more
between

C. L. Franklin, "On
vol. ii. (1893),
p. 479.

adjoiningcolours

Theories

of

as

errors

of

Mind, N.S.,
Light-Sensation,"

PSYCHOLOGY.

166

judgment.

shown

such

that

respects like

en.

of these phenomena
investigation
hypothesisis quite untenable.

fuller
an

by
colour-produced

[BK. n.,

contrast

appears

and

in

behaves

iv.

has
The
all

produced by direct stimulation.

due to
as
explained by Helmholtz

colour

the

Negative images are

of the ultimate
fatigue. By long continuance,one or more
become
exhausted, so that the others are
colour-processes
predominantly aroused either by stimulation from without,
from the retina's own
or
light. One objectionto this view
of Helmholtz, fatigueof all three
is that,on the principles
be constantlytaking place,as all three are
processes must
is
the fatiguewhich
excited by every kind of light. Now
take placein the course
to explainnegative images must
of

few

seconds.

Hence

we

should

expect

very

spicuous
con-

effect of

fatiguefrom the ordinaryuse of the eyes

sensations
of
in daylight. Hardly any
capacityfor lighthour, especially
any sort ought to be left at the end of an
after exposure
to predominantlywhite
light,which must
exhaust
all three processes equally.
In Hering's theory, a strenuous
to
attempt is made
escape

the

difficulties which

beset

that

of

Helmholtz.

givenby psychological
analysisof lightsix ultimate
ing
sensations,he assumes
processes, correspondof white, black, red, green, yellow,
to the sensations
These
he arranges
in antithetic pairs; white
and blue.
red and green, blue
and black go together,and similarly
and yellow. To each
pair there corresponds a separate

Following the

retinal
nervous

clue

substance,
matter.

and

The

distinct

modification

red-greensubstance

is

of

central

of
susceptible

Bed
in their nature.
antagonistic
processes, chemical
lightexcites the one, and green the other. "When red and
neither process
in equal portions,
green lightare combined
Hence
is producedbecause of their mutual
incompatibility.
two

LIGHT-SENSATION.

" 12.]
there

is

such, colour

no

green act on
produce the sensation
their

occur,

of

excitement

of white.

red and

green

though

the two

black-white

red

stimulations

each

neutralise

black-white

substance,and produce the

black

as

combine

white

and

that the two

much

be

must

far

as

to act

sensation

as

the

on

of white.

gous.
yellow processes are analoare
supposed by
processes

white

and

of fact there

matter

and

in
antagonistic

to be

Hering

this

to

other

concerned, they continue

of the blue

black

tions
sensa-

substance.

effect is

The

to

as

green
due

the

Hence, when
in equalproportions,
simultaneously

lightact

relations

or

mainly

their colour

The

both

substance, so

When

intensity is

the

But

green.

black-white

the

red and

reddish

as

167

the

same

essential

an

to form

; but

way

difference

intermediate

as

here,

greys,

so

than
incompatibleany more
the blue and green, or the yellow and red processes are.*
Hering is no doubt rightin assuming that the processes
correspondingto black,white,red,green, blue, and yellow,

separate and

are

them

be

can

But

distinct in their nature,

resolved

substances.

black

"

clench

Really,black

grey

Total

process.
to

seem

process

is connected

There

this

and

out

of

there.

sensation

with

are

of

of

none

the

But

do
the

in

that

others.

the

cancel

of

state
is

But

each

cortical

there

there

exclusivelywith

conclusion.

grey."

Professor

other

which

before

the

(owing

to

the eye

facts

there is

optic nerve
changes
or

follow

not

in the retina

is

white-

allied

it does

commotion

stimulus

the

and

cells with

'intrinsic'

(This proposed explanation is

great care.)

doubt

no

colour-blindness

white

always
whether
temperature, etc.),
this commotion
gives us
p. 42.

is

connected

specialapparatus

the

combinations

that

probably pushes this pointtoo far in assuming that

pairs of antithetic processes always take place in

separate

no

into

so

he

his

not

are

processes

not

of

; and

'subjective'sight-sensation,
Titchener, Primer
of Psychology,

due

or

to Gr. E.

who
Miiller,

works

it

PSYCHOLOGY.

168

that

white-black

the

those

processes

retinal elements

When

[BK. IT., en.

also

cannot

subserve

which

take

the colour

iv.

place in
processes.

and

yellow lightsact simultaneouslyso as to

give rise to the sensation of white, Hering has good reason
for denying that the blue process and the yellow process
take place together. As such,they neutralize each other ;
he refers the conjointeffects of the two
but when
lights
blue

merely to their action on the white-black substance, his

Since the yellowand blue
positionis not without difficulty.
each other,the combined
neutralise
intensityof
processes
deducted
from
the
be
these
must
resulting
processes
sensation of white.
This involves the assumption that the
of the yellow and blue processes, as such,is very
intensity
small
indeed, and that when
they actually occur, the
brightnessof the correspondingsensations is mainly due
to

the

intermixture

of

colour

when

we

are

asked

is hard

This

is introduced

''Hopelessconfusion
of

white.

to

into all
believe

believe.

to

conceptions

our

that

the

entire

brightnessof every sensation of lightis nothing but the

brightnessdue to the white sensation which is mixed with
Can
it.
they be thinking beings who have allowed
of
themselves to follow Hering into the intellectual vagary
saturated red,for instance
that
supposing that a perfectly
what
matter
is a red wholly free from white admixture
no
which called it forth,
would
of chemical
the amount
activity
have
no
brightnesswhatever, that there would be nothing
of this
in sensation correspondingto differences in amount
Hering's view cannot be set
photo-chemical
process ?"*
But
aside in this sweeping way.
can
we
scarcelyaccept
...

"

"

it without

fuller

in its favour.
is almost

evidence

If

Hering
entirelydue
*

than
is

has

yet been

right in holding

to the

effect which

Franklin,op. cit.,p.

480.

adduced

that
it

brightness
produces

white-black

his

on

169

LIGHT-SENSATION.

$ 12.]

substance, colours, which,

tinguishabl
indis-

are

lightswhich
the yellow spot, ought also to
fall on
produce them
the
be
produce
lights which
indistinguishablewhen
fall on
the
them
totally colour-blind margin of the
of fact, this
As a matter
as
retina,and are seen
greys.
On the other hand,
to be
approximately true.
appears
in

intensityand

when

tone

the

apparently identical in brightness and tone,

of spectral
lights,and the
one
produced by a mixture
differ very greatlywhen
other by homogeneous light,
may
But
this can
in twilightvision.
as
they are seen
greys
hardly form a cogent argument against Hering, because
from
of twilightvision differ essentially
the conditions
those of ordinarydaylightvision.
(See " 6, ad Jin.)
colours

two

The

red and

green

of the

spectrum in combination

duce
pro-

for this by the composite

yellow. Hering accounts
of
admixture
It contains an
of the spectralred.
nature
yellow : and when the red and green lightsneutralise each
other,the yellowalone is left. He may be right,but this is
of the pointson which it is difficult to see that his theory
one
It would in some
is quitesatisfactory.
respectsbe preferable
be produced by
that the yellow process*can
to suppose
of red and green lights.
co-operation
positive
for
to account
easilybe made
Hering's theory may
and
the phenomena of contrast
negative images. They
disturbance
of the chemical
due
to a
are
equilibrium
For instance,we
of the retinal substances.
may
suppose
that

the

white

of
Hence
rise
*

Viz.,a

of the

material

the
to

process

white

the
distinct

processes

black
retinal

for

has

for

the

black

process
process,

will
both

its

product the

process,

and

positivelytend
in

the

lation
accumu-

vice versd.
to

portion of

give
the

corresponding to yellow,not a combination

separatelyproduced by red and green lightsrespectively.
process

PSYCHOLOGY.

170*

be

may

are

being

accordance

with

theories
in

all, interesting

that

note

those

In

hopeful

and
New

modified

and,
It

attempts

the

on

above

is,
most

are

cessful
suc-

data

psychological

respect, the

this

method

comparison

of

method

physical

predominantly

the

light-

made.

made.

being

psychological

predominantly

the

of

theories

old

accurately

most

process.

in

discoveries,

is

psychological analysis.

and

and

ultimate

theory

being

fresh

progress

follow

which

of

to

the

to

constantly discovered,

propounded,

satisfactory

whole,

the

complementary

measurements

these

due

are

of

iv.

clear

seems

difficulties, is

being

are

each

that

with

quantitative

exact

its

say

beset

facts

New

condition.

of

part

may

although

sensation,

more

we

it

process,

CH.

n.,

Whatever

part.

after-images

produce

to

conclusion,

In

the

and

the

on

processes

adjoining
of

effects

contrast

positive tendency
retinal

the

details

special

the

both

that

in

and

affected

retina

[BK.

with

Hering

is

Helmholtz

of

instructive.*
*

The

general
from

Leipzig,

1897,

Book

p.

In

work.

ff.

320

of Physiology,
also

See

excellent.

the

English

fifth

Mind,

developments

mainly

pages
where

of

are

the

the

important.

of

treatment

book

edition,
C.

Mrs.

Light-Sensation,"

who

student

to

vol.
be

ii.

found

Zeitscliriftfur Psychologie

contributions

of

Konig,

von

(1893),
in
und

iii., pp.
"On

article
pp.

German

and

G.

consult

Foster's

E.

is
of

Theories
The

especially
der

Text-

1222-1247,

473-489.
and

Physiologie

Kries,

chapter

Halbband,

should
in

Light-Sensation
iii.,chap,

this

Erster

German

read

Franklin's

L.

N.S.

can

in

detail

the

Psychologie,

der

Grundzilge
The

of

much

and

exposition

Ebbinghaus.

is taken

this

of

plan

latest
in

the

Sinnesorgane,

Miiller

are

most

CHAPTER

V.

SOUND-SENSATION.

"

1. Nature

Stimulus.

of the

of sound

sensations

occasions

The

"

which,

physicalstimulus

consists

of the

of vibrations

tinguish
disof light,we
can
particlesof the air. As in the case
wave-length or rapidityof vibration,amplitude,
and complexity. Wave-length determines
pitch; amplitude
loudness, and complexity timbre.
details we
must
" 2. Organ of Hearing. For anatomical
"

again refer

is thrown

ear

This

text-books.
physiological
into

its

basilar

impact

3. Noises

sound

are

marked
*

impulse

an

sound-waves.

vibrations

to

Musical

"The

Sounds.

characterised
for
is

the

by

most

marked

"

membrane

called

of this membrane

Noises

confusion

part by

by unity

vibrations

which

and

these

fluid,which

as

the
are

in
excitingcertain hair-cells,
terminate.
auditorynerve

and

experiences are
complexity, and
character.

of

of the

stimulus

the fibres of the

sound

The

membrane.

musical

give

drum

small bones, and

into vibration

throws

The

by impact

in certain

in their turn

the immediate

"

vibration

produces movements

movements

by

to

which

immediate

and

indefinite

irregularity.A
uniformity

constitute

of

musical

and thus possess a

repeated at regular intervals,
also
Musical sounds
or
are
rhythm."*
periodicity

Foster, Text-Boole

of Physiology,book
171

chap, iv.,p.
iii.,

1361.

[BK. u.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

172

en.

v.

instead of being regular,

produced when the periodicity,
would
which
varies continuously. Regular vibrations
otherwise
sounds, give rise to noises,
produce musical
but little in waveof them, differing
length,
when
a large number
number
of adjoining
a
occur
together,as when
touched.
But in general,
keys of a pianoare simultaneously
which
the stimulus
gives rise to noises is produced by a
series of vibrations
differingfrom one another in period.
noises and
"There
is,however, no abrupt line between"
Between
and
musical sounds.
a
simple musical
pure
sound produced by a series of vibrations,each of which
has exactlythe same
period,and a harsh noise in which no
"

consecutive

vibrations

stages. Much
series of sounds

called

are

alike,there

of
regularrepetition
easilyrecognised."*
Pitch.

"4.

vibrations which
the time

the

of each

pitchof

one

greater the

"The

"

mediate
inter-

numerous

irregularity
present itself in a
may
of the roughest
music, and in some

noises the
be

are

fall upon

the

ear

or

vibrations may

more

number
in

of

consecutive

second, the

shorter

vibration,the higher is the pitch. Hence

sound

is determined

by

the

lengthof

the wave,

having long, a high note short wave-length.

able to distinguish
series of musical sounds
We
a whole
are
of different pitch,from the lowest to the highest audible
note."f In this series each note has its fixed position
from
two others which
between
are
barely distinguishable
what
higher, and the other someit; the one being somewhat
The
lower.
arrangement is therefore linear,and
comparable to the series of greys intervening between
It has been maintained
white and black.
that, as in the
to
can
we
distinguishvarying degrees of affinity
greys
in the scale of notes
of
white and black respectively,
so
a

low

note

Ibid.

Op. cit.,
p.

1362.

SOUND-

"5.]

SENSATION.

173

of sensation are involved,

two ultimate modes
pitch,
But this view has not
correspondingto black and white.*
been generally
accepted.
about
below
Vibrations
thirtya
having a recurrence
unable
sensation of sound, "f
to produce a
second are
For
similar
limit for high notes.
most
is a
There

different

"

16,000 vibrations

this is fixed at about

persons

second,

distinguishtones of 40,000.
In music, only a comparatively small
portion of these
tones
are
used, beginning with about thirtyand ending-

though

some

with about

can

persons

3,600 vibrations

second.

difference
of pitch is very
distinguishing
In tones
rising
highly developed within a certain range.
observers
from 100 to 1000 vibrations in a second,practised
The

under

power

of

favourable

conditions

can

differences

discriminate

of

pitch correspondingto differences of one quarter or one

above
4000
below forty
fifth of a wave-length. Tones
or
are
distinguishedfrom each other with great difficulty.
differences of hundreds
Towards
the higher end of the scale,
or

of thousands

even

of vibrations

second

not

may

be

recognisable.

"

5. Harmonic

Intervals.

"

When,

of two

notes

ously
simultane-

produced,the vibration period of one is exactlytwice

as
rapidas that of the other, the two sensations show a
It is hard to distinguish
strong tendencyto blend into one.
them

as

two.

The

result of their union

sensation,peculiarly
agreeableto

the

is
ear.

richer and
There

fuller

is also

when
tendency to confuse the two sensations even
they do
musician
not occur
even
a practised
simultaneously.When
is called upon to imitate on the piano a tone whistled by the
to
mouth, he frequentlyproducesthe tone which corresponds
"See

Mach, Analysis of the

f Foster,op. cit.,
p. 1363.

Sensations

(English trans.),
pp. 127, 128.

PSYCHOLOGY.

174

half

double

or

other

the number

words, the

upper

he has to imitate.

What

tendency to
hear

to

confuse

them

as

lower

or

with

pitch. Notes much

distinguished.What
and

they are
in
not
depend on similarity
pitch are easilyand clearly

in

nearer

has

musical

when

said

been

of the

octave, the fifth,

double

the
intervals,

holds

octave

the twelfth.

musical

When

of Musical

Combination

" 6.

attention

sounds

of
intensity
more

of the

one

so

when

notes

the

is, as

"

as

seen,

greater the relative

The

it

have

we

is the octave, the

one

compared

as

it is to discern

easy

It

of the other.

the twelfth

fifth,or

do

sources.
from different

together,it usually requires

them.

discriminate

to

Sounds

occur

difficult to
peculiarly

the

sound

single musical

the
and

in memory,

its octave

simultaneouslyproduced,does

also of other

octave

is that
interesting
peculiarly

is

v.

en.

per second, or in
of the note which

of vibrations

note

[BE. n.,

with

separate

the

others,
It is

tone.

in proportion
to its relative faintness.
distinguish
which
of tones yieldsa specific
The combination
experience,
of the
be regarded as merely the sum
cannot
separate

harder

to

experiencesof
tones

the

are

integralparts of a whole.
its own
characteristic pitch and
Its pitch is approximatelythat
as

tones,
The

the

intensityof
of

sum

the

this

when

even

the

of

intensities

approximatelyequal to

the

the

lowest
the

is not

experience is

total

has

characteristic
of

its

its

the

own

intensity.
of

its

not

stituent
con-

intense.

most

equal
It

constituents.

of
intensity

stituent
con-

still apprehended

whole

This

the

when

Even
separate notes.
discriminated,they are

loudest

to

is

among

them.

" 7.

Seats

sounded
that the

Dissonance.

and
"

together
periodof

are

not

"

of the

vibration

of

"If
same

the

tuning-forks"
pitch,but so related

two

one

is not

an

exact

SOUND-SENSATION.

" 7.]

multiple of that of
experiencehas certain
is the

which
formed
in

effect

intensity.As
and

then

other,

marked
on

of the two

out

louder

the

175

the

We

; but

waves

fainter

the

of

ear

our

to grow

which

features.

hear

is not

or

is heard

wave

uniform
to grow

now

die

to

even

we

sound

compound

the sound

listen the sound

we

sensation

away,

but

thus rising
to fall away,
again,and once more
the rhythmic change being
fallingat regularintervals,
to revive

soon

and

to actual

sound

either from

silence

from

or

louder

sound

intensityare due to
the vibratory
the fact that,owing to the difference of pitch,
impulses of the two sounds do not exactlycorrespond in
time.
Since the vibration period,the time during which
a
is making an
excursion,moving a certain distance
particle
in one
direction and then returning,is shorter in one
sound
than in the other,it is obvious that the vibrations belonging
sound will,so to speak,get ahead of those belonging
to one
to

to

fainter

the

other

impulse of

Such

one.

variations

hence

sound

is

time

of

will

when,

come

while

the

tending to drive a particlein one

direction,say forwards, the impulse of the other sound is
in the other direction,
i.e.
tending to drive the same
particle
result is that the particle
The
will not move,
backwards.
much
if it were
will not move
so
or
as
subject to one
impulseonly,stillless to both impulses actingin the same
direction ; the vibrations of the particle
will be stopped or
one

lessened,and

giving rise

are

sound
with
or

the sensation

has
the

more

or

its vibrations

wanting or diminished : the one

completelyneutralised or 'interfered'

crest

with

to which

be

less

other,the

less coincided

sound.

will

of sound

the

of the

wave

trough

of
of the

one
wave

sound

has

of the

more

other

Conversely,at another time, the two impulses will

be actingin the same
direction on
the
the same
particle,
of the particle
movements
and the sound
will be intensified,

[BK. n.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

173

en.

v.

the one
condition
will pass
augmented. And
gradually into the other. The repetitionsof increased
intensitythus brought about are spoken of as beats."*
discernible when
the difference between
Beats are separately
is very
the vibration
tones
frequency of the concurrent

will be

As

small.

rapidly,and
give rise to

more

then

somewhere

ceases

second.

becomes

the difference

But

greater, the beats

clearlydiscernible.
a
rattling or whirring effect.
between
thirtyand sixty beats
not

are

then

even

certain
there

are

beats

occur

hundreds
with

of

the

beats

of their harsh

beats

in

This
in

still manifest

the

second.

their
them

When

the

this

the roughness or harshness

rapidity,
pointis reached,the notes, because
said to be dissonant.

are
effect,

The

number

produced by two notes which approach each

vibration frequency,is equal to the mathematical
the number

between

when

other

of beats
in

the

sufficient

Before

ceases.

They

so

by imparting to the notes which produce

roughness. This experiencemay persisteven

presence

occur

of vibrations

per

second

ence
differ-

of each.

at sixty-four
tuning-forks
vibratingrespectively
or
seventy-two a second, will give eight beats a second,"f
overtakes
the longer eight times,
the shorter wave
because
to give to the vibratingparticles
as
so
oppositeimpulses,

"Thus

two...

which

neutralise

interval
the

between

each

other.

the

combined

become

beats

We

that

they

appreciable;but they recur

again when
increased.
when
sufficiently
They recur
somewhat

greater or

it is somewhat

octave, etc.
second

give

less than

greater
Two
four
*

or

tones

beats;

the

four

increased,

longer

are

no

the

interval

is

the

interval

is

again,when
twelfth,the double

the
and

beats

Op. cit.,
pp. 1367,1368.

the

as

octave, and

less than
of 200

that

seen

becomes

tones

rapid

so

have

396
are

vibrations
also

t Ibid.

in

produced by

SOUND-SENSATION.

" 9.]
and

of 200

tones

of beats

is

number

of

of the lower

vibration number
and

200

This

of the

explainswhy

higher

interval

for which
great distinctness,

the compass
of these.
One

is called the
the

to

difference

higher tone

the

these

and

between
twice

the

tones

tones

of the

the

octave

or

sounded

are

octave, there

same

vibration

number

number

vibration

has

produced

are

determined.
the

4.

effect.

it

But

and

not

function

of

The

yet

that

seems

the

of the

of the

tone, and is called the second difference-tone.

which

596

to the difference
corresponds
vibration numbers
of the primary tones, and
The
other corresponds
firstdifference-tone.

mainly two
the

200

notes

with
heard, occasionally
is no assignable
physical

there

Within

if the

from

two

"

stimulus.

is 3

dissonant

produces a

to the

nearest

Thus

deviation

Tones.
When
" 8. Differencetogether,certain other tones are

between

number

The

comes

tone.

of beats

small

which

tone

the number

596

other musical

are

second.

the vibration
equal to the difference between
tion
the higher tone and that multipleof the vibra-

number

are

in

vibrations

404

177

lower

mode

been

they

in

factorily
satis-

are

due

of

hearing,
Their
and not to physicalconditions.
explanationforms
an
important test for any general physiological
theory of

to

structure

organ

sound-sensations.

" 9.

Timbre.

"

The

note

same

violin,a trumpet, etc.,has

its

pitchis identified

are

called differences

of the

as

they arise from

Attentive analysis
can
The

power

very
same.

of timbre.

sensation.

when

tones.

the

sounded

piano, a
varyingcharacter,though
a

Differences
Timbre

of this kind

is due

to the

plexity
com-

Ordinary musical sounds, even

single source, are not simple.

discern

number

of discrimination

aptitudeand practicein analysis.The

Psych.

on

of distinct
varies

with

pitchof

partial
musical

the whole
12

178

PSYCHOLOGY,
is

complex
This

approximately the pitch,of

is called the
at the

fundamental
The

outset.

separatedfrom
The

with
the
affinity
octave.
Thus, though

difficult.

more

musical

natural

Thus
the

them,

be

may

discernible

relative

tried

their harmonic

sufficient

as

this way;

practice,a

constituent

makes

of

person

artificialhelps.

separatelyon
in attendingto
in

tones

them

and

overtones

it

of discriminating

power

of

some

the

as

relation

kept in mind
analysed. Several

in

fied
identi-

course

intensitymakes

then

is to be

tone.

tones, such

less skilled may

use
be first sounded
may

The

partialtone
key of a piano,and
which

is of

aptitudeacquiresgreat

the

the note

are

their

With

overtones.

lowest

the

v.

they are called,are

tone by harmonic
intervals.
usually those which have

fundamental

most

it

en.

overtones,as

of them

easier to discriminate

and

tone

the fundamental

intense

most

[BK.n.,

sion
succes-

be

may

others

not.

Sometimes

slightdifferences in pitch are noted between

and the correspondingnote as sounded
the overtone
the
on
why the analysismust
piano. This is one of the reasons
be regarded as real,and not illusory.
number
of relatively
low
A moderate
partialtones
richer and fuller and
makes
the whole
somewhat
higher
of high overtones
of considerable
in pitch. A large number
gives to the whole a sharp and penetrating
intensity
sometimes

and

arises from

harshness
The

combination

produced from

of notes
the
tones

somewhat

great

combination

summation

in

in
specific

of the

the

intensitybetween

the overtones.
is

between

The

character.

high overtones.
of partialtones
in a complex note
is analogous to the combination
singlesource
from
different sources, except as regards

difference

and

beats

harsh

The
its

whole

the

fundamental
to the

experiencedue

character,and

severallydue
experiences

is not

to the

partial

mere

SOUND-SENSATION.

" 10.]

is true

170

aro
partial tones
discriminated.
They are still apprehended as constituents
of a whole having an unique character.
Analyticattention
in
to create
them
does not appear
in discoveringovertones
is already
to find what
of discovery,but
the moment
pre-existing.Thus the compositionof an ordinarymusical
which
excellent example of sensations
are
note affords an

This

tones.

when

even

the

of their
distinctive
discrimination
merely felt without
qualities. So long and so far as the experience is
sensations
are
present, qua
unanalysed, the constituent
sensations,
though their presence is not cognised. There
without
is a sense-differentiation
perceptualdistinction.
Anatomical
" 10. General Theory of Sound- Sensation.
"

research
to

to

the

in

way

physical and

side, wre

have

the

separatelygive

that

the

auditory
basilar

the
which

the

immediate

stimulus

is constituted

nerve

membrane.

this membrane

The
acts

main

is found

the
On
physical
psychologicaldata.
fact that impulses which
broad
would

rise

before

to

distinct

waves

of

sound,

blend

into a single
they reach the ear
resultant
effect.
They produce a single wave, the form
is mathematically accounted
of which
for by their combination.
This is true whether
the several impulses come
from, separate material
objectsor from the same
object.
Thus
the vibrations
which
produce ordinary sounds are
of origin. The
forms
which
complex in their mode
they
be mathematicallyresolved into
can
consequently assume
combination
of the forms
of certain constituent
a
simple
These
called pendular, because
waves.
are
simple waves
their form
is like that
described
of a
by the sweep
pendulum. Though one, not many waves, is produced by
the impulseswhich
simultaneouslyset the air in vibration,

their

effects

show
of

of

vibrations

the

clue
in

terminations

the

by

to

seems

PSYCHOLOGY.

180

yet

each

of

[BK. n.,

impulses acts separatelyon

these

the

CH.

y.

organ

because
the several
to be
so
hearing. This is known
sensations
distinguishablein
corresponding to each are
We
consciousness.
can
analyse a single note into its
of notes
partialtones, and we can distinguisha number
This
is
sounded
simultaneouslyfrom different sources.
the
starting-pointfor the theory of sound- sensations.
be so constructed
to respond
of hearing must
as
The organ
produce the
separatelyto the several impulses which

of

complex
The

wave.

simple

most

obvious, if

and

the

not

only,

way

of

is that
of the ear
accounting for this analyticpower
commonly, though
propounded by Helmholtz, and now
not universally,
accepted. It proceeds on the analogy of
If a tuning-fork,which
certain
physical phenomena.

overtones, be laid on the

produces a simple tone without
top of a piano, and if the correspondingnote is sounded
by touching one of the keys, the tuning-forkvibrates in
sympathy with it. If the lower octave of the note be sounded,
in sympathy; for its
the
tuning-fork again vibrates
sounded
the
of the note
octave
on
own
note, being an
It can
piano,is contained in this as one of its overtones.
to vibrate in sympathy with
made
be similarly
any of the
notes

contain

which

unaffected

by

is struck in
those

contain

as

overtone.

an

It is

will

notes.

vibrate

adjustedto
specially
which

note

own

Conversely,if the tuning-fork

neighbourhood of the wires of a piano,

other

the

wires

its

this

the
as

in

tone,

same
an

it, which

are

to any

of the

notes

the

second

to

response

overtone.

or

In

case

length,but in
The
wire
which
corresponds to the lower
segments.
the tuning-forkrespondsby
of the tone sounded
octave
on
of which the wave-length is half the length of
ii vibration

they

do

not

vibrate

along

their

whole

SOUND-SENSATION.

" 10.]

the

Now,

wire.

the

consists

membrane

basilar

theory
of

181

of
a

Helmholtz
series of

is that

the

strands,each

of

piano or like a tuning-fork,is

adapted to its own peculiartone, and vibrates in response
to this.
Thus, however
complex the physicalsound-wave
not a single
be, it produces in the basilar membrane
may
of distinct vibrations,
complex vibration,but a number
and each of these constitutes a separate stimulus
affecting
of the auditorynerve.
the terminations
is very
Though the theory of Helmholtz
simple and
it is not without difficulty.
In particular,
it does
plausible,
in its present form
not
satisfactorily
explain differ encetute
tones
(see" 8). Attempts have been made to find a substifor it : but in all probability
it only needs modification
and
to light
development. Recently facts have come
which
analogous to colour-blindness
stronglyto
appear
like the

which,

support

it.

of

wires

There

are

in which

cases

the

mechanism

for

conductingsound-impulsesis intact,and yet the sensibility

smaller
for greater or
portions of the scale of tones is
much
instances
absent
the toneor
impaired. In some
deafness extends to the greater part of the scale,leaving
sensibility
only to a fragmentary portionof it. One tone
be clearlydistinguished,
of moderate
while
intensity
may
another neighbouring tone is indistinguishable,
when
even
it is very loud.
It is difficult to explainthese phenomena
unless

we

suppose

in the

ear

system

each
be

of

separateelements,

adjustedto its own

peculiartone, some
absent or incapableof dischargingtheir

the rest behave

in

normal

of which
function

may

while

manner.

In this

chapter I have followed Ebbinghaus very closely. For further

is referred
Text-Book
to
Foster's
reading in English the student
of
book
and
Power
to
The
Physiology,
iii.,
part iv.,
of Sound,
pp. 1361-1378,
In German
there
is the great work
of Karl
Stumpf
by E. Gurney.
in two

entitled Tonpsychologie.
vols.,

CHAPTEE

OTHER

"

1. Taste and
which

are

"If

the

odours.

Smell*

VI.

SENSATIONS.

"

The

greater number

usually ascribed
be held

nose

and

to

of

taste

the eyes

the
in

are

sations
sen-

reality

shut, it is

very

difficultto
and
but

between
in eating,
an
distinguish,
apple,an onion,
be recognisedby their texture,
a potato ; the three may
Cinnamon
not by their taste."
applied to the tongue

under

the

like

appears

but

appreciatea slightsweetness,

may

undoubted

four

are

conditions

same

bitter.

There

are

taste-sensations
two

others

"

"

flour ;

that

the

is all.

taste

There

sweet, salt,acid,and

the alkaline

and the metallic

"

disputed. The alkaline is possiblya mixture of

salt and sweet, togetherwith peculiartouch-sensations.
All taste- sensations
and
to be intermingledwith
appear
An
acid, too slightto be
qualifiedby tactile sensations.
distinguishedas such, produces a peculiartouch-sensation
by its astringentcharacter ; and as the acidityis increased
the touch- sensation
becomes
stinging,and finallypasses
the
into a pain-sensation
which
completely dominates
specialexperienceof acidity. Salt is also accompanied by

which

are

stinging sensation
pitchof intensityas
a

but

in the

this does
case

*In

not

of acids.

reach
The

the

same

sensation

of

Kiesow, "Beitrage zur

regard to taste, I have mainly followed
Studien^
PhysiologischenPsychologic des Geschmacksinnes," Philosophische
X. (1894),pp. 329-368,532-561.
182

OTHER

" 1.]
and

softness

SENSATIONS.

smoothness

the

appreciablewhen
quantitiesso small that
As

of

sensation

the

be

and

are

is

present in
such.

as

intensified,the

obscured

is further

intense sensations of sweetness

sweetness;

discerned

becomes

sweetness

the sweetness

again as

emerges

it cannot

with

substance

sweet

is dominated

touch-sensation

associated

is

tliis is

183

it.

by

But

it

increased.

Very
accompanied

sometimes

bitingsensation.
sensitive to sweetness,
The tip of the tongue is especially
and the base to bitterness.
The
the edges to acidity,
tip
and edges are
equally sensitive to salts,the base less so.

by

has

the mouth

When

substance,such

as

the result differs

been

washed

the

persons
the

to

cases

accordingto

respond by
sensation

same

tongue the distilled

sensation

except

sweetness

at

appear

the

the

The

effect

on

would

is

of

solutions
be too weak

of bitter.
to

feel

acidityat

the

of colours.

to be

In

whatever

Others

of sweet

tongue appears

taste

no

sensation

relations

of

There

somewhat

Salt,by

substances

feel

edges.

sweet.

some

part of

applied. Others

taste-sensations

contrast

of the

is aroused

base.

tipsand

base

sensation

water

the

appliedto the tongue,

and
point of application,

the

distilled water

contrast, makes
same

at

to exist among

analogous to

neutral

some

distilled water, is

varies in different persons.

in all

out, and

It has

which

of

sort

the

in themselves

appreciable. It also has

which
are
strong enough

an

effect on solutions
to
intensifying
be appreciable.It operatesin this way both when
the same
first by a salt,
stimulated,
part of the tongue is successively
then by a neutral or sweet
the salt
fluid,and also when
and

the sweet

simultaneouslyapplied to homologous
parts of the tongue, e.g., to correspondingpoints on the
right and left edges of the tongue. Sweet has a much
effect on salt,
weaker
than salt on sweet.
contrast
In both
are

PSYCHOLOGY.

184

forms

vi.

en.

experiment,sweet instead of making distilled

On the
it taste sweet.
taste salt by contrast, makes
with
makes
sweet
hand, contrast
distinctly
appreciable
salt
solution
in
itself
weak
be
too
to
a
perceived.
of the

water

other

Similar
and

[BK. n.,

relations

between

have

been

and

sweet

observed

acid ; but

between

in the

case

salt and

acid,

of sweet

and

stimuli arc
the two
they are manifested
only when
to the same
appliedsuccessively
part of the tongue, not
when
they are appliedsimultaneouslyto homologous parts.
Bitter appears
effects nor
to be
neither to produce contrast
affected by them.
The
be stimulated
of taste
sense
can
only by fluids.
acid

Solid

substances

appropriatestimulus

other
the

hand,

consists

membrane

smell

dissolved

in

mouth

the

before

affect it.

they can
The

be

must

have

in

been

not

of

touch

The

medium.

and

there

They

smell,on

the

particlesconveyed

adequatelyclassified

primary constituents
great variety of them.
with

of

sense

odoriferous

gaseous

their

mixture

for the

analysedinto

or

to

often

be

very

modified
The

taste-sensations.

of

sensations

appears
are

to

by

pungency

of smell at all,
sensation
a
strictly
but a peculiarkind of tactual experience. Odours
proper
do
to
not
produce sneezing : this is due to
appear
sensations
Odorous
irritation affecting
the sense
of touch.
take
time
to
some
develop after the contact of the
stimulus
with the olfactory
membrane, and may last very
the stimulus
is repeated the sensation
long. When
very
terminal
dies
out : the
speedily
soon
organs
sensory
of

odour

an

is not

"

become

exhausted.

olfactory membrane
sensation

large

area

; animals

of

larger,apparently,the surface of
the
intense
employed, the more

The

with

acute

scent

olfactory membrane.

have

proportionately

The

greater the

" 1.]

OTHER

quantityof
the

odoriferous

intense

more

SENSATIONS.

material

the

185

to the

membrane,

certain

limit ; and

brought

sensation

to

up

measuring olfactory sensations has

been
constructed,the measurements
being given by the
size of the superficial
area, impregnated with an odoriferous
which
the air must
substance, over
pass in order to give
olfactometer

an

rise

to

for

distinct

sensation.
is

sensation, however,

reached,

soon

of

limit

The

increase

minute

of

quantity

of sensation, and further increase

producing the maximum
minimum,
The
quantity of
giving rise to exhaustion.
be
sensation may
material requiredto produce an olfactory
in some
immeasurably
cases, as in that of musk, almost
small."*
The
in

of smell

sense

life of animals.

the

hearing are
it by means

to

of scent.
the

warns

pursuer

is

It

The

us.

On

the

other
The

of

ants

specieswho

another

to their

own

that
odours

this

belonging

The

unfamiliar

nest

has

and
nest

is due
to

odour

of the

the scent

been

to

different
of

There

are

an

the

them

attack

ants

clearlyshown
peculiar and

nests
ant

of another
among

conditions

It has

nests.

those

intrude

may

normal

under

they never

odour.

attack

nest

one

follows

escape.
its

some

own
men

beings by smell; dogs and

in a very high degree.
power

this

possess

hand

guides its efforts to

and
every specieshas

distinguishhuman

animals

other

and

and

prey

every individual
characteristic and distinctive
can

detects its prey

animal

Probably
who

immensely important part

what
to them
sight and

plays an

and

nest

or

of

; whereas

belonging
by experiment
distinctive

their inhabitants.

coming

from

strange

exasperatingeffect. The intruder is attacked

into a
usually killed. If before being introduced
in juiceproduced by crushing the
it is first bathed
an

Foster, op. cit.,

pp.

1389-1390.

PSYCHOLOGY.

186

of

tenants

the

nest,

it may

widely
incorrect

that

to say

notice

no

differ

[BK, n.,

in

is taken

other
recognise
own
family:

ants

vi.

of it however

from

appearance

CH.

these.

It

is

belonging
depends on the
of strangers.*

ants

as

all
belonging to their
odour
irritatingeffect of the unfamiliar
The comparativelysmall part played by smell in the mental
for by the fact
life of human
beings may be accounted
that trains of ideas constitute
so
large a part of human
experience. Smells are not adapted to ideal revival in
serial succession as sounds
and sightsare.
of three
" 2. Cutaneous Sensations. These are principally
not

or

"

kinds

temperature, and

pressure,

"

their nature

to

prominent

are

character

called

are

sensation

"The

The
the
even

with

caused

organicsensations

by

pressure

is at

in

general.

its maximum

its

sensation

sensation.

when

surrounding areas

the
at

pressure
into

the

surface

in contact

not

skin
be

wholly

drawn

See

of
with

covered

up

Albrecht

and

Bethe's

Qualitdten zuschreiben
Bethe

also

shows

of smell.

that
In

the

Thus

are

if the

with

the

than

will be felt

den

Diirfen wir
(Archiv fur

moving they

die

their
leave

an

caused

und

odorous

is

finger

will be

that

Bienen

psychische
Bd.
Physiologie.
70).

gesammte
to

which

if the

and

Ameisen

way

skin

more

in the parts of the

mercury;

the sensation

find

subject to
fingerbe dipped
not

adjoining the

the mercury,

ants

spot is increased

of the mercury

fluid

down,

in any
skin

of

time.

same

the pressure

mercury

the

means

last class will be best

This

pains.

rise to any

allied in

diminishes.
beginning, and thenceforward
more
suddenly the pressure is increased,the greater
sensation ; and if the increase be sufficiently
gradual,
be applied without
giving
may
very great pressure
after

soon

at

others

which
the most
organic sensations,among
their peculiarly
those which
from
able
disagree-

in connexion

considered

certain

and

from

track

their nests
behind

them.

by

OTHER

$ 2.]
of

that

marked

in every

body

be detected
conditions

present

are

soon

as

the

uniform

stimulus

within

the

and
body itself,

with

the

clothes

when

differences.

The

ordinarilyescape
attend

we

of the skin

areas

of

that

as

which

varying degrees.
surface

Such

them.

to

blood, etc.,furnish

contact

different

can

of the

produces sensations
are
quitediscernible
The

the

circulation

constantlypresent
such

of

their presence

attention

turn

fact,pressure-

general surface

lives,and

our

we

as

of

matter

the

over

of

moment

as

As

attention.

to attract

sensations

the

187

ring moving along the finger."* It should be noted

this appliesonly to sensations of pressure
sufficiently

in

SENSATIONS.

the

The

tips of

forehead,

sole of the

we

wear

notice,but

to them.

are

sensitive

the

the lips,and
fingers,

discriminate

foot,the

to pressure

the
and

arm,

smallest
the

back,

comparativelylittle power of discrimination.

Bodies of the same
shape,weight,size,and temperature,
produce different pressure-sensations
according to their

have

various

textures.

Thus

contact

with

smooth

surface

and

different
rough surface yield specifically
experiences. Similarly,we
distinguish sharpness and
and
and
softness,wetness
bluntness,hardness
dryness.
All these peculiarqualities
of sensation are due to varying
contact

with

combinations

of

pressure,

to

variations

in

the

relative

of the constituent pressures, in the mode

of their
intensity
spatialdistribution,and in their successive changes. A
smooth
surface produces a uniform
pressure at every point;
a rough surface
produces a pressure which is discontinuous
and irregular.The difference between
hard and soft is connected
with successive changes in the intensity
of the pressure
sensations.
differences in
are
Sharpness and bluntness
the extent

of surface

touched.
*

These

Foster,op. cit.,
p.

various

1413.

are
qualities

PSYCHOLOGY.

188

[BK. n.,

en.

yi.

tions
presented to consciousness,not merely as varying combinaof pressure,
but
as
having a specificcharacter of
their own,
which
does not appear
to be capable of further
here
confronted
with
the same
fact
are
analysis. We
which
has met
in other departments of sensation.
Just
us
the partialtones combined
in a musical
note
as
produce by
their union a specific
experiencedistinct from the quality
taken
of any of them
separately,or of all of them taken
ence
together,so the combination of pressures which we experiwhen
velvet comes
in contact with the skin,produces
of consciousness
call
those peculiarmodifications
which we
and

softness

smoothness.
of

are
Temperature-sensations

hot.

the

that

from
that
to

The

of

of

of

necessary
be too

is not

the

certain

temperature

what

we

to

the

skin,

is raised
rise in

skin has

that

certain

previously
it is also a

call

and

the

temperatures

may

differ

heat

is

of

skin

at the

time

will have

does

temperature

hand

more
so

the

enter

may

forehead

or

As

less

sudden

the stimulus

Op. dt.,p.

1416.

the

same

give

not

another, though

widely."*

of the skin ;
*

should

temperature

though its effects may

general sensibility
; we

temperature

temperature

and

has

temperature

regionsof the
skin at a given

conscious,for instance,that
directly

sensations

which

sensation

may

from

time, accordingto circumstances,

to

of

black

of

marked
sufficiently
take place when
the

in all

given spot

distinct

the

Our

"

same

that

time

time.

to

only

seems

gradual.

heat

cold and

the

"

distinct
specifically

as

sensation

of

varies from

which

sensation

condition

is

the

as

region of
fairlyconstant,

been

and

attention

temperature

not

warmth,

white.

attract

of cold

sensation

classes

two

not

has
the

stimulus
rise in

for sensations

rise
into
be
one

two

for
the
of

cold is

skin.

This

more

fall in the temperature of tlie

loss sudden

or

discernible whenever

always present, and

interested in taking note of

cold

is

sensations

The

are
respectively

"If
to

blunt

exert

189

appliesonly to sensations conspicuousenough

A
attention.
general experience of heat or

attract

to

SENSATIONS.

OTHER

" 2.]

and

produced
pointed but

and

cold

of

otherwise

of

pressure

points of

the

fine needle

be

different

at

explorationwill

little

pressure,

are

it.

heat

of

we

skin.
used

ascertain

that

of pressure
can
readily be
points the amount
at other
while
of touch
is acute
recognised the sense
the
be quite near
others, the
points, and these may
of pressure cannot
be recognised,and indeed
amount
no
is excessive
/sensation is experienced until the pressure
at

some

"

"

and

then

but

of

felt is not

sensation

pain. Similarly,if
of

means

will

the

be

metal

found

tube

rod

or

cold

or

touch
be

narrowed

to

proper

applied by
a
point, it

points of the skin are

very
sensitive to changes of temperature, while
other points
insensitive
to
are
temperature, the applicationof heat
cold giving rise to pain only and
not
to
or
specific
sensations
of heat or
cold.
Further, the points of the
skin which
not

also
with

those

does

not

to

the

some

sensitive

are

sensitive
that

that

heat

of

one

heat

pressure

cold,and

or

points sensitive

sensitive
seem

to

to

and

cold.

to

be

so

to

are

those

vice versa"*
heat

The

complete

are

which

It appears
not

separationin
as

pressure-spots. Some

that

are

identical
this

between

case

perature-sp
tem-

pointspeculiarly
sensitive to cold seem
also in a less degree to be sensitive
to heat, though this result of experiment may
be illusory.
It is possiblydue
to spreading of the
stimulation
over
is
neighbouring parts of the skin. Further investigation
*

Op. cit.,
p. 1428, 1429.

PSYCHOLOGY.

190

of

seat

of

sense

" 3.
and

distinct

three

cold,and
see

the

senses,

If

of the

accuratelyaware

close

we

body, we

own

our

"

the

"

the
of

sense

CH.

skin

vr.

is the
the

heat,

of pressure.

sense

Sensations.

Motor

cannot

generalresult,so far,is:

the

needed, but

[BK. n.,

our

none

are

positionof

eyes so
the less
our

that

wo

distinctly

limbs.

If

wo

the finger,we
aro
or
example the arm
and direction
of the amount
and accurately
aware
distinctly
of the change and of the new
positionwhich it produces.
Similarly,if instead of merely moving a limb we push
of the kind
againsta wall, or lift a weight, we are aware
and degree of tension produced by the resistance opposed
movements
efforts.
to our
initiating
If,instead of actively
ourselves,we allow the positionof our limbs to be shifted
in various ways
by another person while we remain passive,
stillalmost equallycapable of appreciating
position
we
are
contracted
muscles
and change of position. If our
are
by
the
applicationof an electric current, the experiences
mark
which
positionand change of positionas well as

move

limb,

kind

and

amount

for

of

continue
resistance,

to be

present.

?
In any movement
experiencesoriginate
tissues.
a
changes take place in a great many
great many
the skin is in various ways
In moving the arm,
crumpled
do these

How

There
are
pressed at every stage of the process.
varying degrees and kinds of tension in the tendons : the
one
another; the muscles pass through
jointsslide over
and

various
be

stages of contraction.

suppliedwith
each

that

and

of

matter

in

some

important.

Our

these

tissues appear

to

possible
; it is therefore
sensory nerves
the
all of them
contribute
to determine

experienceswhich
As

All

mark

fact,it

degree.

positionand change of position.

is probable that all of them
tribute
conThe

discrimination

skin
of

appears

to

be

the least

movement,
position,

etc.,

OTHER

"3.]
is not

"

notably

the skin ;
for

in

our

while

SENSATIONS.

diminished

by temporary

if,for instance,the
anaesthetic,we

power

of

191

skin of the

do not

or

be

arm

find any

judging1 weights

anaesthesia

marked

of

rendered

change

resistance,or

in

appreciating,with the eyes shut, the position of the

limb."*
Joints, on the other hand, constitute a very
important factor,so far at least as concerns
appreciation
of positionand
in a
change of position. This is shown
series of experiments carried out by Groldscheider.
"This
patientobserver caused his fingers,arms, and legs to be
passivelyrotated upon their various jointsin a mechanical
apparatus which registeredboth the velocityof movement
of angular rotation.
No active
impressed and the amount
muscular
took place. The minimal
contraction
felt amounts
in all cases
of rotation were
small,being much
surprisingly
less than a singleangular degree in all the jointsexcept
of the skin made
those of the fingers."f Anaesthesia
no
difference in the result.
Anaesthesia
of the jointsthemselves
In
greatlydecreased the power of discrimination.
the perceptionof resistance,
the tendons
are
probably the
most
important factor. They are organs especially
adapted
of strain or tension.
for the appreciation
Let your
arm
hang down looselyby your side. Attach a fairlyheavy
weight by a stringto the forefinger.The weight pullsthe
and other jointsapart ; so that there
surfaces of the elbow
friction of one
surface
is no
or
against another.
pressure
But
soon
get the sensation of strain throughout the
you
selves
arm.
"| Sensations due to the states of the muscles themto exist ; but it is
undoubtedly seem
very difficult to
estimate
their importance, as marks
of varying position,
"

movement,
*

and

tension.

vol. ii.,
t James, Principles
of Psychology,
Op. clt.,
p. 1436.
pp.
An
Outline of Psychology,
Titchener,
p. 61.

192-193.

PSYCHOLOGY.

192

distinction

The

between

is

and
position-sensations
important. The former are due

of
particularform
quiescent,the latter
The

sensations

nervous

moved
into

change

to

of

tension

have

we

the

vi.

ment-sensations
move-

to the

when

organs

in this form.

far considered

another

by

contraction

sensations

when

such
been

to the

actual

due

muscles, joints,tendons,

and

thrown

electric

besides

these

changes

skin, there

to be

the

as

that

and

be

to

means

maintained
state

limbs

our

muscles

our

artificial

it has

are

allow

we

or

person,

by

But

current.

so

volition,and

own

our

the

en.

peripheral
origin. They are produced by impressionsproceeding
from
outlying portions of the body to the
system. They are equallypresent when we move

in their

by

[BK- IT.,

of state

is also

of

tional
sensa-

with the initiation of

connected
experience,directly
the nervous
with
the discharge from
centre
movement,
independentlyof any effect produced by it on the muscles
with them.
and the tissues connected
Thus, accordingto
there

Bain,

is

direct

independent of
produce.
may

This

At

wholly to deny its

the fact that

tension

well

as

can

them

we

other

hand, when

move

the

when

when

the

called

forth

put

forth

putting

by

the

sense

present

time

our

The

own

in consequence

denial

which

of
of

energy
sensory

or
of effort,

it is the

is

the

fashion

mainly founded
and
movement,
appreciateposition,
the limbs
are
as
passivelymoved

existence.

we

of energy

peculiar modification

been

innervation-seme.

on

results

any

has

consciousness

sense

is

volition ; and
of

nervous

that,on

the

diseases

the

sensibilityof the joints,tendons, etc.,is impaired or

to appreciate
destroyed,there is a correspondingincapacity
But this argument lacks
movement, and tension.
position,
it
logicalcogency ; for if there be an innervation- sense
cannot, from

the nature

of the case, inform

us

of the actual

OTHER

" 3.]
effects of the
are

have

SEXSATIOXS.

It

impulse.

motor

limb

that the movement

limb

has

all the

another
limb
knows
Hence

his eyes

with
has
time

only tell us

can

attempting to do, not what we

done.
Thus
a
patient may

anaesthetic

193

will

shut ; and

held

we

actuallydoing

are

to

move

or
an

he may

suppose
place,although the

actuallytaken
been

what

in its

originalpositionby

The

the
patientdoes not know whether
has changed its positionor not ; but he none
the less
that he has made
an
attempt to change its position.
the argument
does
not
positivelydisprove tho
person.

existence

of

an

that
maintain

innervation-

it throws

the

But

sense.

it must

probandi

onus

this

peculiarmode of sentience.
that the patientwould
in such a case
be aware
made
an
attempt ; but this only shows that
of his volitions.
But volition is by no
means
innervationthan

more

conation.
person

must

But

sense
a

it is not, in

belief is

It is true
in

some

fact,a

sensation

that
way

in order
be

able

to
to

those

on

We

mitted
adwho

have

said

that he had
he is conscious
the

sensation

; it is

be

at

same

all,any

peculiarmode

will
think

as

movement

of this

of
a

ment.
move-

for this, ideal

is enough : the
representation
ideal representation
involve
ideal reproductionof
may
it may
motor
sensations
or
mainly consist of a
proper,
visual image.
In neither case
it be regarded as a
can
peculiarsensation immediately accompanying the motor
discharge.
There is certainly
the experience
a vital difference between
of having a limb passively
moved, and that of moving it
initiative. But
it is very far from
clear that
by our own
the active movement
involves a peculiarsensation which is
absent in the passive movement,
sensation comparable
a
In
with
those
which
arise from
joints and tendons.
passingfrom a state of doubt to a state of belief there is a
Psych.

J3

PSYCHOLOGY.

194

[BK. n.,

CH.

vr.

peculiarchange in consciousness,but it is not a sensation.

Similarly,in passing from a state of indecision to one of
sciousness
voluntary determination, there is also a change in conit is in no
comparable to sensations
; but
way
such

as

those

There
the

of redness

however,

are,

assumption of

an

or

of heat

greenness,

certain

facts which

or

lend

inriervation-sense.

The

cold.

support

to

patientwho

that he
not only knows
a paralysed limb
attempts to move
is making the attempt, but is also aware
of differences
of effort which

in the amount

he

forth.

puts

This

be

may

explained,at least in part, by the fact that the motor

is to be
impulse proceeds not only to the limb which
moved, but also to other parts of the body which preserve
their sensibility,
of respiration.
and especially
to the organs
of paralysis
there are
certain cases
insists,
But, as Wundt
of the muscles

of the

If the

which

is

muscle

eye

which
the

moves

that an
so
paralysed,
longer possible,the

no

are

eye

outward
effort to

harder

to

right is

the

to

pletely
com-

of the eye

movement

produces

it

move

deal with.

an

The muscle
of the object looked
at.
apparent movement
be only partially
disabled,so that it is still capable of
may
In
twenty degrees and of no more.
this case, the patient,
although he has moved his eye only
through the angle of twenty degrees, refers the objects
to the same
seen
positionwhich they would occupy if they
a

lateral rotation

were
an

seen

outward

measures

by

of

the

normal

direction.
the

amount

eye

This

turned

seems

to

of movement

as

far

that

show

by

as

the

possiblein
the patient

amount

of his

effort,independently of any peripheralsensations

this effort may
which
impossibleto
produce. It seems
in
explainthe illusion as- due to sympathetic movements
own

the

other

eye

for when

illusion does not occur,

or

both

eyes

are

the two eyes

either

the

Double,and

the

open,
see

SENSATIONS.

OTHER

" 4.]
illusion is confined

illusion is

The

eye.

to

195

diseased

the

the

image presented to
constantlypresent when

normal

the

eye is closed.

It
be
is

that

seems

the

for innervation-sensations

case

cannot

regarded as completelydisprovedby its opponents. It

probably best at present to suspend judgment and wait

for

further

very
one

evidence.

In

conclusion, we

importantpoint. There are

advocated
by Bain, and

must

of the

forms

two

the

note

one

theory,

advocated

other

by

Wundt.

is
According to Bain, the innervation-experience
primarilyoccasioned by the motor dischargeitself : it is a
tion
unique kind of sensation correlated with the active initiaof movement.
According to Wundt, on the contrary,
its specific
qualityis ultimatelyderived from a peripheral
The

source.

of

area

impulses

are

character

rather

the

from

cortex

which

the

motor

in which
motor
discharged is also the area
sensations in general are localised.
Hence, the excitement
of this area
in the process of motor
dischargeinvolves a
less similar to those
or
reproductionof experiencesmore
which
arise from peripheralsources
in the actual execution
of the movement
the
the reproduction assumes
; but

There

be

can

theory of
in the

form

4.

no

actual

an

doubt

that,

in which
Bain

derive

if
at

we

than
are

all,we

of
to

has

accept the

accept

propounded by AVundt,
given it.
"

The

sensations

we

idea.*

an

must

it is

OrganicSensations.

considered

sensation

innervation-sensations

in that which

"

of

and

have

so

their main

it

not

far

importance from the function

they fulfil in the perception of external objects. Their
modes
specific
qualitiescorrespond not only to the specific
in which
the organism is affected,but also to the specific
of the agencieswhich
it. It is true that
nature
act upon
*

On

this

pointWundt's

own

statements

are

somewhat

vague.

PSYCHOLOGY.

196

do

sensations

[BK. n.,

arise from

CH.

vi.

external

impressions:
they originatewithin the organism itself. But they none
the less play a most
important part in the perceptionof
external
things. It is through them that we appreciate
there
is
weight, resistance,and space-relations.But
which
another
class of sensations
states of
mainly mark
the organism itself,
and not the nature
of external objects.

motor

These

called

are

extreme

cold

heat

cold at

and

no

not

organic

is the

is heat

In

from

they are

cold.
a

produced by
of such

whether

same

like

bruise,a blow,

characteristic

heat

and

longer produce sensations distinctive of

all ; they both produce a peculiarpainful

experience,which
or

Extreme

sensations.

very

the

manner,

cut,may

or

the external

various

sensations

agency

sensations
be

ing
result-

similar,though

external
that

agencies. It is
they persistoften for

long time after the external agency has ceased to operate.

The bodilychange which
it has produced continues
to act
A wound
stimulus.
after the knife
as
a persistent
persists
which
has inflicted it is withdrawn, and
along with the
wound
the sensation occasioned
also. Organic
by it persists
experiencesmay arise either through the operationof an
external agency,
or
merely through the changing states of
the internal
Hunger and thirst and the like
organs.
familiar
are
examples of sensations
originating from
within the organism itself. Motor
have
as
we
experiences,
the qualities
and relations of external
seen, generallymark
things; but the sensations of fatigueor of cramp are truly
the state
of the muscular
organic, because
they mark
and do not contribute
to our
apparatus itself,
knowledge
a

of

the

external

organic sensations
our
experience.

dependson

them.

world.

In

every

constitute
The
On

general
them,

most
tone

moment

of

our

lives

important element in
of our
bodily feeling

depends the

difference

between

SENSATIONS.

OTHER

$ 4.]

107

feelingwell and feelingill,and the like. But this or that

organic sensation does not attract attention and emerge
clearlyinto consciousness,unless it attains a specialpitch
of intensity.In general,organic experiencesfrom manifold
are
sources
merged in a massive whole constituting
what
from

is called the

coenaesthesis. When,
or
sensibility

common

of

general mass

the

detaches

organic sensation

a
sensibility,
single

common

itself and

becomes

salient

in

consciousness, it is

and
usually intrusive
engrossing.
Such
sensations
are
specially characterised
by their
diffusiveness.
They do not, like sensations of sight or
depend merely on the localised affection of a
pressure,
circumscribed
portion of the organism ; they also involve
less widespread organic disturbance.
For
more
a
or
instance,the pain-sensation produced by a cut or a blow
is a complex experience partly depending on
the
turbance
disof
the
whole
respiration,circulation, and
The
the
intense
motor
more
apparatus of the body.
sensation,the more
conspicuous and widespread is this
generalorganicdisturbance.
This brings us to another
aspect of organic sensation.
It may
arise, and usually does arise in part, from a
disturbance
of the nervous
system, which excites changes
throughout the organism, these changes in their turn
In
all the
intense
more
giving rise to sensations.
emotions, there is an accompaniment of organicsensation
This
is so
originatingin this manner.
important an
element

in

the

total state

that

it has

been

the essential part of the emotional

We
makes

have

seen*

that

the

organic sensations
are

under

normal
*

Book

held

to

stitute
con-

experience.

of central initiation
possibility
tions
reproducibleas no other sensa-

conditions.

Whatever

I.,chap, ii.,
" 9, ad fin.

reinstates

PSYCHOLOGY.

198

similar

[BK. IT., en.

vi.

disturbance,will indirectlyproduce
similar
organic sensations.
Tickling,for instance, is a
will
anticipation
very diffusive experience; and the mere
because
it
produce the correspondingorganic sensations,
produces the general disturbance of nervous
equilibrium
which they depend. The uncomfortable
on
feelingswhich
arise in paying a visit to a dentist,even
before he begins
have the same
source.
operations,
We
shall have something to say about
pain-sensations
in general in a subsequent chapter. "We
need
here
portance
only refer to two
organic experiences of specialimhunger and thirst. Thirst is usually produced
of the water
"by the diminution
present in the body
either through restriction of the intake, or through excess
a

nervous

"

of

the

output in the

secretions,such

as

that

of

sweat,

Thirst thus brought about

through both together
be temporarily assuaged by simple moistening of
may
the
soft palate. From
this we
infer
that
the
may
of thirst is brought about
sensation
by afferent sensory
membrane
of the soft
impulses started in the mucous
membrane."*
in that
palate by a deficiencyof water
Hunger is usually produced by the productsof digestion
The sensation seems
ceasingto be thrown into the blood."
connected
with the condition
"to be in some
specially
way
in the same
that thirst is
of the gastricwalls, much
way
with
the
speciallyconnected
palate; the products of
digestionhave a much greater power in appeasing hunger
membrane
when
and directly
the gastric
on
they act locally
when
than
they are simply brought to bear on the body
small quantity of food will immediately
at large, and
a
introduced
into the stomach, though
satisfy
hunger when
effect when
introduced
it will have no
otherwise."!
or

"

Foster,op. cit.,
p.

1423.

f Op. cit.,
p.

1424.

CHAPTEE

VII.
LAW.

WEBER-FECHNER

THE

" 1. The Experimental Facts. We

them like or
objectsand pronounce

can

"

disparatein kind, we

are

they

unlike.

are

brightnessof
we
a

the

sound,

we

any

instance, we

cannot

is

the

equal

to

if

hand,

we

of

objects
that

than

more

say

two

any

If the

comparing

the

the soul.

If

lightwith the loudness

; but
possess intensity

of

immortality of

the

say that both

definite
relation

can

fix

with

sun

to

only result

is the

brightnessof

the

compare

cannot

This

unlike.

unable

are

compare

we

between

them.

For

affirm that the loudness

of the

sound

brightness of
the

compare

the

light.

On

the

other
of the

quantitative variations

objectin the same

respect,we can pronounce
definite judgments. We
that one
more
can
pronounce
loud or equal in loudness
sound is less or more
to another.
Besides
this, we can compare
degrees of unlikeness with
kind

same

definite

results.

louder

much
we

We
B

than

select two

can

proceed to
We

of

find

then

may

third

compare

extremes, A

and

D,

unlike

as

sounds

of the
B

can

say

that

is louder

sound, C,

one

than

of different

and

C,

so

in loudness
199

as

to

to A

In

as

this way

loudness, and

exactlyintermediate
the intermediate

A.

is

between

then
them.

with each
sound, .Z?,
A
interposebetween
in the same
degree in

PSYCHOLOGY.

200

which,

it is unlike

in

and

"

between

degree

an

loudness
unlike

it is unlike

in which

possibleto

form

unlikeness

from

scale

a
a

[BK.
B

in loudness
in loudness

and

to

to B
to

C.

CH.

vn.

interpose

in the

same

It is thus

passing by equal gradations of

faint

very

to

n.,

sound

to

very

loud

one.

degrees of unlikeness in
pitch,in the brightnessof light,in weight as appreciated
Now
the fundamental
etc.
by pressure on the skin or by lifting,
underlies
law
is that equal
Weber's
fact which
in sensation
do not
correspond to
degrees of unlikeness
equal increase or decrease in the absolute intensityof the
tion
stimulus.
If a series of increasingintensities of stimulabe denoted
by R^ Jlz,^3, ^4, and the corresponding
between
sensations by r1? r2, r3, r4, the degree of unlikeness
between
degree of unlikeness
r2 is equal to the
rv and
Similar

scales

be

can

formed

7?

rs and

r4, when

"

7?

-1=

-"a

respects more

some

for

"

?,or

to

use

an

equivalentformula, in

-^4

convenient,when

in psychology were
Long before quantitativemethods
had occasion
the stars
to classify
thought of, astronomers
different
according to their relative brightness. The
classes are
arranged in a scale. At the top of the scale
the brightest
in average
comes
brightness
; the unlikeness
this and the second class is equal to the unlikeness
between
in average
brightnessbetween the second and third class,
The
and so on.
correspondingintensities of the physical
lightshave since been determined; and it is found that
they approximately form the geometricalseries,^, ", ",
Here
each stimulus
is the half of the preceding
i1^,etc.
stimulus.
an(i
Obviously ":":!":",

In

attention has been chiefly

experimentalinvestigations,
given to degreesof unlikeness which are barelydiscernible.

WEI3E11-FECHNER

" 1.]

stimulus

limits,the

Within

law

same

whatever

by

fraction

also.

fraction

in the sensation

is different

for

be,

of its

be

kinds

term

there

is

no

difference

passed,but
discernment

brightness of
when
increased

placetwo
white

than
white
the

is

candles

stimulus

respects

to

in

us

before

of

of the

as

surface,the

throw

in the

threshold

difference.

shadow

shadows

caused

by

of
each

For

cernible
disto

words,

originalstimulus.
two

that

threshold

unlikeness

speak

leading
mis-

saying

the

101, or, in other

of the

T^"th

the

to
perceptible
; or
is
difference-threshold

threshold

In

skin,

light,unlikeness
only becomes
ratio of the originalstimulus
is 100

so

the

increased

discernible

no

of the

stimulus

the increment

is

constant

is

in the'"sensation

that there

The

on

warrant

not

It is better therefore

sensation.

on

facts do

the

before

of sensation.

language, before the

is in some
Difference-threshold

passed.

of

unlikeness

an

technical

use

is

before

increased

amount,

own

estimatingweight merely by pressure

ratio between
and
original stimulus
must

be

must

is discernible.

different

sponding
corre-

any

becoming perceptible.*
The
original stimulus,

intensitymay

constant

unlikeness

any

here

its absolute

certain

holds

201

without

vary

may

in the sensation

unlikeness
The

LAW.

some

"

the

when
If

we

object

lightwill

be

light,and the rest of the surface

will be illuminated
move
one
we
by both lights. If now
shall reach
candle away
we
a
point at which the shadow
that is to say, we
fail at
to be visible,
caused by it ceases
the surface
this pointto appreciatethe difference between
illuminated
light alone and that illuminated
by the near
by the near
light and the far lighttogether. If now,
having noted the distance to which the candle had to be
moved, we
experiment with two bright
repeat the same
illuminated

by

the other

See book

chap,i.,"
ii.,

3.

PSYCHOLOGY.

202

UK.

ci.

v;i.

.,

lamps, moving
to be

ceases

moved

visible,Ave

just as

difference
which

lamp

one

far

between

the

until

the

shall find that

the

as

away

candle

the

; that

illumination

shadow

lamp

is to

of

the

sav,

it casts
has

to be

the least

bright lamps

in the case
of the
as
appreciateis the same
dimmer
candles.
Many similar examples might be given
showing a similar result,in fact,it is found by careful
observation
that,within tolerablywide limits,the smallest
difference of lightwhich
sations
we
can
appreciateby visual senis a constant
fraction (about T^oth) of the total
luminosityemployed."*
we

can

It should

degree

be

added

that

stimulus

must

reach

certain

of

intensitybefore it can
produce any discernible
sensation at all. Physicallightor physicalsound
be
may
too faint to be distinguishable.The
point at which it is
that the least increase
would
so
just indistinguishable,
make
it distinguishable,
is called the stimulus-threshold.
scribed
" 2. Interpretation.The explanation of the facts dehas been much
discussed.
One hypothesisis that
increase in the intensity
of the stimulus fails to produce an
increase in the intensity
of the sensation until the increment
is a certain fraction of the originalstimulus.
On this hypothesis
the sensation ought to vary by leaps and bounds
at
certain fixed points. The reason
why no unlikeness in the
reached
sensation is discernible before these points are
is
"

that

no

unlikeness

in the sensation

be

exists.

This

may

points-of
sensation
the original
relative increment
is required to make
be, the same
may
unlikeness
discernible.
In
gradually increasing the
intensityof the stimulus,it is not found that there are
certain
points at which
change in sensation becomes
definitely
rejected. There are no
transition. Whatever
the intensity
of

.Foster,
op. cit.,
p.

such

1211.

fixed

view

WEBEK-FECHNER

" 2.]

LAW.

203

in such, a way that any pair of stimuli givesrise

perceptible
to distinguishable
sensations,if they lie at oppositesides
of the point of transition, however
closelythey may
of fact,a sensation
A. may
be
approach it. As a matter
from ", and B from
C, and yet A may
indistinguishable
C.
be distinguishable
from
If discernible
unlikeness in
with
actual
sensation
co-extensive
were
unlikeness,this
would
be impossible. Another
objectionis that the power
small
of discriminatingvery
is
degrees of unlikeness
greatly improved by practice,and varies greatly with
It seems
the concentration
of attention.
improbable that
these

conditions

should

have

effect

great an

so

the actual

on

sensation

of
intensity

produced by the stimulus.

Another
explanation is that adopted by Fechner.
He
rightly holds that the sensation varies with the
is not perceptible. It
stimulus
the variation
when
even
becomes
the degree of variation
has
perceptiblewhen
But
passed a certain limit. So far,we may follow him.
he also holds that the increase
in intensityof sensation
unlikeness
is not
required to constitute a discernible
relative
form

but

with

of

the

sensation

estimatingweight by
an

that

the

variations

geometrical series, while

variations
In

absolute, so

ounce,

unlikeness

we

is discernible

add

of

; if

arithmetical

third of
we

an

begin

if

begin

before

ounce

with

we

series.

pound,

any
we

is
pound before any unlikeness
discernible.
In
both
the
according to Fechner
cases,
is not
increase in the intensity
of the pressure-sensations
but absolutelythe same.
There
the same
are
relatively
If we
the
compare
very serious objectionsto this view.
with
no
weight of an ounce
weight at all,according to
the
two
between
Fechner, the degree of unlikeness
must

third

an

stimulus

corresponding

of pressure,

means

add

must

form

the

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

204

[BK. TT.,

CTT.

vil.

to the differstrictly
proportional
between
the intensity
of sensation
once
produced by one
and
the complete absence
of pressure
sensation.
ounce,
In other words, it ought to be proportional
to the absolute
But
as
a
ounce.
intensityof pressure produced by one

to be

experiencesought

of

matter

sensation

fact,the

unlikeness

and

finite value

any

between

the

value

zero

is infinite.

Hence,

of

for this

breaks down.
There
limitingcase, Fechner's interpretation
in testingit in other cases, because
of the
is a difficulty
magnipeculiarnature of intensive magnitude. Intensive tude
is indivisible.
from

louder

loudness
in

such

the

so

to be

as

able to

point to

of unlikeness
their

proportionalto
which

the other.

But

law

Hence

left if

be

there

is

simply
to

the

be subtracted

could

of the

cases

that

application

does not present

difficulty
law holds
itself. Weber's
good of extensive as well as
If
intensive magnitude, and it also holds good of number.
line two
inches long with a line three inches
a
we
compare
line six inches long with a line
a
long, and then compare
the degree of
inches
seven
long, according to Fechner
of Weber's

in which

contention

"

other

are

of

cannot

we

difference,
one

sound

degree

sensations

two

mathematical

would

certain

Fechner's

between

fainter

remainder.

immediately test

cases

remainder

subtract

cannot

the mathematical

as

degree

from

We

unlikeness

between

line

to be

ought
the

mathematical

physicalpoint of
presented to the

view.

in which
be

an

inch

eye

the

the

For
under

if

is the

retina
mode

well

suppose

similar

with the

same

"

as

the

In both
one

from

in which

one

inch.
the

lines to be

conditions,the
in the

inch

unlikeness

of

inch line.

seven

we

the three

degree

psychologicalas

affects the

identical
virtually

line and

difference

the

is true

with

line and

from

This

inch

two

identical

the six inch

between
cases

the

this

case

mode
may

it affects the

WEBER-FECHNER

" 2.]

other

I AAV.

The

inches

205

only equal
measured
as
by a rule ; they also appear equal as they are
We
therefore
are
dealing
presented to consciousness.
and not merely with physical,
with psychical,
magnitudes.
that
2
in
But
1, and
spite of the fact that 3
6 also
7
1, there is a greater degree of unlikeness
inches taken
the line of two
between
a
as
whole, and
in the

retina

case.

not

are

"

"

of

that

between

line

the

taken

inches

three

of

six

as

and

than

whole,

that

of

there

inches.

seven

is
The

perceptibledegrees of unlikeness.
If we
have to increase the length of a line of six inches by
be just
in order that the unlikeness
certain amount
a
may
the length of a line of two
increase
must
we
discernible,
but in the same
amount,
inches, not by the same
portion,
probe justdiscernible.
in order that the unlikeness
may
holds

same

Number

lay a

for

least

well

as

of three

group

two, and if we

of

the

then

group

is between

there

lay a
that

of

there

in both

cases

one

counter

; and

of
is

eight and

If

of three

and

the

group

than

seven

of two.

the group

be

to

we

group
resemblance

of

group

difference

appear

eight beside
greater

the

the mathematical
it may

illustration.

the table beside

on

group

the group

Yet

affords

counters

it is clear

of seven,
between

extension

as

is the

same

same

as

"

sented
pre-

The

principle holds also for

magnitudes which are not directly
perceived,but thought
of.
Everybody recognisesthat a billion and one is more
to

like

consciousness.

billion

than

eleven

dealings of life,if
amounting to hundreds
not

by

matter
no

means

is under

We

may

about

odd

we

is like ten.
have
of

then

conclude

the

that

but
sum

ordinary

receive

feel that

we

penny
to be

degree of

in the

or

pay

pounds,

pence

negligibleif
shilling.

to

So

more

paid

it does
or

or

unlikeness

sums

less is

received

between

PSYCHOLOGY.

200

the visible

quantitiesis

difference

neither

[UK.
identical

n.,

cir.

vn.

matical
with their mathe-

proportionedto it.
In the case
of intensive magnitudes, such as the loudness
of a sound, or the brightnessof a light,
there is,properly
cannot
we
speaking,no mathematical
difference,because
divide such magnitudes into parts, so as to find a numerical
equivalentfor each, and subtract the one from the other.
in intensive
None
the less, there
be
magnitude
may
difference.
something analogous to the mathematical
The
tude
velocityof a moving body is an intensive magniit is a magnitude which
be represented
can
; but
which
is a function
of the space traversed
by a number
and

the

time

thus

be

treated

capable of
reason
why
conceived

nor

which
as

addition
the

in

the

it takes
if it

were

and

way.

an

extensive

sensation

At

it.

traverse

subtraction.

intensityof
same

to

any

It

may

magnitude
is

There
should

not

rate, the

no

be

mere

dealing with intensive magnitude does

in itself constitute
not
an
insuperableobjectionto the
Hence
abstract possibility
of such a mode
of treatment.
there is in principleno
attempt to
objectionto Fechner's
tensity
incorrelate increased
of sensation with increased
intensity
of stimulus.
But he was
over-hasty in supposing
that equal degrees of unlikeness
involved
equal absolute
differences of quantityin the sensation.
On the contrary,
that
the analogy of extensive
to show
magnitude seems
with
is correlated
relative, not
degree of unlikeness
Fechner's
absolute, differences in intensityof sensation.
not
We
do
yet know
problem is yet to be solved.
the
in the
law which
increase
connects
strength of
fact

that

the

stimulus

AVe

we

cannot

degrees of

are

corresponding increments of sensation.

shall represent
which
yet assign a number
obtained
loudness
or
brightness,as the number
with

by dividingthe
Further

discern

to

the

into

of units

sum

represents velocity.

of space

" 3.

of lime

of units

sum

207

LAW.

FECI-IXETI

WEBER-

$ ?,.]

questions.It

Now

small.

is very

the unlikeness

more

less effort

or

is greatestwhen
difficulty

.The

unlikeness.

an

cost

may

"

it has

maintained

been

ourselves
we
reallyestimate when
suppose
to be estimatingdegrees of unlikeness, is the degree of
at all;
find in perceivingunlikeness
which
we
difficulty
A
the less the unlikeness.
the greater the difficulty,
The
this is untrue.
shows
that
simple consideration
tinguish
lower
are
speciallydifficult to disgrades of unlikeness
the unlikeness
is increased in degree,it
; and, as
But this holds only up to a
discernible.
becomes
more
easily
is sufficiently
the unlikeness
certain point. When
great
without
and
after
it is discernible
appreciabledifficulty,
does not make
it appreciablyeasier
increase
this further
therefore
conclude
must
that
to
our
perceive. We
judgment of unlikeness depends primarily on the actual
of detecting
or
unlikeness,and not on the ease
difficulty
it. At the same
of detecting
or
time, the ease
difficulty
less affect our
unlikeness
or
more
an
judgment of its
may
that what

we

amount.

It may

be

of

source

and

error,

deviations

explain apparent

extent

some

thus

from

to

may

Weber's

law.
Here

assumed

degrees

question

of

without

discussion

of unlikeness

are
qualities

equal.

It is indeed
which

not

they

follow

that

between
Now

this is

self-evident

are

that

is to say,

that

they

are

with

themselves

no

It is often

least

perceptible

kinds

same

by

discernible

all discernible

all

the

just discernible,are

are

that
if

importance arises.

some

of sensible

self-evident.

means

degrees

of

unlikeness

therefore
with

cernible
equally disEven
equal ease.

equal

equal.

ease,

The

it does

not

appeal

in

PSYCHOLOGY.

203

the

last

be

en.

vn.

comparison. A
valid reason
for assuming them
to be equal is that they
is that they occur
under the
equal. Another reason
appear
conditions
holds
in general for
of Weber's
law, which
equal degrees of unlikeness.
A
stimulus
reach
must
certain degree of intensity
a
before
it can
produce any discernible sensation at all.
The
it produces any
sensation
question arises whether
before it produces a discernible
sensation.
Proceeding on
the general analogy of the results we
have
in
reached
law we
that in all probamust
assume
discussingWeber's
bility
it does.
W'e have here a special
of the general
case
relation

instance

[r,x.::.,

of

must

stimulus

sensation

varies

variation

becoming

actual

sensation.

to

the

as

to

stimulus

Within

is

limits, the

increased,without

perceptible.It

is most

natural

the
to

is not
of a stimulus, which
bring the case
yet intense
enough to produce a discernible sensation at all,under the
same
principle. It is stillmore
improbable that sensations
attention is otherwise
which
our
escape notice merely because
occupied have no existence as psychicalfacts. Thus,
from
reinforce
the
can
our
present point of view, we

argument

" 4.

of Bk.

II.,ch. i.,"

Limitations

Weber's

law

all sensations

being the
discovered

as

of

2.

TPeber's

Law.

"

We

have

if it held

good exactlyand

but

matter

as

of

spoken of
uniformly for

fact this

is far from

Many deviations and limitations have been

by experiment. Verification commonly fails for

case.

In view
high or very low intensities of sensation.
the complexityof the operativeconditions this is not in
least surprising. Our
of discriminatingmay
power
influenced by many
factors besides the actual nature
of
very

sensations

between

which

we

intensityof

have

to

stimulus

compare.
and

absolute

The

of
the
be
the

relation

of
intensity

sensation
other

LAW.

WEBER-FECHNEft

" 4.]

We

may

unlikeness

that

it states

as

depends

probably does, depend upon many

than the mere
intensityof the stimulus
asmuch
the law to be perfectly
exact, insuppose

and

may,

conditions

itself.

209

their relative

upon

between

without
difference,

sensations

supposing

onlyby difference
of the
The
specialstructure
probably an important factor.

that this relative difference is determined

of

stimulation.

external

different
To

sense-organs

speak

of

is

nothing else,the

of their

own

due

eye

to internal

and

the

ear

have

which,
stimulation,

sations
sen-

it is

difficult to allow for.*

The

Ueber

treatment

die

of

Bedeutung des

Psych.

Weber's

law

Weberschen

in

this

Chapter
etc.
Gesetzes,

follows

Meinong,

VIIL

CHAPTER
THE

"

Sensibility.The

1. Common

pleasure

"

organic sensations
importance in our
all-pervading
with,

these

sensations

fused

are

SENSATION.

OF

FEELING-TO:NTE

in

of

are

pain

fundamental

mental
total

and

life.
of

mass

nected
con-

and

Normally,
experience,

ponents
partiallyanalysed into its comwhich
line
by attentive scrutiny. The membranes
internal organs
are
generally supplied by sensory
our
which, from all parts of the body, are perpetually
nerves,
conductinga multitude of impressionsto the central nervous
system. On the resultant effect of these impulsesit depends

which

whether

be

only

can

at

any

very

moment

feel well

we

or

ill,cross

or

placent.
com-

organic sensations in the

morning we can often predictwhether the day'sexperiences
are
going to be agreeable or disagreeable. The feelingdetermines
in large measure
of common
tone
sensibility
of more
the feeling-tone
specialexperiencesin the way of
and ideas. An incident which might
sensations,
perceptions,
be pleasantor but slightly
feeling
disagreeableif we were
fresh and "fit,"is apt to be intenselydisagreeableif our
This is too well-known
organicfunctions are out of order.
By

fact

which

to
are

the

need

nature

extended

agreeableto

unpleasantto

of

our

illustration.
the

the invalid.

Smells

and

tastes

may

be

highly

meal,

food

healthy person
After
210

full

which

delicious
previously

was

OF

FEELING-TONE

$ 1.]

SENSATION.

almost

become

may

211

even

nauseous;

unpleasant. The very thought of

smoking a pipe in certain states of body may be repellent
of tobacco.
of persons who usuallyenjoy the use
in the case
companies
The
profound alteration of organic conditions which acproduces curious ''longings" and
pregnancy

the

idea

be

of it may

for

repugnances

articles

organicsensations

system.*

nervous

of

influence
The

food.

It

the whole

neural

thus
state

processes

that

appears

central

of the
connected

with

restricted and localised.

definitely
specialsensations are more
The
are
sensibility
experiencesdue to common
diffusive in their character.
They give to the nervous
and on the psychical
system a certain generalpredisposition,
side produce a certain general mood
or
temper.
By reflective scrutinyit is possible,as we have said,to
detect special
components of the total complex of organic
sensation,such as those due to the heart-beat,and respiration,
the shiveringsof cold or
and
glows of warmth
arisingfrom contraction or dilatation of the blood-vessels at
occasions when
the surface of the body. But there are
no
effort of attention is required to detect an
organic
special
The experiences
sensation.
immediatelydue to a toothache,
to a burn, a bruise, or
to a colic,to muscular
a
cramp,
other interests
blow, usually compel attention,whatever
When
one
compete with them.
organic sensation
may
of common
itself from the mass
detaches
it is apt
sensibility,
Such intense experiences
to be overwhelmingly obtrusive.
"Besides
central

receiving sensory
system

nervous

and

is also

in

impressions

from

the

directly affected
the

character

internal

organs,

by general organic

the
ditions,
con-

amount
particular by
to determine
supply which flows to it. This factor must also contribute
of experience as
the general nature
pleasant or unpleasant. Its relative
with
the
indirect effect of sensory
more
importance as compared
sions
impres-

upon

the inteinal

organs

and

is difficult to estimate.

of

the

blood-

PSYCHOLOGY.

212

[BK. n..

en.

vm.

painful than pleasant; but they

also occur
in agreeable phases. In general,the satisfaction
of organic cravings,such
as
hunger and thirst,
be
peculiarlydisagreeable
intenselyagreeable. The
may
which
of most
character
are
organic sensations
from
the general
intense
enough to detach themselves
is marked
by the usage of popular language which
mass,
much

are

appliesto

more

often

them

in

restricted

A bitter taste

and

distinctive

discord

the

sense

be

disagreeable,
but it is not usuallycalled a pain. On the other hand, we
currentlyspeak of the pains of hunger, of scaldingor
is that the main
The
reason
burning, or of toothache.
experiences lies in their intrinsic
importance of such
feeling-tone. They have comparativelylittle value for
They contribute
comparatively
cognitive consciousness.
of the qualitiesof external
little to the discrimination
less vague
information
bodies ; and theyyieldonly more
or
word

pains.

about

the

received

condition

in
of

must

the
mere

exist

in

some

character
the

and

the

be

word, pains,

those

have

its

own.

accompanying
different

It

is

sensation
kinds

other

unpleasantness.
abstract
purity: it
sensation
having a
of

help us

not

that

at

The
is

"When

have

we

it to find out

mode

proper

itself does

noted

look

to

popular language called,by

their

of

have

may

bodies.

own

our

we

wound,

precisecharacter
The pain-sensation
It

of

or

of

its

treating it.

much.

sensations

which

distinctive

application

characteristics

are

besides

feeling-tonedoes not
always the feeling-tone

more

or

through
that

we

less

determinate

the

character

are

able

to

of

tinguish
dis-

organic pain or pleasure.

discriminate
from
each other stinging,piercing,
Thus
we
gnawing, crushing, beating, shooting, burning, and
it is possible
other kinds of pain. Hence
innumerable
to
of

" 1.]

FEELING-TONE

OF

SENSATION.

213

the
pain-sensationsin other
respects than
intensityof their painfulness. The points of agreement
and
difference
in the
to a large extent
to be found
are
temporal and local distribution of the constituents of a
distribution
is marked
by
complex experience.Local
such terms
and
as
pricking,
shooting.Temporal sequence
by such terms as throlling,
rhythmic alternation are marked
the
These
like.
differentiating
beating,and
qualities
which
in
we
use
describing the varieties of painsensation
have
of any
usually little cognitive value
is conother
kind.
So far as
cerned,
cognitive consciousness
their main
function
is fulfilled in enabling us to
detect and express the difference between
kind of pain
one
and another.
natural that in naming them
It is therefore
should apply to all indifferently
the common
word pain.
we
But it is better to speak of pain-sensations
than of pain, in
order to indicate that something besides mere
ness
unpleasantis involved.
Markedly analogousexperiencesmay also
without any intenselydisagreeablefeeling-tone.A
occur
slightburn may retain much of the peculiarprickly,
pungent,
qualityof the originalsensation when the painfulnesshas
almost or quitedisappeared. So it is possibleoccasionally
to detect the peculiarthrob
characteristic of a toothache,
and the tenderness
when
of the gum,
the acutelydisagreeable
phase of the experiencehas passed away or has not
times
Hunger is usually unpleasant, but someyet arrived.
the beginning of it does not appear
to be so.
So far we
have referred only to those distinctive features
which
in describing
the difference between
serve
us
one
But there are
pain-sensation and another.
undoubtedly
other
differences
which
seem
incapable of analysisand
of
description.This follows from the diffusive nature
which
we
organic sensations. The particularsensation

compare

PYSCHOLOGY.

2U

regard
wound

as

in

condition
The

have
painful may
a
particularpart of
of

the

membrane

the

tends
and

to

the

origin in
the skin, or

of

the

burn

in

stomach

or

vin.

or

diseased

bowels.

experience will therefore be in

the character of this primary sensation.
disturbance
set up
by the localised impression

involve

to

its

en.

of the

nature
specific
part determined
by

But

[BK. JL,

overflow

more

the

less the

or

whole

whole

organism.

system,

nervous

The

diffused

effect

be marked

by some
peculiarity
in the experience. Certainly,
the impressionswhich
arise
from
the changed conditions
of the organism as a whole
must
modify the total experiencein an important degree.
But
these elements
not
are
easilyexpressed in definite
language.
They can, as people say, be felt but not
on

system, may

nervous

described.

Organic pains and pleasures in extreme

degrees of
reduce to a minimum
intensity
cognitiveprocess in general.
In having a tooth drawn, our
consciousness
to conseems
sist
in a single thrill of mere
Attention
sensation.
to
definite objectsceases
be said to attend even
cannot
: we
do
We
to the sensation
itself,
except in the vaguest way.
take note
of its peculiarqualities,
not
we
simply feel it.
The
distinction between
for the
subjectand objectseems
almost
lost. It remains
moment
true that the experience
has
a
peculiar quality which
might be analysed and
taken
described
which
had
by a demon
possessionof us
But no
and was
watching our mental processes.
approach
is possibleto us until the
to such
analysisand description
we
can
calmly regard it in
experience is over, and
retrospect.
Pain-sensations
tissue
surface

or

excessive
of the

arise

may

body.

stimulation
The

through
in almost

disintegrationof
any

questionarises,how

part of the
far

are

they

FEELING-TONE

I 1.]
due

tlie existence

to

SENSATION.

OF

of

of

nerves

215

sensibility

common

terminatingin the skin and other sensitive surfaces,and

how
far they may
be produced by stimulation
of the
It appears
nerves
subservingthe specialsenses.
probable
that stimulation of the nerves
of sightand hearing does not
called. But the
result of itself in pain-sensations,
so
strictly
doubtful.
Groldof cutaneous
case
impressions is more
scheider

has

found

that

point peculiarlysensitive
rise to
those

new

of

several

sensation

pressure

taps.

This

which

series

continued

to

from
different in kind
distinctly
had
previouslyaccompanied the

sensation,due

new

on

suddenly give

may

pressure

of taps

cumulative

to the

is organicin its nature, and

repeated impressions,
bears the general character of a pain-sensation
although it
be
be acutelypainful. Now
the question may
not
may
the
raised whether
the same
nerve-endingswhich were
effect of

medium

of the sensation

of this other
thrust

sensation.
into

the

of pressure

Again,
skin;

is felt,which
may
pressure
It is only after the lapse of

at

be

let

were

more

suppose

us

first

also the medium

only
or

less

point
needle-

sensation

of

disagreeable.

appreciableinterval of time
that the pain-sensationof pricking occurs.
The
timeinterval points to the possibility
that the pain-sensation
subserved
and the pressure-sensation,
are
respectively,
by
different nerves.
This view
to be reinforced
by
appears
certain
There
are
cases
pathological phenomena.
when
intact
This
other
some

sensitiveness

to

an

temperature

and

pressure

remains

while

no
pain-sensations are
longer producible.
sometimes
or
happens to patientsunder chloroform
anaesthetics.
It also occurs
in lead-poisoning
and in
cases

of

nervous

disease.

The

inverse

also may

take

to pain-sensation
be retained,
place. Susceptibility
may
though pressure- and temperature-sensationsare no longer

PSYCHOLOGY.

216

producible. These facts

and
common
sensibility

[BK.IT., CH.
sliow

to

seem

the

of

nerve"

special sensations are

distinct and separate. But there is one
weak
pointin the
The
pathological phenomena
only occur
argument.
which
under
conditions
states of the
produce abnormal
We
nervous
explain the facts, not by
system.
may
nating
supposing separate and distinct sets of nerve-fibres termiin the skin,but by supposing that the effect of the
is altered by the
nerve
same
impression on the same
altered

state

conveyed.

of the

It has

those

that

vrn.

central

been

of

found

it is

to which

matter

nervous

that removal

or

disablement

spinalcord produces insensibility

and
to painsensations, while
sensibilityto pressureso
long as the
temperature- sensations is left unaffected
strands
of the cord
remain
intact.
white
Conversely,
cutting through the white strands of the cord destroys
sensitiveness to pressure- and temperature-,but not to painmitted
Now
before a nervous
sensations.
impulse can be transthrough grey matter, it must firstexcite the grey cells
For this the
so that theydischargein an
explosivemanner.
reach a certain pitch
to them
must
impulse communicated
after their discharge the
of intensity,and
impulse is
in an
intensified form.
transmitted
as
They thus serve
of the grey

of the

matter

accumulators

of

explain the

sudden

nervous

In

energy.

emergence

series of successive

of

new

this way
sensation

we

may
as

the

pressure-point.
Each
feeble nervous
impulse,
tap gives rise to a relatively
which by itself is insufficient to produce a dischargeof the
cells of the cord.
But
the series of taps by its
grey
effect ultimately succeeds
cumulative
in producing an
sensation
explosionof the grey matter, and with it a new
of the
the grey matter
of an
organic character. WTien
spinalcord is removed, the nervous
impulses from the
result

of

taps

on

OF

FEELING-TONE

" 2.]

skin,

origin,may fail to produce painintensity

they cannot attain the requisite

because

in the absence

217

their

"whatever

sensations

SENSATION.

of

an

apparatus

for accumulation

of

nervous

why they should not still

and temperature-sensations.
to produce pressurecontinue
Similarly,in the inverse case, all nervous
impulses from
sensation
the skin, in order to produce any
at all,must
of the cord, and in so doing
discharge the grey matter
reach a pitch of intensity
that can
only give rise to painIt seems,
sensations.
therefore,very possible that the
But

energy.

nerves

kinds

is

subserve

which

also subserve
two

there

of

no

reason

temperature- and

pressure-,

pain-sensations,the difference
experience depending upon

between
more

may
the

central

conditions.
turn
to consider
" 2. The Special Sensations. We now
the specialsensations
of sight,sound, smell,taste,touch,
and
temperature. The feeling-toneof these sensations
their
varies,first,with
intensity,secondly, with their
with their quality.
duration,and thirdly,
(1) Many of them in a low grade of intensityappear to
be virtuallyneutral.
All of them, acquire appreciable
their intensity
is increased.
Some
of them
as
feeling-tone
All of them
when
are
they are weak.
unpleasant even
intensified
become
unpleasant when
beyond a certain
point. Before reaching this pointthey nearly all have an
agreeablephase ; after reaching this point they continue
and more
to be more
increases.
disagreeableas intensity
It is a matter
of dispute whether
there is any sensation
is constantlydisagreeablein whatever
which
phase of
It is always possibleto
it appears.
that
intensity
urge
it might be
though a sensation is generallydisagreeable,
agreeableif it could be made weak enough. As an example
of a pleasant
phase of an experiencewhich everybodywould
"

PSYCHOLOGY.

218

[BK. n.,

CH.

viir.

regard as absolutelydisagreeablefrom its very quality,wo

"I
quote the following from Mr. H. E-. Marshall:
may
from
serious
well
remember
once
having been aroused
thought in a railwaycarriageby a delicious odour, and
What
the words
a
actually
delightfulperfume ! were
in thought. Almost
formed
immediatelythe smell changed
there
to
disagreeablenesswith growing intensity,and
appeared evident the intenselydisagreeablesmell emitted
We
by a polecat which had been killed by the train."*
the general rule for the relation of intensity
formulate
may
A
reach
sensation
must
and
a
feeling-toneas follows.
'

'

certain

minimum

of

intensityin

order

to

have

an

ciable
appre-

of sensation
Further
rise in intensity
tone.
feelingof feeling-tone.If
is accompanied by a rise in intensity
is initially
the
sensation
unpleasant, its unpleasantness
continues

to increase

as

the

sensation

is intensified.

If it

pleasantness increases to a
it remains
at which
certain maximum,
roughly constant
is increased
until the intensityof the sensation
beyond
When
this limit is passed, the pleasantcertain limit.
a
ness
decreases, and finally
f
passes into unpleasantness.
of the transition from
The
nature
pleasantness
pleasantnessto unAn unpleasant
requiresfurther elucidation.
while
to enter
into the experience even
element
appears
to be in itself agreeable.
the originalsensation continues
traceable
to other
This is sometimes
definitely
distinctly
assignablesensations,which are superadded to the primary
warmth
one.
Thus, at a certain pitch of intensity,
may
still agreeable in itself,although it is
be
to
continue
disagreeablesensation of a
accompanied by a distinctly
probably due to stimulation
pricklyor pungent character,

is

initiallypleasant, the

Pain, Pleasure,and Aesthetics,

p. 288.
See A. Lehmann, Die Hauptgesetzedes

menschlichen

Gefuhlslebens,
p. 181.

FEELING-TONE

" 2.]

OF

SEXSATION.

219

So a
in the part of the skin affected.
pressure-points
bright light may continue to give pleasure when it is so
of

intense

that

unpleasant.

the

effort to

accommodate

But

there

other

are

cases

the

eye

in which

to

it is

it is much

of the
assign definitelythe source
collateral
intense
sweetness
unpleasantness. However
in its own
intrinsic
to become
be, it scarcelyseems
may
excite
nature
disagreeable. At the same
time, it may
with accomto be connected
seems
panying
strong disgust,which
organic sensations not easy to analyseor describe.
(2) The dependence of feeling-toneon duration varies
tained
in nature
accordingas the sensation is continuouslymainor
repeatedintermittently.
There
to be no
appreciable interval of time
appears
between
the emergence
of a sensation
of given intensity
and the correspondingfeeling-tone.Apparent exceptions
be explained away.
If we
touch
can
a
disagreeablyhot
object,the heat is felt before the unpleasantness;but this
the stimulus
is because
requiresa certain time before it
take full effect. On its first application
the sensation
can
is not intense enough to be disagreeable.
The followingis the general formula
for variations
of
with the continuous
tion
feeling-tone
persistenceof the sensaincreases in intensity
in time.
The
to a
feeling-tone
is pleasant,it continues
maximum.
If the sensation
for
and then graduallybecomes
time at this maximum,
some
less agreeable,and in the end distinctly
disagreeable. If
the sensation is initially
unpleasant,the maximum
persists
for a much
longer period than in the case of agreeable
After
sensations.
become
this, the unpleasantness may
into pleasantness,
and
it is
fainter,but it never
passes
intense
at intervals in more
always liable to reappear

more

difficult

phases.

to

PSYCHOLOGY.

220

The

same

remarks

which

we

[BK. n.,
made

about

the

en.

vni.

transition

from

pleasantnessto unpleasantnesswith rise in intensity,

transition as dependent on continuous
apply to the same
Here
also collateral elements
of a
persistencein time.
disagreeablekind are introduced into the experiencebefore
the primary sensation
in itself unpleasant. The
becomes
illustrations of the bright colour and of the sweet
taste
be
of
transferred,mutatis mutandis, to the case
may
duration.
A boy eating sugar-plums,if he continues
to
indulge himself beyond a certain point,has disagreeable
sensations distinctly
and
traceable
the stomach
other
to
internal

organs,

while

the

sweetness

itself

remains

sufficiently
agreeableto tempt him to go on eating. But
such
even
definitelyassignable collateral
apart from
be
surfeit of sweetness,
a
accompaniments, there may
in itself an
remains
agreeable taste.
though sweetness
Doubtless
this is due
to
some
general organic effect
hard
the
to define
analysis. Sometimes
by introspective
disagreeablenessis simply due to tedium ; if we gaze at
of the
a
bright colour too long we feel bored because
tinues
suspension of other activities,
although the colour conto be pleasing.
mittently
The
in which
the
is repeated intersensation
case
is in many
analogous to that in which it
ways
persistscontinuously. If the repetitionis too frequent,
less pleasant,and
a
pleasant sensation tends to become
often
becomes
by
unpleasant. Unpleasant sensations
often,but by no means
frequentrepetition
always,become
less unpleasant. They may
neutral
become
even
virtually
even
or
actuallypleasant. Perhaps the best instance of
sensation becoming agreeable by repetition
a disagreeable
for olives.
is the
acquiredtaste
When
a pleasant sensation
by repetitiondoes not lose
"

"

FEELTNG-TOXE

$ 2.]

OF

SENSATION.

221

an
disgusting,and when
pleasantness and become
less
more
or
initially
unpleasant sensation has become
its absence
from
consciousness
will
pleasantby repetition,
at certain moments
give rise to a craving for it. Tlie
for tobacco, of the olive-eater for
craving of the smoker
in
olives,or of the drinker for his bitter beer, are cases
marked
the effect is most
when originally
point. Certainly,
pleasantby repetition.
unpleasantsensations have become
The
nervous
system has adapted itself to certain modes
of excitation
returning at certain intervals, and their

its

absence

equilibrium.If
of using tobacco
is in the habit
a
only at fixed
person
times in the day, the craving is apt to arise exclusively
these
times.
The
omission
of
at
a
customary early
ing,
morning pipe may trouble the smoker in the early mornbut the craving may
and not recur
during
pass away
the day.
have
that there are
seen
sations
sen(3) We
probably some
which
are
disagreeablein all phases of intensity.
Others become
disagreeableat a very low intensity.In
the case
of others,such as sweetness, it is not quite certain
that they ever
become
when
even
intrinsically
disagreeable,
It follows that qualityof sensation
they are most intense.
is a most
important factor in determining feeling-tone.
do little to explain why one
We
can
qualityis predominantly
agreeableand another predominantly disagreeable.
The
nearest
approach to an explanationis found in the
of complex sound-sensations.
The disagreeablecase
special
ness

produces

of dissonance

the
interrupt
the

organ

of

disturbance

is due

uniform

to

course

hearing.

The

of neural

the

presence

of the

of beats

which

periodicstimulation

central

nervous

matter

of
has

adapted itself to a certain rhythm of excitation,and

this rhythm is disturbed
We
have 110
by the beats.

PSYCHOLOGY.

222

[BK. IT., en.

vni.

of
assign why certain combinations
odours
and tastes
are
agreeable,and others disagreeable.
It is clear that the agreeable
" 3. Surplus Excitation.
with
the
or
disagreeablefeeling arising in connexion
of a sensation
be wholly due to the
not
occurrence
may
is
quality or intensityof the sensation itself. "If one
to a series of sounds, or
looking intentlyat some
listening
object,the feelingof distraction caused by being spoken
to in a whisper,or
lightlytouched," is comparable with
sharp physicalpain.* The whisper or the light touch
be in no
disagreeablein themselves ; they may
way
may
be virtuallyneutral ; but they set up a general nervous
and bodily disturbance,correlated with a general mental
A
of an
disturbance
intenselyunpleasant character.
similar shock is experiencedwhen, in the process of going
startled by some
sudden
to sleep,we
are
sound, which

similar

to

reasons

"

'

need

not

diffused

be

especiallyloud.

excitement

of the

There

nervous

is in

such

cases

system, produced by

sensation,and

superadded to that specialexcitement

is immediately correlated
with the existence of the
which
call this
sensation.
Following Professor Ladd, we may
Its occurrence
diffused
effect the ''surplus" excitation.
confined to such exceptionalexperiencesas
is by no means
the contrary, all sensations
that of being startled; on
have a distinctly
which
appreciablefeeling-tone,
appear to
the

have

more

less diffusive

or

between

character.

In

this

respect,

organic sensation produced by

and the specialsensation produced by a bright
a wound,
this statement
extent
light,is only one of degree.f To some
be directly
verified by introspection
: wherever
may

the difference

Ladd's

the

Psychology,
Descriptive
p.

199.

between
line of demarcation
painsharply
When
sensation and the disagreeablenessof specialsensation.
unpleasant
arises.
become
prominent, pain-sensation
organic accompaniments
t

Hence

there

is

no

marked

FEELIXG-TONE

" 3.]

OF

SENSATION.

223

is sufficiently
intense,we can detect a diffused
feeling-tone
change in
bodily and mental excitement, and concomitant
An intensely
bitter taste may
our
organic sensations.
give
of a railway
rise to a cold shiver ; the piercing scream
whistle disturbs
thought and perception,and is felt over
the whole
organism. A delicious taste may not only tickle
set the whole
the palate,but
man
a-gog"; the strong
produced by stroking,
pleasure or displeasuresometimes
or
rubbing, is not immediately due to the quality
tickling,
of the tactile sensations themselves,but to the
and intensity
previously
surplusexcitement they produce. "We mentioned
that sensations in themselves
agreeablemay in their general
found
that the collateral
effect be unpleasing, and
we
for by the
unpleasantnesscan only in part be accounted
of definitelyassignable and
describable
concomitance
surplus excitation,with
experiences. But
consequent
of common
modification
sensibility,
adequately explains
"

these
the

subtle
same

and

way

we

evasive
are

affections

able

to

of consciousness.

account

for the

In

qualitative

of different sensations which

feeling-tone
agree in being pleasantor unpleasant. The pleasureof a
differs in kind from that of a bright colour or
taste
sweet
the difference
note ; and
be wholly
of a musical
cannot
of the sensations of
identified with the qualitative
diversity
Lesides the variety
sight,taste, and hearing themselves.

diversityof

the

primary sensations, there is also a distinction between

the kinds
of pleasure which
they afford. The several
which
fulfil no
other
experiencescontain elements
nitive
cogfunction than that of enabling reflective analysisto
modalities
of
diverse
discriminate
feeling-tone. The
modalities
has been
existence
of these diverse
strongly
The ivaij we feelis not by
emphasized by Professor Ladd.
the same
for all equally pleasurable
precisely
any means
of

"

PSYCHOLOGY.

224

or

and

equally painful,tastes
odours

[BK.

described

IT.,

Some

smells.

CTI.

TUT.

agreeable
as
having

'

heavy, and others

an
or
'enlivening'
'spicy'quality."*Compare, for instance,
the heliotropeand the Japanese lily. The
strong organic
effect which
be produced by a powerful odour
is
may
shown
by its sometimes
causinghighly susceptible
persons
"Pleasant
coolness
is 'refreshing': pleasant
to faint.
is 'cherishing.' Musicians
have always attached
warmth
different distinct kinds
of feeling to different
musical
chords
The
to different keys and
instruments," and
feelingbelonging to the bass registeris different
grave
otherwise
than
in mere
quantity of pleasure-pain from
the
stirring of the tenor, "f These various experiences
tend
induce
with
tinctive
disto
certain moods
having affinity
The
emotions.
is true in a less degree of
same
colours.
Bright lightand mellow lightproduce differences
in the character of the equally pleasurablefeelingwhich
cheerfulness
of a
Groethe contrasts
the
result.":];
may
view
as
seen
through yellow glass with its "mournfulseen
ness
as
through blue glass. These differences in
be reduced
difference
to the
mere
feeling-tonecannot
between
pleasantness and unpleasantness; and
they
identified
be
with
the
cannot
qualitativedifferences
sweet

are

as

'

"

'

'

'

'

' '

"

"

"

the sensible

between

qualitieswhich

said to be

which

are

refer

them

to

pleasant or

more

or

system with

its

resultingmodifications

of

nervous

We

have

asserted

that

occupy

unpleasant.

less diffused

organic

"all sensations

evidence
*

sufficient to

Op. cit

p. 184.

But

must

excitement

of the
and

the

sensibility.

common

"||

We

consequences,

appreciablefeeling-tone,
appear
less diffusive character.

attention,and

we

have

which
to
not

justifythis positionin
185.
Op. cit.,p.

Ibid.

have

have
so

tinctly
dis-

more

or

far adduced

its full extent.

\\" 3, p.

222.

FEELING-TONE

" 3.]

OF

SENSATION.

225

deficiencyis suppliedby experiments,

which, show
that pleasant and
unpleasant sensations in
istic
general produce organic effects differingin a characteraccordingas they are agreeableor disagreeable.
way
variations
By suitable apparatus it is possibleto measure
in the volume
of the limbs, and in the respiratory
movements,
while
the
subject is undergoing pleasant or
unpleasantexperiences. The variations are recorded by a
traced upon
for
curve
a
revolvingcylinder. The curve
of the limb indicates,
besides largerand longer
the volume
Fortunately the

variations,also
of the

beat

pulse.
analysisof

careful

good cigar smoked

increase

at

increase

that

as

surface

of the

height of

increased

be

The

respirationis deepened,
the

of

who
person
of the limbs due

by

in the

part due

variations

general results
these
experiments

may

under

in

the

shorter

The

in the volume

blood-vessels
an

and

such
sensations,

Pleasant
a

smaller

to

control of the will

deduced
are

in

as

sweet

to the

from

follows.
taste

or

of

enjoys it,produce
to dilatation

of the

body. They also produce

the pulse-beat,
which

contraction

and

are

due

of the heart.

probably the muscles

generalmore
strongly

contracted.
The

unpleasantsensations is more
complicated.
of the unpleasant stimulus,the
On the first introduction
of the limb is distinctly
volume
striction
diminished,owing to conof the blood-vessels
at the surface of the body.
constriction at the surface of the body is probably
The
accompanied by a dilatation of the blood-vessels of the
internal
The
amplitude of the pulse-beatsis
organs.
diminished.
At the same
time, there is a deepening of
when
the stimulus
is strong,there is a
respiration
; and
conspicuouscontraction of the voluntarymuscles in general.
Later phases of the process present different phenomena.
case

Psych.

of

15

226

PSYCHOLOGY.

After

its initial diminution, the volume

increase,and

to

[BK. n.,

increase

is not

of the limb

increasingfor

continues

supposed

be

to

arisingfrom

decreased

their

it at

previous constriction
later

voluntary

stage.

muscles

is

begins

in the first instance

This
due

of

to

venous

But
activityof the heart.
followingby way of reaction
is supposed to contribute to

dilatation of the blood-vessels

on

vnr.

time.

some

dilatation of the blood-vessels,

but to accumulation
blood

en.

The

increased

also

followed

innervation

by

of

the

corresponding

relaxation.
These

experiments justifythe assumption that all

sensations
having a distinctlyappreciable feeling-tone
differs in a
produce a diffused organic effect,which
characteristic way,
pleasant or
according as they are
unpleasant.
There

(2) The

thus

appear
to determine
diffused

to

be

three

which

factors

:
(1) The
feeling-tone

of the

excitement

may

sensation

tribute
con-

itself ;

system which

nervous

produce ; (3)The effect of this diffused excitation

the organism,by the consequent alterations of common
on
which
arise from the altered state of the internal
sensibility
All three factors probably contribute to the result
organs.
in varying degrees according to circumstances.
It seems
alone
of them
as
arbitrary to select one
important to
it may

the

exclusion

of

the

others

but

some

writers

show

Ladd
For
lays
tendency to do so.
instance, Professor
of the nervous
stress exclusively
the diffused excitement
on
of the sensaoccasioned
tion.
system directly
by the occurrence
He

seems

and
feeling-tone,
to the

to

he

regard
seems

organic sensations

the sensation
to attach

which

it

itself

little or

no

as

devoid

of

importance

produces. But
indirectly

shows
that a sensation may
be in itself agreeintrospection
able
or disagreeable
apart from its effects. Thus, sweetness

FEELING-TONE

" 3.]
in

its

OF

intrinsic

SENSATION.

227

be

agreeable,though
the whole
it awakens
on
view, which
disgust. Another
favoured
seems
by Professor James, is that feeling-tone
belongs exclusively,or almost
exclusively,to organic
He is not very clear on
sensation.
the point,but it seems
to form
part of his celebrated theory of emotion that,apart
from
mental
would
consist
states
organic sensation, our
almost wholly in cold intellectual perception
without feelingAt any rate, it is important to discuss the point,if
tone.
because
other reason,
of its bearing on
for no
a
theory
shall have to examine
which
we
later, the theory which
reduces
emotion, and the pleasantnessand unpleasantness
and their feeling-tone.
of emotion, to organic sensations
On
the
psychological side, the distinction between
pleasantnessand unpleasantness is simple and ultimate.
should
If it is duo to a difference in organic conditions,we
do not
we
expect this difference to be equallysimple. Now
between
the organicprocesses is corfind that the contrast
respondingly
those organic
simple. On the contrary, even
which can be detected by expericoncomitants
of feeling-tone
ment
of unpleasant
are
very complicated.Thus, in the case
experiences,initial constriction of the blood-vessels at the
surface of the body is accompanied by dilatation of the bloodvessels
may

own

nature

"

of

the

is in

rurface
followed

by

of the volume
accumulated
the
we

internal

subsequent phase

dilatation
of the
venous

voluntary muscles
cannot
singleout
as

organs.

the universal

The
of

at the surface.

limb

So

is followed

and

the

process

The

initial diminution

by

by

probably

increase

increased

general form
uniform

of

the

is followed

blood.

any

constriction

contraction

relaxation.
of

condition

due

organic
of

to

of

Hence

lation
stimu-

unpleasant
advantage

feeling-tone.There is therefore no theoretical

to organic sensations.
in ascribingfeeling-tone
exclusively

PSYCHOLOGY.

228

The

[BK. IT.,

CH.

vm.

problem confronts us in regard to them as in the

of the specialsenses.
case
They constitute a heterogeneous
of experiences,some
of which
are
pleasant
group
and some
unpleasant. Each of them has, besides its feelingtone, its own
specific
qualityas a sensation,and this quality
same

be almost

may

neutral

in

tone,

it may

or

have

both

able
agree-

and

or
disagreeablephases accordingto its intensity,
accordingto the general mental condition at the moment.
in their internal nature, as analysed by introspecNeither
tion,
in their mode
of origin,do organic sensations
nor
justifyus
present any peculiarcharacteristics which would
and
in making so vast
important a distinction between
them
and the sensations of the special
senses, as is involved
in affirmingthat they alone can
be pleasant or
painful,
while the sensations of the specialsenses
neutral.
It
are
is true that organic sensations
have
a
peculiarlydiffusive

character,but

even

in this respect the

distinction

between

specialsensations is only one of degree. A

be derived
positiveargument againstthe hypothesis may
of a simple sensation in a
from the fact that the emergence
and the emergence
of its feelinggiven phase of intensity,
tone, are not separatedby any appreciableinterval of time.
the production of organic changes by the original
But
of the nervous
stimulation
system, and the productionof
of these changes, is a
organic sensations in consequence
must
In fact,
an
appreciabletime.
occupy
process which
elements
the later addition of new
to the original
experience
can
frequentlybe detected by introspection. A very bitter
Lehmann
taste may,
as
remarks, appear at first merely as a
them

and

the

bitterness,which
disagreeable
interval of time by
appreciable

is
a

followed
cold

only

shiver

due

after
to

an

striction
con-

of the blood-vessels.
We

conclude

therefore

that

it

is

unjustifiableand

5 4.]

OF

FEELIXG-TOXE

SENSATION.

229

arbitraryto ascribe feeling-toneexclusivelyeither to the

excitement
primary sensation, or to the surplus nervous
which
it produces,or to the resultingorganic sensations.
All three
in
contribute
factors contribute,and they may
different proportionsaccordingto circumstances.
and OrganicWelfare. Most psychologists
" 4. Feeling-tone
support the generalthesis that the processes corresponding
to agreeable sensation
promote organic welfare, and that
those correspondingto disagreeable
sensation are injurious.
Stated more
this means
that agreeable process
definitely,
contributes
in the organs
to efficient dischargeof function
and that disagreeable
which it affects,
process disables the
in which the general
organs it affects. There are two senses
The meaning may
be that
propositioncan be understood.
the whole
and in the long run
on
a
pleasant experience
contributes
welfare
of the organism. The
to the
position
prounderstood
in this sense
doubt
holds good as a
no
general rule,but it is a rule which has many
exceptions.
Any race of animals which should as a rule be pleasedby
conditions
and
injurious to them
pained by conditions
beneficial to them, would
certainly
perish in the struggle
for existence.
But to preserve
the speciesin the struggle
for existence,it is not
that pleasure should
necessary
and
infallibly
universallycoincide with ultimate benefit,
and
that
universally
displeasureshould
infalliblyand
coincide with ultimate
injury. Hence we find that many
and inversely
thingsmay be agreeablewhich are injurious,
poisons are palatable. Intoxication is very bad for
many
the health ; but it may
be very pleasant.
If we
universal law, we
to establish
consider
must
are
a
vital activity
at the moment
in which
only the immediate
the pleasant or painful sensation
occurs.
Sugar of lead
"

has

sweet

taste,which

is

pleasingat

the moment

this

230

PSYCHOLOGY.

pleasingtaste may in
although the substance

itself bo

into

the

bitter

blood,

drug

beneficial
due

favourable

occasions

to vital

it,when

en.

YIII.

activity,

introduced

deadly poison. Similarly,a

disagreeableto the taste may have a

acts

which

which

[BK. IT.,

as

is

medicinal

The

effect.

beneficial

effect

is not

disagreeablebitterness,but to subsequent
with the originalexperience.
effects entirely
disconnected
The case
of intoxication
by alcohol is different. Here the
is correlated with pleasureinvolves
a
very process which
to

the

of the central

disablement

of the intoxicated

person,
this

impaired. But
explainedaway.
co-ordination

general he
these

The

methodical

accurate

kind, he

finds them

the loose and

of

he

does

from
a

preciseand

view

to

strenuous

make

attempt

flow

of ideas

But

in

to fulfil

efforts of the

serious

which

from

delicate

end.

an

disagreeable. On

very

varied

or

is disabled

person

with

serious

If

functions.

thinking and acting,is

be
exception also may

thinking,and
no

efficiency

for

intoxicated

of movement
makes

both

kind

The

system.

nervous

the other

hand,

accompanies the

free and
more
pleasingphases of intoxication,is much
all
expansive than in a state of perfectsobriety. We
know
that champagne
having a
promotes conversation
all know
that the
kind
of brilliancy
certain
we
; and
opinionsexpressedand the arguments used are not likely
to bear

is

no

examination
varied

flow

the
reiterating
is connected

in sober
of

same

with

when

ideas, even

thing over
the

fact

Even

moments.

and
that

over

the

when

there

persistsin
again,his pleasure
point he is urging
a

man

peculiarvividness and intensity.

cation
that in the pleasing stages of intoxiit appears
Thus
of
certain higher forms
from
is disabled
man
a
have
function ; but
he
does
not
mental
disagreeable
conscious
activityin these
feelings, simply because
presentsitself to

him

with

FEELING-TONE

" 4.]
directions

is

OF

On

suspended.

SENSATION.

tlie otlier

231

the

hand,

kind

of

impaired,
but intensified,
and he consequentlyfeels pleasure.
referred
In this last example, we
have
especiallyto
system. It is in this only
process in the central nervous
essential
interest.
have
an
that, as psychologists,we
Pleasure
and
sciousness
pain are states of consciousness,and conis immediately correlated with neural
process.
is whether
us
Hence, the question which reallyconcerns
with
are
essentiallyconnected
disagreeable processes
activitywhich

conscious

obstruction

continues

disablement

or

to go

of

is not

on

and

conscious

and agreeableprocesses
activity,
flow of such activity.If we
unobstructed

nervous

in

this

form

affirmative.

it

seems

that

the

the free and

state

the

Disagreeable sensations, in

intensity,obstruct and
activities which,
motor

disturb

their
the

with

must

answer

for

question
be distinctly
proportion to

mental

their

correlated

and

process

effective

discharge,

how
cult
diffiguidance. Everybody knows
it is to think or act efficiently
with
toothache
or
a
a
headache, even
though the desire to do so is strong. It is
not
merely that the painful sensations divert attention ;
this is true of pleasantsensations also,of similar intensity
;
the point is that the disagreeablesensations
positively
enfeeble
disorder
and
the
thought and
action, when

require

conscious

endeavour

is made

to

think

arisingfrom
disagreeableness
is

faint,and

if the

total state

or

this
of

or

that

course,

if the

specialsensation

consciousness

whole, agreeably toned, in spiteof the

that disagreeableitem, the obstruction

presence
to mental

is,on

the

of this

or

activity

it seems
appreciable. But in principle
a safe
generalisationthat agreeableexperience is favourable,and
disagreeableexperienceis unfavourable,to the effective
dischargeof mental functions.

may

not

be

Of

act.

PSYCHOLOGY.

232

[BK. II.,

en.

vm.

and Conative Tendency. Some

" 5. Feeling-Tone
pleasures
of sense
There
are
dependent on pre-existingconations.
with
the
are
sense-cravingsconnected
primary organic
needs, such as the need for food and drink ; and the gratification
of these cravings is a source
of sense-pleasure.
Similarly,the induced cravings for tobacco and alcohol,
of themselves
at intervals,give a
which
recur
pleasure
is quite distinguishable
when
they are appeased which
from
the pleasureimmediately due to the stimulus
apart
from the cravingfor it.
Every pleasingand every painfulexperienceat the time
at which it is actuallytaking place has a conative,or at
least a quasi-conative,
aspect. In so far as the experience
and develop it
is pleasing,there is a tendency to maintain
be found
until its
means
effective,
by whatever
may
capacityis exhausted, or is overpowered
pleasure-giving
of unpleasing elements.
In so far as
by the intermixture
continue
the experienceis unpleasant,there is a tendency to disit by whatever
be found
effective.
means
may
sensation,agreeablefeeling-tone
Thus, on the level of mere
corresponds to the positive phase of conation, and
disagreeablewith the negative. The pleasant experience
with a conative tendency which
is coincident
requiresfor
the continuance
its satisfaction
of the experience. The
with
conative
a
unpleasant experience is coincident
tinuance
tendency which
requires for its satisfaction the disconof the experience. While
pleasurelasts,conation
When
is being satisfied ; it is working itself out.
satiety
"

is

reached,

and reached

it has

been

satisfied

its termination.

Until

it has worked

itself out

is reached, there
satiety

If the
always a tendency for the process to go on.
is discontinued
obstructed
or
pleasing sensory
process
before
satietyis reached, the conation continues and is

is

FEELING-TONE

" 5.]

SENSATION.

OF

233

tendency to continue the

the
pleasing sensation
tendency to get rid of the
unpleasing-state due to its interruption. The original
conative tendency,which
in process of being gratified,
was
is transformed
into a thwarted
craving. Suddenly snatch
the bottle from the baby who is complacentlysucking
away
it,and you will have a pictureof the situation referred to.
The reverse
of all this holds good of disagreeableexperiences.
To discontinue
them, however
abruptly,is to give
intensified ; there

and

satisfaction

always
which
It

is added

not

and

thwarts

to the

dissatisfaction.
never

connected
essentially
should be carefully
noted

continuance

the conative

appeases

is

Their

with

tendency,

their existence.

that

distinguishbetween
ultimate
satisfaction and the process of becoming satisfied.
Ultimate
satisfaction
is attained
only when
satietyis
the subject has had
reached, only when
enough of the
still maintained, it
pleasant experience,so that, if it were
Pleasure
is found
in the
would
to
cease
please him.
in its completion. Its
not
of becoming satisfied,
process
nation
completion is its termination, and therefore the termiof its feeling-tone.
said that every agreeable or disagreeablesensation
We
has a conative
or
quasi-conative aspect. The words "or
added
to meet
a
quasi-conative were
possibledifficulty.
Some
psychologistshold that certain pleasing sensations
can
analyse
purely passive,so far as introspection
appear
them.
They do not appear to involve any experience of
endeavour,
or
striving. I do not agree with these
the
It
one.
question is a subtle
psychologists
; but
best to evade
the difficulty
therefore
seems
by pointing
we

"

"

out

that

for

tendency
will not

is

be

our

it is not

purpose

experienced or
denied

that

not,

there

so

is at

essential

long
least

as
an

whether

the

it exists.
unconscious

It

PSYCHOLOGY.

234

[BK. IT.,

CH.

vin.

tendency to continue a pleasing experienceuntil we have

had enough of it.
taken
when
it has once
Any pleasingsense-experience,
place, will, on
subsequent occasions, give rise to a
its conditions
are
conation, when
only partially
repeated,
it is connected
which
is perwhen
the object with
as
ceived,
is reproduced. The
the corresponding idea
or
impulses and desires thus occasioned have both agreeable
and
disagreeablephases. They are for the most
part
pated
comes
quickly,or is anticigratification
agreeable when
confidence.
with
disagreeablewhen
They are
in
is long witheld, especially
if it be withheld
gratification
to produce disappointment,or
so
a
as
a
tantalising
way,
series of disappointments. The
experienceis also apt to
less disagreeablewhen
be more
or
anticipationis not
confident,but doubtful and hesitating.

" 6.

General

end,

are

Whatever

in the attainment

conditions

Whatever

"

conation

favour

its

Theory.

sources

obstruct
of

conditions

further

and

of its end, yieldpleasure.

conation

in the attainment

displeasure. This

is the

of

widest

which
can
we
frame, from a purely psychological
generalisation
point of view, as regards the conditions of pleasure
to the feelingand displeasure
respectively.Its application
in the last section.
of sensation is already contained
tone
A pleasingsense-experience
operates as a positivefactor
tendency
satisfyingthe conative tendency or quasi-conative
connected
with it. On the contrary,
which is essentially
an
unpleasing sense-experienceoperates as a positive
factor thwarting the conative
tendency or quasi-conative
connected
tendency essentially

with

it.

This

is at the best

pleasure-pain. It can
explanationof sense
only be regarded as being an explanationat all on one
pleasureexists,
assumption. If it is supposed that,first,

only

vague

FEELING-TONE

" 6.]
and

SENSATION.

OF

its

that, subsequently to

of

matter

fact,there

to

seems

the

occurrence,

tendency arises as a consequence,

explainthe pleasureby reference
a

235

it is
to the

be

no

conative

logicalcircle

conation.

But,

whatever

reason

to
as

for

and conation
are
separated in
supposing that feeling-tone
time.
From
the very beginning they appear
to coincide.
From
the very beginning a pleasing process is a process

which

tends

We

to maintain

hope

may

the ultimate

itself.

attain

to

conditions

which

more

definite

determine

the

insightinto
of
feeling-tone

that side
side.
But from
physiological
have not at present any direct knowledge of the nervous
we
involved.
We
can
only frame hypotheses to
processes
data.
the psychological
cover
If we
language
attempt to translate into physiological
the generalrelations of pleasureand displeasure
respectively
to
conative
can
tendencies, perhaps the best result we
in general appears
obtain is the following. Conation
to
of nervous
equilibrium,and
correspond to a disturbance
of equilibrium.
its completed satisfaction to a restoration
The
conditions
of displeasurenot
only disturb nervous
equilibrium,but also, so long as they continue, obstruct
the processes
On
the
by which it tends to be restored.
of pleasure
other hand, the continuance
of the conditions
is a factor positively
operativein the restoration of equilibrium.
sensation

from

the

It is evident

that

if this view

even

of the

case

be

for further speculation

room
granted,there is stillabundant
of the physiologicalprocesses
to the precisenature
as
corresponding to pleasure and displeasurerespectively.

The

most

favoured

theories

with
opposite feeling-tones
in the

nervous

principleassume

of

the

kind

the relations

of

connect
wear

system. Explanationsbased
many

different

forms

our

on

and

these

repair
this general
ignorance of

PSYCHOLOGY.

23C,

the exact
in

of the

nature

and

assimilation

connexion

with

[BK. n.,

complex

chemical

dissimilation

of

processes

tissue,and

en.

vm.

involved
of

their

functional

and repose, leaves much

activity
for speculation. The
is
room
simplestform of statement
that when
outruns
pleasing,
wear
repair the experience is disand that when
the experience
repairoutruns wear
is pleasing. On this view
it is difficult to account
for the
be exhausting,and that when
fact that pleasuresmay
they
are
they diminish,and pass into displeasure.
long-continued,
Mr. H. E. Marshall
has propounded a theory which
lays
great stress on the buildingup of tissue during periodsof
functional
Pleasure, according to him, depends
repose.
the building up
of
a
surplus of stored energy
upon
"Where
acquired during the inaction of the organ.
exist or
has been
this surplus does
not
consumed, the
corresponding experience will be virtuallyneutral, so
in the
course
wear
long as repair keeps pace with
of functional
outruns
activity. If wear
repair, the
corresponding experience is unpleasant. There is much
to

be

said

said

in favour

it with

of this

great clearness

view,
and

and

Marshall

Mr.

force.

Fatigue

has
is in

of
of
source
general a
disagreeable,and freshness
agreeable,experience. Of course, the fatigue or the
be that of the specialtissues engaged in
freshness
must
the functional
activity. After the quiet of the nightthe bird-song,as we
than
hours
awake, is more
usually
rested
beauty in all colours.
pleasurable
; the
eye sees
The rubbing, at our
morning bath, of the skin,which has
friction of our
not
during the night felt the normal
specialfood to which we
clothing; the flavour of some
has not
have
been
accustomed, but which
lately been
tasted, all are
pleasurable."* A pleasant sensation,
' '

"

fain,Pleasure,and Aesthetics,
p. 200.

FEELING-

" G.]

TONE

OF

SENSATION.

237

unpleasant,because
is a surplusrelatively
the stored
to one
intensity of stimulation, will not be a surplus
by gradually
relativelyto a higher intensity
; hence
from
increasingthe intensityof a stimulus, we
pass
pleasantto unpleasantphases of an experience.But along
culties,
with
these
advantages the theory presents grave diffiif we
attempt to base on it the whole explanation
in my
of sensation ; and
of the feeling-tone
opinion it
by
presents insuperabledifficulties if we attempt to cover
all the pleasuresand pains of perceptualand
its means
are
ideational activity.At present we
only concerned
when

with

too

long continued,will become

surplusis used up. What

sensation.

dependence of
as
on
quantity of sensation.
feeling-tone
sensations be unpleasant at a very low
Why should some
and
be pleasing even
others
at
a
high
intensity,
very
?
Why should a comparatively small degree of
intensity
be disagreeable,
while a comparatively
bitterness or acidity
is agreeable? Mr.
Marshall
high degree of sweetness
repliesthat there is a great variation in storage capacity,
of different sensation-processes.
This explanain the case
tion
is probableenough in some
Where
cases.
a function
and without
with great frequency and regularity,
recurs
much
variation of intensity,
as
does, we should
respiration
On
the other
not expect any
large storage of energy.
and with great variations
irregularly,
hand, where stimuli occur
the organism can
of intensity,
only provide against
them
But there are a
by storingup a surplusin advance.
in which
of instances
such explanation
no
large number
dislike
applicable. Why should the same
appears
person
of vanilla,and keenly enjoy cloves or
the smallest trace
cinnamon?
Why should the same
enjoy beef and
person
One

obvious

objectionarises
quality as well

from

the

PSYCHOLOGY.

238

liate mutton

? To

[BK. ir.,

for suck

account

differences

by

cir.

vrn.

variation

forced.
capacityseems
A more
is connected
with tlie conception
important difficulty
to fix what
of a surplus. How
are
we
is,and what
is not, surplus energy ? Mr. Marshall
says that there is a
the energy
involved in
pleasure-givingsurplus "whenever
in storage

the reaction

to

stimulus

is greater than

the energy

which

habitually calls forth," and that pain is

the physical action which
mines
deterexperienced whenever
is so related to the supply of nutriment
the content

the

stimulus

' '

that the energy

to its organ

stimulus

in

is less

this statement.
its

with

effect

The

he

Mr.

There

is
a

Marshall
kind

same

reaction

energy

produced by

the

mean

in the

the

forth."*

intensity;when

stimulus," does

than

amount

habituallycalls

stimulus

involved

to the

which

the

ambiguity

stimulus

speaks

of

of stimulus

in

varies
"the
in the

the same
kind of stimulus
or
degree of intensity,
to include
in varying degrees of intensity
?
If he means
his case
varying degrees of intensity,
obviously breaks
down
stimulus is unusuallyintense,
a
altogether
; for when
it is often unpleasant,although the effect which it produces
same

is greater, and
On

to.

the

group
The

the other

degree

same

of

facts

instances

less,than

not

hand,
of

that which

if he

the

means

in which

the

for
same

are
same

accustomed
stimulus

in

comparativelysmall
verifying his hypothesis.

intensity,only

is available

we

kind

and

intensity of

yieldsalternately
pleasure and pain to the same
best
are
relativelyinfrequent. The
example,
person
perhaps,is the gradual decrease of pleasurewhen a pleasingstimulus is prolonged. Here
not
merely the feeling-tone,
but the experienceitself,
fainter ; but
to become
appears
clear that it continues to remain
fainter
it is by no means
so
stimulus

Op. clt.,
pp.

204-205.

FEELING-TONE

" 6.]
when

OF

239

SENSATION.

periences
disagreeable. Unpleasant expositively
maybe continued for a very long time indeed before
of unpleasantness
appreciablediminution
;
any
they continue,it cannot be said that the effect of

it becomes

they show
and

while

the

stimulus

is smaller

than

its habitual

effect.

When

pain begins, the effect of the stimulus is

On
Mr.
smaller, the total experience becoming fainter.
Marshall's
should
view
we
expect, as an accompaniment
of the diminishing effect of the stimulus, an
increase
and not
abatement
of painfulness. This leads up to
an
another
objection;the intensityof unpleasantnessappears
be
in general proportioned to the intensityof the
to
were
unpleasant experience. If Mr. Marshall
right in
affirmingthat unpleasant stimulation produces a smaller
effect than
should
pleasantness
pleasant stimulation,we
expect unabatement

of

of all kinds

actuallyfind
We
form

have

to be

very

much

fainter

than

we

it to be.
discussed

Mr.

favourable

Marshall's

example

views
of

the

because

they

theory which
and
traces
pleasure-pain to wear
repair of nervous
conclude
tissue.
In general,AVO may
that a large part of
the explanation,
at least for sense
pleasureand pain, may
be found
But
these lines.
these
no
on
on
theory framed
lines has been so formulated
to cover
the whole
as
ground
for sensation,and they are
all beset by
even
successfully
specialdifficulties. After all,it is not, a priori,likelythat
merely quantitativeconditions will be found adequate to
for the facts.
account
Considering the great complexity
in organic tissues in interaction
of the chemical
processes
be all kinds of qualitative
with the blood- supply,there may
For
well
as
as
instance, the
quantitativevariations.
be
accumulation
of waste-productsin the blood
a
may
takes
what
It is possible that
important factor.
very
a

very

in

place

building
tend

to

of

tissues.

if

to

insecure,
this

this
in

kind

point
the

are.

know

that

are

long

they
in

present

up

activity

We

degeneration

are

order

state

to

of

show

our

CH.

n.,

of

the

considerations
of

tissue

rather
tissues
disused.
how

knowledge,

vin.

is

organs

than

products

building

functional

repose.

freshness

waste

There

the

that

during

functional

refer

these

of

show

the

restores

removal

up

mainly

of

and

repose

the

rather

or

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

240

actual
which

takes

place

during

than
suffer

atrophy

We

merely

speculative
hypotheses

and

DIVISION

PERCEPTION.

III.

BOOK

PROCESS

I. PERCEPTUAL

CHAPTER

DISTINCTIVE

CHARACTERISTICS

IN

GENERAL.

I.

OF

THE

PERCEPTUAL

CONSCIOUSNESS.

Definition. Perception is essentially

Cognition.
We
cannot
thing.
perceive without
perceiving someinvolves that referThus
ence
perceptionessentially
to an
object which we disregardedin treatingof
is a specialmode
of cognition
sensation. But perceiving
;
" 1.

"

specialmode

which

immediately depends on
of an objectto the senses.
It may
the actual presence
the cognitivefunction of sensation.
in fact be denned
as
of cognitionwhich
takes
It is contrasted
with that mode
pendent
place through ideal images. Such images are not deof an objectto the senses.
the actual presence
on
of absent
objectswhich have
They are representations
already been perceived. Thus the existence of perception
of the existence of ideal images.
is a pre-condition
Direct cognisanceof present objectsmust
precede ideal
of absent objects.
representation
it is that

Psych.

241

16

PSYCHOLOGY.

242

[BK.

i., CH.

in.,

i.

In the direct

ciation
cognitionof present objects,assoand
reproduction play a very important part.
in perception,taken
in the strictest sense
of the
But
word, only those forms of association and reproduction
which
have called complication and
enter
we
ment
acquireof meaning, together with that peculiarmode of

Even

and

which

reproductionby

free

excitement

mental

sensations

are

of

general states

and

their

nervous

concomitant

organic

revived.*

Though association and reproduction are essential

the development of perceptual consciousness, they
not

to

seem

be

necessary

to

This

seems

rudimentary form.

of the

constitution

Perceptionis

rather

in

and

the

depend

to

do

most
on

herited
in-

system.

nervous

merely cognition. It
When
tone.
a feeling-

never

character

conative

its existence

to

has
we

also

speak

perceptualprocess, we include these factors.

" 2. Unity and Continuity of Perceptual Process.
They
Many perceptionsare very brief and evanescent.
interest,after which
satisfya slightand momentary
the mind
passes to other occupations. Other perceptions
of

"

do

not

occur

in this

isolated

manner

but

into

enter

constituent
as
prolonged trains of mental activity
moments
or
phases. These more
prolonged trajns may
be mainly trains of ideas : but they may
also be mainly
composed of a sequence of perceptions.A man
climbing
cliff may
have his attention fullyoccupied
a precipitous
more

His
gaining and retainingfoothold and handhold.
activities mainly consist in muscular
movement
guided
by sense-perception.Such an act as threading a needle
in

See

chapter

bk.

i.,ch. ii.,""

in mind

at the

8-9.

The

present

student

point.

should

keep

the

whole

of

this

CHARACTERISTICS

" 2.]

243

PERCEPTION.

OF

necessarilyinvolve ideal images ; attention

is fullyoccupied in the guidance of the hand, and the
of its movements
delicate co-ordination
by the aid of
holds broadly true of such performThe
the eye.
same
ances
as
walking on a tight-rope,keeping one's balance
far as it may
on
a bicycleso
require attention,and, in
of bodilyskill.
In these instances,
general,of games
series having
not isolated facts ; they form
are
perceptions
a certain
unity and continuitysimilar to that of trains
trains of thought. Any
such
of ideas or
series constitutes
It differs
a
singlecomplex perceptual process.
does

not

from
of

train

its parts does

The

ideas

inasniuch

depend

not

of

sequence

on

as

the

sequence

direct mental

its parts

depends

duction.
repro-

upon

the

of external

sequence
of

of

impressions; but as the sequence

tent
impressionsdepends to a very large exof the
the bodily movements
percipient
is to a very
under
large extent
subjective

external
upon

subject,it
control.

It is in these
of
many

ways,

They

are

complex

animals

in definite forms

study is
in the

animal

instinctive

activities for which

of their

no

pre-adapted by the
nervous
systems. They

period in the
opportunityfor

arise at

life of the animal

ideas ;

of the

in those

best be studied.

pre-disposedand

constitution

the

can

field for their

the best

animals, viz.

are

it has had

that the distinctive characteristic

perceptualprocess

found
of

forms

so

that there

the
can

no

doubt

life.
tivities
ac-

the

herited
in-

quently
fre-

at which

acquisitionof
be

In

sponding
corre-

ing
concern-

predominantly or
process.
in

For

purely perceptual character

volved
instance, the train of actions in-

hunting a livingprey

is shown

in the

play of

244

PSYCHOLOGY.

the kitten before

watching or

out
actuallyhunted, and often withitation.
opportunityfor learningthem by im-

kitten

in

seizes it with

prey,

it lets
finally

; it will then

teeth

in the

the

place it
the quasiworries
it;

next
on

claws,

to

of

its plaything,

pounces

and

attitude

steal up

forms

manner;

spring,and

the

assume

objectwhich

snake-like

gathers itself for

first

wait

other

or

noiseless

will

lying in

ball of thread

i.

i., CH,

it has

its having had

The

[BK. in.,

and

the

the
objectgo again,and re-commences
The
several
of lying in wait, stealthy
acts
process.
approach, crouching for a spring,pouncing on the prey,
are
phasesin the development of the same
activity.The
is true of the hunting of an actual prey.
same
All such
are
sions;
guided by external impresprocesses
but each
impression,as it occurs, only supplies
the occasion
for the further development of an
activity
of
which
is alreadyin existence.
If the series were
one
pendently
purelyreflex actions,each separate stimulus would indeproduce an isolated reaction,so that the process
have no
internal
would
continuity. But it is just
the internal continuity
which
is distinctive of perceptual
activity.The successive phases of perceptualprocess
directed to one
are
end, and this end is not merely
nature's

end;

it is what

after,or,
striving
*

the

time

have

We

cognitive

no

attitude

into

calls

play

continuity

which

recognises

the

But

the

mental
than

but

fulfil an

to
there

data

if

we

may

which

would

of
a

marks

attitude

anything
is

analogous

animal

an

train

object,

the animal
use

is

else.

preparation
function.

There

us

to

the

pre-supposes

more

is

We

no

sense

some

what
expression,

characterise

object

movements

process.

recognition
probably

an

towards

perceptual
for

such

enable

of instinctive

itself is in

precisely
for

which

having
cannot

the

say

previous

the

first

internal

the

animal

experience.

analogous to what we call recognition

ence,
preparation by previous experi-

by congenital

endowment,

which

seems

to

CHARACTERISTICS

" 2.]
it is

This

drivingat."

"

the animal

be effected.

It

or

endeavour,

with

means

satisfied until the

in the

advertisement
till he

happy

the

result,the

itself out.
of

the

does

not

the

train

which

is not

be

PERCEPTION.

end

conation

of movements

the

soap,

With

starts,

Like

is reached.

of Pears'

gets it."

the

animal

"

baby
won't

the final attainment

it has

because

ceases,

failure

Interruption,delay,or
is

245

that
mean
necessarily
itself a mental
image of the result
that the felt tendency,conation,

to

presents

to

OF

at

of

worked

any

stage

continuous
thwarting of the one
conation ; it is felt as displeasureand aversion, and is
of proaccompanied by a tendency to vary the mode
cedure.
process

The

successful

stage felt

every

in the

same

as

pleasure and

neural

by
from

for

the

equilibrium of

stimulation

within.

It

the

action

tinue
tendency to confrom
the physiological
as

follows.

co-ordination
this

either from

is in

happens is

arrangement

acts, the

as

Stated

course.

point of view, what

of

progress

of

arrangement
without

the

Given
sive
succes-

turbed
is dis-

organism

its own
balance
only recover
and
become
so
quiescent by a series of successive
leading to a certain result. By these its
processes
initial excitement
is allayed. The
psychicalactivity
develops itself,and so brings
whereby a conation
about
its own
end
or
termination,is the counterpart
of the
activitywhereby the neural system regains
equilibrium.
This unity and continuityof perceptual process
is its
The
most
istics
general feature.
followingspecialcharacterbe regarded as bringing out in detail from
may
various
points of view what is involved in this general
or

account.

can

PSYCHOLOGY.

246

Attention.

" 3.
itself

by

in., i.}

en.

i.

can
Perceptual activity
only fulfil
tions
co-operationof a series of external condi-

the

"

supply in

which

turn

if these

Now,
utilised in

[BK.

occasions

occasions

external

effective manner,

an

for its further

animal

the

to

are

cannot

velopme
debe
main
re-

On the contrary,
purelypassivein regard to them.
them
it must
meet
half-wayby watching for them, and
by keeping itself in readiness to act in an appropriate
Thus
when
is essentially
perceptualactivity
they occur.
way
characterised by attention.*
is conAttention
stantly

directed
are

relevant

them.

guided by
Just

the

as

of
are

the

mind

one

of the

activityis a train of
correspondingtrain
successive

movements

continuous

parts of
in

external

the

the progress

to

The

towards

attitude

action

so

distinct
of

as

to

which
utilise

movements

distinct

express

conation, so

continuous

conditions

the

percepts.

ment
develop-

distinct cepts
pertrain in which each sets
the

of

preparationfor the next.

Such
a train is the
analogue on the perceptuallevel of
sider
what, on the ideational,twe call a train of thought. Consuch a simple act as the chicken
even
pecking,it
be for the first time.
The
terminate
pecking is not an indemay
pecking in any direction ; it is a pecking at a
certain object in a given direction
and at a given distance.
The
its determinateness
act of pecking receives
from
the previousact of seeing,of attentively
fixingthe
the object. Conversely,the tendency to peck
eye on
guidesand controls the act of seeing. It is because the
animal
is about
is engaged in pecking,that
to peck, or
it keeps
it keeps its eye on
the object;and it is because
its eye on
the object that it is enabled
to peck in a
*

See

bk.

an

i.,ch. i.,p.

65.

t See

note, p. 249.

CHARACTERISTICS

" 3.]

of

it within

the

Attention

is

for

our

mutual

total co-ordination.

same

in

always

prospective. So

far

as

of

"

already know

we

appetency

ficientl
suf-

is already

thought, whether

with

the direction
;

its end

towards

thing

or

of

aversion

or

of attention

work

the

purpose,

pressing forward
is nothing
which

expectant

manner

some

accomplished. The direction

perceptualor ideational,coincides
conation,

247

guidance lasts tillthe

bringseizure,determining this act also,and ing
This

purposefulmanner.
moment

PERCEPTION.

OF

of

is always

conation
; hence

tion,
atten-

defining itself in
of cognition,
cognition,and so guiding itself by means
forward
also constantly be directed
must
beyond the
To attend
ignorant present,"to meet what is to come.
When
is always to watch, to await, to be on the alert.
but

conation

"

we

take

place,we

lightto lighten our

use

not

where

our

future

we

if

that

attention

out

its
is

care

path.

to

the
use

is the

Only

external

out

whither

we

already arrived.

have

steps, not

Now

we

make

it to

path through

steps
a

bold

lightused
we

must

are

It is to

dark

going,
guide

already taken.
metaphor, we
may
say
by conation to make

we

have

remember

illumination,but

is

that

tion
atten-

cal
simply identiin its cognitiveaspect.
considered
with conation
of perceptual activity
Trains
marked
are
throughout
their course
ternal
prospectiveness. Its exby this mental
to
sign is the pre-adaptationof the sense-organs
and the pre-adjustmentof the body
receive impressions,
the opportunitypresents itself.
in readiness to act when
for the mouse
The
ficient
bird is a sufcat lying in wait
or
example. The sightand smell of the mouse-hole,
we
Eye and ear are admay suppose, set it in action.
no

PSYCHOLOGY.

248

justed so

catch

to

as

of the

mouse

or

[BK.

in., i.,

the
coming impressions,
sound

any

it makes

CH.

i.

ance
appear-

; the muscles

body are in a state of tension in preparationfor

other appropriate action.
But the action is
a spring,
or
suppressed and postponed until the occasion for it
such
Perhaps a doubt may be raised whether
emerges.
of
behaviour
it not
be purely perceptual. Does
can
involve acquired ideas and association of ideas?
necessity
this objection
We
take another
instance,in which
may
can
hardly be urged. A crab or flat-fish at the bottom
of the sea
itself with sand, protruding only its
covers
With
this it keeps restlessly
stalked eye.
spying in all
the eye is
directions.
On
the approach of an
enemy,
the
hidden
in the sand.
On
and
rapidly withdrawn
of the

of prey,

appearance
the

is

prey

swiftlyup

enough,

near

seizes it.

and

that this characteristic

of any

kind, to

If the flat-fish
where

poor

can

behaviour

say

crab

the

It

had

chance

to

of

When
darts

animal

scarcelybe maintained
is acquired by association

learn
come

its motions.

observant

nothing of

its instruction

would
have

or

follows

the eye

association
to

look

from

out

of ideas.
for prey,

It would
The

survival.

tainly
cer-

attentive

ance
frequentlyfound in the very first performof an instinctive activity.
That
tive
systematicwatching and searching and attenin general are
behaviour
possiblewithout mental
beings,and
images, may be shown in the case of human
One
in certain pathologicalcases.
curiously
especially
interestingcase has been recentlypublished.* A man
called Voit was
quite unable to name
objects or their

attitude

is

Ueber
krankhafte
Dissoziation
Wolff,
der
u.
Psych,
Phys.
Sinnesorgane,
Zeitschriftf.
*

Gustav

"

der
Bd.

Vorstellungen."

xv.,

Heft

1, 2.

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

" 3.]

properties,unless

if he

Thus

senses.

?"

meadow

has

language

unless

he

far

as.

so

could
the

saw

Yet

horse.
do

to

did

not

tell how

not

able

be

to

if he

answer,

tablet,and

green

of trees

the leaves

are

when
?

he

he

what

"

he

asked,

was

could

green

tablet,but

When

the

questionerpointed to

asked,

"

the leaves

Are

legsa

told,

was

his

inability
of

number

these

among

What

colour

answer

the

tablet,and

green

like this ? "

of trees

the

see

understood
he

"

ing
by pointtotallyhelpless.

not

remained

the

to

is

many

appropriatelyand accurately. Nor was

to find words
: when
merely an inability
laid before him, and
coloured tablets were
a

his

to

colour

asked, "What

not

he
Similarly,

249

actuallypresent

were

were

could

he

meadow.
horse

they

PERCEPTION.

Voit

could

the same
answer
only reply,"Perhaps," and he made
when
the question referred
red
to the blue, yellow, or
held good of sightextended
tablets.
also to the
What
other

in

senses

an

unable

to

assignany

named

to

him.

object as

the

could

He

not

quite
of objects
qualities
was

recall the idea of the

so

consciousness

its visible,
audible,

sensible characters.

other

point is this : In spiteof

truly remarkable
of ideal representation*
to recall by way
inability
of an object,he could none
the less sysappearance
tematica
search for anything named
in
to him ; and
the

Now

his

of the sensible

bring to

to

or
tangible,

greater degree. Voit

even

The

as

stated

an

idea

distinct

object,

should,

student
in bk.

have

must

in

link
such

as

a
a

the

The

image

of

faint."
which

meaning
may

sufficient
train

mind

the

be

of

an

idea

"(1) Any reproduction

can
to be
independence
capable of forming
be
the
thought ; (2) it must
thought of

image
a

character
which

All

the

merely

essential

9:

thing, quality, relation,

sensation, however
and

in

bear

ii.,"

i.,ch.

ideas
has

mentally

or

have

two

acquired
revived

and

event,

not

be

mere

constituents,
in

word.

previous

an

called
a
an

crude

image

experience.

PSYCHOLOGY.

250

far

so

he

as

it.

named

and
such

refrained

it,he
he

made

to

the

On

legs

to

see

was

the

and

watch

remarked

that

the street,he

was

until

useless

at

attempt

to

the time
do

colour

"No,

no,

He

asked

was

no

look

for

to

snow

tent
quite con-

was

passing.As

one

!"

Perhaps

mental

"Red."

black.
many
the

to

the most

Note

in

next

as

he
claimed,
ex-

curious

is the following.

condition

the colour

soon

passer-by,he

of blood

period of bewilderment, in which he

the room,
about
he finallypressed
happened to be on his hand, until the
answered,

he

was,

accept the statement,

of

what

when

some
passed. When
walking about naked

is.

After

looked
a

helplessly
pustule which

blood

that

He

came.

he

could

not,

sible
merely seeing an object,name
any other of its senthan those immediatelypresentedto sight.
qualities
shown
it and
he were
a piece of sugar, he could
name

say it
he

of

horse

window

clothes

illustration of the man's

If

colour

Thus,

the

he

was

to

so.

but

snow,

people were
quite content

only while there was

caught sight from the

on

when

object inquiredabout

for

but

then

But

saw

objects

green

recognised their

he

what
look

he

as

acquiesce in the suggestion that it was

other hand, when
the question was, how
horse
has, he would, if permitted,go

window
one

it

summer

attempt

no

the

from
in

asked

was

to

soon

assistance to him.

no

When

that

As

tree.

Merely

themselves,

it.

nature

of

was

leaves

the

saw

for

"

kind

of any

looked

and

said, Green."

tree, he

i.

i., CH.

in.,

scribe
actuallyperceived,he could accuratelydeOn being asked the colour of leaves,he went

the window

to

[BK.

was

could

white
not

soughtto get

; but

tell how

hold

even

with

it tasted

of the sugar

the

sugar

in full

view,

merely by seeing it.

He

and put it into his mouth.

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

"4.]

Only

when

he

succeeded

in

PERCEPTION.

doing this

251

could

he

find the

Again, Voit could not tell whether the

surface of a mirror
was
rough or smooth until he had
It was
not
it himself.
touched
enough for him to see
it.
others pass their fingers
up and down
The
grand lesson of this case is to be found in the
conjunctionof great impairment if not total absence of
with comparativelyunimpaired perideational activity
ceptual
Voit saw
how
a thing,he knew
activity.When

word, "Sweet."

make

to

it,covered

saw

of it.

use

proper

He

sat

his hat

with

his head

on

chair

when

when

he

he

it,

saw

and drank
when
he saw
the
glassto his mouth
had meaning for him as
glasswith liquorin it. Words
signalsincitingto trains of action,though they
practical
carried

did not

call up

Persistency

" 4.
the

trains of ideas.

earliest

viz. those

with

Varied

performance
activities for

pre-adaptedby

the

of

its

which

inherited

Effort.
"

instinctive

it is

Even

in

activities,

pre-disposedand

constitution

of its

nervous

displaypersistencywith varied
it does not succeed
effort. It keeps on trying when
at
first,
varying its procedure so far as it is unsuccessful.
Professor Lloyd Morgan givesa good example, communicated
Mr. Batchelder
had taken
by Mr. Batchelder.
squirrelsfrom their nest when
they were
very young ;
unable
take
solid food, and
to
at first
had
to
they were
mixture
of cream
be fed through a quillon
and hot
a
Afterwards
water.
cuits,
they took to bread and milk, bisan

animal

may

and

bread

crusts.

system,

them

Mr.

Batchelder

then

gave

the nuts
hickory-nuts. They examined
evidently looking upon them as unusually
attentively,
and at last the more
novelties,
interesting
enterprising
some

"

PSYCHOLOGY.

252

of the two

set

work

to

on

[BK. in.,

nut,

as

if he

wished

i.

i., CH.

to

find

With
hitherto unexampled
prizeit might contain.
patiencehe laboured over it,until at last,after
than half an
hour's diligent
more
gnawing, he gained
With
few days'practicethey
to the kernel.
a
access
these hard-shelled
acquiredskill and speed in extracting
delicacies ; and after that they lost all interest in such
the princiand hickory-nutsformed
pal
thingsas biscuits,
item on their bill of fare." *
Persistencywith varied
out

what

itself in

shows

effort also

indefinite

more

ways.

"I

again and again

able
noticeIt was
of young
birds.
in the case
especially
bit of wire or piece of
in jays. Every projecting
in their cage was
wood
pulled at from all points,and
in varied ways.
object introduced into the
Every new
mered
carried
turned
was
about, pulled at, hamover,
cage
have

noted

it,"says Lloyd Morgan,

at, stuffed

into

this

"

and

corner

into

that, and

experimented with in all possibleways."|

Obviously,persistencywith varied effort is a precondition
of learningby the results of by-gone experience,
of it. In itself it
and not merely a consequence
is an
adaptationto present experiencerather than to
can
only be
past. Further, it is an adaptationwhich
understood
impulse or
by reference to the continuous
conation
which
pervades and constitutes perceptual
the
Just because
impulse is a tendency
process.
of the
action.
towards
an
end, it guides the course
checks
into a phase which
the action
enters
When
the curto equilibrium,
instead of furtheringthe return
rent
of activitydiverts itself into a relativelynew
channel.
*

The
Habit

and

process
Instinct,

would
p. 122.

not

be

process
Op. cit.,p.

towards
154.

CHARACTERISTICS

" 5.]

end,

an

if it could

PERCEPTION.

OF

253

in

variation

persistwithout

an

successful
un-

course.

" 5.

Free

Adaptation

have

Varying Conditions.
perceptual process exhibits
to

"

that
just seen
adaptive variation,according as activityis
unsuccessful.
find
or
But, besides this,we

We

adaptivevariation
conditions.

We

successful
in it also

varying external
mentary
quote first a simple and rudiI took
a
Lloyd Morgan.

in accordance
may

with

example from
in
time
some
pheasant,which had been hatched
young
in
the night,from
the incubator
drawer
at nine o'clock
the morning.
He
was
unsteady on his legs,so I
very
held him in my
hands, and tried to induce him to peck
"

at

piece

did

not

do

so;

yolk

but

of the

movement

inches

of egg

he

pair of forceps. He
followed, with his head, every

object in
of

his

in

held

narrow

circle about

two

Simple as the action

it shows
dinated
a striking
example of congenitalco-orseems,
in
movements
accuratelyrelated to movements
the visual field,
the whole
performed without any possibility
of learning or
practice,and less than half an
hour after the bird had first seen
the lightof day.*
All adjustment of the sense-organs, in looking,
ing,
listening
exploringby touch, and the like,must vary accordto the varying position,
distance,and shape of the
of darting upon
the act
a
object. Similarly,
moving
involves
claw or mouth
or
prey and seizingwith beak
to varyprecise and delicate adaptation of movement
ing
Think
of swallows
catching flies,
space relations.
and

in

similar

The

same

front

beak.

instances.
kind

of
*

purely perceptual adaptation is

Op. cit.,pp.

38-39.

254

PSYCHOLOGY.

found

often

[BK.

m.,

i.,

i.

CH.

in human

beings. In boxing, in fencing,

similar
and
activities,
rapid adaptation to constantly
is required, adaptation which
volves
invarying conditions
perceptual attention,so that eye and hand may
keep pace, but which would
frequentlybe hindered,
rather than
helped, by mental
imagery. Or take the
with
simple act of leaping from point to point. A man
the avenger
of blood behind
him may
have to jump from
to

crag

to

crag
be

his life.

save

crossed,and

His

his muscles

the distance

measures

eye

ingly
adjustedaccordin a certain spot.
If he stopped
to land him
so
as
to mentally picturehimself
moving through the air over
in all probability
a certain
perish. He
space, he would
to

trust

must

Perhaps

to

are

his eye.

the

strikinginstances of adaptation
determined
to varying conditions
purelyby congenital
endowment, independent of prior experience,are to be
found

most

in the behaviour
of ants,

their

main

which

ants

outline
have

as

of ants.*
well

as

taken

the activities characteristic

of bees

instinctive.

been

All

They

and
are

their nest

from

are

wasps,

in

displayedby
immediately

nest.
being hatched, and set apart to form a new
of
Independently of prior experience, the processes
the rearing of the young,
the capture of
nest-building,

after

the

so-called
and

the

situation

weather

the

These

causes

and

maintenance

of

domestic

mals,
ani-

cumstanc
adaptation to varying cirThe
mode
of building the nest varies with
and
accessible
material.
Change in the
them
to make
corresponding changes in

like,vary

adaptations

in the

fixed

slaves,the

preceding

are

not

in

free

paragraph.

specificcircumstances.

in

They

the
are

same

degree

relative

to

as

those

scribed
de-

comparatively

CHARACTERISTICS

" 6.]

When

their

nest.

holes

in it

the

is too

nest

it looks

that

so

PERCEPTION.

OF

like

255

damp, they pierce

This

sponge.

tates
facili-

evaporationand keeps their home drier. In the

tending of their young they show a similar plasticity.
The
youngest larvae are generallykept in the deepest
of

chambers
and

highest.

When

the

more

the

and

half -grown

the

larvae

mature

from

evidence

The

the

is cold

weather

the

in those

above,

pupae,

and

in

the

rainy,they
higher into

the

to

seems

show

that

adaptationsto varying circumstances

by experience,but are due to original

similar

learnt

not

are

chambers.

lower

these

nest

fully-grown,together with

the

carry

the

of congenitalendowment.*
plasticity
In contrast
the
to
" 60 Learning by Experience.
sensation-reflex,
perceptualactivity
by the results
profits
do so without
of past experience. It can
any distinct
items of sensation,
revival of the special
as theyoriginally
The
occurred.
unity and continuityof impulse which
of distinct acts into a singleaction has
binds a sequence
"

its counterpart
of

the

on

cumulative

disposition. On

the traces

of the process
in and

side of retentiveness

contribute

to

left

determine

in the formation

the first occurrence

by prior phases persist

succeeding phases.
disposition. When

They unite in a single cumulative

is repeated,whatever
stimulus
the activity
prompts, it
re-excites the total cumulative
left behind
disposition
by
The cumulative
its previousoccurrence.
has
disposition
in the anterior experience,and accordingly
been modified
takes a correspondingly
modified
the re-aroused
activity
*

der

See

Studien

Vergleichende

hohern

Thiere.

lagshandlung,

1897.

Von

Pp.

E.
122.

uber
Wasmann

das

Seelenleben

S.J.

Price, Is. 9rf.

Freiburg:

der

Ameisen

Herdersche

und

Ver-

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

iJ56

This

course.

is the process

which

we

m.,

i., CH.

described

have

i.

as

be
this there can
acquirement of meaning * Without
tellige
kind; and inno
learningby experienceof an intelligent
learningby experiencemay be due to it alone.
of reproductionare
further processes
Where
present,
they co-operate with the acquirement of meaning, and
make
definite ; but the acquirement of meaning
it more
tion
condition of the variaprimary and indispensable
of future activity,
in intelligent
correspondence with
shall have hereafter to
the results of past activity.We
discuss at what
pointlearningby experienceleaves the
merely perceptual level and involves ideas. We now
Let
us
give instances of typicallyperceptual cases.
"A
refer once
to Mr.
more
Lloyd Morgan's chickens.
had
learnt to pick out
chick two
days old
young
I cut little
piecesof yolk from others of white of egg.
size as the pieces
bits of orange-peelof about the same
of these was
of yolk,and
one
soon
seized,but at once
chick
the
Seizing
shaking his head.
relinquished,
is the

....

another, he

held

it for

moment

in the

bill,but

then

That
dropped it and scratched at the base of his beak.
was
enough ; he could not again be induced to seize a
pieceof orange-peel. The obnoxious material was now
but they
removed, and piecesof yolk of egg substituted,
for orangeleft untouched, being probably taken
were
tion,
peel. Subsequently,he looked at the yolk with hesitabut
but presentlypecked doubtfully,not
seizing,
merely touching. Then he pecked again,seized, and
swallowed."
| This illustration well bringsout the in-

See

section
of

the

i.,ch. ii.,""

bk.
will

serve

earlier

to

8-9.

The

examples

give definiteness

chapter.

to the

which

follow

somewhat

t Op. cit,,pp.

40-41.

in

vague

present
exposition

the

257

PERCEPTION.

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

" 6.]

learning by experience. The

chicken looks hesitatingly
at the yolk ; he then makes
a tentative
peck, only touching it to try what it is like
trial
this preliminary
before venturingto seize it. When
and swallows.
he pecks again,seizes,
proves satisfactory,
of

telligentnature

Take

widely different part

pus,
Cephalopods,such as the octo-

illustration from

another

of the animal

creation.

about

grope

the

in all directions

their

with

arms

ground and on rocks for small mussels and

they push their arm-like tentacles into holes
Schneider
of rocks, in search of crabs.
Now
a

very

crab

octopus seize

young

hermit-crab.

the shell in which

covers

these

recoiled

it was

observed

and
to

prawns,
or

or

chinks

hermitwith

its abode

diately
imme-

the octopus

let its prey escape.

avoid hermit-crabs.

the

observed

The

it takes up

stingingzoophytes. Stung by

on

Subsequently
Older

animals

speciesmanaged cleverlyto pull the crab

without being stung.
out of its house
Persistence
with varying effort is in itself a learning
ing
by experience,
although it is in the first instance a learnby present experiencerather than by past. But it
is also a most
of profiting
importantpre-condition
by
past experience. Repetitionof trials with variation of
sults
procedure is a sort of perceptualexperiment. The reof previous experiment determine
facilitate
and
of the

same

future

action,inasmuch
are

alone

the

quote from

Recently collected
Development of Animal
1898.

Price, $2.00.

Psych.

and

successful

Dr.

part iii. of a
Intelligence.

in

book
New

modes

Mills' valuable
of

entitled:
York:

of procedure

modes

Wesley
"PsychicalDevelopment

pany,

unsuccessful

graduallyeliminated

survive.

papers* on

as

The

Young

The

Nature

?.iacmillan

Ani-

and

Ccui-

258

[BK. in.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

"

mals

method

of young
entries

kitten.

to

goes

day

lower

it.

day

On

hold

is put

It

get
5

The

the

entrance

kitten

pushes
a

upon

in
box

last she

and

sucks

30th

day

near

and

claws.

after

few

givesit up,
mother,

It makes

it is found

sleepingon

moments

and

more

and

strong desire

day

again.
.

by

and

determined

It

on

her

to

then

barred

was

to

About

up.

to

31st

the

barricade

It is taken

finds

ing
curtain,hold-

the

to

the

again,
attack.

settles down

box,

after falls

soon

attempts

books.

barricade,but, not
near

got into

returns

returns

many

behind

some

perseveres.

box

and

box

trying again and

last succeeds.

at

back

among

the

this

After

way

"

leapsfrom

"

the

her
:

on

box

book-shelf

the

to

the

28th

from

"

desists,and
At

starts

towards

show

to

first tries every part of the barricade,then

the curtain
cries with vexation
climbs

with

on

continues

book-shelves.

the

to

P.M.

The

kitten

mother

its box.

taken

was

objectson the shelf, turned

given a few taps. It ran on to
...

The

the kitten

the

it.

completely

not

into

and

shelves,
book-

some

are

things.

of box

gettingout

lowing
fol-

its box

leaves

are

back

The

his observations

there

other

for the book-shelves.

littlerun

"

of which

kitten

The

kitten

where

room

but

their birth.

registerof

The

ones

books,

from

in the

occur

part of the

filled with

27th

animals

26th

the

follows

i.

The
very good illustration of this process.
of Mills was
careful diary of the
to keep a very

behaviour

of

i., CH.

asleep.

shelf,
get into the book-

day

of the

In the

ning
eve-

book-shelf
its

out, but works

getting out

but
difficult,

It tries the book-shelf

day :
succeeding,gives up and sits in its

82nd

grooms

itself well.

attempt

on

the

Later

it makes

barricade,

and

with

250

in gettingout; but soon

difficulty
goes
half to three-quartersof an
remains
from

It has

success.

in

PERCEPTION.

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

" 6.]

again and

S8rd

hour.
.

day

morning before
in

advance

the barricade

this

its

daylight,when, trying to prevent

direction

certain

behind

Found

the kitten

evades

by

me

den.
rocking-chairwhere it is partlyhidclosed by a
were
Though the book-shelves
curtain tacked
on
them, the kitten managed to get in,
how.
35th
It
though I do not know
day :
into
scrambles
the book-shelf
and
at
by a new
way
much
greater height."
drama
I have
at length
reproduced this book-shelf
it is a typicalinstance
of how
animals
because
learn by
the gradual nature
note
experience.We must especially
of the process.
Having succeeded
once, the kitten does

running
.

under

not

therefore

succeed

next

...

time

without

happens is that the

tentative groping gradually diminishes,until
trial and

failure.

the

end

can

The

clever

What

attained

be

tricks

directlywithout

of

animals, which

to

behaviour

their resemblance

let

latch.

But

in

successive

steps have

found

the

that

the

surpriseby

few

been

is

door

instances

in

has

been

conducted

success

corroborated

by

Mr.

by

Thorndike

time.

next

series
of

of

of

animals

by
which

examined, it has

the

seem

sad lack

which

perfectresult only emerged

failures
trials and
involving much
once
groping, and that to succeed
by no
immediate

last the

at

human,
distinctly

There
acquiredin the same
way.
systematicobservation of the process by
do
such
to
come
things as opening a

of

amount

hindrance.

or

excite

to be

further

after

ing
liftthe
been
cessive
suc-

tentative
means

This

tailed
en-

view

experiments

Columbia

Univer-

260

PSYCHOLOGY.

dogs, cats, and

sity,on

put the animals

[BK.

chicks.

"

The

in.,

i.,

method

i.

en.

to

was

hungry in enclosures from which

they could escape (and so obtain food) by operating
some
simple mechanism, e.g. by turning a wooden
held
button
that
the
door, pulling a loop attached
lever.
Thus
the
to
a
one
bolt, or pressing down
readilysees what sort of things the animals can learn
Not
to do and
only
just how they learn to do them.
in effectingescape
of the animals
the actions
were
observed,

kept

of

also in every

but

times

the

enclosure,

to

that

minutes

some

struggles hit

while

enough

in

escape
is

cat

record

accurate

the

upon

trials it will

successive

the

put into

the

such

an

before

its

movement,

proper

make

was

ment
right move-

The
immediately upon being put into the box.
in curves] show
records
exactly
[plotteddown

time

and

the method
to

an

generally elapse

instinctive
after

case

taken

first time

The

trials.

when

the

latter

the

of

rate

condition

of

from

progress

What

affairs.
.

in all these

cases

the box, and

with

so

food

is this

confronted

with

The

with

such

have
a

in the

on

forth
course

situation.

being put

situation

the

former

happens

animal

outside,'bursts

activities which
connected

the

into

'

the

of nature
It tries to

into

ment
confinetive
instincbeen
squeeze

fining
through any openings,claws and bites at the walls conside,
it,puts its paws through and claws at things outrush
It may
around,
trying to pull itself out.
and
sistence.
perdoing all this with extraordinary vehemence
If these
impulsive activities fail to include
in opening the door, the
succeeds
which
any movement
and
remains
animal
quietlyin the
finallystops them
does
the animal
If in their course
box.
accidentally

mechanism

the

work

and

in

pleasure will stamp

stance)
in-

food, the resulting

act, and

the

for

round,

button
and

freedom

win

thus

the

(claw

261

PERCEPTION.

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

" 6.]

again put

when

in

This
likelyto do it sooner.
continues ; all the squeezings and bitingsand clawings
do not hit the vital point of the mechanism, and
which
do not result in any pleasure,get stamped out, while
so
ing
the particular
impulse, which made the successful clawor
biting,gets stamped in, until finallyit alone is
of the box's
terior,
inconnected
with the sense-impression
animal

the

the box

it is done

and
.

to

of

of

certain

Moreover,

from

to

doors

which

of the

it

For

theorisers

have

accident
by mere
is,therefore,unnecessary
for these

and

and

evidence
in

similar

the

which

has

therefore

tain
cer-

to

invoke
with

besides

on

take

credit

the

reason

(e.g.opening
turningbuttons)

acts

incapable of
be

so

mechanical
them

for

It

account

ances,
contriv-

falls

the

formance
per-

done.

reasoningto

destroyingthe
offered

powers,

to

who

certainlycan

based

been

them

seem

and

declared

successes

argument

Moreover,

ground.
reason

that

by depressingthumb-latches
these

to

possession
generalisation.

or

the feet of those

found

in.

of the

sign

any

experiments

was

is shut

the full their mental

to

gave

beneath

animals.

it was

inference, comparison

of

animal

importance

boxes, and

use

animals

the

the

when

once

of the utmost

was

would

they

powers

ground

at

of the various

out

that
none

it

Although

get

will be

value

to

the

of the

presence

of

animals, the time-records

that the
reason.

For

Surely if

that it would

cat

subjectsof these
the
slopes of the
made

open

the
the

movement

dence
give us positiveeviexperiments could not
curves

are

from

door, it ought, when

an

gradual.
inference

again put

PSYCHOLOGY.

262

make

in,to

due

was

should

the movement

take

to

rudiment
slightest
of

power
the

of

of

ten

make

the

from

be

ought, that is,to

of

time.

regular minimum

The

gradual.*
Finally,experiments made

any

if no

trials to
and

in

realise
forth
thencea

sudden

real

time

decision, not

i.

first

were

some

getting out,

means

movement

least

at

CH.

the

if there

successful

twenty

times
long, irregular

the

trials after

And

ought

cat

button

There

impulse.

i.,

even
reasoning faculty,

or

turningthat

from

time.

inference,the

course

that

inference, all

an

m.,

If its first success

immediately.

minimum

[BK.

mere

change

to
impulsive activity

change
in another

is

as

fact very

connexion

show

the
perform even
simplestacts by seeing another do them or by being put
thus
through them by the experimenter. They were
unable
another
to infer that since
by pulling a string
obtained fish,they might, or that since fish were
gained
it would
with their paws
be
I pushed round
when
a bar
t
gained if they pushed it round themselves.
The best examples in adult human
beings of this gradual
of the rightway,
and gradual disappearance
emergence
of wrong
of doing a thing,are
presented by
ways
the process of acquiringbodilyor other dexterity
merely
sauce
a
through practice. The cook who can concoct
that

animals

these

could

learn

not

to

"

"Thus

happen

The
to

"

animals
do

the

Review,

six

and

vol.

vol.

of the

original

Review.

or

by

taken

the

cat

one

of

case

times,

seven

but

after

forever

v., No.

series,

Psychological

in

then

new

t Science,
an

would,

thing

scrabbling,

abstract

times

in

certain

box

were

160, 30, 90, 60, 15, 28, 20, 30, 22, 11, 15, 20, 12, 10, 14, 8, 8, 5, 10, 8, 6,

(in seconds)
6, 7."

successive

the

difficult

some

after
would

associations,
of

long periods
fail to

do

it."

miscuous
pro-

chological
(Psy-

5, p. 552.)
vii., No.

paper

in

181

(June 17, 1898), pp. 818, 820-821;

Monograph

Supplement,

No.

8, of the

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

" 7.]

PERCEPTION.

263

peculiarlyfelicitous way, but cannot teach anybody

the ingredientsin the right proportions,
else to mix
tentative
attained
have
must
success
mainly by mere
groping without the aid of definite comparison or general
Mr. Thorndike
ideas.
points out that association,
in his animals, is not homologous with
it existed
as
association except such
conscious
anything in human
feels in playingtennis or billiards.
connexions
a man
as
essential thing in it is not the idea,but the impulse.
The
associations is homologous with
this sort of human
That
is borne
out
the animal
sort
by the fact that they are,
like the latter,formed
gradually by the stamping in of
in

"

due

successes

formed

by

trial and

to

imitation

one's

by

or

and

error,

able

not

are

being put

be

to

through

them."

^Reproduction,

" 7.

in

the

purelyperceptualprocess,
are
(1) Acquirement
and

(3) The
and

excitement

only forms

In

"

of

reproduction
of meaning r, (2) Complication,
of general states of nervous

revival
their

Process.

Perceptual

concomitant

organic

sensations.

of meaning is the most

primary
It is grounded in the very nature
of perceptual
considered
as
appetitiveactivity.The

(1) Acquirement
essential.

and

process
whole
leaves
it is

in

process,
it

behind

far

it is

as

cumulative

repeated,it

so

is modified

as

whole

Psychological
by

draws
more

from

the
his

system.

nervous

Review,

coincidence

experiments,

general grounds.

vol. v., No.

between
and

and

continuous,

disposition. Hence,

(2) Complication is a process

probably specialpre-arrangements
of the

one

the
that

5, pp.

the

for which
in the

552-553.

I had

which

outset.

there

are

stitution
originalcon-

It consists

conclusion

which

from

when

in modifi-

am

Mr.

previously

greatly

pressed
im-

Thorndike
formed

on

264

PSYCHOLOGY.

[BK.

m.,

i.,

I.

CH.

of the

cation

qualityand increase of the complexity of

certain sensations
by association with other kinds of
in past experience. It mainly takes
sensation
place
sensations belonging to different senses
between
such
In looking at a hard
as
sight and touch.
object,our
have
that which
visual experienceis different from
we
is due to
in looking at a soft object,and the difference
the correspondingtactile experiences.
ment
excite(3) The revival of general states of nervous
and

their

concomitant

especialimportance in
has

which

whipped

been

of fear and

connexion

distress

is of

sensations

organic

emotion.

with

will whine

dog
displaysigns

and

at the

inal
sight of the lash. The origment,
excitepain-sensations
produced a diffused nervous
of or"
rise to a general disturbance
which
gave
The
sight
ganic functions,and to organic sensations.
and bodily
analogous nervous
and with it analogous experiences,,
excitement
" 8. Ideas
Perceptual Process.
accompanying
of perception and
treated
have
So far we
perceptual
in its pure
We
have
form.
distinguishedit
process
of

the

whip

revives

an

"

sharply from
life of

mental
that
but

ideational

we

do

rather

not

what

but
absolutely,
some

may

of

extent

the

man

we

only
the

process

The

animals

without

The
essentially
perceptualnature.
a function
essentially
analogous to
and

requiresthe

not

any

presence

actual

another,

so

perceptualprocesses,
perceptual processes not

potiori.

higher

one

the

pure

call

may

into

run

usually find

accompany

two

in

But

process.

function
of ideas.

same

also.

is true

ideas

Free

interferingwith
free ideas

may

that fulfilled

which

This

to

by

its

fulfil
ception,
per-

by its very nature

happens when the

CHARACTERISTICS

" 8.]

PERCEPTION.

OF

265

imagery is to prompt
only office discharged by mental
of an action,and not to lay out
or
guide the execution
in the form of a train
the plan of an action beforehand
of thought. Mr. Batchelder's
squirrelsgnawed at the
and by reaching their contents
satisfied their connuts
genital
cravingwithout any mental image of the kernel
inside.
Suppose that on a future occasion they start
with this mental
image, the character of the process is
altered.
The
not
essentially
image of the kernel inside
now
only contributes to prompt and guide the action,
perception of the nut prompted and
just as the mere
Free images may
useful
be especially
guided it before.
and
in this way,
when
the activity
is
even
necessary
nite
comparativelycomplicated,and undetermined
by deficongenitalimpulses. Take for instance the case of
a monkey
imitatinga train of actions which it has seen
those concerned
in shaving,for
performed by a man,
instance.
Possiblypercepts would alone suffice in such
The
a case.
might prompt the act of
sightof the razor
sharpening it,and the act of sharpeningit might next
But
prompt the lathering,and so on.
certainlyit is
"

easier

understand

to

different
the

phases
and

monkey,
exist*

They

not

each
*

There

is

in

not

think

in

the

animal

perhaps

for

room

that

there

mind,
of

rule
a

give

of

difference

except

elephants.

ideas,so

mind

of

of

the

to

so

Their
opinion

case

for

far

they
speak, sporadic.

rise to further

evidence
in the

the

image

him.

and,

train.

is much

in

in

that

suppose
mental

some

in animals

isolated

other

do

and

as

we

arises

man

that

seem

all, are

at

do

the

helps to guide

It would

if

of its progress

of

behaviour

action

the

ideas following

function
this

on

the

of the

is rather

point.

presence

more

as

to

Personally,

of ideal

images

intelligent monkeys

PSYCHOLOGY.

266

[BK.

in.,

i.,

en.

T.

impulse as percepts
guide the development of a motor
guide it. As Mr. Thorndike
says, the impulse and not
the idea is the essential thing.
In

our

life,free

mental

own

ideas

almost

are

stantly
con-

purely perceptual activityis

it certainly takes
comparatively exceptional. But
been
bitten by a dog, and meet
place. If I have once
the same
occasion, I do not need to
dog on another
mind
summon
a mental
image of being bitten
up in my
of an intelligent
again in order to take practicalmeasures
present,

that

so

kind.
The

interval

vast

far

so

animal

from

which

they depend

as

achievements,

animal

is
intelligence,

between

perceptual

activities

are

they

an

hand,

man

them

action

"

of

distinction

the

Animal

process.

He

can

Impulsive

execution.*

in his

action

is thus

He

in advance.

" 9.

with

ideational

in its actual

constructs

out.

as

purely perceptual,or, in so far as

and
to prompt
ideas,these ideas only serve

ideas, schemes

of

far

so

intelligence,
they depend on

either

involve

guide

human

on

connected

and

ments,
achieve-

separates human

head," by
before

capable of
cross

On

Character

of trains

means

he

begins to carry
overcoming difficulties

bridgebefore

the other

he

of Perceptual

to it.

comes

Process.

"

Any single train of perceptual activityhas internal

conscious
life is
unity and continuity. But where
mainly perceptual,the several trains of activityare
with
each
other.
relativelyisolated and disconnected
They

do

not

unite

implied in

is
*

There

broadly

may

true.

be

the

to

form

continuous

conception

exceptions

to

this

of

rule, but

system, such

person.
the

general

We

as

must

statement

is

OF

CHARACTERISTICS

" 9.]

PERCEPTION.

267

in the main
They are
deny personalityto animals.
word
of impulse. The
creatures
impulse is properly
applied to any conative tendency, so far as it operates

its

by
a

isolated

own

of

general system

or

deliberation.

of

relation

into

action

the

to

follow.

the
He

reflexion

instead

man,

of

for

deliberation,regret

When

the momentary

conflict

with

come

into

which

give unity and

the

of

system

appeals

from

without
is

remorse

impulse

has

general
his life

consistencyto

likely

ceased

of his past action

more

Self

strength

action

or

his

the

If the

determine

consciousness,the idea

dominate

total

the total Self.

impulse

momentary

giving time

with

future.

and

life,past

of the present moment

to

from

is

impulsearisingfrom the circumstances

brings the contemplated course
present moment,

mental

of

impulse

on

results

deliberation

In

its relation to

the

followingout
of the

Action

motives.
action which

with

contrasted

thus

from

intensity,
apart

to

may

tendencies
as

whole.

is impossible on
of this kind
the
Regret or remorse
the peron
purely perceptual plane; simply because
ceptual
plane there is no unified system of tendencies
the isolated impulse could
with which
collide;there is
whole
no
personal Self including in one
past, present
and future experience. It is nonsense
to punish a dog
for

an

which

action

did

he

purely perceptual consciousness

detached
process

impulses.
does

attainment

having

not

The

constitute

of further

ends.

own

internal

with

each

its

with

each

end

the

of

relatively
attained in one
perceptual
for the
a
starting-point
several

unity and
much

We

Thus

ago.

is compact

The

other

other.

week

do

processes,

continuity,are
as

not

games
assume

are

each

connecte
dis-

nected
discon-

the result

268

of

one

of

the

holds
the

the

of

analogy

and

as

the

the

be

even

and
the

complete.

begun.

continuous

coherent

lower
On

the

is

races

the

of

purely

the

this

also

makes

phases,

perceptual

and

things

in

gradually

ideal

tion
construc-

mentary
rudi-

comparatively

mankind,

tinuous
con-

world.

of

up

say

may

future

system

The

that

single

no

and

built

world

we

up,

single
past

pletely
com-

and

is

development.
of

but

there

constructions,

human

Self

present,

single

ideal

of

course

in

not

as

are

of

can

uniting

world

processes,

with

contrasted

starting-

true

activity,

Summing

plane

is

practice,

by

perfect.

whole

It

T.

CH.

i.,

starts

game

perceptual

perceptual

Self
Self

of

trains

more

the

on

increased

m.,

the

as

Each

account.

own

is

player

whist

at

game.

its

on

good

that

rubber

or

succeeding

afresh
of

chess

at

game

point

skill

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

and

it

plane

never

it

has

II.

CHAPTER

IMITATION.

" 1. Introductory.
great
both

importance for

is

Imitation

the

animals.

and

men

"

its

very

life in

of mental

development
In

of

process

complex forms,

more

it

trains of ideas ; but in its essential features

pre-supposes

operativeat the perceptual level. It

is largelythrough imitation that the results of the experience
of one
generationare transmitted to the next, so
the basis for further
to form
as
development. Where
trains of ideas play a relatively
unimportant part, as in

it is present and

the

of

case

form

animals, imitation

of social tradition.

In

the

said to be the sole

be

may

of human

case

beings,
in language,
distinctively

thought of past generationsis embodied

institutions,
machinery, and the like. This

the

which

generation,that
this

trains of ideas in past generations,

tradition pre-supposes

human

so

in

environment

mould

the

environment

of

new

apprehending and adapting itself

re-think

it must

the

old

to

trains

of

of this kind is not found

in animal
thought. Tradition
does not
because
the animal mind
life,
proceed by way
of trains

of ideas.

animals

depend

consists

in imitation by
essentially

None

largely

of their parents, or

the
on

less,the

of other
269

This

tradition.
the

intelligent

more

young

members

tradition
of the

of the

tions
ac-

com-

[BK. in.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

270

in

munity
imitative

which

they are
though it

process,

of social tradition in human

the whole

importantpart

very

is very

en.

IT.

directly
far from
forming
beings,forms a

The

born.

i.,

same

of it.

We
must
Impulse.
distinguish
We
between
to imitate and impulse to imitate.
ability
be alreadyfullyable to perform an action,and the
may
sightof it as performed by another may merely prompt
act performed
to reproduce it. But the sight of an
us
by another may also have an educational influence; it

" 2. The

could

we

follow.

When

to

us

do

what

not

the

do

without

cough

of

we

having
one

an

us

to

example
sets

man

already

are

also enable

its aid ; it may

without

able to do
what

"

only stimulate

not

may

Imitative

do
to

another

coughing,it is evident that imitation here consists only

second
does
suit. The
in the impulse to follow
man
the example of the first.
to cough from
not learn how
occasion
He is simply prompted to do on this particular
what he is otherwise quite capable of doing. But if I
shows
one
me
am
learningbilliards and some
by his own
a
example how to make
particularstroke,the case is
stance
in the first inIt is not his example which
different.
prompts me to the action. He merely shows the
I alreadydesire to do.*
to do what
way
We

have

then

first to discuss the nature

of the imitative

impulseto perform an action which arises

from the perceptionof it as performed by another.
But
This impulsemay
be due to varying conditions.
far as it is of importance in mental
so
development, it
The
with attention.
connected
to be essentially
seems
perceptionof an action prompts us to reproduce it when
the

impulse
"

So

far

"practice."

as

this

is capable

of

being

taught,

and

does

not

depend

on

and

271

IMITATION.

" 2.]
far

so

it excites interest

as

with

connected
interest

must

certain

kind.

what

least

at

excite interest.

does

of such

be

is

or

Further, the

it is

that

intimately

fully
or
by partially
gratified
wholly repeatingthe interesting
imitation
is a specialdevelopment of atThus
action.
tention.
Attention
is always striving
after a more
vivid,
more
definite,and more
complete apprehension of its
in which
this endeavour
object. Imitation is a way
gratifyitself when the interest in the objectis of a
may
all

nature

It is obvious
of

manner

actions

that

do

we

without

more

not

tate
imi-

to

try

distinction,
merely

is
What
our
they take place under
eyes.
familiar and commonplace or what
for any other reason
is unexciting and insipid,
fails to stir us to re-enact
it.
It is otherwise
in any
novel
with what
is strikingly
or
attention
that our
dwells
it with
so
on
impressive,
way
because

relish
whatever
is

fascination.

or

when

where

case

it is in fact
so

fixes attention

act

only the

interest

is

sake

own

it is not

centres

but

in

something

acts, but
often

is

there

also

that

with

than
the

the

like
act

which

the

on

for

This

the

activity

sake

ulterior

of its

motives.

in itself should

this act

be

the

cases

act

is

terest
in-

imitated,
is

so

mately
inti-

virtuallyto form a part of it.

tendency not only to imitate interesting
of interesting
the acts
Dogs
persons.
as

imitate their masters.

gestures and

of attention.

important class of
directlyin the external
else

This

helps attention,where

most

not

connected
Thus

and

necessary

interesting
; in

rather

that

true

imitation.

to

directlyconcentrated

possibleconsequences
But

prompts

imitation

not

course

specialdevelopment

itself for its

It is of

modes

of

Men

speech

are

of those

apt
who

to

imitate

excite

the

their

PSYCHOLOGY.

272

admiration

affection

or

their

imitate

Children

Even

playground.

[UK.

parents,

the mannerisms

n.

in

their leaders

or

CH.

T.,

personal interest.

other

some

or

m.,

tricks of

and

the

speech

unconsciouslycopied by those
who
regardhim as a hero. In such instances the primary
interest is in the whole
personalityof the model ; but
this is more
sciousness
brought before convividlyand distinctly
by reproducinghis external peculiarities.*

of

great

Our

man

are

result

then

imitation

to

in

interest is of

by

is that interest in

proportion to
kind

imitative

often

which

interest

The

intensity,
provided the
sustained
be gratified
or

here

make

must

we

either

be

may

prompts

its

will

activity. But

action

an

primary

tinction.
dis-

or

quired
ac-

imitative
through previous experience. The
tent
impulse in young animals and children is to a large exindependent of previousexperience. It depends
duck brought up by
A young
on
congenitaltendencies.
a

hen

chickens

among

imitates

its social

environment

there is an instinctive
only in a limited degree. Where
tendency towards a certain form of action,the action is
tive
when
another
interesting
performs it,so that the imitainto play.
impulse comes
As a rule,this instinctive imitation
not
only prompts
less its special
the action,but also determines
more
or
The child has a congenitaltendency to utter
character.
of the
articulate sounds ; but
the
special character
sounds it utters is largelydetermined
by the sounds it
hears

of

true

Hence

from

Of

the

course

the

the

persons
of

song

the

society

tendency

associating

to

with

surround

who

birds.

in which

acquire
people

who

live

is

provincial
have

it.

The

sometimes

But

we

it.

always
accent

imitation

interesting
when

is

same

we

are

to

us.
stantly
con-

" 3.]

273

IMITATION.

occasional

onlyto supply an

seems

in the first instance

action

the

create

appreciablymodify

or

in which

the

impulse,and does not

of performing an
power

its character.
of

presence

an

ample
ex-

lates
simply stimu-

model

As

and does not modify it,we

take
activity
may
the repetition
birds when
of a danger-cryby young
they
hear others utter
it. The
edly
danger-cryitself is undoubtinstinctive.
perience
Any disagreeableor disturbingexan

will
heard

not

elicit it from

it before.

hear

it is instinctive.

cry,

the

cease

chick

in

the

on

has

birds who

same

uttered

by

instinctive way, the sound

bird prompts another
one

repeat it,so that the alarm

to

whole

and

to
may be communicated
It is mainly in this manner
that birds

group.
animals

other

learn

to

avoid

they had disregarded. The

desert island
on
a previously
feathered

inhabitants

; but

the fatal consequences

the birds

in

uttered
state

disturbed

the alarm-note
of

alarm,

and

dangers which
with
sight of a man
evoke

may
after

connected

general will

actuallybeen
a

also

which

parent-birdutters the
is
yet in the egg will suddenly
become
to pierce the shell and

justthe

of the alarm-note

When

which

Tn

chicken

young

Its effect

its endeavour

motionless.

or

few

with

become

shy.

wounded

; this has

they

thrown

also

utter

these,when

no

at
a

alarm

first
gun
in its

experiencesof
man
so
armed,

Those

by

the

who

have

gun

have

yet others
the

into

alarm-note;
alarm-note,

they again see a man, utter the

although they have never
experienced any harm from
human
beings.
Let us now
" 3. Learning by Imitation.
turn
to
the other side of the question. Let us consider the case
in which
of performingan action is acquired
the power
"

Psych.

18

274

PSYCHOLOGY.

in and
a

by the
general rule

[BK.

of imitation

process

is obvious

which

when

part of the still more

out.

It is

him

that hath

shall be

itself.

in.,

Here

general rule
Our

given."

of

power

u.

there

it is

once

en.

i.,

is

pointed

that

"

to

imitating

is

proportioned to our
strictly
of performing the same
general kind
pre-existing
power
is devoid
of action independently.* For instance,one
who
of imitating
of musical
no
facultyhas practically
power
Imitation
the violin playing of Joachim.
may
develop and improve a power which alreadyexists,but
it. Consider
the child beginning for
it cannot
create
tation
the first time to write in a copybook. He learns by imimentary
rudihe has alreadysome
; but it is only because
abilityto make such simple figuresas pothooks
activityof

the

another

that the imitative

his

can

process

pothooks

are

very

get

unlike

model

the

the

At

start.

set

set,
out-

before

pendent
Graduallyhe improves ; increased power of indeproductiongives step by step increased
power
imitation,until he approaches too closelythe limits

him.

of

his

of

capacity
of

progress
But

an

in

this

direction

to

make

any

further

appreciablekind.

this is an

of the matter.
The
incompleteaccount
of learning by imitation
is part of the general
power
of learning by experience; it involves
mental
power
plasticity.An animal which starts life with congenital
tendencies and aptitudesof a fixed and stereotyped
kind,
in the course
that they admit of but little modification
so
of individual
development, has correspondingly little
of learning by imitation.
animals, monAmong
power
*

to

Mr.

imitate

buttons,
been

Thorndike's

actions
etc.

different.

The

animals,
so

strange

result

with

referred
and
an

to

in the

unfamiliar

to

previous
them

intelligentmonkey

as

would

chapter,
the

failed

pressure

probably

of
have

IMITATION.

" 3.]

the

have

keys

kinds
of

of ways,

They

and

they

in

are

of
of

the

use

the

more

human

knives,

of

sphere

of

failure

of

their

the

imitative

of

distinctly

an

The

action

wide
of

without

is, as
of

their

which

range

interest.

general,
more

They

the

are

all

in

success

of

or

their

They

tivity
ac-

attend

directly practical aim;

any

form

before

bringing

rapidly by

range

this

learn

and

animals.

the

to

things, experimenting

impulse

of

development

wider

all

capable

In

etc.

other

learning

things

in

spontaneously

have

than

do

to

wide

of

all kinds

way

plates,

attempts.

involves

and

forks,

cups,

active

admitted

will

and

ways,

when

Thus,

tude
apti-

greatest

high degree

very

beings, they

activity

incessantly trying
sorts

intelligent monkeys

varied

the

incessantly

are

learning by experience.

company

to

plasticity and

greatest

imitation.

for

275

have

we

seen,

attention.

The

consciousness

interests

them,

special

readiest

vividly
is to

and

re-enact

it themselves.
Of

at

course

imitative

impulse
activity

in

activity organised
imitate
the

not

action

desirable

so

is

far

less

general
in

much

of

levels

higher

unified

as

with

and

system.*
of

immediate

view

to

results.
*

See

last

development

conspicuous

is checked

because

imitated

mental

chapter,

"

9.

the

because

the
pulsive
im-

overruled

Civilised
interest

attainment

by
men

in

of

III.

CHAPTER

PLEASURE-PAIN.

of perceptone
Introductory. The hedonic
tion
We
is determined
by varying conditions.
may
is
which
distinguish
broadly the pleasure or displeasure
directlydue in the first instance to the perceptual process

" 1.

at

from

"

the

time

of its occurrence,

and

that

which

arises

pre-formed associations.

Whatever

disables

perceptual process
is disagreeable
at the time of its occurrence
; whatever
favours or furthers it is agreeable. Here it is important
functions
of perception: (1) the
to
distinguishtwo
attention ; (2) the
apprehension of objects,or mere
are
performance of actions which
guided by attention,
but do not merely consist in the process of attending.
The
conditions
"2. Feeling -Tone
of Attention.
of pleasure-painin the process
of attending,as
such,
well stated by Dr. Ward
have been
There is pleasure
:
in proportionas a maximum
of attention is effectively
tention
exercised,and pain in proportion as such effective atis frustrated by distractions,shocks, or incomplete
and faultyadaptations,
fails of exercise owing
or
obstructs

or

"

"

the

to

narrowness

and

slowness

Article
xx.,

on

of the

smallness
"Psychology"

field of consciousness

of its

in

276

the

ninth

tion,
edi-

changes."*

Encyclopaedia

p. 71.

and

Britannica,

PLEASURE-PAIN.

" 2.]
The

continuance

monotonous

of

kind

same

involves

similar

in

similarlysituated.

variety is

for

necessary

this

Where

its interest is exhausted,

activitywhich may be
along a road where
travelling
all
character,and the villages

in

is uniform

and

certain

free

the

On

the

other

hand,

too

attention.

will strive

is

fail

and

of

amount

of

play

lacking,the mind
exercise its activity
upon,

objects to

the

of mental

highlydisagreeable,as
the scenery

repetition of

or

presentationafter

restriction

277

find

to

ably.
disagree-

succession

rapid

of

varying external impressionsmay be equally unpleasing. The mind, while pre-occupiedwith one object,is
of another, and
other,
interruptedby the obtrusion
yet anthat attention
is being perpetuallywarped.
so
This
gives rise to the pain of distraction,which may
also occur
when
disconnected
objects simultaneously
claim
be efficiently
attention,so that it cannot
cised
exerof them.
In attendingto the same
by any one
complex object,pleasure or displeasuremay arise from
the

of

relation

adapted

to

Where

the

facilitates

its

parts, which

Kant

what

calls

"

our

parts

of
has
the

the

the

whole,

the

other

meets

hand,
is

where

prepared

with

and

another

the

activityis

apprehension
apprehension
pleasant,if it

stage of

one

certain

for which

is unpleasant.
activity

prehens
ap-

facilitates the

field for its exercise.

at

for

where

and

facilitates the

total

varied
sufficiently

the mind
and

and

prepares

be

facultyof knowing."

part prepares

one

apprehension of another, and

the

not

may

apprehension of the whole

prepares
the apprehensionof the parts, where
the
of

of

or

may

As

kind

the

On

process

of continuation

it is not

examples

pre-adjusted,
we

may

refer

278

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

"

to

sounds

outlines, of
sound,

of

movements,

or

and

i.,

en.

in.

of
rhythmic succession
symmetricalforms and curved

pleasurableness of

the

m.,

gentle crescendos
of gradual variations

and

diminuendos

of shade

in

in

colour,and

painfulness of nickering lights,false time, false

and the like. In all these, whenever
steps, false quantities,
be readily
the result is pleasurable,
attention
can
the

accommodated,
and

is,so

"

say,

result

the

whenever

to

is

balked, wasted."*

economicallymeted out;
prised,
painful,attention is surunderstand

To

this, we

of
prospective nature
essentially
It is always a pre-adjustment
the attentive process.
the pre-adjustment varies in
for what is coming, and
If what
its specific
nature
accordingto circumstances.
is that for which
a
specific
pre-adjustment
actuallyoccurs
has
been
made, the mental
activityproceeds
of energy.
without
waste
smoothly and
successfully
If on
the other hand
does not fit
what
actuallyoccurs
in with the pre-adjustment,
of disapthere is a shock
pointmen
remember

must

and
The
movement

the

of energy.

waste

pleasureor displeasureexperiencedin observing

the part of other persons
on
or
thingspartly

depends

on

the

same

conditions

the

of
feeling-tone
discussingimitation,we
intrinsic

interest

attract

as

those

motor

which

mine
deter-

activities.

our

own

saw

that actions which

attention,produce

by

In

their

in the observer

This tendency
tendency to repeat them himself.
is always present, even
it does not issue in overt
when
imitation.
occasions
The
sightof external movement
the revival of correspondingmotor
experiencesin the
revival
subjectwho is attending to it. This motor
a

Op. cit.tp.

69.

PLEASURE-PAIN.

" 2.]
forms

integralpart

of the

distinct idea.

The

an

course

279

perceptualcomplex, not of
conditions
of pleasure and

in general,
displeasurewhich apply to motor
process
in
involved
apply also to the reproduced motor
process
it takes
attending to a moving object. When
place
with
and
and
fineness of adjustspecial ease
facility
ment,
call the

we

But

"graceful."

an

it is not

that involves

movement

the

external

that

movement

the

merely

slender

column

apparentlydisproportionate
weight
effect

the spectator.

on

It is

he
to which
supporting a burden
mere
thought of Atlas bearing up
shoulders

makes

has

if he

as

is not
the

uncomfortable.

it
of

perception

the revival of motor

part of the subject.

excites

on
activity
supporting
a
able
disagree-

himself

were

equal.

heavens

on

The
his

The

pleasingor
unpleasingeffect of geometrical forms is also to a large
due to the motor
in perceiving
extent
involved
activity
them.
In part, this motor
activityconsists in actual
such as those of the eye followingan
line
outmovements,
; but

in

apprehending
themselves
"

one

great

measure

lines

and

active.

into the

We

air ; of

it arises from
surfaces

our

mode

of

if

in
they were
self
speak of a column
raisingitpath winding ; and so on.
as

"

"

"

feature of
Language of this kind marks a fundamental
The
direction of lines and surfaces
perceptualprocess.
is apprehended as if it were
which the lines
a direction
and
surfaces
themselves
activelytake and maintain.
there
is a sympathetic
Hence, in apprehending them
in us, which
revival of motor
activity
may be pleasing
the geometrical outline is so iror
unpleasing.* When
*This

Baumasthetik

view

is
und

developed

in

full

detail

geometrisch-optische

in

Dr.

Lipps'

Tduschungen.

recent

work

280

PSYCHOLOGY.

regular

in

its

[BK.

m.,

i.,

CH.

in.

defeat

pre-adjustmentson
our
abrupt changes for which we
part, and to demand
are
unprepared, it is disagreeable. On the other hand,
is agreeable. Of course,
if the
a
gently flowing curve
figureis too simple,it will be almost neutral in feelingit is at once
complex and graceful,it
tone, but when
pleasure
displeasure. Marked
give rise to considerable
may
when
sufficient regularity
is present to
occurs
other
appoint.
disconditions
create
a
pre-adjustment which
The
ing
experienceis also unpleasant when, owmonotonous
to the simplicity
or
repetitionof the
occupied. In this
object,attention is not sufficiently
active tendency is thwarted
because
it does not
case
an
find adequate material
for its exercise.
Of course
what
is too simple or too complex for one
not be
person
may
too simple or too
complex for another.
and
" 3. Success
Defeat as Determining Pleasure
and

Pain.

very

extensive

that

it

"

and

an

endeavour

that

of the

class

knows

the
of

seems

that

by

of

head

second

cases

it is

is

familiar

so

necessary

to

unpleasant

adverse

external

which

facilitate

circumstances

end

to

as

Under

scarcely

Everybody
in

course

included

and

obvious

mention
be

to

them.
defeated

circumstances,
the

attainment

pleasing.
activityare for that reason
The
the mouse
cat is displeasedwhen
it; the
escapes
stead
he digs up the turf ingolf-playeris displeasedwhen
of hitting his ball ; the sportsman
is displeased
is
he misses his bird.
An
when
analysisof such cases
We
need
only insist on their importance
unnecessary.
for the general theory of pleasure-pain. The
very fact
them
familiar
makes
obvious
and
that they are
tant.
imporIf

we

an

can

reduce

other

instances

in which

the

281

PLEASURE-PAIN.

" 3.]

less obvious
to the
tone
are
feelingwe
same
fairlyclaim to have
general principle,
may
iologica
given an explanation.It should be noted that the phystions
theory which refers all pleasure-painto relatissue can
and
of wear
scarcely
repairin nervous
We
be made
to apply here.
are
pleasedwhen we hit
miss it;
nail on
the head
and displeasedwhen
we
a
for supposing
whatever
there
to be
no
reason
seems
is being used
that in the one
case
surplus-stored
energy
of

conditions

up,

and

whatever
These

in

the

the

other

surplus existed
remarks
apply to

failure which

arise from

is another

There

One

not.

would

be

of

that

suppose

both.

to

common

of

conditions

those

or

success

circumstances.

external

group

would

in which

cases

tions
condi-

the

ternal
or
are
found, not in exefficiency
inefficiency
circumstances, but in the activityitself as a
The
simultaneous
and
successive
subjectiveprocess.

of

co-ordination

of

delicate

involves

impulses.

adjustment
of

Each

these

duration, and
and

succeed

general, failure

directed

movements

each
in

of

have

must

in

motor

certain

they

end

one

innumerable

and
rapidity,
other

towards

must

certain

tensity
in-

pany
accom-

order.

In

adjustment,disturbingthe activity
whole
and
is unpleasant.
as
a
rendering it inefficient,
The
is a
peculiarexperience of losing one's balance
treme
good illustration. Part of the unpleasantness of exvulsive
fatigue lies in the muscular
tremblings and conjerks to which it gives rise. On the other hand,
and
ease
plex
certaintyof adjustment in performing comis a source
of pleasurewhen
the movemovements
ments
habitual
have not become
to lose feelingso
as
free
and
A
tone.
easy flow of delicatelyadjusted

PSYCHOLOGY.

282

is

movements

play

to
same

its

such.

as
.pleasurable,

in children

kind.

[UK.

and

The

animals

young

in.,

cu.

i.,

in.

pleasures of

largelyof this
dog in its struggle

are

Compare the mental state of a

keep standing on its hind legs with that of the
dog in its natural gambols, its mock-fights with
and

companions,

There

the like.

certain

are

and

general

conditions

which

bute
contri-

effective motor

adjustment. Among
these perhaps the most
important is rhythm. In rhythmic
the same
movements
adjustment is repeated at
regular intervals,so that it is possibleto prepare for it
to

easy

beforehand.
and

the

this way

In

maximum

of

is
efficiency

of

energy

is

attained.

avoided,

All workmen

again and again,

in striking
with a hammer, or hauling on a rope, fall
as
in rhythm beinto a regular rhythm.
tween
Concurrence
distinct and
simultaneous
two
processes, greatly
facilitates both.
Each
is not
only facilitated
process
rhythm, but also by that of the other, and
by its own
stances
the result is often
intenselyagreeable. The best inare
dancing and marching to music.*
Associations.
" 4. Feeling-Tone due to Pre- Formed
and
tive
associaAcquirement of meaning, complication,
re-excitement
of organic sensation, play an
tremely
eximportant part in determining the feeling-tone
of perception.
in itself,
The
cawing of a rook
is certainly
not
agreeable. This sound, in the case of
have
those who
lived in the country in early life,and
and its adventures, is well known
to
enjoyed its scenes
who

have

waste

to

repeat

movement

"

"

...

Thus

Rhythmic
kind

which

the

rhythm

activity

also

intensifies
of

verse

produces
the

effect

intensifies

diffused

of other
the

effect

of

excitement

pleasure-giving
of

poetic

ideas

an

able
agree-

conditions.
and

ments.
senti-

PLEASUKE-PAIK.

" 4.]

become

particularly agreeable

is
heard

and

than

of

in such

that

the

abstract

; the

is determined

feeling-tone of

itself

in

its

feeling-tone of

and

its

disposition

experience, and
the

Probably

this

to
a

is the

unpleasant

vividly experience
may
*

be

the
to

Sully, The

give

may
of

tant
imporing-tone,
feel-

the

because

this

the

aspect

experience.

of

rooks

is the

It

re-excites

its

pleasantness.

this instance.
The

lemon

Human

sight
actual

makes

In

other

of

food

I.

mere

vol.

ii.,p.

gusting
dis-

highly

sight

some

78.

stances
in-

The

nausea.

in James
The

also

of

people

highly disagreeable.
Mind,

previous perceptual

corresponding organic
them

taste

organic sensations

produced

sucking

pler
sim-

conative

of

produce

joyment
en-

painfulness which

or

cawing

disturbance.

organic

person

in

duces
pro-

of

merely

and

source

of

may

sword

pleasant perception

by

prominent.

taste

drawn

the

behind

re-excitement

the

It is

eye.

acquired meaning.

important part

which

fruit

developed by

left

it is very

another

the

cognitive

acquired feeling-toneof

modified

take

To

the

pleasantness

The

of

it is not

cases

been

sight

which
.

previous experiences
to

been

having

currents

many

planation
ex-

pleasure,

delicious

has

plays an

by previous experience only

perception

total

the

of its appearance

note

is revived

of

sight

because

more

because
to

of

these."

accompanied

instance, the
pleasure

of

re-excitation

which

surroundings

among

accompaniment

faint

The

one.

particular sound,

again

marked

this

that

again

have

283

tions
sensa-

IV.

CHAPTER

EMOTIONS.

General

" 1.

is

What
to

common

Characteristics.
an

emotion
is

sense

"

in

states

have

same

name,

Emotion,

the

that

? the first answer

which

common

all of

to

ask
leads

them,

inconsistent

giving varying and

what

find

we

fear,

"

When

character
to

us

tion,
quesoccurs

emotions,
specific
jealousy,and the like.

hope, suspense,
push the inquiry further, and

these

ask

we

list of

anger,
we

If

apply the

gists
psycholoing
Accord-

answers.

kind of sensation,
a
essentially
due
to
According to
general organic disturbance.
revival by association of past
others, it is the massive
pleasures and pains. According to others, it is a
and
be
in a particular
must
tendency to behave
way,
The
consciousness.
of conative
regarded as a mode
for us to pursue
of this disagreebest course
in view
ment,
is to take certain typicalemotions, and to attempt
to

emotion

some,

is

to fix

characteristics

them

in all their manifestations.

(1)

is

confronts

which
The

There

distinctive

prominent

one
us

at

specifickind

same

various

levels

appears

to

be

of
an

the

outset

of emotion

mental
affair of

and

of them

fact
;

"

about
its wide

may

development.
mere

284

sensation.

to

common

occur

emotion
range.
at

Sometimes
"The

very
it

signs"

285

EMOTIONS.

" 1.]

readilyprovoked in the case of the

of
infant by firmlygrasping and holding one
average
of his body, or by causing him
members
the movable
sudden, strong, and not overpoweringly painful
any
of perceptualconforms
the lower
From
sciousness
sensation."*
of ideational and conceptual
up to the higher forms
the same
typicalkinds of emotion are
activity,
arise in connexion
everywhere present. Anger may
The
of a blow.
the smart
with the pain of a wound
or
of anger

umay

be

wounded

lion

bites

at

wounds.

The

cat

will

with

its kittens.
its

away

understand

his

his book.

Paul
from

was

saint

giving too

forms.
specific
direction

Bain,
he

when

knowingly
being,and
inflicted."

with

arouse

that

must

limited

instance,seems

not

of ideational
such

cover

the foolish

different
be

definition
to

of

an

its

in this

err

contains

"

very

impulse

is
it.

*Ladd,
t Mental

the

varied

Any

kind

Psychology,
and

Moral

consciousness
cases

as

; and

St. Paul's

even

righteous

Galatians.

(2) Closely connected

emotion

over

that anger

says

It follows

emotion
we

St.

another
sentient
sufferingupon
in the fact of suffering
a positive
gratification
This
would
|
only apply to a somewhat

it would

anger

for

fail to

inflict

to

developed stage
then

of

take

saint,as

Galatians.

development,

avoid

if you

qua

angry

foolish

the

distribution

wide

to

be

interfere

if you

angry
angry

own

unfavourably criticise

if you

also

its

at

if you

angry

become

or

may

with

stages of mental
careful

will

argument

angry

this

become

man

and

stones

child will become

A
A

toy.

sticks and

with
nature

of

the wide
of

the

thwarting

Descriptive
Science,

and

p. 261.

or

distribution
conditions

oi

that

opposition may

Explanatory,

p. 538.

PSYCHOLOGY.

286

[BK.

m.,

T.,

en.

iv.

excite fear.
Any kind of danger may
You
produce anger in a dog by disturbingit while
may
eating,or by interferingwith its young, or by pulling
of situation,not a
its tail. It is a certain general kind
excite

anger.

specificclass

of

objects,which

excites

certain

kind

of

emotion.
The

behaviour

in which

emotion

finds

expression is

It is not an
correspondinglygeneral in its character.
of this or that specific
nature
adaptation to the specific
object,but a general mode of action adapted to a certain
kind of situation.
of the angry
behaviour
The
dog is
is excited.
It
the anger
genericallythe same, however
adopts the same
bodily attitude,shows its teeth,growls,

attempts

to

bite,and

the like.

which
of emotional
states
(3) There are two sources
arise in
it is important to distinguish.Emotions
may
connexion
with definite perceptionsor ideas,as when
excites joy ; on the other hand, they may
be
good news
primarily due to organic changes, such as those which
of alcohol
follow
other
the use
or
drugs. A man's
The
organic
temper varies with the state of his health.
both
of two
or
changes may
operate in one
ways.
They may directlychange the condition of the nervous
of nutrition
amount
or
system by alteringthe nature
it is supplied,or in other ways.
with which
They may
also, by alteringthe general state of the body, alter the
of the impulses received
nature
by the central nervous
Owing to the diffusive
system from the internal organs.
of organic sensations,this occasions
nature
a
general
change in the state of the nervous
system, which on the
mood.
side is experienced as an emotional
psychological
mood
is not
emotional
An
quite the same
thing as an

287

EMOTIONS.

" 1.]

called.

properly so

emotion
called

be

emotion

An

felt in relation

properly

so

definite

object;
be angry
about
must
to be angry
we
something. But
the generalstate of irritation due, let us say, to a sleepless
night,has not, as such, any definite object. As we
under
shall see
(4),it tends to find objectsfor itself,
it may
and
one
objectto another, givingrise
pass from
of the same
In general,
kind.
to a series of emotions
the

must

of

occurrence

it

definite

emotional

mood

to

some

emotion
of

tends

leave

to

hind
be-

correspondingnature.
mood, whatever
(4) An emotional
may be its primary
it is aroused, and to
once
origin,tends to persistwhen
fasten upon
any objectwhich presents itself. Ill-temper
in the first
or
gloomy depressionor hilarity
originate
may
instance
in the use
of drugs ; but when
these moods
are
in existence
A
once
they create objectsfor themselves.
who
man
gets up in the morning in a bad temper, due
of sleep or similar causes,
is apt to be irritated
to want
by almost everythingthat occurs;
though in another
mood

an

the

incidents

same

The
of the

the

ears

the

sightof

on

their

he

is fixed.
in

the

scullion ;

absence

seen

in

received
her

of

only objecton
excitement
of

on

the

dogs, when

will box

their

vent

the

reason

which
find

fury
being

their attention
an

outlet ;

definite channel

injured animal.
three

placency.
com-

cattle,enraged by

must

other

any

with

mistress

will
distress,

companion

is the
Their

be

herd

in

comrade

it,it discharges itself

sometimes

would

angered by

unfortunate

simply that
and

cook

or

four

or

"

for
It is

five

are

together,that if one suddenly utters a howl or cry

is near
of pain, when
it and no cause
no
man
apparent,
the others run
to it,and
seeing nothing turn round

met

PSYCHOLOGY.

288

and

each

attack

the males

time, when

their

direction

whatever

(5)

of many

angry

emotion

rivalry. An
or

other."

of

way

it is

So

speciesof
passionsare

involves

in.,

i.,

dangerous

animals

in

iv.

CH.

to

proach
ap-

breeding

aroused

by sexual
general trend

certain

which
itself
activity,
particularises
it can, according to circumstances.

fifth feature

The

[BK.

of

emotion

is what

we

in

may

its

So far as emotions
character.
are
parasitical
excited
not
by general situations, and
merely by
general organic changes, they are usuallysecondary
of more
the
existence
phenomena, and pre-suppose
This
tendencies.
is true of all but the simplest
specific
and
The
most
primitiveemotional states.
anger
duced
proin a dog by taking away
its bone
pre-supposes
the specific
appetitefor food. The anger produced in it
the specific
with
its young
by interfering
pre-supposes
tendency to guard and tend its offspring. So the presence
of a rival who
interferes with its wooing causes
pulse.
imbecause
of the pre-existence
of the sexual
anger
call

(6) In all the

organicsensations
has

been

changes,or

whether

connexion

with

fact has been

to

form

an

of consciousness.

total state
emotion

phases of emotion,
important constituent of the

intense

more

which

This

is true

primarily introduced
it has

the

whether

by organic

in the first instance

arisen in

This
perceptions or ideas.
ing
basis of a general theory,accord-

definite

made

the

the essential

nature

of the

emotional

sciousness
con-

arisingfrom change in
body, includingboth viscera

consists in sensations
the internal

organs

of the

muscles.

and
*

Hudson,

The

Naturalist

in

La

Plata,

ch.

xxii.

(towards

end).

289

EMOTIONS.

" 2.]

" 2. General

Theory.

is most

which

The

"

generaltheoryof

at the

favoured

tion
emo-

present time is that

It is at least as old as
justreferred.
with
the
Descartes,but is now
speciallyconnected
its claims
of Professor James, who has advocated
name
do better
cannot
with great force and eloquence. We

to

which

than

have

we

quote his

of the

of the main

statement

argument

in favour

simply organic sensation

and
nothing else. "I now
proceed to urge the vital
point of my whole theory,which is this: If we fancy
some
strong emotion, and then try to abstract from our
consciousness
of it all the feelings of its bodily symptoms,
have
vie find we
nothing leftbehind, no 'mindview

stuff ' out

that

that

of which

cold and

would

the emotion

neutral

all that remains.

is

emotion

state

What
.

can

be

constituted,and

of intellectual
kind

of

an

perceptionis

emotion

of fear

be left if the

beats
feelingneither of quickened heartof shallow
nor
breathing,neither of trembling
of
nor
limbs,neither of goose-flesh
lipsnor of weakened
visceral stirrings,
were
present, it is quite impossible
for me
Can
to think.
one
fancy the state of ragf
and pictureno
ebullition in the chest, no
flushingof
the face,no
dilatation of the nostrils,
no
clenchingof
the teeth,no
impulse to vigorous action,but in their
stead limp muscles, calm breathing,
and a placidface ?
The
The
present writer, for one, certainlycannot.
rage is as completely evaporated as the sensation of
its so-called manifestations,and
the only thing that
can
possiblybe supposed to take its place is some
and dispassionate
cold-blooded
fined
judicialsentence, conentirelyto the intellectual realm, to the effect
that

certain
Psych.

person

or

persons

merit

chastisement

for

290

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

sins.

their

The

states, the

closelyI

more

in.,

i.,

CH.

iv.

scrutinise

my

that whatever
persuaded I become
and passionsI have are
in very truth
moods, affections,
constituted by, and made
of, those bodily changes
up

which

more

; and

the

from

drag

out

This

existence

an

to

seems

me

is

passage

stringency.
and

of

quence
conse-

that if I
be

to

were

excluded

tender

alike,
lectual
intel-

merely cognitiveor

form."

eloquent,but
certainly

It does

follow

not

stone

it lacks
A

that because

with

connected
essentially

identical.

are

it

more

expression or

corporeallyanaesthetic,I should
the life of the affections,
harsh and

become

and

their

ordinarilycall

we

is
A

that
.Z?,

fall into

cannot

logical
sarily
neces-

and

without

water

but the ripples are

the stone.
not
A
making ripples,
have
line cannot
direction,but length
length without

direction

and

fire,but

without
So

it may

not

the

smoke

is

are

be

expressingitself;but it
the expressionconstitutes
Professor
that

James's

is emotion

sensation

does

emotion

it.

exist

to

be

smoke

without

follow

emotion.

the whole
to

no

fire another.

therefore

not

thesis

invert

cannot

we

thing and

one

impossiblefor

is

There

same.

that

ing
Suppos-

true, it is evident
all

Certainlynot

organic

not
are
hunger and stomach-ache
fore
emotional
experiences. To complete the theory thereit is necessary to distinguish
the kinds of organicreaction

which
So far

as

we

point from
connects

many

produce emotion from

can
gather Professor
his

own

emotion

organs.
*

But

Principles

those

James's

statement, it would
with
all

diffused

view
seem

disturbance

organic disturbances

of Psychology,

which

vol.

do

not.

on

this

that

he

affecting
are

ii.,
pp, 451-453.

diffused

EMOTIONS.

" 2.]

experience of

The

in this way.

after

being shampooed
It is evident
into

by, or
in the

Turkish

Now

excitations.

They

is traceable

drugs. But here

organic conditions

its

which
when

nutrition,as

proceed

it from

to

the neural

emotions

which
and

body

the

process

James

by

which

die

but
or

madman

intellectual

impulses

sensory

; and

organs

When

even

such

consider

we

with
of

the

definite perceptions

the

instances

theory

comes
be-

the diffused

that the

emotion
and

me

pistolat

somewhat

perception of

On
me

the

be, as

cold

shall

some

perturbation of

no

consciousness.

stage of

intellectual

neutral

perception that
in

first

arises,cannot

this moment

at

presents

system itself

its

the

this awakens
motor

In

"cold

intellectual

neutral

or

to

It follows

whole.

I have

emotional

ance
primary originin a disturbsystem, which is propagated over

it is,a

says

is due

connexion

in

has

nervous

as

tent
ex-

sensory impulses,
identified with the
be directly

evident.

organicdisturbance
the

the

ideas,the inadequacy

stillmore

of the

for

themselves.

arise

some

of health

nervous

the internal

reason

organic sensations

the

as

disturbance

for that

it cannot

well

the

as

case

allow for the direct

must

on

ceded
pre-

nervous
specific

the state

as

we

to

such

far

so

causes

of

effect of
and

such

to

in

so

enter

of disturbance

doubt

no

produce

do

which

present in the

is not

system, which

nervous

use

this

on

occasion, be

specialkind

accompany,

organic sensations.
organic sensations can

the

bath, ought

either

must

state

of all

mood

of

douche, or

sensations

organic

that the

emotional

an

cold

emotional.

be

theory to

291

the
here

madman

other

and

day
ceral
vis-

hand,

too, I have
as

ception."
per-

an

presenting

292

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

the

pistol;but this
organic disturbance.
the two

time

it

Now

for the difference

is followed

what

intellectual

in.,

is the

i.,

difference

in the two

iv.

by general

perceptionswhich

in their result

CH.

tween
be-

accounts

cases

On

the

side,the perceptionof the presented

physiological
turbance
pistolmust correspond to an intense and diffused disof neural
equilibrium; for otherwise there is
for the intense and diffused disturbance
nothing to account
of organic equilibrium. On
the other
hand, the
mere
day does not
recognitionthat I shall die some
balance
to cause
nervous
so
as
an
organic
upset my
shock.
the psychicalside,what
Now
on
corresponds
disturbance
neural
which
to the original
pre-conditions
the organic disturbance
?
If the correlated
psychical
is not

state

of the

nature

of

emotion, what

can

it be ?

It is

that organic sensations

perfectlyarbitraryto suppose
have
a
mystic efficacywhich can belong to no
sensations.
in the
other
After
all, they only occur
same
way as other sensations : they arise like the rest
only through stimulation of the brain by impulses passing
If they contribute
to proalong afferent nerves.
duce
it can
or
heighten emotion
only be because they
turbance
dishelp to excite an intense and widespread nervous
in the world
But
there
is no
reason
why
impressionscoming from external objects should not
do so if
In fact they must
operate in the same
way.
for the organic disturbance
to account
at all,
are
we
and

this agrees

with

what

we

may

call the

normal,

sophisticate
un-

precedes
essentially
is nothing in
its expression. There
and pre-conditions
the perceptionof a bear, as such, to produce symptoms
the
of fear arise only when
The
of fear.
symptoms
view,

that

emotion

293

EMOTIONS.

" 2.]

sight of

bear

startles

either

man,

it is

because

big animal approaching, or because

vious
preexperience has taught him to apprehend it as
dangerous. In any case, it is not the visual perception,
as
character,which is essential.
such, but its startling
The
only mode of attemptingto escape this confusion
is by saying that the organic disturbance
arisesin the
in a mechanical
On
first instance
this theory
way.
certain innate
there are
or
acquired physiological
precertain
visual or other
owing to which
arrangements
Such
a view
perceptionsset up organic disturbances.
with the facts.
Emotions
is irreconcilable
accompanied
occasioned
not
are
organic disturbance
by marked
merely by the perceptionof certain objects. They are
occasioned
which
only by occurrences
powerfully
further
thwart
tendencies.
or
pre-existingconative
does
A
feel fear merely because
he sees
not
man
a
strange and

bear, but
man

his life is threatened, and

because

has will he

give for

his life."

The

"

all that

theory of

James

simply ignoresthis relation of the circumstances which

to
produce emotion
pre-existingconative tendencies.
According to this theory,it is the mere
sightof a kitten
in the mother-cat.
which
excites anger
being removed
Parental
affection has
nothing to do with it. But
obviouslythe interference with parental instinct is a
most

essential constituent

of the

emotional

state.

It is

disturbance
which
directlyaccompanied by a nervous
If the
precedes and conditions the organic reaction.
casioned
ocorganic disturbances accompanying emotion were
in

theory they
nervous

the
would

centres.

mechanical
arise
But

way

from

the

assumed

excitement

organic shock

in

James's

of the
of

lower

emotion

PSYCHOLOGY.

294

arises

[BK.

CH.

in., i.,

iv.

from

impressionswhich excite the highei

in an
The
centres
nervous
especiallyintense way.
lower
centres
nervous
are
most
are
just those which
in a calm and equable manner.
stable,and which behave
They discharge automatic functions which are matters
of routine.
ascribe
them
We
cannot
to
widespread
and
deed
irregularperturbationsof the whole system. InProfessor
tradicts
Dewey, who advocates this theory,cononly

himself
the

he

when

interruptionof

emotion

says that

normal

and

arises from

habitual, co-ordinations.

Such

interruptionsare occurrences
the higher centres, and
involve
intense consciousness, not by

"

which
are

cold

essentially
accompanied by

and

neutral

ceptions.
per-

this questioninterminably.
might go on discussing
I shall only draw
and
attention
to
one
point more
of the organic
then leave it. I refer to the variability
the same
and
emotion
symptoms in what is specifically
in different emotions.
This is already
their similarity
recognised as regards motor
expressions. Thus Mr.
Lloyd Morgan, who in general accepts James's theory
is specially
without
criticism,yet denies that what
characteristic of emotion
as
such, takes its originin the
elements.
Take
of a young
the case
motor
frightened
On land he runs
and perhaps crouches
moorhen.
away,
We

"

in

the

rushes

quietly under
activities

common

catches

And

the

involved

different;must
too

in

yet

not
we

emotional

sightof

the
bank
in

he

water

and

dives,

there

and

comes

stays still.

and

diving
the activity-feelings
be very
them
must
surely suppose
element.
a
Again, when
worm

running

and

runs

hard

up

to

secure

The

are

very
different

to have

moorhen

it,the

295

EMOTIONS.

" 2.]

must,
activity-feelings
similar

very

would

one

be

suppose,

experienced when

those

to

such,

as

moorhen

the

And
vigorouslyaway from a goose.
yet in the
in the other
he
he is frightened and
case
one
case
associated
Here
similar activity-feelings
is not.
are
This contenstates." *
with wholly different emotional
tion
to me
to be perfectly
justified.There is
appears
indeed
an
identityin the general trend or direction of
kind
of emotion.
the activitydisplayed in a certain
kind
of identity
be reduced
to any
But this cannot
or
in the actual movements
the joint-,
or
tendon-,
similarity
But
and
muscle-sensations
arisingfrom them.
Lloyd
that visceral sensato suppose
tions
Morgan and others seem
in the same
emotion
at least are
fairlyconstant
runs

on

different

Now

the

is

problem

in

obscure

an

different

circumstances.

; for

one

visceral

difficult to

are

distinct

and

occasions

investigate.But so far
experiencecan be made, it seems

appeal to

as

sations
sen-

any
that

less similar in different emoor

tions,
may be more
in the same
and variable
emotion.
The
Maori

they also

of

women

purposes
that

Zealand

New

enjoy

themselves

stranger would

human

suppose

doleful

for

they meet
by squealing and

traveller

grief. One
night by the most

intense

what

when

them

to

tells how

he

cries,and

crying,so
in

be

was

went

festive

state

roused
out

to

of
at
see

in

misery. He found that it

a
a
woman
was
rejoicingover
meeting with her longthe respiratory
Here
lost son.
changes and increased
in the lachrymal glands were
secretion
the natural expression
of joy. Consider, too, the different expressions
for anger.

creature

was

is "white"

There
*

Habit

and

anger

Instinct, p.

and
201.

"red"

anger.

296

PSYCHOLOGY.

circulation

The
two

of

the

[BK.

blood

different

be

must

in., i.,

CH.

iv.

in

the

cases.

This

criticism leaves

Professor

James

would

which

We

like

be

the thesis with

It would

starts.

admitted.

be

must

untouched

tion
imagine what an emothe organic sensations

cannot

apart from

it includes.

Even

in

this thesis

that

seem

which

transient

faint and

tional
emo-

to be
experiences,the organic element
appears
present. It accompanies a slighttouch of irritation or
a
slighttinge of contempt, as it accompanies intense
disdain
wild fury.* The difference
to be only
or
seems

of

one

is

essential

an

which
sole

factor

call

we

factor.

with

in

But

degree.

emotional,

or

tendencies.

far

the

as

in the

primary

conditions,the

primary disturbance,
organic reaction,cannot
is therefore
an
dent
indepen-

the
It

constitution

of

of the

source

lies in

emotion

for Professor

case

James

there

and

its

nutrition,so

referred

to

sensory

that

the

from

impulses coming

organic

(1)
brain

effect

whole

so

stronger.

seems

two

are

In

emotion.

the

points to be considered.
organic changes may directlyinvolve the
But

turbance
dis-

primary

This

the

factor

with the
equilibrium, connected
of ing
hindrance
in specialways
pre-exist-

of
pre-condition
regarded as its effect.

be

connexion

in

mental

conative

being

arises

involves

states

that it is the

admit

not

emotion

ideas,it

perceptions and

furtherance

do

we

the

of those

constitution

in the

Where

of

admittingthat organic sensation

The

itself

cannot

the

be

internal

i
*

Of

to the

visible
even

overt

course

in

intense
but

and

external

expressional
observer,

emotions.

internal

respiration.

But

movements,

may

be

what

organic changes,

absent

or

in

other

bodily changes

slight, and

sometimes

is not
this overt
pression,
eximportant
tion
affecting for example the circula-

is

" 2.]

297

EMOTIONS.

Ladd
Professor
allow for what
(2) We must
sides
The
impulses,besurplus excitation."
sensory
producing the specialsensations correspondingto
or
specificcharacter,also tend to produce a more

organs.
calls

"

their

less diffused

excitement

of

kind, which

vague

be

may

in their specialqualities.
differing
ter
This surplusexcitation may
be analogous in its characwith perceptions
arises in connexion
to that which

similar for sensations

its

have

James's

both
and

distinctive

that

the

of the

like

said

in

the

neural

the

neural

process

I understand

and

these

before

changes

the

connected

emotion
with

no

appreciable

of

the

initial
of

which
As
Thus
the

is

is

says,
his

on

this

rate

with

with

according

exciting

which

fact.

because

by

turn

way

feeling
"the

phrase,
exciting fact,"

means

view

of

gives

in the

But
the

he

does

other

of

these

the

on

that

of

they

as

follow
follow

an

it sets
to

the

centres

as

fact

indeed

being

vous
ner-

and

has

speak
the

ception
per-

excitement.

organic changes

mental

they occur
directly

body;
system

initial

The

does

up

as

consciousness

to mental

rise

the

nervous

lower

emotion

refer

give

changes

bodily changes

forms

of

organs

the

to an

perception

of backstroke

as

is,whether

which

James

not

in

According
James,
him, the primary nervous

react

rise

that

to

to

excitement

the

follow

consciousness

consciousness

emotion.

backstroke

of

regarded

question

correlated

are

itself; and
be

may

real

in consciousness.

perception

the

itself

direction

admitted

discharge

not

The

changes
a

be

may

disturbances

is

and

expression

Emotion
is in his view
the
begin.
re-impression following expression.

concomitant

in their

he

by

exciting

an

so:

produce

must

neural

and

aspect

one

dispute this,

not

can

the

excitement

fact

first

must

is not

this

It

if it could

complete

the

I do

Velocity

time.

occurrence.

at any

or

of

him,

disturbance

same

disturbance

constituent

essential

primary

the

kind,

emotional

an

and

neural

primary

The

of

exist

not

in

by saying

but

locally separate
part
excitement
by brain

occasioned
and

original

statement

emotion

is a

modified

it in its most

emotion,

the

less

or

more

with

but

brain

The

changes

been

it means.

motion,

logically

could

aspects

of

way.

both

expression

sense

different
the

this

organic

process

of

definitely what

aspects

two

of health.*

is another.

emotion

the

state

James's

correct

pre-condition

to know

be

to

; and

organism

this

is not

annoying

text, I deal

the

viour
beha-

the

recently

would

Some

in

bad

has

In

others.

of which

connected

not

emotion

form.

occurrence

be

may

and

expression

I should

but

of

theory

himself

by

either
in

of irritation may

mood

emotional

the

primary source
a companion, or

of

of

that

ideas,so

or

excitement.

is the
the
that

emotion.

perception
excites

of

them,

PSYCHOLOGY.

298

Relation

"3.

[BK.

Pleasure-

to

in., i.,

and

Pain

en.

iv.

Conation.

"

"

emotion

involves a
essentially
direction
of activity,
mental
characteristic end
or
or
bodily. Anger tends to destroy or disable its object;
tions
fear,to avoid or evade it. The relation of specialemois not so definite as their conative
to pleasure-pain
emotions
are
invariablypleasant and
aspect. Some
agreeable
others
unpleasant; grief for instance is always disand
joy agreeable. So fear is constantly
be either pleadisagreeable. But other emotions
sant
may
A surprise
or
unpleasant,accordingto circumstances.
unwelcome.
be either welcome
or
Anger is
may
it is impotent; but when
it
highly disagreeablewhen
it may
itself on
the enemy,
be intensely
wreak
can
is
agreeable. In general we may say that an emotion
agreeable or disagreeable according as the conative
involved
in it are
thwarted
tendencies
or
gratified.In
of the case
fear and
grief,they are from the nature

Every special kind

fact

the

not

that
in

distinctive

is

resonance

this

it.

deny

this

theory
Just

discharge;
a

factor

grieved

and

at

Sorrow

grieved.
the

grief

pleasure

overbalance

pleasant.

the

only

does

the
over

pain

it,so
which

time

the
to

of

loss

of

tender

grief.

may

His

ness.
consciousdue

primary

emotion

is

wholly

originate

in

to
vous
ner-

due

primary

itself

the
be

beloved

grief

the

grief,"but
luxury.
pleased
object
and

reminiscences,
But

to

to
vous
ner-

rectly
di-

is not

condition.
of

"luxury
he

last

organic

wholly
the

while

the

said

emotion.

him

to

organic
has

the

motor

excitement

antecedent

constitute

the

of

theory

according
tendons,

and

be

would

to

nothing

Bain

preceding

of his

nervous

the

as

not

same

due

an

writer

is
that

emotion.

belonging

with

do

primary

thing

the

joints

there

dispute

formed

as

bodily changes

the

it,but

is such

There
of

by

in

and

would

excitement

is

to

nothing

following

few

counterpart

this

mean

present

counted

muscles,

has

re-impressions

the

be

not

fully

consciousness

from

discharge

in

mental

must

motor

as

and

is

does

Very

factor

to be

seems

he

all.

at

James;
there

also

re-impressions

theory

as

if

If

us.

essential

an

But

resonance,
whole

his

clearly

as

excites

of

in

and

A
to

person

may

this
for

be

may
that

know
be

ence
exist-

mere

he

accompanied
pleasure

itself

is

may
never

is

obstructed; when
In

also.

ceases

the

by

299

EMOTIONS.

"" 4, 5.]

very

the

obstruction

joy, on

the

nature

of

other

hand, they are

conditions

the

emotion

the

ceases,

which

fied
gratision
occa-

it.

" 4.

Ultimate

Emotion

Qualitative Differences.
"

forms
involves
specific
correspondingly
be explained
cannot
specifickinds of feeling which
ments.
resultants
or
as
complicationsof more
simple eleaway
have
emotion
is
said that a specific
When
we
characterised
by a certain trend or direction of activity,
that it is accompanied by certain kinds of organic sensation,
and the like,though
that it is pleasantor painful,
Each
be true, it is not exhaustive.
all this may
specific
kind
of emotion
has also something in it peculiarand
of feeling-attitude
It is a unique kind
undefinable.
observes
James
towards
an
:
object. As Professor
in

"

its various

There

infinite

are

excitements

emotional

are."

of colour
of
of
be

an
feeling,
pleasure or

resolved

It stands

"5.

out

emotion

actual

dispositionis
kind

of

Thus

the

emotion

which
Besides
has

in

tones

are

its

the

distinct

as

no

as

various
tions
sensa-

specificquality

own

doubt

Dispositions.
state

of

"

also

persistenttendency
in

the

presence

emotion

An

consciousness

cat, after having its tail

of

;
to

an

feel

ways
is al-

emotional
a

certain

certain

object.
pulled frequentlyby
a

ever
tendency to feel angry whenthe child approaches it. We
have
pointed out
of emotion
the originalconditions
rather cerare
tain
general kinds of situation than specificpersons

child,has

that

and

feeling-tone
pain. But its peculiarcolouringcannot
into mere
pleasantnessor unpleasantness.
irreducible.
as
a fact unique and

Emotional
an

shades

permanent

300

PSYCHOLOGY.

or

things.

to

be

But

in the

connected
of

anger

the

of

the

emotional

the

occasions.

thing as

child

form

who

of

formed

neither

felt.

Such

the

love, indicate
emotions.

at
to

the

emotion

feel the

emotional
Sentiments

proach
ap-

In

the
this

way

selves
them-

appropriate
the

not

is

same

actual

an

the

with

it

the child

tendency

permanent

whenever

On

ing,
child,mean-

the

sees

child

Fear.

kinds

of

therefore

We

typicalforms,
deal
at

the

Interests*

or

various

to

with

mood

dislikes

cat

of anger

Analysis of

task.

the

higher levels of mental

ideas and
concepts play a prominent part,
called
are
dispositions
very complex, and are

life,wnere

all the

come

the

it has

that

neighbourhood.

" 6.

iv.

things,as

on

actuallyfeeling angry

but

moment,

in its

that the

it is

that

not

as

say

CH.

disposition
persists
the emotion
itself is being
nor
hate
and
liking and disliking,
rather than actual
dispositions

emotional

We

The

; but

i.,

manifest

emotion

mood.

mood

words

which

dispositionis

affection of consciousness
when

connected

actual

emotional

or

pulls its tail.

emotional

An
an

be

to

comes

m.,

experience they

specificpersons

are
dispositions

in

of

course

with
cat

[BK.

emotion
for

select

fear

"

To

"

and

other

with

some

later

stage, when

analyse
endless

an

special treatment

modes
we

be

would

We

anger.

and

describe

come

two

shall have
of
to

emotional
treat

sion
occaperience
ex-

of idea-

distinguishedfrom perceptualactivity.
conative
In fear,as in all painfulfeeling,
tendency is

tional

at

once

be

of

as

excited

and

obstructed.

specialkind.
adjustment more

It

or

See

be

the

conation

must

cal
tendency to practiimperativelydemanded
by

must

less

But
a

bk. iv.,ch. ix.," 5.

which

fear

cause

obtrusive

otherwise

not

must

that

serious

fear

must

their

in

be

avoided

aggressiveor
occasion

The

consciousness

as

with

evaded

or

the

Thus

nature.

character.

before

come

be

can

of

practicalemergency

conditions

of

301

EMOTIONS.

" 6.]

thing
some-

and

ease

certainty.
The
experiencemust invade consciousness in a more
less violent and persistent
or
tively
way so as to call imperafor a practical
adjustmentto the situation. At the
be of a nature
time it must
to destroyefficiency,
same
disable
and
the activity
which
it exto disorganise
cites.
"

It may
that fear is

nothing but
This

from

seem

of

this account

the

always disadvantageous,and that

in the struggle for
drawback
a
is

inference

it

matter

be

can

existence.

Fright often serves

rather
than
the frightenedprey.
the predatory animal
by small shot,
"Many birds, though scarcelywounded
fall to the ground as though struck
by lightning,
panting
with
use

wide

of the

partiallytrue.

mouth."*

open

paralysingeffect

their

Seal-hunters

of

when

But
even
prey.
result
the
motionless

frightin
terror

often make

order

strikes

to

secure

animal

an

is not

always disadvantageous.
likelyto escape notice.
By becoming quiescentit is more
and bodilyperturbation are
mental
Where
not violent
of effective
enough to deprive the animal of all power
hides itself. So far as these
or
action,it takes to flight
of escape

movements

of

fear,they

are

evasion

or

to

be

are

the

explained

when
principlethat psychicalactivity,
in certain

it

can

directions,diverts
find.
*

Hudson,

Thus

an

Naturalist

direct

sion
expres-

the

on

its way

general
is barred

itself into whatever

animal
in

La

disabled
Plata,

ch.

by
xv.

fear

nel
chanfrom

PSYCHOLOGY.

302

[BK. in., i., CH.

iv.

positiveand

of adjustment, will
complex modes
the circumstances
have
to flight. Now
recourse
may
is the best course
such that flight
the only
be actually
or
more

that

course

that

animals

of fact when

thing they

dog

that

derives

runs

extent

some

from

a
an

indeed

time

presence

the

run
can

from

advantage.

an

away

do.

But

scared

at

In

fear

point

hide, it is generally

or

this is not
the

always

noise of

so.

cracker,

of mind

readinesa
rushes

so

excitement

The

accelerate

animal

this is so, the

doing. Further, fright is to

in escapdisadvantage to an animal even
ing

enemy.

may

and

is
flight

away

benefit

no

When

use.

itself in

expresses

the best

of

be

can

of

of

its movements.
is

more

But

same

ness
Watchful-

diminished.

are

wildly into

emotion

at the

less lost.

or

resource

the

Thus

the

danger which
other
danger of

it is

a
strivingto avoid, or into some
yet
old fox may
The game
be but little
moT"e
deadly nature.
in escaping from
the hunters
influenced
by fear when
command
of all kinds
of cunit displaysits wonderful
ning
and keenness
of perception.
its wariness
resources,
Whyte-Melvillesays of such a fox : His heart like his
multum
in parvo,
little body was
tough, tameless, and
as
strong as brandy." As regards the general question
of fear,we
the whole
it
of the utility
say that on
may
of preservation
from
But
is a means
injuryand death.
and
in part defeats itself,
it is rather a clumsy means,
the emotion
is very violent.
As Mosso
when
especially
The
do
the perilbecomes, the more
remarks
:
graver
harmful
mal
to the anithe reactions which
are
positively
in efficacy.
and
We
might
prevailin number
"

"

almost

say

substance

that

which

nature

should

had
be

not

been

excitable

able

to

enough

frame
to

com-

303

EMOTIONS.

" 6.]

and
and
the brain
spinal marrow,
yet which
pose
should not be so excited by exceptional stimulation
as
to

overstep in its reactions

which

of the

useful to the conservation

are

We

bounds
physiological

those

now

may

which

conditions

the

enumerate

creature."

ate
gener-

fear.

is,when
bodilypain produced by wounds
kind of
intense, accompanied by the same
sufficiently
kind
of disablement
impotent excitement, the same
mental
of bodily and
activitywhich is characteristic
laboured
efforts to escape,
ing,
breathof fright. Wild
expressions of
trembling, etc., are
palpitation,
Now
actual bodilypain as well as of strong fear.
we
find not
the
only analogy but geneticrelation between
When
has previously
states.
two
an
object which
caused
pain is again perceived,the emotional tone is
of fear,unless fear is displacedor overpowered by
one
has
This
suggested to Herbert
Spencer the
anger.
theory that the fear consists in the revival of bygone
painful sensations produced by the object feared.
can
testifythat the psychical
Everyone," he says,
called fear consists of mental
state
representationsof
that
painful results." f Against this view we
urge
the painfulsensations vary greatlyin specific
whereas
of fear which
the emotion
stantial
they generate is subquality,
(a)

Actual

"

"

differs

identical,and
them

from

that the

than

they

emotion

disagreeablethan
is supposed to be
*

La

Paura,

of fear

each

in

other

is sometimes

more

its character
we

urge

violent

also

and

originalexperiences of which it
revival,or mental representation.

the
a

Appendice,

of Psychology,

from

do

more

p.

295; quoted

vol. ii.,pp. 483-484.

and

translated

by James,

f Psychology,

" 213.

ciples
Prin-

304

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

What

i.,

CH.

iv.

perience
reallyto happen when a previousexpain gives rise on a subsequent occasion

appears
of

emotion

of

to

the

child,attracted

it and

in.,

is

badly

fear, may

by

the

burnt

in

be

illustrated

brightness of
consequence.

as

follows.

flame, grasps

Subsequently,

seeingthe flame, he feels fear. The emotional tone

of the prebelongs to the present perception because
vious
painfulsensation inflicted by the perceived object.
The
painfulsensation,when it actuallyoccurred,
original
which
occurred
was
one
as
part of a perceptual activity
in all its aspects. The
and continuous
painfulsensation
not
was
merely superadded to the visual perceptionof
the object as a separate and
isolated event, it was
an
continuous
The
integralphase of the same
process.
the sensation
of burning form
visual perception and
and the same
object. The
part of the perceptionof one
of the burning pain must
therefore
make
advent
a profound
in the
character
of the perceptual
difference
which
process as a whole, and in the total disposition
behind
it. Hence,
the experience as
whole
leaves
a
when
the object is again seen, the mere
sightof it,even
before previous painfulexperiences
recur, will be a profoundly
different state of perceptual consciousness
from
existed.
have been
if they had never
The
what it would
will be
attitude will be essentially
modified.
There
motor
from
avoid the flame,instead of
a tendency to retreat
or
ment
excitegrasping it. Further, a state of diffused nervous
analogous to that which
accompanied the actual
burning will be re-excited ; and this will overflow the
perficial
organism as a whole, producing constriction of the sublood-vessels,palpitation,trembling, and the
like,with the correspondingorganicsensations.
on

" 6.]

305

EMOTIONS.

(b)

this

That

becomes

when

clearer

of

account
we

the

is

matter

consider

that

fear

correct

arises in

through experienceof previouspain

suddenness
the
or
or
or
intensity,
injury. The mere
combined
suddenness
and intensity,
of an impressionare
other

than

ways

sufficient to

fear.

cause

loud

noise

for which

we

are

Many
unprepared startles us with momentary alarm.
help being scared by a reverberating
people cannot
peal of thunder, though they know that it is harmless.
Of course
much
or
depends on the nervous
organisation
its state
It is extremely easy to
at a given time.
on
startle a hare or a rabbit.
noise will give
Even
a slight
of alarm
if we
us
a disagreeableshock
are
half-asleep.
In some
pathologicalstates the patientis liable to be
frightenedby almost anything.Fledgelingsshrink down
in the nest when
a
or
object suddenly
strange animal
approaches,though they may show no uneasiness when
their deadliest enemy
as
approaches them unobtrusively
snakes do.
A piece of paper
blown
suddenlyby the
is as great an objectof terror to a young
wind
bird as a
buzzard
with
death
in its talons."*
sweeping down
The
sudden
currence
approach of an object,the abrupt oc"

of
is

there

an

intense

demand

sensation,stimulate

for

action

to

practical adjustment

to

the

obtrusive

time its very suddenness

experience. At the same
and
or
startle,so that
intensitydisconcert
efficient reaction is impossible. This is the more
spicuously
conthe impressionis not
den
only sudso, where
Mere
but unfamiliar.
or
unfamiliarity
ness,
strangesuddenness
or
apart from
exceptionalintensity,
.

suffice

to

cause

Psijcfi.

fear

Hudson,

even

Naturalist

in
in

a
La

violent
Plata,

eh.

form.

The

v.

20

306

[BK. in.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

gorillabrought home
Loango expedition much
young

by

the

disliked

i.,

members

CH.

TV.

of

the

noises.

strange

rain

"Thunder,

the

and espefallingon the sky-light,

cially
the long-drawn note
of a pipe or trumpet threw
him
sudden
into such agitationas to cause
affection
a
of the digestiveorgans, and it became
expedient to keep
him at a distance." *
of unf amiliarity
The
kind
which
disturbed
the gorillaconsisted
so
apparently in mere
novelty.
Unfamiliaritymay, as I have said, consist in mere
novelty. But there is another kind of unfamiliarity
which
involves not only novelty but direct conflict with
ordinary experience. Strangeness of this sort may
An
cordant
cause
profound alarm.
experience may be so disof events
with the normal
to utterly
course
as
check

disorder

and

life and
process of conscious
of effective adjustment. In the
possibility

destroythe
of

the

human

beings the frightcaused by a ghostly

This is not so much
apparitionis a good illustration.
due
definite or indefinite anticipationof posito any
tive
case

evil

of the
character
utterly abnormal
experience. It lies so wholly outside the circle of
ordinary events, and is so completely opposed to the
of ordinary experience,that it destroysall
conditions
of mind.
It stimulates
intenselyby its
presence
time, owing to this very
strangeness, and at the same
theoretical and practical,
strangeness, all lines of activity,
are

to

as

the

obstructed.

overwhelming

terror

It is instructive
in

ghostly apparitionwith
*

R.

Hartmann,

of Psychology,

Anthropoid

the
the

contrast

this

of a
supposed presence
predominantly agreeable

Apes, p. 265; quoted

vol. ii.,p. 417 (note).

to

by James,

Principles

" 7.]

307

EMOTIONS.

experienceof reading or

listeningto

The

itself

actual

immediate

fact obtrudes

demands

actual,and

as

practicaladjustment
makes

tale of marvel.

to

yet by its

it,and

adjustmentimpossible. Where
this practical
need is not felt,the free play of imagination
liberated from the trammels
of ordinaryexperience
of delight.
may be a source
Animals
are
capable of analogous experiences.James
gives a good example.* A dog belonging to Professor
was
Brooks, the well-known
frightenedinto a
biologist,
of epileptic
fit by a bone
the
sort
across
being drawn
floor by a thread which
he did not see.
As James
marks,
reheart would
stop beating,if he perceived
any man's
the floor.
his chair slidingunassisted across
The
child manifests
this
" 7. Analysis of Anger.
emotion
at an
Anger initially
earlystage.
expresses
of violent motor
and satisfies itself by a peculiar form
discharge. Even at the outset it takes the form of an
The
resistance
effort to overcome
force.
by main
has acquired no
child who
definite mode
of
young
wreaking its passion,shows it by vague kicking and
which
by movements
antagoniseeach other,
struggling,
in external
resistance
which
and
encounter
objects.
The
development of cognitive consciousness
simply
restrict this diffused mobility within
to
serves
more
very

nature

such

"

"

definite channels.
his

plaything violentlyto

away,
thwarts
adult

child

The

breaks

or

in

it,or

in
the

the

later

ground,
of

case

his will,he kicks, pushes, or

may

find

some

satisfaction

furniture,and
destroying
*

he

stage throws
or

vol.

Even

the

his irritation in

nearlyalways has

Principles of Psychology,

it

who

person

strikes.

for

pushes

ii.,
p.

420.

strong

308

PSYCHOLOGY.

[BK. in.,

to break, crush,
disposition

Inasmuch

his

as

defined,his
crossed

deny

him

angry

man

thwarted.

But

is very

apt

to

wreak

more

cially
spe-

his desires
conditions

the

when

it is well
this satisfaction,

iv.

something.
enlightenedand

impulse will become

againstthe objectby which

or

CH.

rend

destructive

directed
are

or

become

has

anger

tear,

i.,

known

his anger

that
on

the

sive
inoffen-

dition
approximating to the conof the child.
Though the tendency to overcome
of bodily force
resistance by violent exertion
seems
always to play some
part in anger, yet with the advance
and
of intellectual development it gives place more
ideal satisfaction ; it becomes
to an
more
enough to
to imagine,that the opposing
even
know, or sometimes
forces have
This is of
been
crushed
by our agency.
of the growing importance
course
a direct consequence
of the life of ideas as compared with that of perception.

things or

But

impulse
be

thus

persons,

even

in the

ideal

satisfaction

of

anger

the

down

opposition may
to
extent
some
by wreaking it on other
those
which
ment.
resentimmediately awaken
relief afforded
under
by swearing comes
It is a breaking down
of the ideal barriers
social convention
or
religioussentiment
destroy

to

satisfied

objectsthan
The

this head.
which

or

break

up."*
find that their proneness
to animals,we
Turning now
to anger
sation
depends to a great degree on inherited organiand
general habits of life. Spencer observes:
The
destructive passion is shown
in a general tension
of the muscular
system, in gnashing of teeth and protrusion
in growls :
of claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils,

sets

"

Analytic

Psychology,

vol. ii.,pp.

96-97.

EMOTIONS.

" 7,]
and

these

that

expressionof
only rudiments
course

as

much

deserve
emotion
of

of

that

there

consists

in

implied that

actions

and

tearingand
the

destructive

protrusion of

place it is implied that

pany
accom-

two

are

which

developed activities.

more

teeth

Here

It is

expressionof

an

actions

notice.

Actual

untrue.

gnashing
second

of the

killingof prey."*

the

of

forms

weaker

are

309

anger

plication
imthe
are

This

is

rending may
passionas

the

claws.

the

In

is distinctive

be

of

this is not
But
the case.
The
predatory animals.
elephantis not a beast of prey, but can be easilyroused
rather
than
the hunting
to fury. It is the combative
instinct which
is essential.
Many
graminivorous
animals which
are
usuallypeacefulare highlydangerous
the combative
in the breeding season, when
impulse is
in

excited

connexion

with

the

sexual,

and

finds its

rivalry. In general we may say

that some
animals, such as the elephant,meet
danger
and oppositionby main
force ; others,such as the rabbit
and
Yet
others
hare, by flightand concealment.
bative
commostly resort to evasion and escape, but become
and
The
even
aggressiveat certain seasons.
combative
of that
tendency is the pre-disposingcause
proper

field in sexual

emotional

play takes
fury. Any

seizure
the

we

form

call anger.

All

animals

of

whose

mock-fightsmay be roused to
kind
of opposition,
striction
reany thwarting or
of psychical
It is the
cause
activity
may
anger.
the interference
more
likelyto do so the more
distinctly
the appearance
of coming from
wears
some
positive
from
external
and especially
other animal.
some
agency
We
be merely grieved at the loss of a valued
may
*

Principles

of Psychology,

vol. ii.,p. 546.

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

310

object if
somebody
are

accidentallymislay it ourselves
something breaks it before our

we
or

apt

more

in., i.,

supposed that

be

to

of anger

emotion

the

It must

angry.

CH.

if

but

eyes

however

not

iv.

we

be

itself exclusively

vents

offendingobject. On the contrary the

is essentially
emotion
a
general impulse to crush and
of irritation
destroy. It fastens by preferenceon the cause
itself impartially
this it may
vent
on
; but failing
in its way.
It is only through
anything which comes
restricted and
experienceand education that it becomes
on

an

defined.

may

occasion

in another.

anger

conation

thwarts

obstruction

at

once

give

may

in

But

violence.

activityis

occasion

which

conditions

The

stimulated

fear

Any

rise to

outburst

mental

and

oppressionwhich in a timid
save
disorganisesall activities,
may

in

which
of

structiv
de-

bodily
Now

thwarted.

and

paralysesor
flightand concealment,

animal

one

condition

an

fear
and

in

the

creature

those

combative

of

animal

This
counter-aggression.
holds
good of actual bodily pain. The attitude of a
in bearing bodilypain is different accordingas he
man
of a
gives way to it or fightsagainstit. The smart
received in the heat of combat
wound
usuallyinfuriates
rouse

to

active resistance and

the combatant.

All

fierce

animals,

such

as

the lion

or

fiercelyaggressivewhen they are hurt.

tiger,become
illustration from insect life.
Belt suppliesan interesting
effect of a
The
he says :
ants
Speaking of leaf-cutting
of their
little corrosive
sublimate
sprinkled on one
and extermad
minate
them
is to make
paths in dry weather
another.
In a couple of hours, round
one
all biting each other;
balls of the ants will be found
"

...

and

individuals

numerous

have

others

while

work

for

most

is

stress

expressive

Many

which

emotions.
the

So

"

one-sided

of

the

the

of
the

in

author,

extreme

opening

the

with

mouth

of all forms
same

and

muscles
in

of
as

similar
*

Naturalist

t James,

the

breath
form

disgust.

those

these

and

vision

unfleshed

smile

in

Nicaragua,

Principles

; the

in

act

of

with

opening

precedes

with
cular
mus-

ejectingan

calls into

ive
express-

play

the

sucking the breast,

p. 79.

of Psychology,

the

to

goes

manner.

in

ing
rais-

opening

facial gesture

employed

time

listening,and

of the

counted
ac-

movements

which

the

is

the

eyebrows

better

constitutes

morsel

unsavory

the

fainter

from

according

come,

intensest

the

rapid catching of
effort."!

for

tions
ac-

sneer,

Similarlythe

utilityof

eye

or

attention,the

raising of

The
of

attack.

outward

the

of

teeth,

upper

survival

astonishment,

from

cases.

the

in

Habits.

snarl

the

as

the
a

lays

exciting analogous

large canines,
for

now)

eyebrows

mouth

same

the

do

(as dogs

as

had

ancestors

our

them

of

by Darwin

he

subject himself

the

to

slighta symptom
of

which

Associated

situations

uncovering

for
when

useful

in

ancestors

ness.
conscious-

partialsurvivals

are

proved

accompanying

on

Serviceable

movements

have

his

to

or

of

that

great

attempted

emotional

of

principle of explanation

The

his

has

gestures

specific forms

various

the

distinctive

the

in

Emotions,

two,

antennae."

or

in

bitten

seen

Darwin,

"

the

of

be

legs

Gestures.

Expression

account

will

lost their

Emotional

" 8.

to

311

EMOTIONS.

" 8.]

vol.

ii.,p.

479.

SPECIAL

II.

DIVISION

I.

CHAPTER

OF

CATEGORIES

either

in

kind.

It

exhibit

are

the

forms

of

part of

the

categories involved

in

was

external

the

CONSCIOUSNESS.

PERCEPTUAL

cognitive consciousness;
universal principlesor relations pre-supposed
all cognition or in all cognitionof a certain

CATEGORIES

they are

PERCEPTS.

main

world,

such

relations

experience,and
give unity to
in

between

constitute

that

of

Kant

knowledge

our

the

These

etc.

specificcontents

the forms

of

to

of
and

Quantity, extensive

as

intensive, Causality,Substance,
ultimate

work

are

of

the
our

synthesiswhich

experience.
of

synthesis,
of them, appear
the level of perceptual
at
some
or
five which
ment,
are
require specialtreatactivity.There
External
or
Physical Reality, Space, Time,
familiar
word
and what
of a more
for want
Causality,
call Thinghood.
first three of these will
The
must
we
devoted
in chapters especially
to
receive consideration
Of course
them.*
such forms
not
are
distinctly
apprehended
in abstraction
by the perceptual consciousness
Now

these

forms

Thinghood

in the

rudimentary way

"

We

shall deal

with

Causality

and

312

present

chapter.

CH.

i.]

from

the concrete

313

CONSCIOUSNESS.

PERCEPTUAL

matter

of

experienceto

which

they
categories

unity. But neither are the

of human
til
apprehended, a8 such, unthought distinctly
a
comparativelyadvanced
stage of development is
reached.
Even
then, they are
only imperfectlyand
matter
concrete
incompletelydetached from the more
If this were
in which
they are, so to speak,embedded.
not
Theory of Knowledge would have
so, Logic and
nothing to do.
J. F. Ferrier
extremely well. "Men
puts the case
reasoned
generation after generationlong before they
knew
a
singledialectical rule, or had any notion of
of the syllogism. The
the construction
principlesof
logic were
operative in every ratiocination,yet the
istotle
reasoner
was
incognisantof their influence until Arlustrat
further ilanatomised
the process."* Ferrier
forms
constitutive
by referring to other
have
which
flective
only been gradually disengaged by reembodiment.
"It
analysisfrom their specific
is,"he says,
always very late in the day before the
and
seminal
detected
plained.
exprinciplesof speech are
owed
them
to
Indeed, the language which
both birth and growth may
have ceased
to be a living
of its
these, the regulating elements
tongue before
in written
embodied
to lightand
are
formation, come
That
most
elementaryspeciesof instruction
grammar.
which
we
familiarlyterm the A, B, C, had no express
in the minds
the lipsof
articulate existence
or
or
on

give order

and

"

men,

until

thousands

of years

after the

invention

and

ents
employment of language ; yet these,the vital constituthere from
the beginning."
of all speech, were
f
*

Institutes

of Metaphysic,

p. 15.

| Ibid., p, 14.

PSYCHOLOGY.

314

[BK.

m.,

n.

that we
the categories
only in this sense
suppose
of perceptualthought to exist for the percipient.They
exist for him as the alphabet existed before its discovery.
in this sense
Now
Causalityis undoubtedly a category
of perceptual consciousness.
Perceptual process is
ends ; and it learns by expedirected
towards
practical
rience

It is

how

to

ineffective

which

are

prove

Consider

effective

the

food

outside.

in Mr.

cat

can
a

and

and

Thorndike's

animal

The
It

maintained

are

button, pulling

wooden

which

gradually discontinued,

dog or
previouslyquoted.*
with

Actions

ends.

attain these

only
loop,

is confined

prove
actions

repeated.
experiment
in

box,

by turning
pressing down

escape

or

struggles to escape in all kinds of ways,

squeezing and biting and clawing. Ineffective modes
and
discontinued
of action
are
give place to others,
lever.

It

discontinued

if

less.
they prove fruitdoes accidentally
If in this way
the animal
work
the mechanism, it is likelyto do it sooner
when
again
in repeated experiments "all
Thus
put into the box.
the squeezings and bitingsand
claAvingswhich do not
hit the vital point of the mechanism
get stamped
made
the successful
out, while the particularimpulse which
clawing or biting,
gets stamped in,"until it alone
for the
This gradual adaptation of means
is executed.
the
of ends
involves in a rudimentary way
attainment
tween
category of Causality. It involves the distinction beIt is the starting-point
and inefficiency.
efficiency
of all subsequent developments of
and
pro-supposition
thought which proceed according to this category.
which

in their turn

are

But

we

must

notice

the
*

Seep.

essential
259.0'.

difference

which

CH.

PERCEPTUAL

i.]

315

CONSCIOUSNESS.

that of

separates the merely perceptualcategory from

perceptual
conceptual thought. The
in
category is always purely and immediately practical
its operation. It is a constitutive form of thought only
and

ideational

it is

because

? has

Why

It does

consciousness.
that
not

certain

and
so

not

as

to

of

and

endeavour

present

different

compare

groups

not

for the
can

merely perceptual
it is
not inquirehow

also

as

cause

It does

reason.

procedure or different
the
to contradistinguish

of

modes
as

precisepointsin which they agree from those

and in this way
to explainwhy
they disagree,
result should
in another

follow

ideational

one

and

case

Causalityin

case.

this

consciousness

in which

certain

different

result

only exist
development of

sense

consciousness,and

for the ideational

the

in

It does

tions
explain, to analyse condi-

to

circumstances, so

tion
ques-

certain effect.

produces a

cause

not

can

existence

no

The

of action.

form

constitutive

can

the

in this direction

is

velopmen
de-

conceptualthinking, of generalisation.
What
corresponds on the perceptual level to Kant's
is a category which
I can
only
category of Substance
of Thinghood.
In
that
describe
as
considering it
selves
themconnect
must
we
lay aside the notions which
of

with
material
and

"

the scientific view

which

persistsand

combinations

without

rather
must
quantity. We
identity,and independence,
life we
in ordinarypractical
which
is a portion of matter

with

itself and

of substance
into

passes

increase

or

as

stuff

various

of

which

characterises

call

is

distinct from

forms
of

diminution

think

that

or

unity

and

what

"thing." A thing
cal
apprehended as identia

all else under

its varying

aspects and throughout its varyingchanges of

state.

316

PSYCHOLOGY.

distinctness

This

and

[BK.

unity depend

m.,

IT.

distinctness

on

Thus
different sensible qualities
unity of interest.
as
severallypresented to touch, sight,hearing,etc.,are
united in one
thing because they have unityof interest,
and on the perceptuallevel this interest is purely practical.
of the
The
practicalInterest lies in the power
subjectto act on the thing, and of the thing to act on
the
subject. But in all such activitythe different
senses
co-operate so that the experiencesthey yield

and

form

part of
of

which

continuous

one

thing serves

the
lead

to

whole.
a

as

guide

to

of the

visual

appearance

pearance
ap-

ments
movetension
ex-

the

correspond point for point, and

value

the

visual

and

Tactual

contact.

visual

The

practical
ence.
correspond-

lies in this

practicalrelation between
smells
sounds
or
proceeding from an object, and its
as
By
presented to sight and touch.
space-relations
approaching the object the sounds and smells become
the
Action
intensified.
on
object, though initially
prompted by sound or smell, must by guided by sight
In this way
and
to exist for
touch.
an
object comes
in its diverse
the
same
as
perceptual consciousness
But
to different senses.
this,so to speak,
appearances
for the stuff of which
things are made ;
only accounts
There

is

not

account

it does
into

similar

for

the

separate things. We

division
have

of

this material

therefore

to

inquire

is separated
qualities
its surroundings and treated
from
as
one
thing. For
is mapped out into a
the world
sense
ordinarycommon
Each
of these relatively
independent units.
plurality

why

this

of them
from

the

or

that group

emerges
sea.

from

of sensible

its environment

It is detached

from

its

like

an

island

surroundingsby

CH.

317

CONSCIOUSNESS.

PERCEPTUAL

i.]

unity of interest. This interest is

kind ; and the further we
trace
of a practical
ordinarily
of human
sively
excluback the course
development the more
it becomes.
It is true that for our
ly
highpractical
has
of Thinghood
the form
complex consciousness
in its application.
become
very variable and fluctuating
to flingit at
is a single thing to a boy about
A stone
another
boy. To the geologistexamining its structure
be several distinct things. It is nearly always
it may
ject
possibleto mentally break up what appears as one obtinctness
has an
into parts each
of which
identityand disof its own.
But
we
only do so in so far as

its separateness and

of the

the interest

leads

moment

us

to

do

it.

The

tivity
rela-

of the category
of our
application
variability
of Thinghood
depends on this fluctuation of interest.
into sepathe division of the world
In generalhowever
rate
less permanent
or
by more
things is determined
if I
interests of a practical
Thus
and common
nature.
in which
I hapasked what
were
pen
things are in a room
to be lecturingI should
a blackboard,
say there was
I should
the
not begin to enumerate
so
on.
a desk, and
and

dints

and

scratches

the

on

planks in the flooring. I should be

mentally divide the uniform surface
into different
a

distinct

compartments

thing.

I should

interests

in their nature

are

and

at
more

fluctuating. Hence

for

world

into

the external

once

different

still less

likelyto

count

not

do

of

more

limited

or

of the

and

specialinterest to serve.
In more
primitive stages
human

the

blackboard,

each

blackboard
of these

this unless

as

I had

mental

development,
practical
exclusively

in their range

primitive man

the

and

division

separate units called

less
of

things is

fixed

more

absolute.

and

in the

is reached

characteristic

thing

unity and
to

There
under

animal

the

of

tion
direc-

is not
to

what

for

so

very

as

appeals

occasion

activity.Thus

mals
Ani-

treat

matter

affords

species are

to

for

their

is

rate
sepa-

another.

The

large extent

termined
de-

which

so

connate

on.

however

are

and
animal

one

cat, and

the

and

and

n.

which
belong
pre-dispositions
other
What
specificcharacters.
possesses
distinctness
is nothing
of interest to an
ant

by
it like

portion

of

for

limit in this

the

its environment

modes

of each

interests

But

perceptual consciousness.

distinguishfrom
separate thing whatever
their peculiarinstincts

to

[BK. m.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

318

also

detach

thing may

become

separate

consciousness.

general

more

its environment

itself from

of interest

centre

it may

Thus

conditions

be

for

source

the
of

in an obtrusive
intense sensations,or it may
move
peculiarly
manner.
Moving objectshave a peculiarpower
of attractingattention.
This
is partly because
the
intense
experiencewhich they produce is more
sensory
than
that produced by things at rest.
But
the chief
in an obtrusive way,
is that a thing which
reason
moves
challengespracticaladjustment. There is need to run
from
it,or at any rate keep a watch on it ; for no
away
knows

one

In

what

it may

general,whatever
as

separate

do.
appears
is

so

to

because

the

sciousness
perceptual con-

it is

centre

of

practicalinterest. It is capable,in its relation to the

of actingindependentlyand
whole
as
a
or
percipient,
of being acted on independentlyand as a whole.
Thus
Thinghood as a perceptual category is,like causality,
purely and immediately practical. Like causalityit is

PERCEPTUAL

i.]

CH.

CONSCIOUSNESS.

319

it is a
cognitiononly because
of action.
And
constitutive
form
just as the perceptual
is incapableof inquiring how
consciousness
or
why a
pable
certain
cause
produces a certain effect,so it is incaof inquiringhow
or
why a thing possesses its
of
unity and independence and its peculiar modes
uality
individbehaviour.
the perceptualconsciousness
For
is unanalysed and
unexplained, unanalysable
and
unexplainable. In this respect the perceptual
a

form

constitutive

consciousness

science

stands
the

at

till it

It would

; it seeks

sense
common

material
its
the

in

succeeds
of

or

to

behaviour

which

finding are

abstract

character

science

units

and

it could.

as

by

it seeks

them

It obliterate
common

units

of
or

the whole

distinct units

and

reaction.

for and

vehicles

more

of the

laws, without
own.

plains
ex-

modes

mere

have

of action

their

explain

to

embracing

indeed

universal

quality of

exhibit

them

merely

science

drawn

process

centres

modern

self-subsistent

the

exhibits

It must
as

serve

ultimate

dissolve

and

world.

almost

demarcation

continuous

one

to

own

of

to

sense,

phases of

Modern

altogetherif

so

and

extreme,

one

appears

do

lines

the

the

at

opposite extreme.

things
away.

of

It is the

of
But

or

less

tion
applicaintrinsic
ideal

of

the internal

of individual

unity and the distinctive

resultants
of the
things as mere

complex interaction of these characterless units. For

the perceptualconsciousness, as we
have seen, the extreme
The
haviour
unity and distinctive beoppositeis true.
of the individual
thing is for it unconditional
For primitivehuman
and ultimate.
thinking it is also
unconditional
and
in a large measure
ultimate.
The
is rather to use
the unity
tendency of the primitiveman

320

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

the

regard
we

nature

individual
it

shall

as

see

as

something
in

the

principle
to

sequel,
of

and

origin

and

religious.

[BK.

be

of

explanation

explained.
a

primitive

most

beliefs,

than

Herein

important

in.,

lies,
clue

magical,

to

n,

to

as

the

logical
mytho-

CHAPTER

PERCEPTION

animals

ALL

there

far

render

according as
are

or

far

external

necessary
the
are

external

as

to

The

the

to

their organism.

between

ing
chang-

own

the

ence
pres-

of behaviour,
their

nervous

present operationof

their

distinction

between

it involves

to

own

world,

ditions
objects. The very cona purelybiological
point

organism.

stage in the development of mental

Self.

difference

occurring in

due

of apprehensi

the external

different mode

processes
not

in

their

the

mentary,
very rudiits specific

be

much

some

existence,from

agenciesexternal
I say

them

some

may

it merely involves

as

operationof

view,

kind

very

experience so

of their

system

for

exist

states, and

of

have

perceptionof

own

our

must

and

rise above

must

differ

it may

experienceso

processes

physicalreality.It

and
from

REALITY.

conscious

whose

of

But

EXTERNAL

sensation-reflex

level of the

nature

OF

II.

The

life is

the pure

Self
an

stream

at

this

embodied
of

scious
con-

nected
experience and the body with which it is conis a late product of psychicalevolution.
But
here which
there is a subtletyinvolved
be caremust
fully
The
noted.
body is directlyidentified with the
Self only in so far as it is the instrument
of sense-perception.
But one
part of the body may be perceivedby

Psych.

321

322

PSYCHOLOGY.

another
the hand

belongs pro

seen

instrument

tanto

the

to

; in this

case

of

which

animal

any

n.

Not-Self; the

to the Self.
perception,
of fact,two
There
are, as a matter
groups
originatingin different ways which we
in
point of view can clearlydistinguish
as

eye,

own

as

look at the hand

the eye may

part ;

[BK. in.,

has

to

maintain

all kinds

ences
experi-

from
the

its existence

its environment.

adaptation to

of

of

case

by

On

our

the

ceptual
perone

of

organic sensations and appetites

active impulses and
emotions
which
and
are
independent of external impressionson the
relatively
does
not
correspond
organism. Their specificnature
in any definite manner
of exwith the specific
nature
ternal
the senses, and they may
inate
origagenciesaffecting
quite apart from the operationof such agencies.
of specialsenOn
the other hand, there is the stream
sations
produced by external conditions,and varying
hand, there

from

are

moment

We

to

from

our

distinction.

The

inquirehow

easilydraw this
psychologistis to

can

the

manifests

percipientsubject.
the

different

vary.

itself in the
The

relation

periences
ex-

of

essence

of

the

two

tions
experiencesto motor
activity.The sensawhich
definite manner
with
or
vary in a specific
also vary continually
operationof external agencies,

with

the movements

alter
the hand
The
the

conditions

of

groups

the

the

these

point of view
problem for

lies in

answer

as

distinction

the

of
the

moment

as

of the

the

eye

animal

is moved

itself.

Visual

tactual

sensations

as

spatialrelations

to

tions
sensa-

is moved.

animal's

movements

alter

its

mine,
it; and in this way deterthings which surround
of the
and intensity
to a largeextent, the nature

ii.]

en.

PERCEPTION

EXTERNAL

OF

REALITY.

323

it receives
from
its environment.
impressionswhich
But experiencesoccurringindependentlyof the present
operation of any external stimulus are unaffected
by
its parts in
the changing positionof the organism and
relation to surrounding objects. The
hungry animal
mal
anicarries its hunger about with it,and the wounded
carries its wound
Our

first

result,then, is

objects arises
which

vary

with

about

in

with

it.

ternal
presentationof exconnexion
with those experiences
the changing positionof the

that

the

with
organism and its parts. It arises in connexion
are
dependent on motor
experienceswhich
activity.
final.
It only serves
But
this result is not
to bring
of our
to the threshold
us
inquiry. For it turns out
closer examination
that in so far as an
on
experience
is merely dependent on
it is not
motor
a
activity
entation
presof an
external
an
object. If I walk towards
object,the visual sensation which it produces changes;
it changes preciselyas it would
mained
change if I had reof my
still and, instead
moving, the object
itself had
But
the

moved

towards

me

or

had

increased

change being produced by my own

object itself is not apprehended by me
the

movement
as

becoming larger. Similarly,if I get up

chair I do not
apprehend this as a movement
or

part of the chair,but

the

case

is different

in size.

moving
from
on

if the

my
the

chair

under
An
me.
animal, if it acted as if
gives way
changes purely due to its own
changing positionwere
due
to change in things themselves,would
inevitably
perish. So far as they depend merely on the changing
of the organism, they do not
positionsand movements
therefore
correspondto external conditions,and cannot

324

PSYCHOLOGY.

determine

[BK.

in.,

n.

effectively
adapted to these conditions.
itself and
Just so far as they are due to the animal
not
be useless as determinants
to its environment, they must
of the actual course
of practical
activity.There is
the ostrich burying its head in the
a libellous story about
sand
the approach of danger, and
on
resting satisfied
in this manner
with this sage precaution. To behave
be to behave
if the mere
would
as
disappearanceof an
equivalentto its actual removal.
objectfrom sightwere
the conditions
such that,if
This is so only in case
are
it were

actions

present, it would

be

The

seen.

closure

of the

no
eyes, or the burying of the head in the sand, makes
conditions
difference in the external
; the consequent

discontinuance

dangerimpressionsarisingfrom the ous

object is merely a self-initiated change without
practicalsignificance.
ourselves
in paradox.
We
involved
to have
appear
On
the
hand
jects
the
one
presentationof external oboccurs
only through those experiences which
with the motor
activityof the subject: on the
vary
other
curs
hand, the presentationof external
objects oconly through experienceswhich are independent
of the motor
a
activityof the subject. This seems
But
the inconsistency
disappears
plain contradiction.
consider
when
of experiencewhich
that the kinds
we
vary

with

movements

own

the

contradiction

contradictions
when

we

assert

is

are

that

disappearswhen
The
partlynot-B.

it

may

also

of

these

complete independence

or

Thus

our

of

we

the

removed,

contradiction

is at
say

change

as

that
in

once

is

visual

vary

in partial

movements.

many
is
and

ent
appar-

present

not-B;

partly JB and
sensation,which

CH.

when

occurs

approach

we

object,may

an

325

REALITY.

EXTERNAL

OF

PERCEPTION

ii.]

also

occur

only in the second case does

the
it constitute
on
presentationof movement
part
the contrast
of the object. In this simple instance
serious
without
trast
inaccuracybe regarded as a conmay
between
change which is exclusivelydue to the
animal's
own
activityand change in other respects
in the absence
of such
similar which
occurs
activity.
it

when

approaches

But

for the most

The

two

factors

us

part the antithesis is of

subtler

kind.

that the

resultingchange
in part does not depend, on
the
in part depends, and
of the organism. A
varying positionand movements
given movement
always give rise to altered impressions
may
from surrounding things. But the specific
nature
determined
of the change is not entirely
by the specific
nature

of the

co-operate

movements.

so

On

the

contrary, the

same

stances.
yieldsvarying results under varying circumthe
to
Opening of the eyes permits access
the specialnature
of
light,but it does not determine
the optical
stimulation received.
Movement
of the eye
direction
in a certain
of optical
produces a sequence
what
pression
the imimpressions,but it does not determine

movement

shall be
order

shall

which

succeed

each

other, or

in what

Similarly,the initiation of
of effort to move
movement
or
depends on the animal ;
and
but various
external
conditions
mine
deterfluctuating
in a given direction shall be
whether
a movement
free or
impeded, and if it is impeded what kind and
If the same
degree of resistance it shall encounter.
motor
effect,there
activityalways produced the same
such thing as adaptation to environment:
would
be no
be meaningless. We
the phrase would
imagine
may
they

occur.

326

the

PSYCHOLOGY.

case

of

animal

an

able

[BK.
command

to

in.,

n.

all the external

conditions

affectingits nervous
system purely by its
to obtain
own
so
as
initiative,
any impression on
any
occasion
cles.
merely by a suitable innervation of its musSpecificolfactory,optical,tactile,and other
stimulations

of the

of

organs

sense

would

then

be

ly
free-

the specificimpression
manner
as
produciblein the same
arisingfrom the changing states of muscles,
of
movements
joints,and tendons, which
accompany
the body and limbs.
A certain mode
of sniffing
would
always yieldthe smell of roses, and a certain movement
of the eye would
always yieldthe sightof roses, and so
forth.
that want
of food or
we
Similarly,
may
suppose
drink
could
be satisfied by merely going through the
formal
of eating and
motions
quet
drinking,as at the banof the Barmecide
in the Arabian
dently,
Nights. Evifor such
have
creature
a
as
we
imagined, the
external world
would
be virtually
Such
non-existent.
would
be a world
a creature
complete in itself.
Our general result is as follows : (1) The
presentation
of external
objectstakes place through those experiences
the subjectmust
to which
adapt itself if its action is to be
efficient for the attainment
of practical
ends.
(2) These
experienceswhich correspond to external conditions and
make
be of a kind
possiblepracticaladjustment must
which
of the
vary concomitantly with the movements
animal.
(3) But they must
only do so in part. They
yieldeffective guidance only in so far as they actually
of
occur
partiallyin independence of the movements
the

animal.

for

the

may

In

animal

give

other

only

rise to

words,
in

so

different

far

external

an
as

the

world

movement

same

consequences,

exists

or

different

PERCEPTION

IT.]

CH.

movements
to

the

to

same

EXTERNAL

REALITY.

We

consequences.

327

have

now

apply this general principleto a specialcase of

importance. In general,the action which
the

if and
what
It

OF

far

so
we

of animal

primary ends

it consists

as

call the

may

is difficult to

find

in

direct

is all alteration

meant

or

the

prepares

of

manipulation

tha" when
clearlyunderstood
we
imply no exclusive reference

word;
we

say

to

be

What

is

tion,
posi-

direct

ting
put-

All pulling,
against resistance.
pressing, rending, tearing, combining, separating,
breaking,bending, crushing, moulding, and the like,
included
this conception. It is obvious
under
that
are
in all such
of the
operations what lies in the power
efforts in certain
directions and
agent is only to make
in

of

certain

the

of

objects.

alter the

to

for

way

manipulation

the hand.

endeavour

only

it should

but

shape, arrangement, etc.,of things,by

forth

serves
sub-

life is effective

or

better

mount
para-

effort

order.

material
of action

The

result

manipulated.
be

varies
To

with
be

the

nature

effective

the

constantlyguided by varying
of the
experiencescorrespondingto the varying nature
the paramount
material.
Now
practicalimportance of
the actual
manipulation of objectsconstitutes it the
dominant
ultimate
and
is physicallyreal
test of what
real size or shape of a thing is
and what
is not.
The
its size or shape so far as it has a practicalbearing on
actual manipulation. A man
look as
at a distance
may
the table ; but he is not
small
doll on
as
a
reallyso
if I went
and tried to pick him up
out
small, because
and
So the
bring him away, I should not succeed.
real size of a hole to an
animal
is essentially
mined
deterby reference to such questionsas whether it can
course

must

328

PSYCHOLOGY.

into the hole

creep
obvious

when

or

[BK.
This

not.

n.

point is simple and

stated,but it is

once

m.,

of the

portance
greatest im-

for the whole

We

now

may

always

psychology of perception.
sum
Perception of physicalreality
up.
in essential
connexion
with the experience

arises

of active movement.
antithesis
is not,
so

far

as
as

or

the

connexion

is

one

of

Experience of active movement

presentationof external object. Only

contrast.

such, a
the

But

activityis

motor

in the attainment

of the

ends

limited

or

of animal

circumscribed
life

by varying
periences
conditions,is physical realityapprehended. The exwhich
the adjustment of active
determine
movement
to these conditions
are, as such, presentations
of the Not-Self,or external
object. In the actual course
of practicalactivity
attention
in the form
of watching,
and
the like, must
be directed
searching,scrutinising,
predominantly,if not wholly, to the external object.
determine
Only those experiences which
adjustment
have
All else is ignored by
an
objective reference.
The
attention.
psychologicalcorrelate of inter-organic
disturbance

of

the

nervous

system

consists

in animal

emotions, instinctive impulses,and the like.

appetites,
These
are
merely changing states of the Self. In a
sense
as
they may be called passive,inasmuch
they
arise and persist
independentlyof the effects of motor
activity.But in another and more
they
importantsense
are
as
active,inasmuch
essentially
they constitute the
primary impulsesor tendencies in which motor
activity
has its source.
contain
They do not of themselves
any
of consciousness
distinctive of external
specialcontents
of practicalactivity
objects. In the actual course
they
do not by their specific
qualityenable attention to dis-

of

source

keeps
The

is different

case

activity.
external

The

which
other
up

and

the

the

hand

One

the

hand,

or

parts

of the

body, just

explore
portion
external

the

organism,

the

to

it.

other

and

So

In

Self.

other

and

bound
ject.
ob-

rest

far the
the

jects
ob-

explore

the

perceive
one

be

as

an
a

sense-perception,and

or

sentient

regarded

is

body
body

external

can

may

nature.

explore other

select

we

the

hand,
of

as

hand

or

If

Self

pure

always

perceive and
eye

bodies.

object
On

thing.

as

the

two-fold

perceive

can

eyes

external
of

has

just

can

other

primitive perception

particularexternal

it behaves

portant,
im-

It is very

Self is

of

self,
it-

hunger

embodied

the

bodily organism

hand

one

do.

of

apprehension

the

to

its

and

opportunity

the

is called

what

presented,but always
words, the apprehension
the

of

in all

is

with

practical

Self

like.

the

that

not

of

the

to

attend

may

note

Self, it is

the

For
On

to

which

being pre-occupied by

deprived

lion

the

being

as

intervals

directed

its prey,

to

however,
of

the
not

satisfyingits hunger,
of

in

be

hungry

instead

work.

attention

Here

object may

states.

at

movement

interest

the

constitute

and

alive

hand,

other

the

activity,they

attention

active

which

to

On

adjust itself.

must

of

conditions

the

criminate

329

REALITY.

EXTERNAL

OF

PERCEPTION

ii.]

CH.

as

external

vehicle
the

of

body

active

movement

in

relation
to organic sensations,
peculiar and intimate
an
appetites,etc., belongs to the Self. Thus

its

animal's

perception

connecting
Not-Self.

link

of

between

its

own

the

organism

perception

constitutes
of

Self

and

III.

CHAPTER

PERCEPTION

SPATIAL

Nature

" 1.
how

imperfect
then

its first

its

We

out

or

and

of

into

an

distances.

these

Analysis
it is

as
we

formal.

find
The

of the

forms.

We

conditions
also

explain

and

called.

in

of

continuous

are

Our

panse
ex-

connected

and

spread

never

of audible

connected
are

But

distance.

composed

touch.

by

extended

audible

only

primary

or

as

is

concern

senses.

Extension.

presented
it two

formal

parts of

and

is

and

space

tions.
spatial determina-

smell

expanse

be

must

concerning

that

Objects

presented to sight and

" 2.

and

inquiry

our

positionsseparated

positionsseparated

with

not

Extension

sound

Now

in this way

therefore

may

have

smell

extended.

odorous

same

of their direction

speak

distances.

odorous

the

whether

inquiry than

composed

by

indefinite

perfect

begin with,

Sound

not

are

and

development

To

narrower

general.

they

from

inquire

to

so
perception of extension, strictly

the

to

is

This

consider

to

origin.

limited

definite

more

determine

which

in

to

have

We

"

spatialperception develops

the

have

Problem.

the

of

GENERAL.

IX

to

"

the

consider

we

extended
330

tension
ex-

ness,
developed consciousand

constituents, a material
constituent

an

If

in

consists
whole

in

the

the

tions
rela-

way

of

positionand distance.
and distance
be position
material

is the

But
of

positionand
something :
It is

constituent.

distance

and

For

whole.

extension.
as

these

They

those

in

For

determinations
are

found

which

instance,

in

are

must

this

thing
some-

plain that

conception of positionand distance

constitute the conception of an
to

mere

such

331

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

"2.]

found

is not

the
ficient
suf-

extended

apart from

series,
merely qualitative

colour

sensations

in

series

the

of

be arranged.
may
intermediate

gradationsconnecting pure blue and pure green, any

and a
blue-green or green-bluehas a definite position,
definite distance
from
other blue-greensor green-blues.
If we
select the interval between
one
blue-greenand
the distance between
another
measure
as
a
unit, we
may
in the scale in terms
of this unit.
any positions
But this series of qualitative
gradationsis not a line
the juxtaposition
of
in space : it does not depend on
the colours,but only on their differences and likenesses
revealed to attentive comparison. It may be repreas
sented
as
a line in space, but
onlyby analogy. In itself,
it has no distinctively
spatialcharacter. What fixes the
trinsic
inpositionof any specialcolour in the series is its own
quality.But in an extended whole, qua extended,
If we
ask why a point in an exthis is not the case.
tended
find the
whole has a certain position,
cannot
we
answer
by consideringthe intrinsic sensible qualityof
and by comparing it with the intrinsic
the pointitself,
of other points. Since positionand
sensible qualities
of our
distance do not constitute the whole
conception
of space,
these

Che

we

must

ask

determinations.
answer

to

this

what
In

is left when
the

case

question would

we

of the

be

think

away
colour-series
easy.

If

we

332

PSYCHOLOGY.

to

cease

the

arrange

[BK. in.,
in

colours

the less retains unaffected

none

In

the

of

case

its

extended

an

intrinsic

own

the

whole

in.

of them

series,each

CH.

n.,

ity.
qual-

answer

be

similar. Its parts are

partially
distinguishable,
and
There
capable of being added and subtracted.
therefore
be some
difference by which
must
qualitative
they are distinguished.This difference is commonly
called a difference
of local sign. Local
signatureis
that differential qualityof sensation which
varies with
must

the

part of the

with

the

sensitive

qualitativedifference

tipof

the nose,
could

we

and

this difference

this is

and

would
to

and

there
may

contact

be

tend

the

our

may

the

same

reproduce
would

qualityof

But

of
qualities

the

with

tended

to

tact
con-

is

there

the

according to

tactile surface

affected,and

for the surface

of the retina.*

we

must

But

with
would

reproduce,
them.

between

distinction

no

t.

difference

in

point of

the

assume

the

same

pointsmust

two

one

said

association.

to

association

affirm that

sensation

the

different,association

whatever
be

therefore

unless

were
as

due

be

wise
Other-

toe.

It is sometimes

touched.

was

some

affectingthe

tell when

shut

not

be

must

contact

eyes

because
impossible,

We

with

not

There

affectingthe big

one

the other

when

that

and

between

and

stimulated

stimulus.

of the

nature

surface

be

cal
noted
which
this difference of locarefully
distinguish
In the first
signfrom other qualitativedifferences.
of the stimulus
place,it does not depend on the nature
applied,but only on the part of the sensitive surface
thereof local signaturecannot
Difference
affected.
*

It

is difficult

signature. They

to
are

determine

probably

the
rather

physiqlogical
central

than

conditions

peripheral.

of

local

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

"2.]
fore be

333

ordinary differences of colour

and tactile sensations.
The
local sign of a visual sensation
is not a colour-quality
such as red, green, white
or
black,and that of a tactile sensation is not a touch
quality,such as roughness,smoothness, and the like.
This bringsus to the second
ences
point. Local sign differclassed with

the

the sensitive surface

exist unaffected,whether
stimulated

in

of white

uniform

manner

not.

or

uniform

is
panse
ex-

and contains
expanse
local differences in spiteof the sameness
of the colouring.
or

blue is stillan

Local

differ from
of the
the qualities
sign qualities
dependen
inasmuch
as
specialsenses
they are not discrete and inpression
continuous
total imThey unite in one
forming a kind of quantity called extensive
quantity or simply extensity. "Suppose," says Dr.

Ward,

"

hand;

we

postage

stamp

pasted

in consequence

have
added

back

the

certain

of the

sensation.

If

experience would
not be adequatelydescribed
by merely saying we have
a
greater quantityof sensation,for intensityinvolves
is not what
is meant.
quantity,and increased intensity
For
sensation of a certain intensity,
a
say a sensation
be changed into one
of red, cannot
having two qualities,
red and blue, leaving the intensityunchanged;
but with
extensitythis change is possible. For one
of the postage stamps a piece of wet
cloth of the same
size might be substituted and
the massiveness
of the
the same."*
compound sensation remain very much
another

Now

be

the

Article

xx., p. 54.

it,the

new

postage stamps in this instance

two

the touch

to

beside

on

an

object which

"Psychology,"

has

Encyclopaedia

not

present

only extensitybut

Britannica,

ninth

edition,

PSYCHOLOGY.

334

extension.
the other.

whole

we

But
and

the

can
we

stamp lies

to

abstract

must

CH.

in.

the

from

all these

tions,
determina-

difference
only the quantitative

consider
one

n.,

rightor to the left of

and within the
certain shape is presented,
tion.
distinguishdistance,direction,and posi-

One
A

[BK. in.,

postage stamp

and

the

two.

If

we

tween
be-

fix

are
aspect, we
purely on the quantitative
from
extension.
consideringextensityas distinguished
have only attempted to
" 3. ^Extensity. So far we
oped
that extensity
is a constituent of the fullydevelshow
be distinguishedin
percept of extension, and can
sity
extennext
it by analysis. The
question is whether
but actually
is not merely distinguishable,
separable
from
Is there such a thing as an extensive
extension.
tinguishe
dislocal sign differences
not
are
quantum in which
by
by positionsseparated and connected
distances ?
Can the quantitative
aspect of space exist
is that though it
order ? The answer
without a spatial
is perhaps not possibleto give examples of absolutely
exhibit many
nevertheless
we
can
proximat
appure extensity,
to it. We
can
ences
point to sensible experidiffusion
with a relatively
which have extensive
spatialarrangement.
vague
The first set of examples is suppliedby experiments
If the skin receives two
tactile sensibility.
on
punctiform
such as those produced by the points
impressions,
it
of two needles, or of the legs of a pair of compasses,
be
is found, as Weber
first showed, that the pointsmust
at a certain distance
apart, if the two impressionsare
At less than this distance only one
to be distinguished.*

attention

our

"

The

distance

it is finest in those

varies

with

regions,

the
as

the

part of the

fingers

and

skin

affected.

lips, which

"

are

In

general,

known

by

SPATIAL

" 3.]

tactile

continuous

impressionis

that this is due

differences

in the

this is not

the

not

335

PERCEPTION.

to

Even

discriminated,the

the

but

It

be

posed
sup-

any local
facts prove

sign

might

of

absence

an

sensation

case.

felt.

the

when

points are
recognisedas

two

is often

sensation

that

having a certain indefinite diffusion ; and this may even

happen when only one point is used. It is also found
of discrimination
that the power
ing
varies greatlyaccordthe
as
impressions are
applied successivelyor
needle point is removed
fore
beone
simultaneously.When
another
tinguish
is applied,the two
be discontacts
can
at

much

very

distance

smaller

when

than

they occur
simultaneously.This shows that they may
be simultaneously
appliedwithout being distinguished,
plexity
althoughthe sensation they produce contains a comof local sign differences.
ferences
The
local sign difunite
without

in

internal

continuous

one

distinction

extensive

quantum,

of

direction,and
position,
the
needle
distance.
When
points are
successively
without
tive
their relaapplied,they may be distinguished
positionbeing apprehended. For apprehensionof
their relative positionor direction they must
be a certain
distance apart. The
experiment may be further
varied by applying one
needle
and afterwards
applying
the other without
removing the first. In this case, they
be somewhat
further
must
apart to be distinguished.
But what
interests us is that the applicationof
most
the second
point is sometimes
only recognisedas producing
diffuse contact.
a blunter
or
more
Finally,the
every-day
in the

parts

observation

mobile

(the trunk).
surface

to have

parts, hands,
of the

high

feet, and

It is about

twice

tactual

sensibility. It

lips,than
as

fine

fingers." (Sully,The

in the

on

Human

the

is much

finer

comparatively

anterior

Mind,

as

vol.

on

the

fixed
terior
pos-

i.,p. 106.)

336

PSYCHOLOGY.

[BK. in.,

n.,

in.

CH.

by continuous lines such as the

edge of a stripof cardboard, instead of by separate
points. It is found that this linear impression can be
its
distinguishedfrom a punctiform impression when
distance
smaller
end-pointsare separatedby a much
than what
is required for discriminatingtwo
separate
pointssimultaneouslyapplied. The linear impression
does not give rise to the impressionof a line unless its
tances
end-pointsare a certain distance apart ; at shorter disfusion.
the experience is merely one
of indefinite difto be
Longitudinal direction gradually comes
perceivedas the linear impression is lengthened: but
before
in this process the line is apprehended as such
its direction is apprehended.*
It thus appears that in these experiments on tactile
between
have all kinds of gradations
we
sensibility
pure
from
If we
turn
extensityand fullydefinite extension.
termedi
in exhibitingintouch to sight,
there is more
difficulty
the opticalperception
stages of this kind, because
of space
is far more
completely developed in
skin may

be stimulated

the adult

consciousness

marked

than

the

tactile.

an

outer

is best

This

definite

no

perhaps the
is kept open in a
*

etc."

"

Ueber

Von

closed.

are

die

G. A.

field which

The

edges

tral
cen-

There

spatial order.
is presented

of this field have

impossibleto assign its shape.

best example is suppliedwhen
one
eye
fairlystrong light,and the other closed.

outline.

But

gray

is

extensive

has

imagery which
comparatively vague

in the

seen

the eyes

when

margin.

of dim

zone

diffusion,but

its

there
the

distinction in this respect between

parts of the field of vision and

is

But

It is

Wahrnehmung

Tawney.

zweier

Punkte

Philosophische

mittelst

Studien,

Band

Tastsinnes,
xiii.,2, Heft.

des

"4.]

SPATIAL

diffused blackness

its

337

PERCEPTION.

is

the closed eye, but

of the vaguest kind.

presentedto

partialdeterminations

are

Typical cases of extensive diffuseness or massiveness

afforded by organic sensations.
Professor
James
are
of a colic or
bago."*
lumdiscomfort
a
speaks of the "vast
Let

us

consider

such

sensation

that of

as

in so far as
spatial
it is localised in a certain portion of the body, but it is
internal
almost entirelywithout
spatialarrangement.
do not distinguish
in it pointsof hunger having
We
definite relations of position
to each other,
pointsof
hunger separated and connected
by hunger-distances.

hunger

of stomach-ache.

or

This is

"

At

rate, if

any

But

way.

do

we

there

is

no

all it is in the very vaguest

doubt that the hunger has extensive
at

so

quantity. It is,as

James

says, "voluminous

or

massive."
It is also
senses, such
"

James,

"

The
are

sometimes
sound

as

or

urged that
smell,have

reverberations
more

of

voluminous

the
an

other

special

extensive

acter.
char-

thunder-storm,"says

than

the

squeaking of a
is not a purely

f But this voluminousness

slate-pencil."
show
auditoryexperience. It is urged with some
that the extensity
reason
belongs not to the sound
such, but to accompanying tactile sensation due to
of the

similar conditions.

to

remains
has
of

and

tympanum,

of the external

However

this may

that the voluminousness

of
as

bration
vi-

ear, and

be, the

is present, and

fact

that

it

character,no internal order

distinctively
spatial
positionsand distances.
in order to become
" 4. Active Movement.
Extensity,
no

"

extension,must
*

assume

Principles of Psychology,

Psych.

more

vol.

ii.,p.

or

134.

less definite order

t Ibid.

22

338

[BK. in.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

en.

n.,

TIT.

is this

acquired? The serial arrangement

of colours in a qualitativescale is directly
based
the intrinsic qualityof the colours
on
themselves, and
it is obtained
ties.
by deliberate comparison of these qualiinto
The
positionsand distances
arrangement
of

How

parts.

constitutes

which

extension

is not

arrived

in

at

this

obtained
by
sign qualities
stimulating different parts of the body, and arrange
them
by comparison in a qualitativescale. Indeed it
the
between
is probable that there is less difference
local signaturesof corresponding parts of the
two
in the fingersensation
hands, than there is between
tips

We

way.

sensation

and
to

factor

factor
of

local

the back

on

of the

have

spatialorder, we must
distinct altogether from

show

must

positionand

definite

serial

order
to

recourse

extensity. This
in the way

arrangement

It must

distance.

In

hand.

for

account

some

take

cannot

also be

intimately

so

nite
experiences of extensitythat the defiarrangements which belong to it may be transferred
with

connected

to

them

for it is not

enough

to

have

experience

pure

extensityexternallyconjoined with another

rience
expetances.
showing a definite order of positionsand disto belong to
Position and distance
must
come
itself.
the extensity
the only factor which
fulfils these conditions is
Now
of the
active movement
and, in particular,
movement,
of

eyes
the

or

In

hands.

body

arises, due

as

to

whole,
the

of the

movement

any
a

series

of

limbs

varying

of
changing conditions
Following Dr. Ward,

joints,and tendons.
symbolisesuch a series as Pl P2 Ps P".
be presentedalong with Pz and from P"

"

or

of

sensations

muscles,
we

PI

it is

may
cannot

impos-

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

" 4.]
sible to

reach

339

through P3

Pl again save

and

P2"*

or

series. These
motor
determinate
other
through some
motor
experienceshave therefore a definite arrangement.
tute
Pl and Ps. P2 and P3 constiPz lies between
distance separatingand connecting P1 and jP4.
a

Further,

if the

is not

movement

merely

in free

made

of some
object,there
space, but exploresthe contours
and correspondingseries having
is another concomitant
definite

arrangement.
is the

part of

the

hand.

object to

of
Suppose the instrument
As the finger-tips
pass from
another, there is a series of

ploration
exone

tile
tac-

experienceshaving a definite order, and varying

concomitantlywith the sensations arisingfrom muscle,
If the object explored is part of
joint,and tendon.
surface of the body itself,
there is still
the cutaneous
series. As
the finger-tip
another
definitelyordered
is
passes along the palm of the other hand, the contact
felt not only in the fingerbut in the hand
explored.
successive

The

succession

yields a
in

occur

stimulation

of

of the

parts of the

local

fixed order, and

sign experiences which

correspondto the succession

experiences. All these series have a

and
distances : but
arrangement of positions
is not spatial.It is purely an order
Extension
can
only exist when the
sequence.
of motor

order

is the

order

hand

of the parts of

an

extensive

definite
the

rangement
ar-

of time-

definite

quantum

presented.
simultaneously
It is essential to the possibility
of this that
the
experience of extensityand the experience of active
should
enter
movement
as
co-operativefactors into a
*

Article

XX., p. 54.

"Psychology,"

Encyclopaedia

Britannica,

ninth

edition,

PSYCHOLOGY.

340

process
process
behind
to

[BK. m.,

IT., CH.

in.

having unity and continuityof interest. A

having unity and continuityof interest leaves
it as a whole
a total disposition, a disposition
"

each

which

and

in their

factors

all of its component

This
tive
cumulaconjoint interaction have contributed.
the prois re-excited as a whole when
disposition
cess
the factors which
is repeatedin part. In this way
into the process may
become
enter
profoundly modified
by their previous combination, so that each separately
which it has acquiredfrom its combination
assumes
a character

with
for

the

mean

the

of

extension.
at

for

of its parts,

so

to

that you

of active

become

clasping an

on

how

once

has

stand

or

mean

experience has

system

experience
If,

to

comes

extensive

an

stand

or

extensive

hand, you know

It

others.

When

others.

to

come

the

make
will

ments,
move-

tion
percep-

object in the
ploration
a
systematicexhave
nothing to

by actuallyexecuting exploring movements, then

you have an adequate perceptionof its shape and other
If, on the other hand, mere
spatialdeterminations.
with the object does not
contact
fullysupply precise
of exploration,
and definite guidance to the movements
tanto
the spatialperceptionis pro
inadequate. When
local signs or any
the perceptionis adequate, any two
the appropriate
of local signs prompts
at once
group
for passing from
movements
part to part of the object.
Extensitywhich has thus acquiredmeaning is no longer
but a continuous
mere
complex of positions
extensity,
Just as the passivetouch acquiresin this
and distances.
learn

the active touch

so
way a properlyspatialsignificance,
which is at first a purely successive series,also acquires
a

spatialcharacter.

As

the

finger-tips
pass

over

an

SPATIAL

" 4.]

object,the
themselves

successive

of co-existent

Extensity

341

experiences do

not

time-sequence. They
successive presentationof

the

present
become

whole

parts.
and

active

combined

be

tactile

merely

as

for consciousness

said,

PERCEPTION.

movement

must,

essential

as

as

factors

in

have

we

processes

having continuityof interest : otherwise

they could not
Their
joint
conmodify each other in the way described.
leave
behind
it a total disposition
operationmust
which

is the
into

cumulative

which

separately,will
with

they

whole

when

it

Each,

enter.

modified

occur

the

after-effect of the

by

other, because

its

cess
prooccurs

previous

it will

re-excite

junction
con-

the

total

due to their conjointoperation. Now,

disposition
if we
the
into
are
inquire what
appetitive processes
which
enter
as
extensityand active movement
ative
co-operanswer
factors,we
by referringto all the
may
the ends
of animal
life
primitive activities by which
secured.
Such practical
ive
are
activitycan only be effectin

far

active

is

delicately
adjusted
to the shape, size,distance,etc., of objects. The
ing
guidclues to such
motor
adjustment can only be found
in touchand sight-experiences.But
just in so far as
the toucheither originally
or
sight-experiences
possess
of guiding active
or
subsequently acquire the power
movement,
they are or become
perceptions of spatial
so

as

movement

order.
We

have

general
by

at

now

statements

which

the

to

once

by

an

explain and

development

visual,perceptionsof

space

of

account

of

the

(1)the

is determined.

justifythese
tions
specialconditactual,(2)the

to

CHAPTER

SPATIAL

" 1.

dissevered

BY

have

birth,or

lives ; and
to

should

lost their

into

sight in

they should

lightor

colour.*

visual

as

blind

retain

trace

no

who

have

their

tactile

ourselves

we

for this

from

first year

the

Those

imagery

ence
exist-

study touch-space
be

translate

year

The

"

it is essential

either

also that

in their fourth

Blind.
to

us

sight-space.But
persons

TOUCH.

the

enables

persons

from

the blind

blind

PERCEPTION

Spatial Perception of

of blind

that

IV.

their

of their
of

sibility
sen-

become

sions
impresin

do

the

dark.
The

chief

the

shape

two

hands.

hand,

instrument

and

size of

These

either
the

the

blind

in

perceiving

objects is

the

hand,

or

rather

or

open

used

in

two-fold

closed,

it does

part of

an

not

involve

object to

another.

synthetic touch, because

it

impression of all or many

(2) A portionof the hand, such
explore the parts and contours
*

The

Heller's

facts
most

adduced

in this

valuable

sophische Studien,

"

may

Studien

section
zur

are

342

called

active

sive
pas-

movement

It may

also

be

neous
total simulta-

parts of the
as

the

of the

almost

object.
finger-tips,
may
object by grad-

entirely

Blinden-Psychologie

xi.,1895, pp. 226, 406,

ously
simultane-

be

yieldsa

the

(1) The

way.

touch

may

parts of the object. This

one

called

by

are

touch, because
from

used

531.

due
"

to Theodor

in the

Philo-

SPATIAL

" 1.]

ually moving
touch,

because

PERCEPTION".

343

This

be
may
consists in
it essentially

over

them.

called

active

active

ment.
move-

it
also be called analytic touch, because
It may
sions
analysesor breaks up into a series of successive impres-

what
whole.

Now

of the blind
of the
the

synthetictouch
the main

lesson

that

we

as

simultaneous

learn

from

study

development in the definiteness

due to
spatialorder is essentially
and co-operationof syntheticand

is that all

perceptionof

intimate

presents

union

be
It must
analytictouch.
and experimentson

understood

that

the

vations
obser-

relyare all made

have
able
blind persons who
on
alreadyacquired considerexperience. Their spatialperceptionis therefore
What
at the outset
we
developed in a large measure.
is only the process
observe
therefore
can
by which
tunate
greater precisionand accuracy are acquired. It is forfor psychologicalpurposes
that spatialperception
by touch does not reach full maturitywith nearly
the same
rapidityas spatialperceptionby sight.Hence,
in the adult blind,it is possibleto observe
it in the
even
first question with which
of growth. The
we
process
information
have to deal is,What
concerningshape and
is conveyed by synthetic
other spatialdeterminations
? Of course, we
touch apart from
cannot
analytic
bring
from
synthetictouch into play in absolute severance
analytic,for the blind have already had considerable
experiencein the explorationof objects and especially
In the case
of simple and familiar
of their own
bodies.
they have
already often explored by
things which
active touch, they can
at once
recogniseshape, size,
But when
objects are
etc.,by merely passivecontact.
presentedto them with which they are quiteunfamiliar,
which

we

PSYCHOLOGY.

344

it is found

[BK. in.,

IT.,

CIT.

iv.

preciseapprehensionanalytictouch
be combined
with
must
synthetic. Synthetic touch
alone without
the aid of previousexperienceyieldsat
the most
total impression.For
schematic
a generaland
tell whether
the object is round
or
instance, they can
it is regular or
irregular. But
angular, and whether
of its shape, analytic
for more
precisedetermination
movements
are
required. It is particularly
noteworthy
selves
that the blind are
almost
incapable of confining themthe object is at
when
to purely synthetictouch
all unfamiliar.
Involuntary twitchings of the hand
which
occur
they find it difficult or impossibleto suppress.
that for

explorationof objects there is a great

difference
in the method
of procedure in different persons,
and in different stages of development of the same
The
more
highly the spatialperception has
person.
been
developed, the more
systematicand appropriate
In the

the

are

active

highest stage
in

its main

sometimes
are

their

and

movements

the blind

features

acquired

use

in

in

favourable.

their
a

combination.

the

At

plan of procedureidentical

different

This

individuals.

early childhood

where

If the blind have

hands, they always acquire the

simple spatialrelations. On

to

power
the

the

work

is

ditions
con-

with

of

hending
appre-

other

hand,

not
have
who
good intelligence,
been compelled to acquire control over
objectsby pressure
of practical
needs, often show great helplessness,
tions.
and do not appear
to have
any interest in spatialrelaof perceptual
In such cases, a specialeducation
activityis required for adequate apprehension of the
advances, the blind
shape of objects. As education

adults

of

otherwise

" 1.]

SPATIAL

becomes

345

PERCEPTION.

capable of determining
the size and shape of objectspresentedto him.
At the
of explorationshow
same
a
time, his active movements
and more
more
systematicand purposefulcharacter.
In higher stages of development the process
of
analytictouch takes a form such as the following. One
and turns
hand holds the object in position,
it so that
it may be convenientlyexplored by the other.
Finger
of exploration,
and they
and thumb
the instruments
are
used simultaneously.The
are
fingerglidesalong one
of the object,
and the thumb
contour
along an opposite
The varying distance
of fingerand thumb, as
contour.
and
measures
they proceed from their starting-point,
the distance and direction of the boundary
determines
relative
retain the same
lines. If fingerand thumb
the boundary lines are
parallel
position,
; if they move
divergent; if they apapart, the boundary lines are
proach
each
other, the boundary lines are convergent.
inating
of discrimMany blind persons have wonderful
power
distance
in this way.
They can, for example,
person

determine

the

more

various

and

more

in this process
the object is pushed backwards
paper.

of

thickness

When

of

different

kinds

of

analyticexploration

till it touches
into

the

face
sur-

synthetic.
The two
hands
sometimes
interchangefunctions,and at
intervals synthetictouch
intervenes,the object being
clasped and pressed. As a rule,synthetictouch comes
and introduces
first,
analytic. All active explorationis
with the total presentationof
brought into connexion
The
the object, as
it exists for passivetouch.
more
practiseda blind person is in the apprehension of the
of bodies,the more
rapid and sketchy are
configuration
of the

hand, analytictouch

passes

PSYCHOLOGY.

346

active

the

movements

Indeed,

[BK. in.,
for

necessary

adequate

that neither

all the facts show

IT.,

on.

iv.

tion.
percep-

active

nor

passivetouch alone suffices. The perceptionof spatial

This
and interaction.
order is a product of their union
co-operationof syntheticand analytictouch is possible
only for objectssmall enough to be taken in the hand,
be
hands.
at least in both
or
Larger objects cannot
Active
apprehended as a whole by synthetictouch.
it would

movement,
main

can

person

by

But

resource.

often

in

must

seem,

this is not
the

measure

these

quite true.

dimensions

be

cases

The
of the

the

blind

object

stance,
body, comparing,for inits height with his own
cance
height.* The signifipends
of analytic
touch
as
appliedto larger objectsdeit has acquired in
which
the significance
upon

the dimensions

of his

own

of
Large numbers
synthetictouch.
unable
blind persons are
to acquireprecisespatial
prehensi
aply
be immediateof those objectswhich cannot
itself
manifests
This inability
claspedby the hand.

co-operationwith

in their

of active

movements

touch, which

are

for the

strikingand
discoveryof some
feature
of the object which
distinctive
as
a
serve
can
sign of it. But it is often possibleto induce these persons
undertake
to
a
systematicexplorationof larger
by putting
objects in the way of active movement,
scale.
models
of these objectson
before them
a reduced
originalsand
They are thus prompted to compare
copies. Afterwards
they freely apply the system of
thus acquired to all objects which
movements
require
in the active explorationof
and
admit of them.
As
part limited

most

We

spatial

shall presently
relations

of the

to

have

body

the

to consider
itself

come

the
to

be

conditions

presented.

under

which

the

SPATIAL

" 1.]

PERCEPTION.

347

and divergenceof thumb

objectsthe convergence
and fingerplay a prominent part, so in the exploration
of larger objects,the convergence
and divergence of
small

the two

arms

of connexion

is of the

greatest value.

between

these

methods,

two

is

There

link

inasmuch

as

it is

for
possibleto use either of the two methods
smaller objects. A thing
either be taken between
may
the opthe opposing thumb
and
between
or
finger-tip
posing
fingersof the two hands.
So far,we
have dealt with the explorationof comparatively
limited
have
We
kept within what
spaces.
be

may

called

the

restricted

more

limit

is the

touch

than

spaces

horizon.
embraced

be

can

Larger

arms.

visual

the

that

space

This

horizon.

than

these

is very

much

Its utmost

by

the

stretched
out-

only be

can

of the whole body, in which

tension
exexploredby locomotion
previouslypresentedis completelyleft behind.
We
thus have
series of fragmentary presentations.
a
For fullyprecisespatialapprehension these must
be
gathered togetherinto a singlesimultaneously
presented
It is conceivable
that this might be effected by
whole.
ideal reproductionof the parts not immediately perceived.
To
the blind may
certain extent
a
actually
But they can
producing
proceed in this way.
only do so by rethe whole

on

reduced

scale.

The

scale of

their

imaginationis limited by the range of their actual

of those
is true
who
can
see.
perception. The same
We
cannot
mentally visualise a spatialexpanse
larger
than the field of view as given in actual perception.*If
in the purely mental
to include
field of view
we
are
*

Of

picture

course

it.

we

can

think

of

such

an

expanse,

although

we

cannot

PSYCHOLOGY.

348

[BK. m.,

n.,

CH.

objectsbeyond the range of actual vision,we must

of them
on
a reduced
a schematic
representation
Those

who

are

confined

to the

of touch

sense

analogous plan; but their power

and is in any
varies with the individual,

in

an

restricted than

more

must

we

not

parts of

very

can

see.

much
But

the

becomes

spatialwhole

scale.

may follow
this respect

case

who

make

apprehensionof the
purely successive,the

that where

suppose

parts themselves

of persons

that

iv.

presented as successive,so as to
transform a spatial
perceptioninto a temporalperception.
ready
of exploration
On the contrary the movements
have alperiences
acquired a spatialsignificancethrough the exare

obtained

Hence

within

the

limits

the

parts of

the

of the touch

zon.
horiwhich

spatial whole

apprehended as
related
in
the
of
co-existence, although they
way
be simultaneouslypresented. Similarly,
cannot
a
son
perfor ten
who
road
can
see, in walking along a
successivelypresent

miles, has

themselves

of successive

number

are

fields of view

which

be

simultaneously
presented either actuallyor
ideally. But he does not apprehend these fields of
view
as
forming a time series : he apprehends them
as
presented parts of a co-existent whole.
successively
cannot

The

reason

for

this will

become

clearer

in

the

next

may

now

section.

" 2. Extension

proceed to

consider

as

Physically

Real.
of

"

We

cerned
explorationconin the apprehension of size and
configuration
from
another
point of view.
They not only contribute
of exmodes
to perceptionof size and
tension
figure,as mere
time
yield a perceptionof
; they at the same
external reality.The
configurationand size perceived

the

movements

SPATIAL

""2.]

PERCEPTION.

349

is

and size
the configuration
essentially
of bodies existingand
persistingindependentlyof us
of
and of percipient
activity.In followingthe contours
not
an
are
object,our movements
wholly free, but are
the one
We
bound
must
on
by certain conditions.
hand
with the object,continually
keep in contact
serving
prethe experience of resistance.
If contact
and
resistance cease, we
are
no
longer exploringthe object.

by

their

means

On

the

other

hand

main

we

avoid

force ; when

any

effort to

overcome

sistance
re-

body is soft or fragile,

this wrould actuallyprevent us from attaining
our
ends,
for it would
alter the configuration
we
are
exploring;
be futile. We
and, in any case, it would
only feel the
resistance in order to yieldto it ; in this way, it is a condition
continuallydetermining our subjectiveactivity.
So far as this condition
operates, the whole experienceis
determined
for us, not by us, and is therefore
the presentation
of an external reality.The size and configuration
perceivedare apprehended as existingindependently
of our
action in perceivingthem.
The
cessation
of our
does not involve the cessation of their existence
activity
therefore regarded as persisting
even
; they are
when
they are no longer actuallypresented. This it is
which gives the experience practical
value, value in the
manipulation of objectsfor the attainment of practical
It also explains the sharp antithesis
ends.
between
of the parts of a whole, and
the successive
presentation
The
succession
their spatialco-existence.
is a succession
of our
subjectivestates ; but the successively
apprehende
parts persistindependentlyof us and our
co-exist independently of us
doings. They therefore
and our
doings.
by

PSYCHOLOGY.

350

"

"3.

The

So

far,we

restricted

[BK. in.,

Spatial Significance of
have

dealt

only with

Free

what

n.,

CH.

iv.

Movements.
may

restricted

be

called

by the
conditions
which
the actual
determine
explorationof
bodies.
But the experiencesthus acquired cannot
be
free movements.
without effect on
The
spatialsignificance
in
acquired in the explorationof bodies must
when
some
degree clingto analogous movements
they
take place without
with external
contact
things. As a
of fact such movements
matter
yield the perception of
what may
be called geometric configuration,
tion
configurain which
the spatialcharacter
is not
regarded as
belongingto any external body, but as the product of
our
subjectiveactivity.To quote Professor James :
trace
If, with closed eyes, we
figuresin the air
with the extended
forefinger(the motions may occur
from
the metacarpal-, the wrist-,the elbow-, or
the
shoulder- jointindifferently)
what
conscious
we
are
of
in each
indeed
most
case, and
acutelyconscious of, is
the geometric path described
tip. Its
by the fingerall as distinctly
felt as if
are
angles,its sub-divisions,
seen
ceives
reby the eye ; and yet the surface of the finger-tip
In persons born blind
no
impression at all.
the phenomenon
in questionis even
more
perfectthan
in ourselves." * In these geometrictracingswe
ing
makare
an
express experiment,and concentrating attention
the movements
of the finger,
such
on
such.
Under
as
conditions there is present a
image
very distinct mental
of the path described
by the moving finger. It is as if
the fingeractually
left a marked
track behind
it,and so
drew figuresin the air. The
outline is generallyvisumovements,

movements

"

...

Principles of Psychology,

vol.

it, p.

190.

alised in the

it in the

image
do

The

indeed

present, or
distinctly
less they still possess

the

of

sweep

not

all.

at

direction

and

amount

and

direction

the

to

present

spatialsignificance.
of the whole body,

the movement

limb, or

in
extension, differing

means

does

in

is

imagery

ably
presum-

which
on
ordinarymovements,
attention,this ideal
expresslyconcentrate

not

None

seeing persons;* the blind

It
of passivetouch.f
way

that

however

appear
we

of

case

351

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

" 3.]

cording
ac-

of the movement.

amount

body; it is
of it
Inasmuch
the presentation
free or empty space.
as
depends purelyon free movement, it ought accordingto
in the precedingchapter to lack the
laid down
principles
of external
character
reality.This is true of geometric
tracingsin which attention is wholly concentrated on the
free movement
itself. But, in general,free space is,as
is not

extension

This

Kant

of the external

form

says,

external

of any

that

This

world.

cause
is so, be-

usuallynot wholly free,but in

certain respect conditioned.
a
They take place in the
useful in this
service of practicalends, and they are
mainly in so far as they effect a transition from
way
one
body to another, or from one
resisting
part of a
free movements

of

his

or

arise

when

colour

and

is it.

What

round

the

the

air

but

I don't

as
as

if

to
a

is

see,

my

it isn't
the

at

lost

and

arises
dislike

their

image,
than

because

see

after

after

the

noteworthy

of

they

it.

have

they
fourth

that
to

appearing peculiar.

the
use

all,
"

finger

my

If

are

so

no

vague
to

seems

figure.

the

to

seems

it has

But

after

count
ac-

in this

even

only

it.

nearly invisible

made

sight

It is

image

will)boundary

letters

then

see

"

following

image

and

I will

touch

touch

(either

of the

visualise.

This

saw.

mind

more
figure much
vaguely apprehend

they have

who

get

the

me

visual

the

character,

vaguest

the

tracing

probably

they

far

inside

I can't

up

sure

or

to feel

the

really

plainer

outside

see

"

make

were

not

seem

will

those

as

is

t Unless

they

it

I'm

seem

it is of

rate

blind, gives

means

no

experience.

own

at any

case,

is by

who

Welton,

Mr.

are

go
tainly
cer-

try writing in

finger moving,
made."

year;

in that

case

blind

usually

talk

the

same

language

352

[BK. m.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

resisting
body to another part. But
proceeding from one definite point to
point imposes restriction on the amount
of the movement.

"Let

us

"

for

There

another.

and

this state

is

has

is,to

felt

mind

is

After

less

or

the

to

and

as

Dr.
two

of

contact

of

sense

to

feelingof

other

takes

In this way

by

direction
Bain.
fixed

box

to

with

touch,

abrupt departurefrom

the
.

time, the

again roused

of the movement."

side

one

consciousness,a call

is awakened

that follows.
the mind

in

mark

and

with, the

more

the

from

definite

another

between

moving

iv.

necessityof

the

well put

commence

resistance,
a

been

hand

example,

side of the box

pressure,

and

the

suppose

obstacles,

one

This

CH.

n.,

attention;
movement

side is struck, and

note

of the cessation

free space

acquiresthe
of a space separatingand connecting external
character
bodies and thus itself partakes of external reality.
Extended.
" 4. Perception of the Organism
as
Up to this point,we have been dealing with the further
development of a spatialperceptionwhich has already
"

attained
we

considerable

have

advancement.

been

speaking about were

that,by purely syntheticor

blind persons
vanced
already so far adThe

passivetouch, they
could obtain at least a vague
and schematic
sion
apprehenof the shape even
of unfamiliar
objects. Also it is
evident
that the movements
which
ploration
they use in the exof objects have
or
already acquired a more
For
less definite spatialvalue.
example, the relative
means
fingerand thumb
degree of separation between
have
We
for them
corresponding spatialdistances.
in the scale of development,
down
to go further
now
and to trace the rudimentarybeginningsof spatial
per*

The

Senses

and

the

Intellect, fourth

edition,

p. 197.

" 4.]

SPATIAL

ception. This

will

in which

way

On

extended.

best

be

to

come

we

this

353

PERCEPTION.

pointI

by consideringthe
body as
perceiveour own
done

Croom

quote Professor

may

doubt
that the
slightest
of as resisting,
and
first object that we
become
aware
time
at the
own
same
spread out, is our
body. Of
well
the very beginning sees
as
course, the child from
as
touches, but I am
putting aside vision for the present,

Robertson.

I have

"

and

that

suppose

the

not

have

we

child,at firstunable

to

subjectand object,beginning
to acquire objective
experienceby way of touch.
And
that the first object it would
I say
come
other body, but its
to apprehend vaguely is not
any
That
one
own.
object it has always with it ; other
and go, but it has always the power
of
objects come
touching its own
body and thus of findingthe activity
of its own
hand
impeded."* He also points out with
mensely
great distinctness one importantcircumstance which imfacilitates spatial
perceptionin the case of our
own
body and its absence in the case of other bodies.
There is this special
This is the fact of double contact.
feature in
the child's
tactile experience of its own
body, that whereas in touching another body it has an
intensification of touch on the hand through which
it is
exertingpressure, in pressingthe hand againstits own
with the activity
face it gets, in connexion
put forth
discern

difference

between

"

"

and

resisted,an

touches

and

data for the

reason

touch

"

to

orderingof

suppose,

touch

there

is

part of the
*

Elements

touches

This

is touched.

in every

Psych.

intensification of two

it both

gives peculiarand better

sensations. If,as we
have
a
qualitativedifference of
body, then the child can-

of Psychology,

pp. 113-114.

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

354

but

not

its attention

have

fingersit has

the

varietyof
by way of

part touched, both

different

this,that through

to

touches

the

according to

the latter

and

also

of the

parts, a

in which

way

it is not

helped

touching anything else."*

when

is yet another

There

perceptionof

skin with

calls

Robertson

of the

We

area

of

the

have

only

touch

normally in

when

detect

but

state

with

to

any

the

sensations.

temperature

contact

attend

to

tactile surface, to

and

cutaneous

is

skin

of

its occasional

excitation,apart from
bodies.

in mind

borne

intensification

an

surface

sensitive

not

external

an

be

always

portance
im-

paramount

ous
organism is in question. Cutanewholly depend on contact of the
gives what
object. Such contact

the

does

sensation

of

consideration

should

which
the

iv.

helped to findingits body

of learning to discriminate
way

in this double

extended

en.

n.,

it is

Thus

part that touches.

as

drawn

m.,

the
of
ternal
ex-

special
of

presence

Besides

this,an

the skin often leaves behind

body moving over
it has traversed an after-sensation,
it in the path which
which lasts for an
appreciabletime. Thus in the case
of the organism,syntheticand
bined
analytictouch are com-

external

they

as

In

bodies.

explorationof
contact

with

cannot

the

the

combined

be

the

of

case

parts of

whole,

cannot

in

the

external

whole,

and

case

of

bodies,

ternal
ex-

active

simultaneous

co-exist; so

that

thetic
syn-

into play alternately;

only come
tactile
but when
the finger-tip
a
passes over
have
not
surface, we
merely a series of successive
sensation
the whole
over
touches, but also a persistent
of the surface
explored. By continual explorationof
and

analytictouch

can

Ibid.

the

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

" 4.]
in

body

which

various

its organ

has

355

directions, this
in

the

surface

synthetictouch,
touched, acquires

spatialsignificance.There thus arises a direct senseperception of the configurationof the body and its
other spatial
is always with
us, whatever
parts which
perceptionwe may or may not have at any moment.
of our
bodies
This primitivespatialpresentation
own
is of great importance as a preparationfor the perception
relations in external bodies.
of spatial
Owing to it,
touch as applied to external
both syntheticand analytic
certain
from
the outset
bodies have
a
spatialsignificance.
Take
for example the act of graspingan object
the objectgrasped
When
between
finger and thumb.
is a part of our
own
organism,such as the hand or the
the contact
of
leg,the skin surface which lies between
of the finger,
and the contact
is itself the
the thumb
sensation which
has acquired spatial
seat of cutaneous
the interval between
significance.Thus
finger and
extended
is directlyperceived as an
whole
thumb
by
cording
synthetictouch. The extension is greater or less acand fingerare more
the thumb
less widely
or
as
apart. Hence, when an external body is taken between
them
and the
finger and thumb, the interval between
of this interval already stand
variations in the amount
and its varying degrees. There
distance
for spatial
is
have not considered,that
yet one experiencewhich we
is passively
in which
cutaneous
area
one
imposed upon
a

another, as
there

when

two

one

contacts

hand
; but

is laid

on

it does not

the

other.
that

Here

they
are
Supposing that perceptual
usually discriminated.
that both have spatial
development is so far advanced
the perceptionis not of two
surfaces but
significance,
are

appear

356

PSYCHOLOGY.

of

this surface

in the
be

can

when

another,

the

of

the

of

of

which

of

the

skin
is

touched

is laid

contact

total surface

When

arm.

external

the

to

result.

surface
objects one
spatialperception will

both

area

portion of

contribute

distinct,because

hand

one

the

surface

simultaneously.

sensitive.

are

in

comes

of

palm
is apprehended both
of the right hand

the

total

surface

the

palm

of

object,the area
by synthetictouch

the hand

and

arm.

in which

one

hand

the

of

tween
be-

and

with

part of

is

wider

two

the

palm
other, the

portion of
and

arm,

as

and

left hand

the

is

Further,

as

the

as

hand

of contact
as

the

be

contact

apprehended

the

upon

alone

previous contact

area

areas

area

of both

of

surface

the

as

iv.

in contact,

are

surrounding it; or rather of

surrounding it. For instance,when

wider

of

But

part

one

either

CH.

n.,

of external

applied.
surfaces

hands

right,or

in each

case

full and

more

regarded

of the

or

sensations

Now

be

may

the left hand

The

If the two

surface.

common

[BK. in.,

applied

to

an

immediatelyperceived
of

part of the total surface

It is not

directlyapprehended by
synthetictouch as only a portionof the surface of the
external body. But previousexperiencesof the kind
a
as

is laid

on

the

other

must

constitute

of
preparationfor regarding the area
portion not only of the body surface, but

certain
a

surface

help
which

to

of the

object touched;
give significanceto the
other

parts of the external

and

it must

active

contact

of

the

therefore

by
explored.

movements

object are

tive
sensia
Projection. When
attend
surface is affected by a stimulus,we
may
either to the locality
of the part affected,
principally
of the organism as a
and its relation to the spatial
map

" 5. Localisation

and

"

whole,

or

of

organ

in an objectexternal to the
space-relations
the face,
if a flycrawls
Thus
across
sense.
to

will be directed

attention

our

and
occurs.

On

contours

of

the
an

other
external

face

ticklingirritation
activelyexplore the
attend chiefly
to the
not
this object,and

the

if

hand,

of the

surface

to the

part of it in which

that

to

357

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

"5.]

we

object,we

spatialrelations of the parts of

of the
the spatialrelations of the sensitive surface
to
is the
technical
used
for
term
body. Localisation
perceptionof the spatialrelations of the part of the
surface
affected
sensitive
tion
Projecby a stimulus.
used
for perceptionof the
is the technical word
spatialrelations of an object external to the organ
itself.
Localisation
intimate

and
way,

when

face

the
is

an

face.

external

insensible
other
the

which

In

thus

object.

touch,

to

external
hand

relation

the

arise

when

as

to

iarly
pecul-

the

we

pass

the

would
the

the

hand

exploringhand,

If the skin of the face

face

object. But
touches
it, and

in

part of the tactile surface

one

activelyexplores another,
over

combined

projectionare

face

be

just

like

the

were

any

itself feels when

successive

experiences

yield perceptionof the parts of the

face successively
affected,and not of the parts of the
hand
which
exploresit.
It is a noteworthy fact that in the case
of sightthere
is projection
but no localisation.
When
we
see
a thing
of the spatialrelations of the parts of the
we
are
aware
of the spatialrelations of the retina
object seen, but never
itself. The
is that we
have no spatialmap
reason
of the retina to begin with.
The
ing
conditions for obtaina
spatialapprehension of the retina itself are ab-

[BK. in.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

358

sent.

We

hand

may

cannot

explore it by

explore the other, and

active
of

n.,

touch,

CH.

as

there

course

iv.

one

is

no

of localising
of seeingit. The
possibility
impossibility
retinal impressionsin the retina itself shows
that localisation
can
projection. We
only localise
pre-supposes
in those parts of the body which
have been
previously
manner
explored by active sightand touch in the same
external objects.
as
" 6. Tactual
Perception of the Third Dimension.
There
is one
point which ought to be made clear from
do not and can
have
We
the outset.
not
a
perception
kind
of solid volume
of the same
the perceptionof
as
in the case
of touch may be easily
The
surfaces.
reason
touch
stated.
We
cannot
one
thing behind another.
in contact
with thingsonly at their surfaces.
We
come
"

lies behind

What
the
When
once

surface

in

the

solid volume

of

object is interceptedby the parts in front of it.

have
we
presented at
apprehend a surface, we
which
all its parts. The
points,lines,and areas

be found
within it may
by analysisof
distinguish
the total presentationas simultaneously
given to synthetic
of surfaces
But
the indefinite
touch.
multiplicity
each other and connected
surfaces
by cross
intersecting
indefinite
in an
which
multiplicityof ways
compose
be
solid volume, can
never
presented to synthetic
we

touch.

plays the leadingpart in

fullydeveloped perceptionof the third dimension.

It is free
our

We

have

movement

movement

seen

direction

in " 3 that

of the whole

differingin
and

which

amount
amount

"

body,
and
of

of

the sweep
comes

direction
the

to

mean

limb, or

the

extension,

according to
movement."
Now,

the

the

SPATIAL

" 6.]
extended

either

move

fro

all these

down,

direction.

surfaces
the

to

consider

the

becomes

the

any
or

Each

consciousness

for

means

and

up

intermediate

given positionmay
right and left,or in any

startingfrom

arm

359

PERCEPTION.

intersect

extended

an

each

other

originalpositionof

movements

clenched

by
fist.

of the

sweep

which
The

the
the

to

arm

and

surface ; and
in

arm.

line
Or

extended

various

sponding
corre-

again,
palm

intermediate

series : and
of them
each
positionsform a continuous
has arisen
has an
which
acquired spatialsignificance,
through the actual grasping of objects of varying size
of the fingers
and shape. When
the surface
the
meets
surfaces
surface of the palm, the two
for perbecome
ception
At each
intermediate
one.
position,they are
and
are
distinguishable,
apprehended not merely as
of the body, but as surfaces
of
part of the superficies
objects which might possiblybe clasped in the hand.
have a series of surfaces which, instead of formThus
ing
we

part of

one

surface,overlie

and

underlie

each

other

in clasping an
actual
layers. Hence
object,the
from
positionof the hand derives a spatialsignificance
its placein this serial movement
by which we pass from
the outstretched
palm to the clenched fist. In this way
for that peculiarly
distinct presentaaccount
we
tion
may
which
of solidity
accompanies the grasping of an
object.
In exploring an
object with the hand by way of
active touch, the actual
termined
depath of the movement
as
by the configurationof the object is only
indefinite
number
of possiblepaths of free
of an
one
At
the surface
movement.
which
any given moment
has been actually
exploredmay have an indefinite num-

in

360

PSYCHOLOGY.

her

of

the

third

[BK. in.,

n.,

CH.

iv.

relation of the actThe

ual
possiblecontinuations.
continuation
to these possible
continuations,each of
which might have been actual in the case
of a different
of space.
object,is a relation in the third dimension
presentationof our own
organism
Finally,the constant
of
as
extended, is a great help towards the presentation

dimension.

For

whenever

we

either

touch

body, two surfaces

be presented simultaneously,
with
must
a common
part
and
This
is only saying
independent continuations.
over
again what we have already said in " 4. When
the palm of one
hand
is laid upon
the palm of the other,
hand
the area
of contact
is apprehended on
the one
as
and arm,
of the righthand
a portionof the total surface
the other as a portion of the total surface of the left
on
is applied
hand
and arm.
When
the palm of the hand
is apprehended
external object,the area
of contact
to an
both
as
a
part of the body surface and of the surface
uations,
of the object. It has
thus
two
independent continwhich
diverge from each other in the third
our

organism

own

or

an

external

dimension.

Many other details might be

in all. We
principleis the same
dimension
by touch, in so far
surface as having more
than
same

referred

to.

But

the

apprehend the third

we
as
apprehend the
tinuation.
one
independentcon-

" 7. Origin of Spatial Perception.

"

When

we

gan
be-

spatialperception at the beginning of

the previous chapter, we
questions.
propounded two
ing
have only considered
So far,we
the first of these,relatmore
to the development of the perceptionfrom
definite and
indefinite and
perfect
imperfect to more
to

discuss

" 7.]

361

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

inquiry.
for development
Do the same
conditions which
account
for its first origin?
of the spatialperceptionalso account
conceivable.
This seems
at first sight at least abstractly
hand
We
the one
at the outset
on
ence
experimay
suppose
of mere
and on
the other experienceof
extensity,

forms.

It is

active

movement.

now

time

take

to

Neither

the

up

of these

second

experiences is in

self,
it-

properly speaking,spatial. Spatialrelations begin

exist for consciousness
ence
only in so far as the experi-

to

ive
experienceof actin the manner
have
which
movement
we
already
described.
If the combination
is to begin with entirely
vidual
absent, so that it only arises in the historyof the indiconsciousness,spatialperceptionhas not only a
psychologicaldevelopment but a psychologicalorigin.
If we
is
ourselves
to what
adopt this view, we commit
called a genetic as opposed to a nativistic
theory of
spatialperception.
The
the
correspondingnativistic view would assume
the outset
of mental
From
followingform.
ment
developcertain connexions
there are
between
experiences
in the way
of extensityand appropriate motor
activity,
connexions
not learnt by experience,but due to congenital
So far as these originalconnexconstitution.
ions
kind of spatialperceptionis born with
exist,some
the individual,
not
acquired by him.

of

extensitycombines

with

the

"

evidence

The
case

of

many

emerging

from

for the
animals.
its

nativistic view
The

chick,

shell, pecks

the

object in such a way

help of experience it is

the

direction, situation,and

suitable

as

in

from
to

some

distance

is strong in the
for

instance, on

the

show

outset

that

manner

of the

at

without
aware

object.

of
It

would
to

therefore

seem

large

such

animals,

the

indefinite.*
from

Apart

indeterminate,
and

it

movements,
in

development
Thus

point.

So

theory.

But

and

and

It

is

mere

noted

animals,

perience
ex-

the

at

for

strongest

ever
how-

experiences

how

subsequent

have

is

that

in

even

the

to

starting-

what

human

nativistic
said

have

we

original endowment
for

starting-point

only
orate
elab-

highly

development.

in

is

what

from

far

growth

is also

though

to

congenital

new-born

the

is very

physiological
same

this

that

say

that

appear
infant

The

higher

to

be

conclusion

from

that

sign

conceded

clear

be

But

connexion,

congenital

be

rudimentary

be

should

new-born

other

could

may

complex

necessarily

by

respect

lar
simi-

sign

may
is

see

probable

it will

about

are

supplies

the

to

most

much

beings.

not

difficult

spatial perception

vague

is

this

the

it

local

between

higher

local

between

congenital

some

the

is evidence

evidence

The

trary,
con-

degree.

same

there

beings
exists

The

through

go

activity, though

motor

very

sight.

human

is

discern

objects.

the

nearly

the

on

to

process

etc., of

to

iv.

spatial perception

monkeys,

connexion

and
outset

of

case

original

some

not

CH.

n.,

in.,

beings,

gradual

and

dogs

as

though

process,
in

by

it

Human

distance,

situation,

shape,

even

learn

to

with

that

innate.

extent

have

it

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

362

some

the

the

infant.

being
as

in

fully

The

growth

true

in

this

case

the

does

system
Much

from
of

being

nervous

grown.

distinguished
extent

human

new-born

is much

to

comes

learning

by

dog
more

of

perience.
ex-

and

rapid.

CHAPTER

PERCEPTION

SPATIAL

Perception

" 1.
in

tactual

of

corresponds
touch.

more

most

part

have

in the

which

eye

an

view

seen

it

within

of

by

seen

is
in

bring the
the

area

is

is at

the

most

movements

distinct

as

eye

the

delicate

of

from

the

a
a

all.

eye

of

the

vision.

which

limited

ness
distinct-

is

there

Now,

general

colour

centralis, and

of

tinct.
dis-

and

and
its

light,
spot in

and

whole,

yellow spot

fovea

the
We

to

one

of vision

spot, called

outlying parts
of

is

peculiarclearness

the

for

are

sensitive
there

moment

ence,
differ-

analysisare

peculiarly delicate

any

with

central

the

this surface

sive
pas-

successive.

than

surface

on

to

important
They

rather

the

sight

passive sight
this

expanded

yellow spot. Within

or
depression called
consists

and

Active

sightsynthesisand

sensation
there

Thus

by

of

case

Both

synthesis.

is however

centre

visual

field of

touch,

simultaneous

the

near

developed.

visual

the

by which
depend

that

intimately combined.

much

but

is

There
in the

that

developed,and

active

to

difference

no

by which

process

analysis and

is

There

"

is

space

perception

combination

area

the

SIGHT.

BY

of Surface.

principle between

perception of

V.

here

active

the
a

pit

criminati
dis-

sight

successively

field of

view

certain

amount

within
and

364

[BK. m.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

II., CH.

V.

required in order that a

situated in a given positionin an
stimulation
outlying
be transferred
to the yellow
part of the retina may
by a highly organised system of definite
spot. Thus
is perpetuallypassing to and fro
the eye
movements
within the field of vision,bringingits parts successively
of distinct vision.
The
into the area
development of
the spatial
perceptionis coincident with the perfecting
direction

of these

of

is

movement

movements,

and

of

others

connected

with

the

co-operationof the two eyes.

Though the visual and tactual perception of space
similar
conditions, there are
depend on
essentially
of sight which
in the case
quire
respecificpeculiarities
first place, visual
In
the
separate treatment.
be
adequately discussed
perception of space cannot
unless

we

into

take

account

its relation

to

the

tactual

experienceswhich arise in the actual manipulationof

velopment
objects. The spatialperceptionis throughout its deject
obThe
determined
by practicalinterest.
of perceptionis always ultimatelyreal extension,
and magnitude ; but these are much
more
directly
figure,
and
accuratelyrevealed in tactual experiencethan in
of the visual experience are
Variations
stantly
convisual.
which
occurring,
imply no variations in the size,
tions
figure,and positionof the objectsseen, but only variaver.
in the positionof the body or eyes of the obserSince

what

we

of

determinations

are

the

ignore these variations

the

object.

condition
the

objectto

in is the real

objects themselves,
in their relation

to

we

spacetend

the nature

to

of

they have meaning for us, they

perception of the relative positionof
For
the body of the observer.
instance,

So

the

interested

far

as

"2.]

SPATIAL

365

PERCEPTION.

object varies
spective
greatlyaccording to our distance from it. By introdiscern a varying apparent
we
can
analysis,
magnitude of the objectcorrespondingto the varying
distances.
But in ordinarypractical
experience,these
variations are
crossing the
largelyignored. A man
the

of

area

towards

room

tall in the

retina

the

does

us

has

denied

are

the

of

means

This

appears

In

twice

become

to

distance

perceivingthe

the

by

appear

same.*

touch.

to

not

His

process.

his size to remain

eye

stimulated

vary, but

to

place,the

second

the

which

dimension

third

as

the fact that the

arises from

is stimulated

by objectsat a distance from the body.

" 2. Visual Perception of the Third Dimension.
(a)
Conditioned
by Tactual Experience. The conditions

eye

"

As

which

on

depend

the

perception of

manifold

are

and

the third dimension

by sight
celebrated theory

complex.

advanced

by Bishop Berkeley according to which

the eye has no
of directlyperceivingdistance
power
from
the body at all. Its apparent power
of doing so
is merely due to association between
visual and tactual
experiences. The sight of an object at a distance is
supposed to call up a mental
representation of the
of the body required to reach it. This sugmovement
gested
tuted,
image of tactile and motor
experiences constiaccording to Berkeley,the perceptionof distance.
the perceptionof solid shape by the eye was
Similarly,
supposed simply to consist in an ideal revival of experiences
of active and passivetouch.
This theory is conwas

This

the

applies

variation

before
have

its

be

it,and

so

in

on.

of

developed
is

is

their

capable

the

size

meaning

recovered

should

to

consciousness,

marked

feature

sight by

operation,

an

appearing

as

of

Persons

apprehended.

big

as

the

but

the
blind

express
whole

it is

probable

condition

conscious
from
wonder
house

that

infancy,
that
which

who
room

contains

[BK. in.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

366

CH.

n.,

v.

is in

simple appeal to experience. We have, as a

tance,
of fact,a perceptionof solid figureand of disthere
the less,
None
is essentially
visual.
which
Berkeley'stheory an underlying thought which is

true

and

futed
matter

by

visual

tactual

elements

superadded to

are

of ideal revival.

that
way

that the tactual perception

it is certain

But

the

that

unchanged, and
it merely in the

remains

such

experienceas

maintained

be

It cannot

valuable.

in

moulding
and
visual perception
the visual perception. Tactual
pends
develop together. The practicalinterest of sight deand
to guide active touch
mainly on its power
the practical
manipulation of objects.
The
ily
presentationof visual extension depends primarof extension

for its value

correlation

its intimate

on

revealed

as

play a great part

must

touch.

to

with

is between

There

sion
exten-

them

interest,in which the tactual element

unity of practical
plays the dominant
part. In practice,they are
petually
perIn exploringa thing by touch, the
combined.
In so far as sight
of the hand.
eye follows the motion
it is constantlyfollowed
comes
first,
by touch, and is
timate
this inNow
useful only in so far as it guides touch.
union
and

since the

real

extension,the

will be the

exist

cannot

tactual

modification

more

an

object

outlines of the
visual
*

The

image
vast

exceptions.

in

the

object,he

of it.* The

majority

of

directlyreveals
of the visual experience
explainwhat we mean

experiencemore

profound.
modification,let us

by this
handling

modification,

mutual

without

mankind

To

take

the

dark.

at the

visual
does

As

same

image
so.

There

case

he

time
is

of

man

explores the
constructs

throughoutde-

appear

however

to be

termined
tactual
feature

by
of

moulded

concerned,

not

the

by

visual

with

perception. What

we

say

is

corresponding
visual
image is
a

Now

touch.

we

imagery, but
that owing to

of tactual

union

intimate

The

extension.

visual

throughout

and

is correlated

there

extension

are

with
the

here

visual

frequent

perceptions,

visual

with

of

feature

each

With

experience.

tactual

367

PEKCEPTION.

SPATIAL

"2.]

it exists without the tactual,

when
perception,
much
will be moulded
by previoustactual experiences,
the visual image of an object in the dark is moulded
as
is only a
by a present tactual experience. This
derlies
specialapplicationof the generalprinciplewhich unthe whole
perception.
development of the spatial
In the development of the tactual perceptionof space
passive or synthetictouch acquires a certain serial

the

visual

order

and

with

active

visual
and

of

arrangement

parts from

its connexion

In like
analytictouch.
perceptionof extension acquiresa
and

certain

its connexion

parts from

of its

arrangement

manner,

the
order

with

It would
thus apperceptionof extension.
pear
of
that though the eye had no
independent means
lines
and
apprehending those relations of surfaces

the tactual

which

third

the

pre-suppose

dimension, it would

none

capable of apprehending them in some

degree through its intimate practicalunion with touch.

the less become

The

whole

difficult to say

solid
much
much
and

figureand
is due
room

tactile

complication.* It is
preciselyhow much of our perceptionof
distance
is gained in this way, and how

process

to

is

other

for

case

factors.
that

doubt

of

But
the

there

combination

experienceplays a part
*

See

pp. 90-93.

does

of

not

seem

of visual

primary impor-

PSYCHOLOGY.

368

it does

What

tance.

of
superiority
the

To

objects from each other

explain this,we must take into

peculiarto

vision.

is connected

with

eyes to see, and

two

As

(b)
Whenever

not

Dependent
look

we

at

these

Among

the fact that

one

only.

on

the

is the

v.

great

from

and

account

the

the
ditions
con-

portant
im-

most

normally use

we

Use

object with

an

CH.

n.,

apprehensionof

in the

touch

over

for

account

of

distances

body.

vision

not

[BK. m.,

of
both

Two
eyes,

Eyes.
we

ceive
re-

impressions,one affectingeach eye.

the result is a single presentationof the object.
But
similar
This
because
is so
sponding
impressionsfall on correThe
two
pointsof
pointsof the two retinas.
distinct vision constituted
most
by ihefoveae centrales,
central pits,correspond to each other in this way, so
or
that light-impressions
fallingon them give rise to the
vision of a singleobject. Other
tinas
points of the two realso correspond when
symmetrically
they are
situated with reference
to the central
pit. In general,
the left half of one
eye corresponds to the left half of
Thus
the other, and the righthalf to the righthalf.
a
point in the left half of one eye will correspond to a
pointin the left half of the other when both have the
of distinct vision.
situation relatively
to the centre
same
If the retina of one
be appliedto the retina
eye could
from

of the

it two

other,so

as

to

superpose

the nasal

half of each

on

temporal half of the other, their points of contact

would
be, roughly speaking, corresponding points.
when
Single vision occurs
corresponding points are

the

stimulated

in

the

points thus

but

when

the

similar

way.

stimulated
deviation

do

from

when

But

it also

not

exactly correspond,

occurs

correspondence,or

dis-

SPATIAL

" 2.]

parateness,

as

it is

called,is

single object is

behind

or

is most

before

that

seen,

presented,or,
distinctly

is

the

When

and

fingeris

if

we

then

it into the
doubled.
and

fix

centre

The

held

in

we

vision may

between

seen

the

other

which

words,

that

directly
looking

are

the

pointsaffected

result.
eyes

and

eyes on the objectso

of distinct vision,we
see

our

greater the distance

pens,
hap-

lying

as

field of vision

between
disparateness

relatively
great, double
If

it is

but

this

When

small.

of the

area

part of the field of vision which

at.

369

PERCEPTION.

between

object,
to bring
as
the finger
an

the

finger

object,the wider apart are the two images of

the finger. If the right eye is closed,the left image
disappears; if the left eye is closed, the rightimage
disappears. If now, instead of fixingour gaze on the
gle,
sinas
object,we fix it on the finger,the fingeris seen
and the objectas double.
The greater the distance
between
fingerand objectthe wider apart are the two
the righteye is closed,the rightimage
images. When
the left eye is closed,the left image
disappears.When
disappears.This experiment succeeds with most people,
the

but

not

with

every

one.

There

are

some

few

who

hardlybe brought to see thingsdouble at all. But

even
these,if they reallyuse their two eyes in a normal
be able to see a double
age
imway, will in all probability
of such a brightobjectas a lightedcandle.
The special
can

conditions

of the

experiment are that the eye should

be fixed on one
object,and the attention fixed on another,
either beyond it or in front of it. Apart from these special
conditions,it would appear that double images are
discerned
the
When
not ordinarily
by normal persons.
from
object
eyes are moving in a free and natural way
Psych.

24

PSYCHOLOGY.

370

attention

object,and

to

in

seen

the

area

m.,

n.,

CH.

v.

is concentrated

only on what is
vision, double images are
noted
that when
carefully

distinct

It should

discerned.

not

of

[BK.

be

distinctlydoubled, the distance of the two

is very
seen
images from the object which is distinctly
it now
at
see
indeterminatelyapprehended. We
may
distance and now
at another, either arbitrarily,
or
one
in consequence
of some
casual
suggestion. So far as
the distance
is determinatelyapprehended, our
tion
percepis

vision

of it may

be

referred

disparatepositionof
of the

two

eyes.

the

two

It would

conditions

other

to

than

the

impressions on the retinas

that this disparateness
seem

yields a definite perception of distance, or a

double
image, but not both at once.
facts are
well illustrated
These
by the stereoscope.
In looking through this instrument, there is set before
solid figure. It is
and
each
not
a
eye only a surface
either

the

not
a

separate

is outlined
the

one

surface

same
one

before

drawing

surface

is set before

which

On

each.
of

the

presents it

these

same

as

seen

both

eyes, but

surfaces

solid
from

there

object, but
a
point of

point of view to the

right. The one figurerepresents the solid objectas seen
by the righteye, the other as seen by the left,when both
of
fixed on
it. The
result is the presentation,
not
are
solid object.
two
delineations,but of one
superficial
The
the two
reason
is,that when
respectively
eyes are
fixed on
correspondingparts of the two outlines,other
parts of the field of view produce disparateimpressions
the retina,just as they would
do in looking at the
on
same
point of the actual object. The further they lie
behind
before
this point in the actual object,the
or
view

to

the

left,the

other

from

more

situated
disparately
and

the

stereoscope.

The

greatest when

the

one

are

the
is

seen

of

the

eyes.

Of

not

course

momentary
of
are

thus

the

of

which
to
as

is

stereoscope

freelyfrom
unmistakablypresent
the two
pictures

to

it is also

by
as

the
move

allow
the

time
eyes

for

ments
move-

fixate

one

apparently solid object,

retinal impressionswhich
have
been
ate
previouslydisparand those which
to affect correspondingpoints,
come
previouslyaffected corresponding pointsbecome
ate.
disparof solidity
The
is more
distinct and
appearance
impressive,the fewer are the double images discerned.
Old and practisedexperimenters,
who
their
concentrate
attention with the view of findingdouble
come
images, bein time unable
to obtain
the stereoscopic
effect.
They see only a flat surface.
there is a theory which
would
Now
regard the above
of the binocular
statement
as
a
complete account
ception
perof solid figures. Distance
of disfrom the area
tinct
vision,behind or before it,is supposed to find its
of the
full and ultimate
explanationin the disparateness
gree
positionof like impressionsin the two retinas,the deof distance
paratene
corresponding to the degree of disThis view
seems
plausibleif we consider
visual perceptionin its fullydeveloped form.
It does
that any other conditions
be operative
not
can
appear
when
the two
slides of the stereoscope are
lit by a
point

after

But

transient

in

allowed

illumination

so

case

effect

are

eyes

another.

point to
when

solid

impressionsthey produce,
in looking through the

the

are

is the

same

371

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

" 2.]

other

illumination
the

eyes.

But

the

which
when

allows

no

movements

time for

ments
move-

of the

eyes

excluded, the stereoscopiceffect is compara-

372

PSYCHOLOGY.

tivelydim
mind

and

[BK. in.,

imperfect. It must
in ordinaryvision

that when

also be

n.,

CH.

borne

v.

in

fixate a
steadily
singlepoint in the field of view, and attend to objects
obtain double
before or behind it,
we
images rather than
of distance from
the pointfixated.
These
a perception
of the
facts point to active explorationby movements
important factor in the perception of the
eye as an
An
for
third dimension.
even
more
powerful reason
introducingthis factor is the general analogy of the
in which
the spatial
perceptiondevelops. The apprehensi
way
of tactual space developsthrough a co-operation
about
of active and passivetouch.
know
What
we
blind
from
and
about
children
early infancy
persons
shows
recovered
their sightby an operation,
who have
of operation
is true of sight. In a case
that the same
for congenitalcataract,*a boy could
not
count
even
of passivesight,
though
alfew
two
as
as
objects by means
of touch.
had
learnt
he
to
count
by means
When
two
objects were
placed before him, and he was
called on to say how
they were, using sightonly,
many
each of them
he could do so only by fixinghis eyes on
in

the

At

turn.

outset, it

we

was

necessary
successivelywith

him

for

to

the finger.
point to each of them
sufficient. At a later
Pointing without touching was
able to count
merely by fixinghis glance
stage he was
each object in turn.
This he did at first not by
on
of the
of the eye, but by lateral movements
movements

head.
a

It

number

not

was

Uhthoff,

of

"

objectsat

Sehenlernen

operierter Menschen,"
der

till much

Sinnesorgane,

Bd.

in

later that he learnt

singleglance.

blindgeborener
Zcitschrift fur

xiv., Heft

3 und

4.

und

Psychologic

In

spater
und

to

all

count

cases

mit

of

Erfolg

Physiologic

this

373

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

" 2.]

kind,the perceptionof

distance

sion
in the third dimen-

develops very gradually.At the outset, the patient

to have
ence
only the analogiesof his tactual experiappears
to guide him.
that active as well as passive
then
We
assume
may
vision is required for the development of the perception
this development
principle,
takes placein a way precisely
ment
analogous to the developthe
of the spatialperceptionin general. When
fixed on
any point in the field of view, those
eyes are
parts of the field which lie behind or before this point
retinal impressions.
of disparate
are
perceivedby means
If and so far as the disparateness
does not give rise to
double
images,it givesrise to a peculiarmodification of
visual sensation,varying concomitantlywith the nature
and degree of the disparateness.Thus
ences
there are differin the passivesensibility
of the retina corresponding
minutelywith the varying distances of other objects
is at any moment
from
the object which
fixated by the
of the third

two

In

dimension.

eyes.

given in the way of syntheticor passive

the material for the perceptionof the
sensibility
third dimension.
But this syntheticand passiveexperience
can
only acquirespatialorder in which its parts
become
separated and connected by distances,
positions
when
active sightsuccessively
taneously
explores the data simulgiven to passive sight. Active sight takes
the form
of increasingor
of
decreasingconvergence
Thus

the

and

two

that

so

The

any

have

we

eyes.
the
line

point

lines

of vision
to which

When

the

of

vision*

is

an

the

eyes

are

converge,

turned

inwards,

objectsnearer

imaginary straight line connecting ihefovea

gaze

is directed.

PSYCHOLOGY.

374

[BK. in.,

CH.

n.,

v.

point first fixed by the eyes, which have for

that reason
previouslyproduced disparateimpressions
the retina, come
to produce impressionson
sponding
correon
has the same
points. Decreasing convergence
effect for objects lying beyond the
point originally
This process is perpetuallygoing on
in every
fixated.
of waking life ; and
it is perpetuallyrequired
moment
Hence
for practicaladjustment to the environment.
the
two
co-operativefactors, active or analyticand
combine
to form
a
passive or syntheticvision, must
which
is excited as a whole
total disposition,
by each of
In this way
each
them.
acquires spatialsignificance
than

the

it would

which

in

have

not

isolation

from

the

other.

peculiar qualitativedifferences due to varying

disparatenessof the retinal impressionsbecome
tions
percepof relative distance
from
the point on which
the

The

fixed

are

eyes

and

combined

the

for consciousness

eyes becomes

of the

movement
a

movement

over

two
tract

of space.
for the
this way
account
we
may
which
relative distance from the point on
In

fixed

at

How

is the
?

distance

the relative

the

other

body
from

besides

and

the

the

less

the

eyes

are

questionstill remains,
itself determined
fixation-point
has alreadybeen
given by

the

the relative distance

determines

termine
also demust
fixation-point
from
distance
of the fixation-point

eye

body

the

answer

the

points.Thus

this another

greater or

of

of the

Part

implication.Whatever
of other
points from
these

But

moment.

any

perceptionof

all

objectsinterveningbetween

contribute
of the
factor

degree,
"

to

fix the

absolute

tance
dis-

But
seen.
point distinctly
is no
doubt
operative in a

the sensations

due

to

the vary-

375

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

"2.]

There
are
no
ing positionof the eyes themselves.
of the eye do not
the muscles
because
joint-sensations
work
on
joints. But this defect is compensated by the
of the eye in
tactile experiencesdue to the movement
sensations
its socket ; and muscular
are
probably
proper
vergence
contributoryfactors. Thus the varying degrees of conwill be marked
by varying tactual and motor
These
in the eyes.
will also help to mark
sensations
it
and
of movement.
But
extent
varying direction
of the eyes,
should
not be forgotten that the movements
in the

whether

way

of

or

convergence

otherwise,

are

panied
experiences. They are accomopticalas well as motor
by displacement of impressions of the retina.
In converging movements,
disparateimpressionsare in
of becoming correspondent,and vice versa.
It
process
has been
urged by Professor Hering and others that
admits of greater delicacyof
this purely opticalprocess
is a more
and therefore
discrimination
important factor
and
in our
experience of movement
positionof the

eyes, than the motor

is still under

Hering
(c)

is

consider

debate,

conditions

but

Under
which

the

The

tion
ques-

probabilityis

the constitution

this

remain

These
only one
eye is used.
an
auxiliarykind.
They do

that

head

operative even

conditions
not

of the

have

we

in

the

are

to

when

mainly

of

first instance

perceptionof depth;
it has been
otherwise
but when
once
produce
formed, they reThere
it by association.
is only one
monocular
ing
experiencewhich appears capable of directlyconstitutis the varying acthe perceptionof depth. This
commodation
of the lens by which
distinct vision is seenter

into

themselves.

right.
Monocular.

As

sensations

370

PSYCHOLOGY.

[UK. m.,

11., en.

v.

varying distances of the objectfrom the eye.

The importanceof this factor seems
small in comparison
of convergence
with the part played by movements
of the
But it does seem
to supply within
limits the
two
eyes.
of passiveand active sightrequired
sort of combination
for perceptionof the third dimension.
The
the
nearer
the surface of the lens be,
must
convex
object,the more
if a distinct image is to be focussed
the retina ; and
on
the more
the object,
the natter
it be. If the
remote
must
cured

lens

at

is too

convex
"

of diffusion

occur

Thus,
and

yield a

more

remote

and

diffused

from

the

fro

along

distinct

circles

"

the

image
on
successively

fixingthe eye
points of a line, the

any

called

are

retina, and

in

at

and

the

on

distant

more

flat,what

too

or

for

moment

image

this.

of

more

will be

lens

the

is indistinc

point looked
Points

nearer

commodated
ac-

at
or

will

indistinct
more
produce progressively
impressions,the greater is their distance

As
fixation-point.
the

distinct,and

line,the
vice

the

indistinct

versd.

Thus

glance

and

progressively

becomes
we

to

moves

have

total

rience
expe-

analogous to that accompanying increasingor

result in
of the two
The
decreasing convergence
eyes.
distance
also is a perception of positionand
this case
in the

third

dimension.

Here

too, muscular

sensations

probably contribute to the result. The adjustment of

the lens depends upon
muscle
tion
which
a
by its contracslackens
the lens is attached.
which
a ligament to
the ligament is slackened, the lens, owing to
When
its own
convex.
more
elasticity,
bulges and becomes
distinct motor
There
sensations accompanying this
are
accommodation.
process of motor
binocular vision,a series of motor

As

in

the

case

experiences,accom-

of

SPATIAL

" 2.]

377

PERCEPTION.

of the eyeball,
are
conjoinedwith a
panying movement
paratene
due
to the varying disseries of opticalexperiences,
of retinal impressions; so, in monocular
experiencesaccompanying
vision, a series of motor
of the lens, is conjoined with a series
accommodation
due to varying distinctness and
of opticalexperiences,
diffusion of retinal impressions.
We

have

to

now

operative in

turn

monocular

to
as

class

another
well

as

of conditions

binocular

vision,

secondary or associative. They

of themselves
would
not
produce the perception of
depth,but their variations are so intimatelyconjoined
in experience,
with varying distance and positionin the
of complication has
third dimension, that a process
taken place,so that now
they produce depth-perceptions
if they were
themselves
as
as
immediatelyand distinctly
in the apprehension of the third
factors
contributive
All conditions of this kind, and no
dimension.
others,
used by the artist in producing the perception of
are
depth in pictures. It should be noted that depth and
in the work
of an artist are
solid figureas they appear
actuallyperceived. We do not in looking at a picture
of lines on
a
plane surface,
merely see combinations
mental
call up
which
images of objectsin the third
in
On
the contrary, the drawing is seen
dimension.
which

may

the third

be

called

dimension

from

the outset.

The

artifices used

painterdo not merely suggest ideal representations

of depth, but actuallyproduce the perceptionof
ture
depth. This perception is doubtless different in naject,
is produced by the actual obfrom
that which
but none
the less it trulybelongs to the perceptual
and
consciousness.
not
to the ideational
Among

by

the

PSYCHOLOGY.

378

conditions

associative

these

we

in.,

refer

may

n.,

v.

en.

first to

the

covered

by the retinal impression

of an object,accordingto its varying distance from
the
This might in itself produce merely a corresponding
eye.
variation in the apparent magnitude of the thing
attention
the
seen
: indeed, by
on
concentrating our
detect
visual sensation,as such, we
can
changes in the
size of the object according to its changing distance :
attention
is otherwise
but normally our
directed.
The
real object does not vary in size ; and
what
tereste
inwe
are
in is the real object and
not
our
own
tions.
sensaWe
accordinglytend to ignore these differences
of retinal sensation
in the extensity
except in so far as
different
distances
in the third dimension.
they mark
This is of course
only possibleif the actual size of the
objects is otherwise known
by previousexperiences in

variation

which
retinal

in the

[BK.

have

we

image

area

moved

close

has

passed through
last to that image

giving place at
and
guides actual

To

contact.

the

varying

series

which

in extent

in

of

view

potent
the

varying

means,

the

of

means

case

the

and

the

hands

of

that

of

of the

object

an

retinal

ferent
dif-

retinal

the

pression
im-

regular
The

eye.

of size with

the

artist

producing stereoscopiceffect.

distance

full

the

systematicand

according to their distance from

imitation
of this systematicdiminution
is in

changes
accompanies

remember

must

way,

distance

the

of

object produce

same

that

so

appreciate the

importance of this condition, we

all the objects within
the field
parts of

them,

to

up

is fixed

by

creasin
in-

most

Where
other

termines
impressionmainly deperception of magnitude. This is well seen in
of after-images.
Produce
an
after-imageof
extent

"

the
than

look

and

sun

your

at

your

finger-tip
; it

Project it on

nail.

379

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

" 2.]

the

will be smallei

table,and

it will be

big as a strawberry; on the wall, as large as a plate;

And
on
yet it
yonder mountain, bigger than a house.
is an unchanged retinal impression."* An actual object
would
extent
producing a retinal excitation of the same
image
Hence
the aftervary in size according to its distance.
it is perceivedat
of different sizes,
when
appears
as

different distances.
in all

cases

Another
not

the

size but

of

actual retinal sensation

conditions

in the

produced by the same

different pointsof view.
with

cross,

the

is

same.

group

in the

But

depends
of the

nature

line
If

we

or

curve

look

the lines of vision

on

variation

retinal

sion
impres-

looked

at from

straightat

angular
rect-

or
ly
equalparallel

converging,the impressionon the retina also has the

is the case
if
of a rectangular cross.
The
form
same
look
at it, or
we
straightup at it or straightdown
to the left ; but if we
to the right,or
directly
directly
turn
our
rightwards, upwards
eyes obliquely upwards and
and rightwards,
and leftwards,downwards
downwards
and
no
leftwards, the legs of the retinal cross
torted
longer make a rightangle with each other, but are disin varying
to slant in varying degrees and
as
so
The
according to the point of view.
ing
correspondways
of retinal sensations are not normally
modifications
attended
real differences
to no
they answer
to, because
itself. Thus
in the shape of the cross
retinal
a slanting
the slant is merely produced by the point
cross, when
of view, gives rise to the perception of a rectangular
cross
lying in a certain direction.
Conversely, a
*

James,

Psychology,

vol. ii.,
p. 231.

380

PSYCHOLOGY.

rectangular
the

retinal

direction

[BK. in.,

produced by

cross,

an

n.,

CH.

v.

object in

and

position,gives rise to the

a
perception of a slanting cross, because
slanting
under
such
conditions
would
cross
actuallyproduce a
retinal impression. After-imagesadmirably illustrat
square
this point. If we
have obtained
an
after-image
of a rectangularcross
by looking straightat it,and if
then look straightat the wall of the room
in front
we
of us, the
the wall as
a
on
after-image is outlined
If we
turn
our
rectangular cross.
eyes to the upper
left-hand part of the wall, we
see
a
slantingcross, as
representedin Fig. 3 ; if we then turn our eyes to the
same

Fig. 3.

right-handcorner,

upper

Fig.

we

see

4.

slantingcross,

as

in

Fig. 4.
all cases,

the retinal

sation
impressionand the visual senremain
unchanged. The above is only a specimen
of what
is continually
takingplace. The nature
of the retinal
impressions produced by straight or
curved lines and their combinations, is constantly
ing
varyin a regular and
with the posisystematicmanner
tion
of the eyes relatively
The
to the object looked
at.
the shape
variation depends in a very large measure
on
their relative positionin the third
of surfaces and
on
the after-imageof the square
Thus
dimension.
cross

In

381

in front of
wall directly
perpendicular
the retina.
But if
cross
on
eye, produces a square
plane on which it is projectedis tilted away from

if it is
the
the
or

PERCEPTION.

SPATIAL

" 2.]

seen

on

towards

the

retinal

spectator, the

cross

is distorted.

image
picture,will,if an afterbe thrown
it,distort the shape thereof,and
upon
make
of which
see
us
a form
our
after-imagewould be
that form
the natural
projectionon the retina, were
laid upon
Thus
the wall.
a signboardis paintedin perspective
and
ing
the eye, after steadilylookon
a
screen,
at a rectangularcross, is turned
to the painted signboard.
The
after-imageappears as an oblique-legged
*
In looking at any solid
the signboard."
cross
upon
tours
figurefrom a given point of view, the lines and conpresentedby its bounding surfaces produce varying
retinal images according to the shape of the surfaces
and
their positionrelatively
to the eye.
These
retinal differences
correspond to no real differences in
the shape of the lines and
themselves.
contours
Our
tendency is therefore as far as possibleto ignore them,
position in the third
except in so far as they mark
In so far as the variation in opticalsensadimension.
tion
is disregarded,it fulfils the function
such
of
as
determining our perceptionof depth and solid figure.
The artist avails himself of these perspective
distortions
in producing stereoscopic
effect.
The
play of light and shade also contributes in a
determine
to
our
large measure
perception of
very
in which
varies
light is intercepted
depth. The mode
with
the shape of the solid object on
it falls.
which
Even

The

an

"

inclined

distribution

of

wall, in

shade
*

among

Op. cU.,

p. 254.

the

parts of the

ob-

PYSCHOLOGT.

382

ject itself is also

play of light and

determined
is

shade

[BK. m.,

IT.,

OH.

by its shape. Thus

exactlyopposite in the

v.

the
case

This
elling,"
"modprojectingface.
the most
it is called by the artist,takes
as
lows
holsubtle gradations,
according to the various minute
in the surface of an
elevations
and
object,as for
this what
in the folds of drapery. Besides
instance

of

mask

hollow

is called

and

"cast-shadow,"

the

viz.

by an object as a whole, plays a

Objects in a landscape stand
morning and evening light when

very

of very

remote

and
are

thrown,

modification
in

seen

important part.
in

better

strong and

distinct

in

of

colouring.

distance,and

the

indistinctness

include

perspective, and

aerial

thrown

noonday light."*
have
case
a peculiarimportance in the
objects. These are covered by the term

are

factors

Other

than

shadow

much

out

"

cast-shadows

the

one

If two

appears

of

line
out-

mountains

bluish,and

The
perceivedas nearer.
tance
of the vegetation is only visible at a certain disgreen
it givesplaceto a blue tint
; at a greater distance
These
associative
from
the intervening air.
derived
the

other

conditions
of the
when

the

green,

do

not

green

themselves

is

enter

perceptionof depth, but

it has

once

been

formed

are

into the
able

to

constitution

reproduce it

by other means.
the
signs which

It is'

mind
frequentlysaid that they are
if we
are
interprets. Such phrases are only permissible
of the signs and of their
careful to explainthe nature
interpretations.
Usually when we speak of interpreting
and
a sign,it is implied that the
sign is itself distinctly
is an
separatelynoticed, and that the interpretation
additional distinct act of thought. But this is not the
*

Sully,

Human

Mind,

vol. i.,p. 252.

"

SPATIAL

2.]

with

case

their

have

themselves

meaning

their

from

with

one

it

is

sign
revival.

and

The

percept

meaning

not

is

an

one

of

cussing.
dis-

ignored,

its

fixity,

The

complication

and

They

consciousness

experience.
idea.

been

consciousness.

are

the

impressional
and

main

the

meaning
that

have

we

for

obtrusiveness,
of

definiteness

in

existence

sensations

the

which

before

meaning.
the

383

are

comes

independent

no

signs

perceptual

the

They
only

PERCEPTION.

apart

being

inseparably

signs,

has

and

the

In

other

connexion

and

mediacy,
im-

the
detailed

words,
between

not

of

free

CHAPTER

TEMPORAL

VI.

PERCEPTION.

Introductory. The apprehension of temporal

as
relations,
consciousness,is an
they exist for human
extremely complex product of mental
development.
The
part played in it by ideal representationis of
ideal representapredominant importance. Without
tion
there
could
be no
such
thing as the definite apprehensi
of a time-series,
having a distinguishable
mediate
beginning and end, connected
by a train of interevents, each
having its own
positionin the
series determined
events
by its relation to other
which
before
and
after it. For
come
sciousness
perceptualcon" 1.

"

it is evident
form.

On

the

other

that

hand,

time
find

exist in this

cannot

in

sciousness
perceptualconthose
our
primary experiences on which
developed apprehension of time is ultimatelybased.
" 2. Immediate
Experience of Time- Transience.
we

"

The

first fact

we

have

itself is
avoid

to

take

process

account

in

time.

of

is that

We

must

sciousness
con-

here

opposing fallacies. On the one

hand, it
be sharply and
must
tion
recognised that transidistinctly
of one
conscious state into another
is by no means
identical with the perception of this transition.
The
mere

two

fact

that

"

follows

A
384

in

consciousness

does

not

of itself constitute

A.

On

the other
that

the

the

consciousness

of It

must

jump

hand,

because

cognitionof

385

PERCEPTION.

TEMPORAL

" 3.]

we

the

that

not

the

to

clusion
con-

in itself

is not

it is therefore

sequence,

not

perienced
ex-

tween
bedistinguish
consciousness
of change or duration,and changeduration-consciousness.
consciousness
or
Change in
be felt without
consciousness
being cognised as
may
change, and duration may also be felt without being
in a consciousness
which
Even
cognisedas duration.
has no distinct perceptionof temporal relations,
experience
would
be different accordingas change took place
in it rapidlyor slowly,suddenly or gradually,
and the
like. Without
immediate
an
change-experience,cognition
of change would
be impossiblefor lack of preThe
sentative material.
thought of succession in time
be based
the direct experience of time-transience,
must
on
the thought of red colour is based on the coras
responding
sensation.
As
the perceptionor
idea of
is impossible
the percepto the blind,so
colour-quality
tion
idea of change would
be impossibleto a being
or
without the change-sentience."*
The
ate
immedi" 3. Perception of Lapse of Time.
is probably universal
experienceof time-transience
in all conscious life. Some
rudimentaryform of it
at the level of the sensation-reflex.
probablyexists even
But in the case
of the higher animals,the facts require
at

all in any

AB

sequence

following

as

way.

We

must

"

"

us

to

much

assume

more

than

this.

Their

at
intelligently
adjustedso as to occur
To
explain this,we need more
experienceof time-transience.
*

Psych.

Analytic

Psychology,

vol.

i.,p.

actions

the
than
We

are

ment.
rightmo-

mediate
im-

the
must

as-

160.
i

PSYCHOLOGY.

386

that

sume

duration
effect

succession

of the

same

varying

with

that the earlier

We

has

process

with
In

taken.

animal

or

of

minute

We

have

seen

having continuity
cumulative
disposition

process

them

add

now

in its nature

varies

time.

lapse of

the

succeeding stages

must

vr.

experiences,or the
experience,produces a cumulative

behind

modifies

which

CH.

n.,

of different

stages of any

of interest leave

[BK. in.,

the

this

that

the

of

of time

we

ence.
experi-

cumulative

amount

this way

total

effect

which

the

explain why

can

an

being in preparingfor action should

be able to wait for the rightmoment,
having no means
of determining the rightmoment
except lapse of time.
What
the
measures
lapse of time is the cumulative
effect of the process
ening
listof attending. When
we
are
to a sound, our
experienceis different at the end
one

human

from

although

the

it is at

what
sound

the

itself may

of two

end

not

have

utes,
min-

quality. This

experience is unique in kind, and

does not consist in having the parts of the
sensation as they successively
spread out
occur,
us
same

In

in

of

sort

explanation appliesto
music, the several notes

intervals.

To

correctly.

But

can

duration-line

time

itself.

attention
a

is to

Certainlyit
events.

tainly
cer-

soundbefore
The

empty

time.

separated by temporal

are

say

the

is
Of

by

what

process

by

intervals

these

measure

it is difficult to

series of

is called

what

them, except by

measure

of

keep

it

duration-block.

or

in

altered

no

course,

of

ideal

means

we

expectant

tion
reproduc-

empty

time

is

is absent
from
what
it is the
only relatively
empty;
its beginning
specialkind of experience which marks
There
and end.
are
always other experiences going
of a motor
and organickind.
on, especially

TEMPORAL

" 3.]

progressivelyless preciseas
If

we

how

moment

for

go

long

we

immediately without
have

been

that

we

The

limits

of

there

seems

of

is not

with

time

established

have

man

fair

estimate

of

time

practiceit is found
tolerable approach to

calculation

when

hour.

edly
undoubt-

and

accuracy,

that

accuracy

by

and

the

clock.

tell with

without
or

not

his subjective

can

person

hours,

two

or

yet

between

measured

as

hour,

an

any

of

relation

With
a

at

an

wide, but

power

amount

and

about

or

very

accurate

an

ger.
lar-

estimatinglapse
comparativelylong periods. It
to try this experiment without
be able to estimate lapse
may

some

these

become

ourselves

half-an-hour

fair test

quite a

become

to

appears

ask

is most

walking, we can
say
explicitprocess of calculation

indeed

be

previouspractice;
of

been

are

for

time, even

have

time

intervals

the
and

about

to

It

walk

any

error

of

lapse

intervals.*

small

for

accurate

of

estimate

immediate

The

387

PERCEPTION.

express

half-an-hour

elapsed.

has

It

should

be

noted

that

continuityof interest has

occupation to
pass from

varying degrees. We
may
occupation,and so have a series of distinct mental processes
each having its own
specialinterest. But from
another
point of view they may all have a certain unity
with each other.
and continuity
We
successively
may
read

book,

of these

conditions

on

and

student

which

it

them.

and

others.

our

our

dinner.

Each

they have unity of

Hence
personal life-history.
made

depends:

but

that

eat

specialinterest relatively

own

been

have

conflicting,
with

its

the

parts of

experiments

Many

walk,

has

from

interest,as

the

for

processes

disconnected

go

I have

not

But

to determine
the

results

thought

more

obtained
it advisable

precisely
are

to

so

the
biguous
am-

trouble

PSYCHOLOGY.

388

[BK. m.,

n.,

en.

vi.

mediate
imcontribute
to determine
our
collectively
estimate of lapse of time.
The
mediate
part played by attention in determiningthis imis illustrated by the fact that conditions
estimate
we
are
affectingattention affect it also. When
bored
by monotony, or when we are distracted by a too
tion
rapidityof experiences,the duragreat variety and
of time is so to speak magnified. We
say that it
is very
in"
attention
slowly." When
passes
very
of
tensely and disagreeablyaroused, as in moments
hours.
On
the
acute
as
danger, minutes
appear
may
other hand, when
attention passes easilyfrom objectto
object,and is agreeablyabsorbed
by each in turn, time
conversation,we
passes rapidly. After an entertaining

they

may

"

astonished

may

be

have

travelled

holds
due

good

over

for the

to

find

so

much

the

hands

of

This

space.

immediate

the cumulative

to

that

estimate

the

clock

contrast

only

lapseof

time

of

effect of past process.

When

we

period of time, and estimate it by the

and
number
have
taken
which
variety of the events
place in it,the period which has been agreeably spent
is apt to appear
longer, and the period in
relatively
ideallyrecall

which

have

we

been

periods which

passing,shrink

were

seemed

their

on

bored,

of

interminable

it

; whereas

as

actual

train

The

were

to

occurrence

when

we

ideal

spect,
retro-

while

pass

review

they

periodsthat
rapidlyare
them

in the

of ideas.

Some
Organism as Time -Keeper.
before going to sleep at night can
determine
in the morning, and
hour
at a pre-appointed
in doing so with remarkable
There
accuracy.

" 4.

wake

In

appeared

correspondinglyexpanded
form

shorter.

"

sons
perto
ceed
sucare

PERCEPTION.

TEMPORAL

"5.]

389

approximatelytell the hour of the day

or
night without lookingat the clock. The explanation
of such facts seems
to lie in the time-keepingfunction
of the bodilyorganism. The organism goes through recurrent
and the corseries of regularchanges in periods,
responding
as
temporal marks
organic sensations serve
or
signs. "All my life,"says Professor James, "I have
been
with which I will wake
struck by the accuracy
at
the same
minute
exact
night after night and morning
after morning, if only the habit fortuitously
begins.
The
organicregistrationin me is independent of sleep.
After
I suddenly rise
lying in bed a long time awake
without
gether
knowing the time, and for days and weeks towill do so at an
identical minute
by the clock,
if some
inward
caused
the act
as
physiological
process
by punctuallyrunning down."*
who

many

can

Present, Past,

"5.
is the

mark

time

as

time

which

The
has

and
of

stamp

or

Future.

present is
certain

never

the
an

the

past
of

moment

sensation

Actual

present time.

distinguishedfrom
contains

"

or

The

present

future, is

sensation.

actual

indivisible instant ; it

duration

which

between

past, present, and

the

always

is

cording
longer or shorter acOn
the perceptuallevel it
to circumstances.
is longer when
conation
is obstructed
or
delayed,arid
conation
shorter when
and easily
proceeds successfully
the attainment
of its end.
towards
The present is long
the hungry dog compelled to
to the hungry child
or
wait for its food ; whereas
one
present rapidlysucceeds
another
child
the
when
the dog is enjoying its
or
play.
a

Distinction
*

Principles of Psychology,

vol.

future

i.,p. 623, note.

can

PSYCHOLOGY.

390

in

only be apprehended
level.
call

may

"

there

But

not

yet

"

The

consciousness.

[BK. in.,

CH.

n.,

rudimentary way at the

at this level,what
is,even

consciousness

ceptual
perwe
"

"

no

more

consciousness

yet"

"not

and

vi.

in the

is

tained
con-

prospectiveattitude of attention, in the

it involves.
which
pre-adaptationfor what is to come
This
is emphasised when
not
tion
conayet consciousness
is delayed or obstructed, as when
the dog is kept
In this experience not only is the
waiting for its bone.
between
present lengthened, but the contrast
present
future
is heightened. The
and
ness
consciousno
more
conation is abruptly
when
most
distinctly
emerges
disappointedor frustrated. The dog in the fable which
"

"

"

"

"

its actual

lets go
in

bone
marked

order

would

water,

have

to

seize

this

the

reflected

experience in

manner.

With
"

more

the
and

advent
the

definite.

more

only

occur

not

the

in

bone

as

as

"

of
not

This

ideal

yet
must

"

be

supplements

components

representationthe
experiencesbecome
the

of

even

when

trains.

The

much
ideas

perceptual process,

ideational

of

case

"no

and

hungry

tal
seeing preparationsfor food, may call up a menThe
pictureof itself eating the food.
ideallyrepresented
satisfaction
in sharp contrast
stands
with its
the
not
present impatienthunger. In this case
yet

child

"

consciousness

definite

form.

"

Sully,who
gives this example, illustrates the corresponding "no
consciousness
in the
more"
"A
following manner.
child is watching some
interesting
object,say the play
the wall of his nursery.
of the sunbeam
on
Suddenly
is obscured
of the
the sun
by a cloud and the marvel
In place of the golden brildancing lightvanishes.
assumes

very

there

liance

attention

of

and

"

is

ness

its

involved

the

in

if

we

is

to

The

primary

the

cumulative

present

now,

occur

ditions
con-

consciousness

of

and

The

by
determine

Human

their

actual

vol.

of

i.,

320-321.

past-

"fu-

involved
The

sensations
the

the

attention

attention.

at

pp.

"

of

is

expression,
of

with
of

experience

attention

Mind,

up

effect

nature

the

bound

experience

the

prospective

characterised

guide

is

primary

allow

may

essentially

present

the

favourable

most

perception

The

process.

tureness,"

of

not

same

sunless

the

of

is

the

supply

temporal

own

of

experience
which

the

At

sight

the

actual

so

attention.

of

the

attracts

contrast."*

or

process

paper.
wall-

and

interestingness.

development

general,

In

persists,

experience

the

difference

commonplace

dull

present,

both

represented

for

its

actual

the

simultaneously,

serve

image

then,

Here,

and

in

[ideal]

reason

is

there

wall.

the

391

by

time

stands

now

The
.

on

PERCEPTION.

TEMPORAL

"5.]

which

moment.

BOOK

IDEATIONAL

IV.

CEPTUAL
CON-

AND

PROCESS.

I.

CHAPTER

IDEAS

to

We

Introductory.

" 1.

"

ideational

which

process,

IMAGES.

AND

now

those

from

"

from

pass

perceptual

trains of mental

tivity
ac-

pression
prompted and guided by external imin bodilymovement
and directlyworked
out
lation
which proceed independentlyof external stimuto those
in the head."
and
worked
out
are
Up to this
ideas or images only
point we have taken into account
in so far as they enter
into the compositionof processes
in their essential character
which
are
perceptual: we
are

"

have

consider

to

now

processes

which

reach

their end

through mental images succeeding each other in

independently of actual perception. Before
distinctive

the

higher mode
with
mental

of
some

image.

merely imaged
perceived?

mental
care

In

and

nature

it
activity,
the

what

differ from

function

respects does
the

393

same

of

is necessary

characteristic

features

to

ries
sepounding
ex-

this
amine
ex-

of

object as
objectas actually
an

PSYCHOLOGY.

394

It should

[BK. iv.,

CH.

i.

that those visual experiences

clearlyunderstood
called
which
are
after-images both positive
negative are in reality after-sensations."
They
be

"

"

and

"

to

the

continued

after

the

external

due

are
sense

and

therefore

cannot

excitement
stimulus

be

has

regarded

of

the

ceased

to

ideas.

as

organ

of

operate,

They

are

from
what
has been
called the
easilydistinguishable
primary memory-image. This is the peculiarlyvivid
and definite ideal representationof an objectwhich
we
maintain
recall by a suitable effort of attention
can
or
immediately after perceivingit. The persistenceof the
after-imagedoes not depend on an effort of attention,
but on
the abiding effect of the external
stimulus.
It
part, very rapidlyfrom a positive
passes, for the most
to a negative phase and
undergoes other modifications
which
do not affect the primary memory-image. There
is also another
conspicuous and importantdistinction :
whatever
have been the spatialarrangement
of the
may
perceived objects,the correspondingafter-imagesare
and perspread out in a flat expanse ; but the solidity
spective
of objects as
in the
actuallyseen
reappear
primary memory-image and in ideal images generally.
Relation
and
" 2. Distinction
of Image and Idea.
An
idea can
exist without
no
more
an
image than
But the image
perceptioncan exist without sensation.

"

is

no

identical

more

identical

with
of

perception.

the

idea ;

constituent

is the

If I think

about

present
outline

to

of

my
an

with

the

the

idea

The

image

other

meaning which
the

Duke

consciousness

aquilinenose.

than

and

sensation

is

is

stituent
only one conmore
important

the

image conveys.
of Wellington, the image
be only the shadowy
may
But

this of

course

is not

IDEAS

" 2.]

the

result

cumulative
such

aquilinenose,
mental

same

image

according to
varies

This

with

and
of

train

the

idea

includes

mental

cesses,
pro-

War,

else with

have

been

an

very

the
virtually
different
have
meanings
very
The
circumstances.
meaning
thought in which the image
shows

example

may

context

one

some

attitude would

mental

indeed.

different

Wellington. My
of many
complex

thinkingof

been
my

395

IMAGES.

reading of Napier's Peninsula

the

as

If I had

etc.

of

Duke

of the

idea

my

AND

that

occurs.
are
people,especiallythose who
clined
inare
much
occupied with abstract thinking, who
to deny that they have
imagery at all.
any mental
They are almost or quite unable to visualise objects,
of mentallyrevivingauditory
their general power
and
also be rudimentary. The
and tactile experiencesmay
the successive
steps in
images which with them mark
What
train of ideas are
a
mainly or wholly verbal.
they mentally reinstate in the way of an image is the
of spoken
the sound
of articulation,
or
motor
process
and
their meaning are
The
words
words, or both.

There

all

are

that

are

some

present

to

consciousness

Images resembling features or

thought about, are absent.
say

that

verbal

such

image

persons
is

just as

think
much

in

concomitants
But

such

cases.

of the

it is inaccurate

ject
obto

images; for the

image in the logical
psycho-

without
an

objectis.
be noted
however
that the verbal
It should
image is
capable of conveying a kind of meaning which the
visual pictureor other revivals imitative of the object
of themselves
All higher modes
itself cannot
convey.
of
of conceptualthinking are
possibleonly by means
sense

as

visual

pictureof

the

396

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

words.

conceive

To

is to

think

in contradistinction

and

embraces

I think

of

indefinite
enables

from

the

general kind of process

diversityof specialways.
a

fix attention

the

on

not

fulfil the

in

manifested
The

word

modes
of

if it

the

were

an

life

form

common

function

same

versal
uni-

general or

to its manifold
process in contradistinction
mental
manifestation.
A
pictureimitative

could

i.

which
it
particulars
of life,
for instance,

If I think

connects.

to

me

of the

CH.

of
of
ject
obnot

accompanied by the word life. At any rate it could do

so
only very imperfectly
certainlya mind which
; and
depended merely on such picturesor similar images
have
formed
the conception of life in gencould never
eral
for the first time. An
imitative image may represent
of life,
but
some
very specialand obvious manifestation
life in general in contradistinction
from
its particnot
ular
phenomena.
velopmen
Conceptual process may be regarded as a higher deof ideational
on,

the

transition

is

gradual

As

process.

one,

we

and

shall
the

see

germs

later
of

rudimentary trains of
the highest
here is that even
What
ideas.
concerns
us
developments of conceptionstill involve imagery,though
be and often is,purely verbal.
In the
the imagery may
have
of
deal with
the nature
to
present chapter we
from
mental
imagery in general as distinguished
ceptual
perexperiences.
and
Object as
" 3. Likeness
of Object as Perceived
The image is a reproduction
of the percept;
Imaged.*
conception are

present

even

in

"

these
*

In

therefore

must

what

and

follows
the

object

the
as

agree

object
imaged,

as

the

in

their

perceived

"image."

is

nature.

simply

called

But
the

the

cept,"
"per-

AND

IDEAS

"4.]

397

IMAGES.

from
the original;
reproductionis easilydistinguishable
ferences
there must
therefore be an important difference or difThe
points of agreement are at least in part
such as colour,
sensible qualities
easy to assign. The
sound, etc.,in all their varieties enter into the composition
of the percept and
both
of the image, and these
can
only appear in an image because they have
qualities
previouslyappeared in a percept. The complication
also and in general the spatialand
temporal form of
these qualities
to both
common
are
percept and image.
Both
the sensible
bination
qualitiesand their forms of comoriginate primarily in the percept and are
reproduction
merely reproduced in the image. The
and completeness.
varies greatlyin degree of accuracy
individual differences are very conspicuous. Some
Here
can
scarcelyrecall colours at all ; others can do so with

great vividness

and

accuracy.

person

who

almost

pable
entirelylacks the power to image colours may be caof reproducingsounds
with precision
and distinctness.
Some
men
seem
quiteincapableof reproducing
odours ; others can
reproduce odours more
vividlythan
any other sensible qualities.
differences
have an important influence on the
These
dividua
general character of ideational process in different inwho
There
work mainly with visual
some
are
imagery, others with auditory and others with ideal
these extreme
revivals of motor
experiences. Between
manifold
intermediate
tions.
gradatypes there are of course

Characteristic

" 4.
"

(a) Intensity.

that

Differences of Percept
Hume

percepts differ from

is

and

age.
Im-

ing
perfectly
rightin affirmimages in the force or
"

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY,

398

is

the statement

We

must

they strike
ambiguous.

which

liveliness with

with

examine

great

liveliness,which

and

others

is distinctive of sensations.
affirm

cannot

revived

is

that

always

that

in the

variations

reproducible in

much

sound

louder
On

sensation.

or

the

same

or

to

brighterthan
a

sensible

way

as

But

Hume

colour

i.

of this

nature

as

and

tally
men-

the

contrary, it would
of

degree
the

the

care

en.

the mind."

according

force

We

upon

iv.,

responding
corseem

qualityare
variations

in

mentallyrecall the brightnessof an electric

look at the comparatively
and I may then actually
light,
dim
flame of a candle.
On
comparing the image with
the percept, I may
recognise that the electric light as
mentally revived has a higher degree of brightnessthan
It is true
that the
the candle-flame
as
actuallyseen.
of representinggradationsof sensible quality
power
of reprevaries in different persons, just as the power
senting
the qualities
themselves
varies.
But
good visualisers seem
it in a very high degree. A
to possess
of his mental
so
endowed, in giving an account
person
pictureof the morning breakfast-table,says : I have
to recall colour than
more
thing;
power
any other one
with
to recall a plate decorated
if,for example, I were
flowers I could reproduce in a drawing the exact
tone,
The
colour
of anything that was
the table is
etc.
on
perfectlyvivid." *
then to rejectthe distinction between
Are we
images
and percepts as respectively
This
"faint" and "vivid"?
is a possible
There
other differences
which
course.
are
sufficient to prevent conmay be regarded as ordinarily

kind.

I may

"

James,

Principles

of Psychology.

AND

IDEAS

" 4.]
fusion

discarding

But

them.

between

distinction

psychology and
we
accept it,we

common

399

IMAGES.

ought to hesitate before

generally accepted both by
we

On

sense.

the

other

if

hand,

"vividness"

something
those degrees of sensible
different from
qualitywhich
be equally present in the sensible
ually
qualityas actmay
is
perceived and as mentallyreproduced. What
must

The

this vividness?
words.

Hume's

of
and

force

as

most

do

the

convenient

to

of

consider

It is most

strike

of

acteristic
charis the

the

mind.

point.

At
of

not
quality,

in the

same

first

way

to

steam-whistle

serve

may

invades
The

disturbing way.
might perhaps
by a
accuracy

not

actuallyheard.
mind
In

in this

such

in

the

consciousness

degree

activity.

piercingscream

illustrations.

as

tion
sensa-

violent manner,

flow of mental
the

it is

of loudness

The
in

of

shriek

violently

of the

sound

mentally reproduced with tolerable

possessed of exceptionalpowers
person

would
would

in which

cases

be

the mode

But

this direction.

sound

it will be

conspicuouswhere

interruptand disturb the

dazzling flash of lightningor
as

difference

the

consciousness

of the steam-whistle

in

images

essential

difference

nature

in upon

breaks

with

they

is the
a

distinctive

strike the mind

not

out

bring

conspicuous.

is

the

in

percepts.
To

so

mind"

difference

degree. Images

which

contained

be

to

seems

with

liveliness

the

bottom

answer

According to him
percepts as compared

"striking the

This

by

mean

be
"

No

different.

strike the
mere

of

occurrence

The

mind

image

in

sciousness
con-

mentally revived
"

ever

like the

does

sound

as

strike

the

manner.

experiencesas

that

of the steam-whistle

the

400

PSYCHOLOGY.

work.
a

mass

concomitant

revival these

except in

i.

the only factor at

by no means
whole
organism receives a shock giving
of organic and motor
In ideal
sensations.

The

rise to

iv., en.

is

sensation

primary

[BK.

sensations

fail to

recalled

be

It may
be suggested
very imperfect way.
in the actual sense-experience
it is their presence

that
which

gives to
it

Now

seems

character

intrusive

highly

in the

experienceunless

and

"strike

can

ultimate

the

to

and

themselves,

character

reason

experience its aggressivecharacter.

evident
that they cannot
give an aggressive
this

matter

obtrusive.

But

the

as

mind"

in

they

possess

of fact
if

this

they are
tion
organic sensathere

way,

why other sensation should not do so too.

be to introspection.This
appeal must
steam-whistle

of the

case

aggressivein

the

same

way

that
as

the

this

the

sound

is

no

The
shows

itself is

organic sensations

it. The

organicsensations follow the

beginning of the sound after the lapseof about a second,
itself is aggressivefrom
the outset.
but the sound
is an
olent
steam-whistle
extreme
The
case, involvingviwhich

accompany

shock

and

in which

instances

overwhelming
of

bell heard

break

disturbance.

in

liveliness.

upon
But

sensations

it in
as

this

we

are

there

strike

the

with
have

abundant

are

mind

painfulmanner.
passing in front

consciousness
need

But

notable

without

The
of

chimes
a

church

force

and

disturbingeffect,
be
not
and
they need
accompanied by conspicuous
None
the less they have
iman
organic sensations.
or
aggressivenessanalogous to that of the
pressiveness
The
holds
true
steam-whistle.
same
sations
generally of senproduced by a stimulus which is stronger than
we

are

they

accustomed

to.

not

But

there

is

certain

normal

AND

IDEAS

" 4.]

401

IMAGES.

and below which

of stimulus at which
intensity
of
character
notice the aggressive
do not naturally
we
the sensation, unless
it occurs
suddenly and finds us
ness
unprepared. At these lower intensities the aggressiveof the sensation does not under ordinaryconditions
level of

catch

our

attention:

that it has
take

note

therefore
of what

but

it would

ceased

is familiar

be wrong

to exist.
to

We

us, but

to

do

conclude

usually

not

only of

what

is

natural
that the
unfamiliar.
It is therefore
relatively
is expressed
which
characteristic
of sense-experience,
striking the mind or
laying
by such metaphors as
it is
hold"
the mind, should
on
only be noticed when
present in an unusual degree of intensity.
in these lower
Its presence
even
phases of intensity
if we
be detected
sations
may
pass from the comparisonof senwith sensations
to the comparison of sensations
with the sensory
of the image. If we
look at a
element
sheet of white paper, and then, closingour
eyes, call up
a mental
pictureof the paper, its brightnessas actually
in the
seen
may be revived with approximate accuracy
image. But if we again open our eyes, and pass from
the mental
pictureto the actual percept, we may note
of transition a difference which
in the moment
can
only
be described
by saying that the image does not strike
"

the mind

as

the actual

"

percept does.

"

We

may

vary

the

experiment by first callingup mentallythe image of an

electric light,
and then looking at a dimmer
such
object,
The imaged brightnessof the electric
a candle-fiame.
as
lightis greater than that of the candle-flame ; but the
of brightness
which
actual sensation
have in looking
we
and persists
in consciousness
at the candle-flame
enters
from
in a different manner
the mental
pictureof the
Psych.

20

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

402

electric
force and
strike
Our

light.

It strikes the mind

liveliness;whereas

the mind

in the

conclusion

same

is that

with

the mental

iv.,

CH.

i.

degree of
image does not

some

way.
at

bottom

the

distinction

tween
be-

faint and vivid

respectively
states, is based on a difference of quality. The percept
does
has
not
an
belong to the
aggressivenesswhich
with varying degrees of
image. It strikes the mind
force or liveliness according to the varying intensity
of
This degree of force or liveliness is part
the stimulus.
of what
of a sensamean
tion.
we
by the intensity
ordinarily
of sensations
of the intensity
But this constituent
is absent
in mental
imagery. Since it is distinctive of
tional
sensation,we may call it sensational
intensity. Sensaof an
intensitymay depend on the suddenness
external
are
we
impression. A slight sound, when
in a
totallyunprepared for it,may enter consciousness
sensational
violent
manner
intensity
; but in the main
increases
decreases
or
concomitantlywith the intensity
of the stimulus.
it is the less effectively
The
smaller
will it serve
mark
as
a
distinguishing
percept from
when
it is very
image. Hence
slightit may be practically
inoperative. Thus we may fail to distinguish
between
a very
slightsound as actuallyheard, and the
of this has
mental
representationof it. The possibility
been
shown
experimentally; but it does not, as has
been
supposed, constitute a valid argument for regarding
the distinction
between
image and percept as merely
of degree.
one
(b) Distinctness.
Images as compared with percepts
for the most
have
schematic
part a sketchy or
Part
of the filling
in of the actual sensecharacter.

image

and

percept,

as

AND

IMAGES.

reappear

in its

" 4.]

IDEAS

experiencefails

to

is therefore
This

does

and

blurred

apply

not

403

which
reproduction,

hazy.

exception to all mental

not
all,can
reproduce in

without

imagery. Most persons, if

tain
cera
precise and delicatelydifferentiated manner
internal language by
kinds
of experience. The
which
trains of thought are
habituallycarried on in
human
beings is usuallya very precisereinstatement of
different
signsused in the interchangeof ideas between
In most
as
probably,words
mentally
cases,
persons.
reproduced are fairlyexact counterparts of words as
and
articulation
motor
actuallyspoken. Both sound
in a preciseand clear-cut way.
revived
The
are
image
lacks sensational
content
intensity
; but its qualitative
from
that of the percept.
In some
is indistinguishable
activityof articulation is very precisely
persons the motor
is absent
or
revived, but the auditory element
Others
absent.
almost
mentally envisage printed or
either in addition to, or instead of,
written characters
internal speech.
who
those
Even
can
reproduce articulate
persons
sounds

with

maximum

recall inarticulate
When
some

The

they

make

imitation

by

schematic

distinctness

may

be

unable

noises except in the vaguest

the

attempt, they tend

the human

character

voice

of

to

to

manner.

substitute

for the noises themselves.

ideal

representationis
in the mental
best exemplified
reproductionof the appearance
of material
things as they are presented to
of the eye
sightand touch, and explored by movements
and
hand.
In most
this reproduction is prepersons
dominantl
visual, though some
depend mainly on

404

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

and

motor

visual
the

"

imagery.
"

inward

This

follows

eye

their parts

scans

revivals.

tactual

We

shall here

includes
the

much
successively

of
as

only

revival

motor

contours

iv.,

the

i.

en.

sider
con:

for

objectsand
bodily eye

does.

It is well known
between

that

there

are

very

great differences

of different individuals.
visualising
powers
Some
few seem
mental
to be capable of callingup
tures
picof what
tinctnes
they have seen, possessinga vividness,disand wealth of detail,
little short of actual vision.
But the accounts
these people give of themselves
which
instances
must
cum
certainlybe accepted in many
salts.
tion,
They are usuallyuntrained in introspecgrano
and they probably do not express themselves
with
a point
rigorousprecision. In any case we must make
of distinguishing
what a man
between
is capable of in the
when
the occasion requireshim to do
way of visualising
his best and the imagery which
into his ordinary
enters
trains of thought. We
shall see
at a later stage that
the

the

habitual

recall

of all the

concrete

detail of actual

in ordinary thinking,such
takes
as
perceptionwould
of words, be not only a superfluity,
but
place by means
who
an
encumbrance, destroying efficiency.A man
call up mental
can
picturesequal in distinctness to the
than a man
realityis no more
likelyto do so habitually,
who
take very
can
long leaps is likelyto substitute
these for ordinary walking. Settingaside certain exceptional
cases
not
as
we
investigated,
yet sufficiently
affirm that ordinaryvisual imagery is more
less
or
may
sketchy and blurred in comparison with actual vision.
In some
includingthe best introspectivepsymen,
chologist

such

as

Fechner,

it is

so

very

blurred

and

IDEAS

" 4.]

405

IMAGES.

AND

more
so, without
sketchy that it could scarcelybecome
picturesof
ceasing to exist altogether.*The mental
these
can
scarcelybe called picturesat all.
persons
They are rather the indescribablyattenuated ghosts of
language, airy,
pictures. They are, to use Fechner's
and
unsubstantial
possessinga
vaporous." Persons
than Fechner
ily
will readmuch
higher visualising
power
as
applied to
recognise the aptness of these terms
visual imagery.
the greater part of their own
Very poor visualisers often find the greatest difficulty
in indicatingwhat
it is that they actuallysee with the
of James's
mental
Thus
one
pupils,asked to call
eye.
replies, There is
up a pictureof his breakfast-table,
I cannot
nothing definite about it. Everything is vague.
I could not possibly
the chairs,
count
say what I see.
I see nothing
that there are
but I happen to know
ten.
chief thing is a general impressionthat
in detail.
The
I do see."f This
is a sometell exactly what
I cannot
what
But
it brings out the point which
extreme
case.
The
most
requiresto be emphasised in this connexion.
indistinctness
of mental
imagery is to a largeextent of
It is different in kind
character.
from
a quitepeculiar
"

"

"

indistinctness

the

dimness

of

different

in kind

of

percepts such

light,distance,and
from

as

may
like.

the

the indistinctness

be

due

It is also

of

positiveand
phases through

negative after-imagesin the various

which
they pass. An ideal image is sketchy and
because
it contains only an extract
from
the
*

There

are

to be

appears
Victoria

few

completely

University,
of

t Op.

exceptional
assures

absent.
me

visualising capacity.
cit.,vol. ii.,p. 54.

cases,
Mr.
that

in which

Welton,
he

does

the
of
not

to

power

the

of

Yorkshire

possess

even

matic,
schecon-

visualising
College,
the

ments
rudi-

PSYCHOLOGY.

406

[BK. iv,,

i.

CH.

But
it is a surpriseto most
sense-perception.
tiny,
scrupeople, who subjectthese images to introspective
when
they discover how the extract is often made.
that Alice in WonIt becomes
derland
to them
quiteintelligible
could see the grin without the cat.
This applies
but also in the experience
not
only to complex objects,
of some
to apparentlysimple sensible qualities
persons

tent

of

such

colours

as

and

definite shade
the
the

imaged
a

with

the

I succeed.

and

of red

I
perceived,

the

colour.

recall

to

attempt

On

tain
cer-

comparing
to identify

able

am

But

they are the same

difference which
does not
sence
wholly consist in abof sensational
in
intensity.There is a filling

two

with

red

sounds.

as

same

"

"

in the
this

percept which
in
filling

"

confident

is non-existent

"

I cannot

be

may

in the idea.
All

say.

What

that

am

conspicuouslypresent in
the percept and conspicuouslyabsent in the image.*
The
comparative indistinctness of images is traceable
It is partlydue to what
Dr. Ward
to various
causes.
has

about

called

"

is that

it is

obliviscence."

parts of the percepts

Some

have

disappearedfrom the ideal representation,

simply
because
of a deficiency
in our
to retain or at least
power
The
of the mental
reproduce them.
image is
vagueness
also increased by what
calls
Dr. Ward
reduplication."
It is the product, not
of a single perception,
but of a
pluralityof perceptions which agree only in certain
points,and differ in others.
Only the points of agreement
"

recalled

are

in

fixed

and

definite

The

manner.

divergentdetails by their very divergence obstruct

process of reproduction. Hence, so far as they are
*

I am

also

accompanying

confident
motor

and

that

the

organic

"

fillingin

sensations.

"

does

not

wholly

the
con-

consist

in

" 4.]
the

cerned,
had

image

the

seen

in

and

who
fluctuating. "One
would
once
scarcelybe likely
stances
circumfinding the attendant

different

stillmore

407

IMAGES.

well ; this could

hundred
is

there

But

but

without

as

recur

her

is vague

queen

of her

think

to

AND

IDEAS

of

ideal

for the

revival.

recall

of

details

actual

is in its character

thought

service

the

Only

disadvantageous,to
perception. A train

of

much

so

need

revived

be

interest

dominant

of the

as

be

may

all the

place in
interest.

theoretical

practicalor

some

be

ideational

of

It takes

conative.

parative
com-

would

It

only useless,but

not

ing
see-

scenes."

importantreason

indefiniteness

after

happen

not

required by

all else

being
be a mere
irrelevant
would
encumbrance, hinderingand
of mental
embarrassing the course
activity.If I wish
I did yesterday,
in order to find out how
to recall what
fallen short of the moral
far I have
ideal,or for any
minutes
fice
will probably sufother practical
a few
reason,
the

for

retrospect.

is it that I

how

But

moment

recall in

can

experienceswThich occupied twelve hours ?

We
outline
an
simply make
Only by omission.
the salient characters
of things and
sketch, in which
minutes

few

"

actions

and

events

Mere

details.
"

this

possible ;
forget,and yet

do

it would

guiding

interest.

breakfast
have
*

there
not

not

"If

is much
recall.

xx.,

at

the

Article
p. 62.

their

ing
individualis-

also

I pass

which
it

to

make

I do

not

simply

over

help me, being irrelevant to my

I picture myself as
eating my

beginning of
generic image of the

Ward,

edition,

without

forgetfulnessin part helps

but

because

appear,

"Psychology,"

the

day,

it is

breakfast-table

Encyclopaedia

enough
and

Britannica,

to

the

ninth

PSYCHOLOGY.

408

succession
half -hour
to

recall

to

particularincidents which took up the

it is possiblefor me
spent in eating. Hence
of taking breakfast,which
the whole
event

pass

are

to

on

something else."
detailed

more

and

more

power

often

of

other

than

at

of
In

least

of

and

tal
general,men-

or

whose

The

abstract.

of

modes

minute,

in persons

the poet

and

person,

vivid

and

rather

concrete

the uneducated

usuallyfar

in the fraction

hour,

an

imagery is
interests

T.

CH.

iv.,

of

occupied half
then

[BK.

age,
sav-

have
artist,

mental

tion
visualisa-

imagery

than

the

philosopher. As we noted above,

often little
to abstract thinkinghave
persons habituated
of words.
ideal imagery,except reproductions
no
or
to /Subjective
Activity. In perception
(c) Relation
because
tions
sensaare
we
relatively
passiveand receptive,
determined
are
by a factor which is not psychical

mathematician

the

or

the

stimulus.

What

the

stimulus

does

for

at

all,

in

in ideation.
for ourselves
have
do
to
perception,we
far and so long
to only so
Images are attended
themselves
with the general direction
they connect
mental
rent
curor
arouse
a new
activityat the moment
of activity
conaby bringing into play pre-existing

as

of

"

tive

tendencies.

Sensations

on

the

other

hand

us

tend

intensityto compel attention. If

intense
sufficiently
they may forciblydivert
attention from the most
absorbing train of thought.
which
on
Percepts, so long as the stimulus persists
they depend,displaya steadiness wrhich is absent in case
before consciousness
maintained
of images. Images are
purely by an effort of attention ; when we are attending
to a percept, sensational
intensitydue to the stimu-

by their
they are

sensational

Analytic

Psychology,

vol. ii.,
p. 185.

co-operates with

lus

It

continuous.

and

tends

to

pass from

steadfastly
subjectiveactivity,
attention is never
perfectlyfixed
flagsat intervals and constantly
point to another ; it is probably

our

Now

sustainingit.

409

IMAGES.

AND

IDEAS

" 4.]

one

tion.
regularrhythm of remission and concentraof images even
the peculiarunsteadiness
Hence
when
we
deliberately
attempt to arrest and detain them.
efforts to
As Dr. Ward
says, the image, in spite of our
and completeness,
in clearness
fix it,"varies continually
of the illuminated
as
reminding one of nothing so much
the
of gas jets common
at fetes,when
devices made

subjectto

wind

sweeps

is not

There

them.

across

this perpetual

perceive."* Dr. Ward

and
perhaps goes too far in attributingthis "flow
flicker" to all mental imagery. The statistical evidence
that some
to show
giftedpersons can
seems
exceptionally
view without
maintain a visual image before their mental
flow

of

exertion
The

the

flicker in what

But

fluctuations.

these

when

and

the

manifests

Ideas

of ideas.

the

tion
deten-

degree of mental
attendingto percepts.

itself in

perceptualchange

compare

cases

and

kind

requiredin

contrast

sequence

in these

even

costs

is not

which
same

we

image

we

follow

and

another

way

transition with

each

other

in

cordance
ac-

purely psychologicalconditions; their

gether
is determined
by preformed associations tosequence
at the
of mental activity
with the general trend
The
flow of ideas thus partakes of the nature
moment.
of a continuous
development of the attention-process.
of perception,
the contrary,
on
Changes in the content
initiated by the changing direction of
are
only partially
attention.
to a very
large extent
They are determined
with

Article

"

Psychology,"

p. 58.

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

410

I.

CH.

iv.,

of the stimulation

affecting
of sense.
So far as this is the case
the organs
they
of a continuous
not
bear the character
development of
conscious
happens in
process, but of something which
is most
This character
consciousness.
conspicuouswhen
external
experiencesfor
changes suddenly introduce
is unprepared, as when
the chair we
which
the mind
But
are
sittingon unexpectedly gives way beneath us.
and
when
are
are
we
even
prepared
awaiting an event
it comes,
there is still a cerwhen
tain
to act appropriately
rence
or
abruptness in the mode of its occurdiscontinuity
in consciousness
as
compared with the sequence
of ideas in a train of thought. It is not a continuation
mental
of our
own
activity;it is something which
happens to us, something which strikes upon the mind
by

in the

alterations

nature

without.

from

(d)

Relation

depend

external

on

stimulation

surrounding things,they must vary

of the organism and its parts
Hence
We

can

head

carry
or

away

ideas

our

close

our

about

eyes

with
we

with

the

cepts
perfrom

tions
spatialrela-

tions.
environing condi-

to

us;

can

as

proceeding

with

perceptionsvary

our

Inasmuch

Activity.

Motor

to

movements.

our

if

but

we

turn

longer see

no

our

what

receive
the sensations we
particular
For most
sense-organs.
vary with the adaptationof our
distinct vision we
bring the eye into such a position
that the rays from the object fall on the yellow spot; we
the lens so that they form
accommodate
a distinct image
we

saw

on

the

before.

In

retina,and

adjustments forms
vision
mutatis

and

mutandis

forth.

so
an

visual

The

presence

of these

important distinction

imagery.

of the other

The

senses.

same

between
holds

motor
tual
ac-

good

It is true

that

is also

there

411

IMAGES.

AND

IDEAS

"5.]

adjustmentto images,

an

adjustment consists in great part of a

revival of the motor
experienceswhich enter into actual
perception. But the revival is easilydistinguishable
There
is a difference of general
actual movement.
from
attention feels as if
In merely imaging "the
attitude.
and

this

that

drawn

backward,

revival

exists

the actual

side

mental
of the

revival

ideal
vision.

But

motor

due

sensations

the

organism and its parts. We

picture,and this may involve

motor

the

at

The

brain."

the

side with

by

of the

state

scanninga

be

towards

same

processes

involved

time

abstain

we

to

may
some

in actual
from

the

of the
The
corresponding active movements
eye.
Thus
the motor
be closed.
revival
bodily eye may even
is the more
easilydistinguishedfrom actual movement,
of positionand movement
the actual sensations
because
receive
from
the eye are
which
we
incompatiblewith
which
the movements
are
ideallyreproduced. The ideal
movements

therefore

appear
the

from

Extruded

to

periphery they

inner

an

occupy

to

seem

circle.

take

place

the head.

within

Independence of Percept

" 5. Relative

and

Image.

blue

the

serves,
obsky, we may, as Dr. Ward
mentally picturea portionof it as red instead
it is very important to note
Now
that most
of blue.
people,while they are imaging the sky as red, do not

Gazing

"

cease

to

them

and

in

see

it

the

calling up

persons
the

at

grey

It may

find

as

blue.

sky

so

with
that

field which

sometimes

The

as

to

hide

closed

this

red

appear

image

does

to
to

get between

not

its blueness.

eyes

is due

does

be

the

Similarly,
image, most

visual
not

form

retina's

merging

own

part of

light.

itself in

the

PSYCHOLOGY.

412

field.

grey

this

when

But

[BK. iv.,
it is

happens

in

distinct it
disappearingaltogether.The more
and
disconnected
more
independent it appears

i.

reality
is,the
tively
relain the

source

of the retina.

state

The

is similar with

case

other

fingerswhich are
dipped in
they were

the

how

their

have

which

sensations

the

to

OH.

feel if

senses.

holding

now

my

would

pen

But

water.

warm

imagine

can

the

tal
men-

I
Similarly,
image does not annul actual sensation.
ever
a mentally articulated
word, howcan
clearlydistinguish
faint it may
be, though my ears are simultaneously
also articulate a
I can
assailed by a deafening din.
of speech are
less
motionword
mentally when
organs
my

engaged

or

of

Facts

possess
for if

we

in

utteringother

kind

this

relative

independence.

suppose

that the

process

are

excited in ideational
This

that

show

is borne

view

not

sounds.

percepts and
This

tracts

nervous

wholly

be

can

accounted

excited

coincident

images

with

in perceptual
those

process.
out

by pathologicalcases.

We

ing
alreadyquoted cases in which the power of recallwas
ideal images, visual,tactual and auditory,
parently
apthe correspondingpernon-existent,whereas
ceptual
comparativelyintact. Instances
processes were
describes
not
of the converse
are
wanting. Wilbrand
with
of a lady who, sittingin her arm-chair
the case
could distinctly
describe streets and houses
eyes closed,
them
in their rightorder,though she could not recognise
lost when
she saw
soon
when
them, and was
hopelessly
left to find her way by herself.*

have

See

ii.,"Mind,

Professor

Oct.

1894.

Ward's

Article

on

"Assimilation

and

Association,

questionas

The
of

and

sensations

ideas

probableconclusion
and

continuous

the relation

percepts

other, is

the

on

to

still

vexed

or

be

to

less

of the

the

on

appears

more

41?,

IMAGES.

AND

IDEAS

seats

nervous

hand,

one

the

But

one.

and

of

most

that,though they

are

by

no

overlap, they

are

necessarilycoincident.

means

In

any

it is

case

the existence

plain from

of percepts does

ordinaryexperiencethat
not
imply the possibility

little or
who
have
correspondingimages. Persons
actual objectsas
of visual
see
no
imagery can
power
those who
have
well as the best visualisers.
Similarly,
of mentally reviving sounds
limited
may
power
very
have
people, if
quite keen auditoryperception. Few
degree the power of calling
any, have in a considerable
In
animals
images of organic sensations.
up mental
be
generally,well-developed perceptual powers
may
with little or no capacityfor ideal revival.
combined
of

" 6.

conditions

Two

On

having

Illusions,

Hallucinations,

some

the
or

are

to

necessary

hand,

one

all of the

Dreams.

and

constitute

ation.
hallucin-

an

presentationmust

distinctive

"

exist,

characteristics

of

the
other
hand, the
sense-perception. On
be actnot
ually
object as it appears to be perceivedmust
The
of the
specificnature
present to the senses.
ditions,
object presentedmust be constituted by subjectiveconnot
by the present operation of an external
actual

stimulus.

Some

and

nearlyalways

the

nature

of the

sort

of

stimulation

is present;

but

it does

object presented;

be

may

it

determine

not

only

experiencea sensational character.

In illusion an object is actuallypresent to
sensations such
extent
and producesto some

give

present

serves

to

the

the senses,
as

it would

414

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

I.

nr.

TV.,

are
normally produce : but these sensations
wrongly
interpreted.A presentationmay be partly an illusion,
and
Thus
we
see
a
partlyan hallucination.
man,
may
is actually
when
what
The
present is a suit of clothes.
of the sensations experiencedmay
be due
specialnature
partly to the suit of clothes, and partlyto subjective

conditions
normal

far

so

from

manner

to

It may

sensations

of clothes

are

would

lies

wholly

the

illusion

in

so

enter

happen

which

stimulus
far

as

into

arise

other

experience,there

in such

illusion without

sensations

that

case

present except those which

pure

in

wrongly

are

normally produce : and that

interpretation.When
wrong

is

sensations

the external

subjectiveconditions

is hallucination.
other

the

is illusion ;

there
interpreted,
due

as

the suit
the

error

this is so,

element

any

no

of

hallucination.
It is not

Dreams
far

as

necessary

that

all the

characteristics of perceptual

experienceshould be present in hallucinations.

of hallucinations
in so
partake of the nature
the

dreamer

appears

to

see

and

hear

what

is not

it often happens
But
actuallypresent to his senses.
that these
dream-experiencesare indistinct and lack
without
sensational intensity;and in general they are
that dependence on
motor
activitywhich marks
cepts.
perTheir
is mainly due
to
perceptual character
continui
their independence of subjectiveactivity, the disof their emergand abruptness of the mode
ence
We
into consciousness.
are
passivein relation to
in which
in the same
tion
them
WTC
are
passivein relaway
to actual objectspresent to the senses.
Probably
the hallucinations produced by suggestionin hypnotised
subjectsare of a similar kind.
"

have

in

often

greater

or

other

less

degree

distinctness

intensityand the detailed

perceptions. They are in

hallucinations

and

dream-experiences

But

415

IMAGES.

AND

IDEAS

" 6.]

sensational

the

of actual

sense-

perceptionsin all
of the object perceived
respects except that the nature
is determined
by subjectiveconditions rather than by
is

stimulation

generallyif
in the

variations

certain

and

chloroform,
the

on

system.

nervous

blood

the
respiration,

acid, which

have

may

blood

have

an

irritant

sleep, owing

In

contain

may

alcohol, opium, ether,

as

like, which

the

effect

lowered

to

charged with
excitingeffect on the

becomes
an

of

tion
pathologicalaffec-

in

The

such

poisonous substances,

of

of the

distribution

and

nature

brain-substance.

of the

consist

of stimulation

brain, or

the

blood-supply within

kind

some

always present. Among

not

essential modes

the most

these

this is so,

When

stimulation.

external

fact actual

carbonic
sensory

of the brain.

centres

external

cases

of

general modes

these

Besides

conditions

of

more

this is so, hallucinations

So

far

of

illusions.

as

In

an

stimulation,in

specialkind
the

assume

illusion,there

most

operate.
character

is present

some

proceeding from the excitement of a sensediffers more

less
or
organ ; but the object perceived
be
which
would
that
perceived under
widely from
stimulation

normal
the
extent

same

way.
illusions.
of

sleeperdream
enemy
may

if the

conditions

or

the

give rise

stimulation

of

bite
to

excited

were

in

to
a
large
Dream-experiences are
the
A
slightpain in the ribs makes
stab from the dagger of a threatening
of a dog.
Contact
with a cold body

the dream

the

sense-organ

retina

of

which

corpse.

That

is called

the

constant

retina's

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

416
.

TV.,

i.

" n.

important part in constituting

teresti
dream-pictures. On this subjectwe may quote the in"Almost
Ladd.
experiences of Professor
I am
able to recall the visual
without
exception,when
images of my dream and to observe the character of
the two, the
the retinal field quicklyenough to compare
retinal phanof the luminous
and
coloured
schemata
tasms
clue to the origin of the
afford the undoubted
dream-life."
in my
t
By long practice
thingsjust seen
of dropping
Ladd
has acquired the power
Professor
gradually into a dreaming sleep and then suddenly
awaking with his attention fixed on the comparison of
the experiences of lightand
his dream-pictures with
light*plays

own

colour

due

which

in

"The

most

to

his

very

the

internal

case

stimulation

of

peculiarlybrilliant

are

visual

elaborate

dreams

the
and

retina,
varied.

originate in

may

retinal excitement.
Perhaps a harder problem
intraorganic
could not be given to my experimentsto solve than
the following:
How
be made
one
can
by such excitement
of words
to see
a printedpage
clearlyspread out before
in a dream
?
several times verily
But I have
one
in the feat of having
caught my dreaming automaton
On waking from
a
just performed this transformation.
I had distinctly
lines of printed
seen
dream, in which
and
had
been
letters forming words
sentences, and
engaged in reading these lines by sight,I have clearly
.

detected

the

character

originatedsuch
minute
lightand
rods

and

cones

lines
parallel
*

See

p. 151.

of that

retinal

field which

had

extraordinaryhallucination.
dark
the activityof
spots which
occasions, had arranged themselves
the retinal field." $
extending across
an

t Mind,

N.S., vol.

i. (1892),p. 301.

ibid., p.

The
the

302.

in

"

IDEAS

6.J

illusions

Pure

is

of

the

sensations

as

and

things

observer

or

unmixed

take

with

tricks

same

actual

fact.

shared

by

On
their

the

the

this

hand,
is

are

explanation.

of

rare

of

had

of

collective

guaranteed
occurrence,

are

and

the

juggler
pressions
immuch

very
the

illusions

in

sword

be

may

simultaneously.

persons

the

in

sensory

hallucinations,
by

ually
act-

illusion,

the

spectator

pure

not

pure

When

the

yet

may

swallowed

reason,

same

exemplified

appearance,

number

great

other

eye

juggler

For

existence

Society,
of

if

as

the

on

is

conjurers.
in

merely

and

this

the

on

the

just

to

mainly

of

made

produce,

which

and

element

no

perceived
is

It

hallucination,

made

rise

give

apparently
place.

sword

which

normally

ventriloquists

of

swallows

the

would

417

impressions

may

processes

exist

in
The

present.

they

IMAGES.

illusions

are

hallucination

senses

AXD

Psychical
stand

much

though
Research
in

need

II.

CHAPTER

TRAINS

IDEAS.

OF

fold Aspect of Ideational

the last chapter we
the
considered
images as compared with percepts.
deal

trains

with

combination

ideas,like
a

certain
some

of

of

which
and

their

and

characteristics

of

have

to

We

the

now

and

sequence
Trains

meanings.

of

have
in general
perceptualactivity,
serve
unity and continuityof interest.
They subThose
tions
transitheoretical.
or
end, practical

another.

Thus

passingthought.
it may

show

general transitions
be

noted

that

may

the train may

be

to

appear

gratifyany
the

none

to

less be

in

break

singletrain

It may

if it tends

evanescent,

in

are

It should

evanescent.

but

which

of ideas

flow

gives unity to

idea;

"

In

"

of

of interest
to

with

ideas,

images

trains

in the

train

Process.

Two-

" 1.

be
no

consist

tinuity
con-

from

one

interest

the

slight

very

than

more

of

single

interest,however

regarded

as

tinuous
con-

train.
The

of

course

distinct groups

of

and
reproductive,

for it must
this

material

the

total

train

of ideas

conditions.

is determined
On

the

one

by

hand

two

it is

rial
productive. The matefrom
be derived
past experience. But
is variouslyshaped and
transformed
by

mental

on

the

other

condition
418

existingwhen

the

ideal

TRAINS

" 2.]
revival

takes

Even

place.

IDEAS.

OF

when

419

interested

are

we

reviving past events, as such, preservingas far as

and
their originalnature
order, yet the mode
which

to

consciousness

of the

present, and

they appear

circumstances

place since
that

their

their

on

is determined

they

before

come

sible
pos-

by
has

It is for this

originaloccurrence.

revival

all that

by

in

in
the

taken
reason

consciousness

their

originaloccurrence
they bore the character of present experiences.
Every train of ideas has both a reproductiveand a
of
productive aspect; though the relative dominance
shall first
We
the two
aspects may
vary indefinitely.
the
consider the reproductive side of the process, under
of Ideas; and
then
the productive,
head, Association
under

the

of
ch.

head,

the

is the

re-excited

suppose

as

that two

in this way

so

whole

which

recur

For

general account

must

refer

basis of all associative

have

whenever
combined

a
experiences,

as

to

of

an

form

the

any
to

and

total

to

i.,

the formation
tends

of the

produce
#, have

bk.

connexion

experiencesin
which
disposition,

singlecumulative

"

of distinct

concurrence

of

Ideas.

Association, we

The

7-9.

""
ii.,

of

of

nature

on

Construction.

Ideal

Association

" 2.

be

whereas

past events;

as

it.

been

to

ences
experiIf

we

united

Dab,
disposition

the

cite
experiencesimilar to a will re-exIf the reproductiontakes the form of mere
Dab.
the result
acquirement of meaning or of complication,
of a, which
is a modification
we
represent by ab.
may
But in ideal reproductionsomething more
takes place.
of ab is followed
The
occurrence
by the ideal revival
of ba"as a relatively
independent phase in the successive
re-occurrence

flow

of mental

process.

420

PSYCHOLOGY.

It must
the

be

total

noted

that

conditions, b will
relation

that

tendency is to

the

experience ab.

[BK. iv.,

tend

be

to

in which

n.

the revival of

from

Hence, apart

en.

ing
interfer-

in

revived

the

same

it

occurred.
If
originally
in the originalexperience one
object has been apprehende
as
succeedinganother,or as situated on the
another,
top of another, or as logicallydependent on
the tendency of the ideal revival will be to represent
the object in the same
It is evident
that
relations.
these objectiverelations may
be indefinitely
numerous
and
diverse
in nature.
it is impossibleto base
Hence
on

them

to

as

classification of the various

of ideas.

As

Reid

remarks:

thingshas a tendency,more
in a thinkingmind, from one
that in classifying
the forms
consider

must

relations

or

forms

"Every

less,to

lead

of association
relation
the

of association

between

thought,
It follows

the other."*

to

of

of

ideas,we

psychical states,

as

the objects
distinguishedfrom relations between
of which
they take cognisance. Ultimately,all
depends on continuityof interest: but this continuity
be direct or indirect,
giving rise to two forms of
may
association which
are
commonly called association by
contiguity and by similarity.
" 3. Different Forms
of Ideas.
of the Association
(a) Contiguity ( Continuity of Interest). The law
of Contiguity,
as
ordinarilyunderstood, may be stated
gether
as
follows, If B has been perceivedor thought of towith A or immediately after A, then, on a future
occasion, the perceptionor idea of A will tend to call

such,

as

"

"

up

the

ideas

idea

follows
*

of B.
the
Works,

In
order
Hamilton's

other
in

words,

which

the

their

edition, vol. i.,p.

sequence

of

objectshave
386.

TRAINS

" 3.]
attended

IDEAS.

OF

421

in

lying
previousexperience. The underprincipleis that mental activitywhen
partially
revived tends to repeat itself ; it can
only repeat itself
if its original
direction and order are reproduced.
This perhaps is the best form which
be given to
can
the law of Contiguity,
But
as
ordinarilyunderstood.
in this form
It is by
it requiresqualification.
even

been

objects which

those

only

association

that

true

means

no

to

succession.
Professor

by

heart
denote

may

in

series

"

only

but

also

The

same

Ebbinghaus

found

shown
that

disconnected

of

"

the
-

"

between

associative

J?, J?

point

and

is

regular gaps

establish

to

between

much

Repetition of

served
and

him

cost

we

etc.

"

mediate
im-

experimentally.
after learning

series with

same

in

words, which

A, IB, C,

not

been

learn

to

it,e.g.

has

connects

attention

by A, J3, (7,.Z),etc., it

time

shorter

this kind

occupy

This

series

of

D,

the

links

and

(7,C

and

D, etc.,

and

G, G

and

H,

etc.

conspicuouslyillustrated in
recallinga train of events

more

ordinary experience. In
salient occurrence
to
we
other,
anusually pass from one
leaving out the relatively
unimportant details
which
between
them.
actuallyintervened
Similarly,
in describing an
all the
mention
object, I do not
details which
I actuallyobserved
in the exact
order in
which

I noticed

characteristic
of much
The

dominant

the dominant
a

them.

and

which

the

distinctive
is not

interest

of

contrary, I pass from

that

which

characteristic
the

is

one

feature to another, oblivious

by

objectswhich

and

distinctive.

originalexperience and

interest at the time

selection of items

the condition

On

I recall
no

means

introduce

it,determine
tied down

by

each other in

PSYCHOLOGY.

422

the train of ideal

immediate
The

revival must

have

is that the

is not
but

dominant

the

whole

fundamental
in

contiguity

rather

the

n.

en.

attended

in

to

the

strict

The

ciation
asso-

of

sense

interest.

conative

interest,the

process,

principleof

the

continuity of

the

stronger

tendency guiding

selective is the revival apt

more

links

being dropped
unimportant to the general
This
is well brought out
in
be,

to

been

iv.,

succession.

truth

word,

[BK.

out

trend

which
of

relatively
activity.

are

mental

in which
specialcase
some
having continuityof interest is carried
process
If the
with interruptions
out
occurring at intervals.
of a speciallyinteresting
interruptionsare not themselves
ing
kind, we tend to omit them altogetherin recallthe main
activity.The gaps, so to speak,close up.
should
It may
be asked
we
ber
rememwhy in any case
teresti
the interruptions,
when
even
they are speciallyinis interruption,there
For
where
there
is
not
continuity,but rather discontinuity of interest.
The

is that

answer

takes

processes

condition

serves

is

an

to

very

is not

association

which

immediacy of
important factor.

transition of attention

revival,rather

the

may
But

Other
from

than

is called

The

A
a

terrupt
inboth

association

often

it must

succession

two

fundamental

the

and

ruption
inter-

the

experience which belongs to

link them
together.

the

in ideal

the

disconnected.

succession,then,

of the

which

continuitybetween

by contiguity. Ideal revival

by leaps and bounds.
that

at

moment

otherwise

are

is itself

Immediate

the

place there

which

equallyand

at

the

does

conceded

be

does

ceed
pro-

count

as

things equal, the direct

will be repeated
to B
transition

from

to

TRAINS

" 3.]

OF

IDEAS.

423

originallytook place through the intermediate

link J3.
In proportion as the control of a dominant
and
interest is weak
intermittent, the tendency is to
omissions
exactly repeat the original order without
in
inclusive
of interruptions. This is well seen
and
which

of feeble-minded

conversations

the

originalorder

the
there

is

an

will

be

interest in exact

Of

persons.

exactly repeated,
as
repetition,

in

course

where

learning

heart.

by

(b) Similarity. The characteristic feature of reproduction

is,as Dr. Bain observes, that it is
by similarity
its effects. In such
opposed to routine and counteracts
reproductionone objectmay recall another with which
connected
in previousexperience. I
it has never
been
reminds
of the Duke
of Wellington
who
me
a man
see
in his personal appearance.
resemblance
I
by some
have
and
other.

Duke

the

The

novel

before

occasion

had

never

in
ideal

any

kind

revival

combination

of

seems

instead

to

think

connexion

of

this
with

man

each

pletely
give rise to a comof reproducing a past

to

combination.

reallyso, we could not properlyspeak of

association
as
having anything to do with the matter.
Association
must
at least imply that revival
depends
come
on
objects having somehow
togetherin previous
experience.
shows that this actuallyis so
In fact a closer analysis
and in all instances of so-called
in the example chosen
is reallyoperative
association
by similarity. What
of Wellington, is the
in callingup the idea of the Duke
in so far as it resembles
of the man
personalappearance
in lookThe experienceI have now
that of the Duke.
If this

were

PSYCHOLOGY.

424

[BK.

iv.,

CH.

IT.

in character
the same
the
as
partially
experienceswhich I have previouslyhad in looking at
the Duke's
hind
portraits.The mental dispositionleft beand in
by these experiences is partiallyre-excited,

ing

at

the

is

man

it tends

consequence

this re-excitement

to

re-excited

be

of the

whole

as

whole.

But
of the

in consequence

est,
continuityof interdistinct principle. The
and
not
to any
essentially
principleof continuityalone is operative,but it operates
and
in a very different manner
produces a very
and reprodifferent result : reproductionby similarity
duction
by contiguityrespectively.Reproduction by
its
is most
to
aptly described
by reference
similarity
effect.
It ought to be called reproduction of similars
rather than
reproduction by similarity.Reproduction
by contiguitymay be called by way of distinction repetitive
reproduction. Both repetitivereproduction and
of
the reproduction of similars
in a sense
cases
are
involves
plete
comreproduction by similarity. Neither
of fire because
of
reminds
one
identity. Smoke
tion.
preformed associations. This is repetitivereproducof the

re-excitement

But

its

the

smoke

in which

part is due

see

now

it differs

to

may

have

features

of

from

previousexperiences.
in
be
It may
more
voluminous, lighter or darker
In other words, there need
colour, and so on.
only be
ence
not
similarity,
complete identity. The pointsof differthe reproduction.
do not contribute
to bring about
The
partialidentityis alone operativein this. But the
differences none
the less play a positive
specific
part in
the process.
Though they do not help to bring about
of what
is rethe reproduction,
produced.
they modify the nature
own

thin

thread

of

smoke

suggests

small

fire ;

large volume

and

moorland

suggests

The

reproduction is
in

different

mental

idea

of the

due

is

what

Smoke

fire.

in

house

on

London

very important differences.

their identical character;
to

but with
suggest fires,

difference

425

big

rising from

smoke

both

the

IDEAS.

OF

TRAINS

"3.]

reproduced

is due

to

their

setting.
in the reproduction of similars the points of
Now
the reproducing presentationand
divergence between
terminin
is reproduced play no
that which
positivepart in dethe reproduction. The
partialidentityof
I meet
between
whom
ally
casua man
personal appearance
mind
of Wellington calls up in my
and
the Duke
the
in

specialmanner
distinguishthe

by

this idea

But

Duke.

transformed
which

divergent characters

the

before

man

is not

from

me

the

of

victor

Waterloo.
the actual
carefullydistinguishbetween
quently
reproduction of similars and the processes which freit.
follow
When
one
on
presentationhas
similar to it,the mind
called up another
proceed
may
the partialidentity
to compare
them, and it may make
We

must

is discernible

which

between

parallelismin
repetitivereproduction.
out

the

reminds

earth

legend, of

the

other
The

Newton,

relation

them

of the

the

ing
basis for work-

respects by
relation

of

according to
moon

to

the

an

the

of

means

apple

to

familiar

earth.

But

Fixing attention on the partial

in
he strives to enlarge it by tracingidentity
identity,
This
takes
other
place by trains of
respects also.
association is
thought in which the effect of repetitive
profoundly modified, but not arrested by the difference

he

does

not

of the two.

stop here.

426

PSYCHOLOGY.

" 4.
same

[BK.

Competition of Divergent Associations.

experiencemay have, and generallyhas,
in the way

connexions

many

of association.

CH.

iv.,

n.

The

"

great

The

tion
ques-

of these rather than

other
annaturallyarises,why one
should
If
be operative on
any given occasion.
recall to me
the sight of a picture,for example, can
the
it resembles, the artist who
whom
paintedit,the
person
"

friend

who

formerly was
then

it,why

that
it

does
?"

others

follows

have

has

why
severally,
of

one

the

on

in which

it

which

it

portraitsof

"

rather

"

than

the

question is as
with ", c, and J,

the

symbolic terms,
associated

given occasion should it recall

Brown
preferenceto the others?
of specialcircumstances, depending

any
in

number

of

room

of these

one

become

on

these, b,

enumerates

in

the

me,

circumstances
perhaps many
connected
with
accidentally

been

suggest

Stated

If

part, and

events

to

series

the

hung,

formed

and

it

presented

conditions

which

under

association

the

has

The
originallyformed.
greater and more
longed
prothe attention
given to a and b and to their
the time
connexion
at
associated, the
they became

been

firmer

will

be

tendency

of

which

and

the
to

association,and

recall b.
have

been

important factor.
three
or
reading them

"

very

which

once."

only

recency
any
*

could

we

We

four

Brown,

of

Philosophy

of
t Op.

we

take

the

we

are

Human

cit.,p. 273.

able

Mind,

vol.

verses

them
of

account

the

after
to

after

read

had

"Immediately

poetry,

the

over,

with
is

remember,

we

times

also

of the association.

single line

Thomas

It is thus

must

frequency

previouslycombined

repeat, when

not

the

Again,

stronger the

the

reading
repeat it,

ii.,pp.

271-272.

" 4.]

TRAINS

OF

IDEAS.

427

have

attention to it ;
paid no particular
in a very few minutes, unless when
have
we
paid particular
attention to it,we
are
no
longer able to repeat it
and
in a very short time we
gether."
accurately,
forgetit alto*
Lastly,much depends on whether b has been
associated in a similar way with other objectsbesides a.

though

"The

we

may

which

song,

person,

scarcelybe

can

that

have

to

person

much
we

have

we

less chance

heard

the

same

never

heard
our

heard

again by

memory

from

but

us, without

; but

there

one
calling
re-

is obviously

of this

air

if
particularsuggestion,
and words
frequentlysung

the average
remarks,
by others." f As Dr. Ward
his umbrella,"
Englishman is continuallysurprisedwithout
the weather
is so changeablethat
t justbecause
"

fixed association

no

These
most

conditions

important.

the actual
be found

lines

been

state

at the

are

The

which

in the

not

have

tend

can

be

formed.

important,but they are not the

predominant factors determining
ideal reproductiontakes, are
to

conditions

previouslyformed,
time

when

revival

which

under
but

in

takes

the

associations
total

place.

mental

Those

jects
ob-

ideallyre-instated which are relevant

of mental
to the general trend
at the moment.
activity
The sightof rain will suggest an umbrella
if we
tending
inare
to go
it may
out; otherwise
only suggest the
idea of somebody else gettingwet.
If our
minds
are
the word
occupied with scientific discussion,
proofs will
are
suggest one group of ideas ; if we
engaged in preparing
book
for the press, it will suggest something
a
quitedifferent.
to

be

Ibid.,

p. 274.

% Encyclopaedia

t fbid.

Article, p.

63.

PSYCHOLOGY.

428

" 5. Ideal
last section

that

ideal

which

factor in
have

total

revival

to

add

and

place. They

enter

associated

with

shall tend
I

which
into

the

see

at

important

most

time

We

of the

house

on

their

re-instatement

combinations

new

in

and

that

ideal

the

think

to

the

at

the

ideas shall be revived.

past the

livingin it,whenever
that

place, is

relations,so
If in the

state,

in

seen

ideallyrevived objects are

and
transformed
degrees modified

under

aspects.

have

ir.

iv., CH.

the

conditions

acquirenew

We

mental

takes

that

manners

the

takes

the

determiningwhat

now

various

by

Construction.

[BK.

they appear under fresh

sightof a house has become
representation of a person

see

think

or

inside

person

fire,or

of

hear

the

it.

that

house

Supposing
it is

on

fire,

representationof the person who lives in it

of the
will be transformed
by the specialcircumstances
I shall think of him as in danger of being burnt.
case.
in to 'play
The
same
transforming influence also comes
in association
of similars.
A
draper serving at the
of
remind
counter
me
by his personalappearance
may
will tend
to
Napoleon ; but the special circumstances
think
of Napoleon in a specialway.
make
me
My
the

ideal

mind

will dwell

and

great conqueror
In

these
the

by
place.
which
The
the
to

But

that of the

relations
some

there

into which
manner

is

or

another

be

man

the

before

life of the
me.

relations
modified

as

it enters

at

the

fied
is moditime

degree, this always

kind

of

of

takes

transformation

specialconditions.
not
only be modified by
it enters
into which
require
; it may
a
pre-conditionof its enteringinto

prominent
only becomes
ideallyrevived object may

new

between

contrast

recalled
the object ideally
instances,

In

its recall.

the

on

under

relations.

these

not

parts, but
form

to

this

The

of

nature

429

have

we

whole

is to

wThole

constituent

its

of

related

so

relation which

bd.

If the

be

maintained

while

be
in

Now

combination.

b and

terms

altered,it may

is

constituent

two

mined,
is deter-

whole

any

merely by the nature

also by the form
of their

that

suppose

IDEAS.

OF

TRAINS

"5.]

constitutes
of

one

its

for the

necessary

as

stituents
con-

other

correspondingmanner.
If instead
substitute
of l" we
substitute "
/3,we must
instead
familiar
of d.
A
illustration is supplied by
mathematical
ratios.
Suppose that we have given the
ratio 1:4;
if 1 be changed into 5, we
must
change 4
into

be

to

in order

20,

to

in ideal

Now
it may

changed

associated

the

But

given

the

term

in its nature

/3; /3 may
the

from

In

of whole.

that

" instead

of d.

the

ideal

simple instance
mental
repetitionof
A

in which

it has

pitchof

the notes
The

d,

it
so

of

this

revival

tune

as

no

form

to

take

supplied by
in

the

the

whole,

should

tical
iden-

given term
longer enter

re-constitute

to

is

can

b, not

to

call the

us

re-instated.

be

same

form

it may
the

of
be

form

the

different

singing or
key from that

been

The
absolute
previouslyheard.
is determined
by the keynote,which
identityof the tune is preserved by

correspondencein
*

"

Let

with

order

d to

only similar

b that

characteristic

necessary

vary.

it.

relation

same

b and

be

with

differ

so

combination

may

preformed association,
happen that the trend of
requires the relation

terms

may

ratio.

same

on

frequentlydoes
activityat the moment

between

kind

based

and

mental

into

the

preserve

revival

the transitions

Analytic

Psychology,

between
vol.

ii.,p.

57.

the notes."

430

PSYCHOLOGY.

To

common
example of a more
sightof a piece of sugar arouses

take

that

[BK. iv.,

of its sweetness.
as

sugar

by

seen

ideal

the

presentatio
re-

specialpieceof

It is this

recalls

which

this moment

at

me

ir.

type, suppose

an

the

ni.

the

specialconditions operativeat the

of reproduction enter
into and modify process
moment
is beyond my reach, then
"If the sugar seen
and result.
the sweetness
suggestedis a sweetness
beyond my reach,
though in all my past experiences the sugar may have
"Mr.
been
Lloyd Morgan tells a
easilyattainable."*
after gazing intentlyat a
story of a little boy who
with a ship being
at sea
spiritedpicture of a storm
struck
by lightning,asked, Mother, why doesn't it
sweet

The

taste.

rumble

'

actuallysuggested to

case

in the nature

which
actual

he

peal

had

of thunder

him

with

becomes

boy ? Was
reproduction of
the

at

If his mother

had

anything
clap
thunder-

any
had

this

heard

this would

moment,

natural

as

it

the

If he

in

was

told him

not

of

complement

an

the

that

painted
der,
only be accompanied by painted thunhave
would
in all probability
answer
appeared
little girl,playing
one." t
A
a
satisfactory
a
doll, treats it as if it were
baby. The doll

painted scene.
lightningcould
the

rumble

heard?

ever

fitted itself in

have

to

literal

^ofa

of

kind

what

Now,

centre

from

which

train of associated

which

starts, analogous to those

would

be

ideas

suggested by

living child. But the fact that she has not to deal
ence.
with a livingchild,but only with a doll,makes
a differShe puts food to its mouth, but does not expect
be very
the food to be swallowed.
| She would
certainly
a

t
near

Op. cit.,pp. 44-45.

Some
children,
"

the

doll;

others

t Ibid., p. 46.
it seems,
go

have

further,

and

way
hold

of

putting

the

food

food

long

on

to

the
the

floor
doll's

"5.]

TRAINS

if it

startled

much
ideas

actuallybegan

431

train

of

only reproduced

in

to

is

babies

with

connected

IDEAS.

OF

The

cry.

analogue.
ideal

construction

other

cases,

which

revival

into relations
If

predominant
takes
place ;
in which
they

is in the mood

man

for

epigrammatic contrasts,
and

cause

is

effect,these

interest
that

so

have

in

But

the

moment

puns,

at

brought
before.

occured

never

for

or

ing
draw-

tracingrelations

for
of

modes

at

the

mined
entirelydeter-

objectsare

making
or

determine

association.

by

of combination

form

the

the

by

revived

are

which

relations

examples,the

In these

combination

of
pose
im-

will

objects revived

by association,
these objectsso far as may
and will tend to transform
make
them
fit into the ideallyconbe necessary
to
structed
I once
heard
whole.
a
man
propound the
riddle,Why is a sparrow like a chimney ? The answer,
of course
it has
which
nobody guessed, was, Because
have
been
flue ! Obviously,his mind
must
crooked
a
trated
very bent on riddle-making,before he could have perpehe utilised most
such an atrocity. Hence
mising
unprothemselves

the

transformed

and

material
in

the

on

it to

uncompromising

most

suit his purpose

The

way.

first clue

is

viflue withjftew;but
probably the verbal resemblance
the analogy he had
in working out
mentally to turn
flight into flew and to do violence to the nature both of
and
chimneys. This is probably the worst
sparrows
mouth;
some

or,

insisting

its teeth, and

of

again, stopping
dodge,

as

when

while, slipped

short
one

Jan.

push
of

still
the

such

child, after

it down

Review,

on

its neck."
1899.

realistic

more

food

into

violent

holding

the

mouth

realism,
the

break

performance,

food

Sully, Article

with
the

cover

to the
on

pin.

out

Others,

unreality by

doll's

mouth

"Dollatry,"

for

porary
Contem-

a
a

PSYCHOLOGY.

432

joke on record ; yet many

laughter. Another, I hope
of

state
to

I had

me.

mind

own

my

when

before

never

[BK.
better

serious

more

this

with

evoked

of the

n.

less

example,

illustration

thought

connected

has

CTT.

iv.,

is the

occurred

sparrow

and

the

trine
psychologicaldocI am
now
expounding, yet my mind, pre-occupied
this doctrine, and bent on using all material which
iniscence
help in its development, summoned
up this rem-

chimney joke as
with
could

and
It should

it into its ideal construction.

wove

be noted

in the mental

differences

that

stitution
con-

largelyconsist in differences in
of relation in wrhich they are
the kind
predominantly
interested.
Some
attend
tions
relaby preference to mere
of contiguity
time
and
and space ; others to metaphorical
analogy; others to rhetorical contrast ; others
is
to logicalconnexion
; and the kind of transition which
dominant
in the sequence
of their ideas varies
relatively
accordingly. In the mind of a schoolman, the ruling
of connexion
scheme
was
gism.
apt to be the form of the sylloin those which
In many
are
minds, and especially
with the study of Hegel, a specialform of transaturated
sition
is favoured, which
consists in a triplemovement,
passingfrom a one-sided view of the case to the opposite
one-sided view, and then to a more
comprehensive view
embraces
in harmony.*
which
the two
extremes
in the Flow
" 6. Obstructions
of Ideal Activity.
like perceptual activity,
Ideal activity,
be successful
may
of individuals

"

unsuccessful.

or

In

so

far

as

it is unsuccessful,it

to persistwith
tends, like perceptualactivity,

examples

The

tary;

engine

but
or

such

of

oonstructiveness

complex

constructions

novel-writing depend

given
as

essentially

the
on

in

this

section

invention
the

same

of

variation

are

the

conditions.

elemen*
steam-

IDEAS.

OF

TRAINS

" 6.]

is of

procedure. The tendency

the strengthof the interest

of
to

ideas

of various

are

the

on

which

conditions

The

reproductiveor

merely

it

When

process.

find ourselves

we

occurs

is called

what

and

unable

of

either

occur

side

remember

to

recall the

to

flow

of the

reproductiveside,it is

the

failure

may

constructive

the
on

delay the

hitch

The

on

proportioned

course

involved.

obstruct

kinds.

433

of

name

when

as
a

person

interested,
sufficiently
less prolonged
failure is followed
such
or
by a more
effort to recollect. In this effort we
procedure,
vary our
which present themselves.
ing
Supposusing all the means
or

the title of

it is the

name

recall.

If

book.

of

are

we

person

try various

We

we

are

succession.

in

clues

endeavouringto
We

fix

connected
with
objectsand circumstances
We
the person.
perhaps inquireof a bystander, or
look in a book ; or
the
on
go through a list of names
hit on the rightone.
that we
chance
may
the constructive
When
the hitch occurs
on
side,the

attention

mental

on

processes

which

directed

are

to

it may

overcome

nishes
guessing of riddles furWe
have
a good example.
ideallyto reproduce
all the conditions of the
something which shall satisfy
riddle.

find

relations

Certain

another

whole.

of

then

this,and

solution

in turn,

all conditions

the
case

We
we

make

think

though

given, and

are

shall

which

term

harmonious

not

The

extremely complex.

be

fit in

trial after

of that ; but

it may

with

we

have

these

to

in

think
we
trial,
each suggested

fulfil part, fails to fulfil

of the

problem. Finallywre may or may

in completingthe ideal scheme, by making
succeed
take as another
We
right guess.
example a
may
in

which

Psych

the

flow

of

ideas

is controlled

by

the

of

urgency
in

which

has

height by

experience

past

of

ideal

The

think

to

light

him

out

he

wants

what

therefore

his

idea

the

into

supposed

his

tends
will

which

to

up

ropes
out

his

circumstances

suit

tearing
Of

the

has

this,

that

the

own

will

of
been

case

similar

the
used.

on

admit.

may
at

may

it

comes

not

may

to

nearer

has

of,

thought
to

and

give

last

At

he

first

hits

that

of

heard

it

them

twisting

is the

his

blankets.

supposing

he

important

an

mind

have

in

as

and

purpose.

are

He
he

it, and

on

already

not

assume

he

sheets

we

course

may
In

his

up

else

dwell

to

it

but

the

fit into

him,

to

take

it.

sheets

by

What

will

and

him

rope.

had

occurs

anything

than
mind

his

using

difficulty;

prisoner

it.

of

the

from
to

no

expedients,

suggestion

similarity plays

calls

work

of

of

We

by

this

rope.

invented

idea

which

shape

new

various

reach

will

if he

would

rope

of

the

on

first time

help

the

as

which

something

"

height

down

which

something

Let

the

can

has

up

escape.

familiar

he

case

shut

in

he

be

may

this

is

of

IT.

CH.

TV.,

man

himself

letting

rope
in

but

rope,

scheme

proceed
last

therefore

needs

place

of

of

means

mode

before

descended

notion

difficulty lies

main

the

The

Suppose

devising

on

be

to

ground.

he

bent

that

assume

need.

practical

and

prison

us

on

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

434

this

our

pedient.
ex-

who

man

instances, association
His

part.

analogous

man

He

then

parallel lines,

in

own

case

cases

proceeds
so

far

as

in
to

the

III.

CHAPTER

MEMORY.

" 1.

Definitionof Memory.
is used

memory

as

Sometimes

"

in

retentiveness

with

synonymous

word

the

is

inconveniently
It is better to confine it to ideal revival,so far
wide.
and
does
not
ideal revival is merely reproductive,
as

of
general. This application

transformation

involve

the term

is revived

of what

in accordance

reproductiveaspect of
in which
in those cases
ideal revival is best exemplified
the controllinginterest requires the objects of past
experiencesto be re-instated as far as possiblein the
of their originaloccurrence.
Hence
order and manner
is applied with specialappropriatethe word
ness
memory
A witness
to these
cases.
giving evidence in a
is bent on
is a typicalexample. His mind
law-court
recallingpast objects and events, as they actually
in his previous experience,omitting the inference
occurred
he has subsequentlydrawn
from them,
which
with

or

present conditions.

is inclined

to

which
he
as

recalls
actual
The

as

far

at the

draw
he

This

drew

from

present
them

The

moment.

when

they occurred

possibleonly as inferences,and

as

ference
in-

not

percepts.

witness

in

law-court

recalls his

experiencesas far as possiblein

in which
they actuallyoccurred.
435

the

same

This

own

personal

time-relations

may

be

called

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

436

is

there

; but

personal memory

largeclass

CH.

iv.,

of

in.

in

cases

in
is remembered
impersonal. What
is the knowledge acquired by personal
these instances
experience,and not the particularincidents connected
When
of acquiring it.
a
with the process
boy first
begins to study his Euclid, his natural tendency is to
learn the propositions
by heart, so as to reproduce the
the process of learning
When
of the book.
very words
be only the
in his mind
is complete, what remains
may
will to a large extent
of proof. He
general method
of the book, and he will certainly
have forgottenthe words
that happened in the process
much
have forgotten
he sat
which
of learning; the particular
occasions on
in hand
down
with Euclid
to learn
a proposition
; his
He
blunders
in attempting to reproduce it,and so on.
he has an
interest
will finally
tend to recall only what
The
in recalling,
forgettingwhat is irrelevant.
process
of Habit, as described
is quite analogous to the formation

which

is

memory

in bk.

i.,ch. ii.,"

distinct conditions

habit, two

is retentiveness

second

conation, according

of

cease,

holds
rote

if and

good
the

his

; but

errors

in

of

to

The

"

first

lies in the essential nature

conative

which

learning by

accession

of

formation

involved

are

and

processes
This

is attained."*

their end

as

in the

rote.

death

In
of

learning by
the kings of

will go over
them
again and again in
will again and
again attempt to repeat

boy

in the

incidents.
"commit

in

even

and

book,

them

far

so

dates

England,

to

; the

As

11.

long

He

run

will

he

will

forget his

forget these
successive

memory" and his occasional

attemptingto reproduce.
to

See

p. 101.

ular
partic-

attempts

failures

and

437

MEMORY.

" 2.]
Bad

and

Good

" 2.

Memory.

The

"

marks

of

the
rapidity with which
of recallingan
experienceis acquired ; (2) The
power
length of time during which the power of remembering
lasts without
being refreshed; (3) The rapidityand

good

(1)

are,

memory

revival.

of the actual

accuracy

but
quicklyand easily,
time

to

have
so

there

yet

may

is retentive,

memory
is not

easilyforgotten,
hesitancyin the actual

and

it

mention
we
may
memory,
the readiness with
in other words

of

mark

fourth

its serviceableness,or
which

when

slowness

be

learn

can

forget; others take a long

retain for a long time what
they
learned

once

persons

of reminiscence.

process
As

is

what

Some

soon

Even

learned.

once

that

also

learn,but

The

good

is relevant

reproduces what

interest

of the

extensive

moment.

without

being

to

memory
in this

the
may
sense

ing
prevailbe

tremely
ex-

able.
service-

like
Sampson's mind, for instance,was
with goods of
"the magazine of a pawnbroker, stowed
but
so
cumbrously piled together,
description,
every
that the owner
in such
total disorganisation,
and
can
never
lay his hands on any one article at the moment

Dominic

he has

occasion

for it." *

this in

Those

who

cram

for examinations

So long
painfulmanner.
that the answers
the questionsare
so
as
straightforward,
be taken
directlyfrom the books they have used,
may
as
a question
they may find no difficulty.But as soon
is asked
which
requiresthem to record their acquired
from
that
knowledge in a different order and manner
in which
it is given in their text-book,they break down.
The materials for an answer
reallybe contained in
may
often

realise

Guy

Mannering,

ch. xxxix.

PSYCHOLOGY.

438

[UK.

iv.,

CH.

in.

they have learned,and yet they may not be able to

is wanted, because
the particularquestion
recall what
what

has

in their minds

associated

been

never

with

the particular

answer.

the power
of recallingis
rapiditywith which
acquired depends to a large extent on the keenness of
the interest attachingto the originalexperience. Much
and faintly
attention only transiently
fails
that attracts
The

to

remembered

be

tend

remember,

to

in

interest
letters

are

the

of

them.

remember

for

alphabet

made

young

its

own

gingerbread,it
far

So

the

as

noted

which

circumstances

little interest.

have

be

is in itself

only what

not

connected

also

but

is to

It

all.

at

that

interesting,
in themselves

may

child

takes

sake,

but

is

more

of

power

we

little
if the

likelyto
acquiringa

be set
depend on interest,it must
But
of congenitalconstitution.
down
to the account
far congenitalconstitution
how
be doubted
it may
gives
of remembering without
the power
giving capacityfor
Mozart
is remembered.
as
a
interest in what
boy of
memory

does

fourteen

years

not

old

write

could

extremely complex piece of

only
him
in

; but

once

take

to

the

power

actual

the

hearing.

Probably

the range

Some

They

can

words

lists of disconnected
once.

intense

most

of memory.

this

of interest

music

musical

after

idiots
for

which

interest

repeat long

they have

heard

the

only

fact

that

narrow
excessively
They are scarcely

correspondinglyconcentrated.
capable of apprehending any relations except
bare
contiguityin time and space. Hence
and

caused

remarkable

show

instance

idiot is

it

heard

having

with

an

memory

genius of Mozart
and
absorbing

is connected

in the

from

down

those

their

of
re-

" 2.]

439

MEMORY,

markable

of

powers

only connected
divergent lines of

in this

which

by

are

formed

are

There

manner.

association
the

objectswhich

of

recallingseries
to

are

with

compete

mere

other

no

those

of external

sequence

impressions.
Differences

in

of recall

power

same

its permanent

bearing on
case
on

is
the

have
The

over.

permanent

Another

very

of the

terest.
in-

in

sarily
neces-

causing

the facts

learns

but

rapidlyforgetsmany
when
the
only a transient interest,
properly legal aspects of the case,

contrary, will tend

in them

is not

effective

barrister

The

the

of interest

kind

memory

is most

particularcase,

which

them,

of
acquisition

retention.
a

the

that

that which

as

time

also

remarked

facilitates the
the

of

be

during which
depend largelyon

length of

is retained

It is to

which

the

to

be

retained

he

because

has

interest.

important factor

in

determining

tion
dura-

of recall is the

frequency with which

the remembered
experiencehas been repeated. A boy
it again and
learninga passage by heart will go over
ences
again until he has thoroughly stamped it in. Differin
traceable

power

the

retentiveness

either to interest

of memory

which

not

are

must
frequentrepetition
be referred to congenital constitution.
Here
again it
is doubtful
how far congenital constitution can
favour
without favouringinterest.
memory
The
conditions
which
serviceableness
on
depends are
of a different kind.
A man
who can
readilyrecall what

he

needs

at

the

time

he

or

to

needs

it is said

knowledge well-arrangedor organised.

his acquirements may
be much
smaller
another
whose
man
knowledge takes the

to

The
than
form

his

have

of

mass

that
of

cum-

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

440

[BK.

disjointederudition.
effective
incomparably more
and

brous
be

theoretical

purposes,

examination

papers.

must

that

note

and
To

first heard

I may
as

in

do

the

at

distinction

the

recall

to

recalled

we

call

the

if I

verse

verse

which

is that

reason

but

line of

same

point in

The

moment.

line of

is

of this

previous lines

the

quite unable to recall

some
quotation illustrating

interested

the

in the absence

so

be

practicaland
answering of

perfectlyable to
certain
prompting cue

TIT.

may

be

may

or

for

understand

man

cir.

his memory

both

even

when
something to mind
given, and quite unable to
I may
be quite able
cue.
have

Yet

TV.,

am

I have

thought of the meaning of this line of verse, or

of similar objects,in connexion
with this particular
point or similar points. It is not necessary that the
never

line of
particular
a
specialconnexion
All
of relation

for

may

it to

is necessary

involved

mind.

the

that

should

verse

should
for

be

have

been

thought

of in

this

nexion.
con-

in

recalled

be

general kind

is that the
more

instance

or

wish

less familiar to
to

illustrate

fact that in

the

poeticmetaphor the connexion between

metaphorical expression and the realitywhich it
is often
a

of

identityin

whole

complex

its material

rather

identityin

than

constituents.

For

presses
ex-

of

of combination

form

the

the

this

the

purpose

nature

I may

quote Tennyson's line,

"A

is not

throne

which
There

doubtful

throne

in the

is ice

least like

it is
is

in

to

occur

to

me

as

an

the

ice,nor

exposed like the warmth

only analogy of relation. Now

Tennyson

seas."

summer

of

dangers

summer

to

seas.

for this line of

illustration of my

point,

MEMORY.

" 3.]
it is not

that

necessary

before

in

should

previouslyhave

this connexion.

The

more

441

should
But

have

thought

it is necessary

of

it

that

tions.
thought of other similar illustrahave done
this,so as to familiarise

transition,the more
myself with this kind of mental
readilyshall I be able both to recall old illustrations
and
Thus
to produce new
ones.
we
may
say that the
of memory
serviceableness
depends on our forming the
The tendency of A to recall
rightkind of associations.
J5 in a certain kind of relation,r, depends on
ing
havour
previouslyattended to A and B in this relation,or
and IB in similar relations.
to thingssimilar to A
with
" 3. Decay
Lapse of Time.
of Memory
last for various periodsin
Though particularmemories
-

different

cases

general law
if

and

that

with

they tend

different
to die

they are not refreshed.

made
experiments with the
relation between
quantitative

persons,

away
Professor

in

yet it is the
course

of time

Ebbinghaus has
of determining the
view
lapse of time and decay
of the power
of recall.
this purpose
For
he learnt by
heart lists of unmeaning syllables
of three letters each ;
from
each list contained
twelve to thirty-six
syllables.
After
learning a list so as to be able to repeat it,an
allowed
interval of time was
before again
to intervene
attemptingto recall the syllables.Memory had in the
interim
become
less partialand
more
or
fragmentary.
The
the
determine
to
point of the experiment was
of time required for re-learning
the list as comamount
pared
with the time originally
required. This yields
of the degree of decay of the mental
positions
dismeasure
a
and
shows
the relation
between
decay and
lapse of time. After an interval of 20 minutes, about

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

442

40

the

of

cent

per

after
re-learning,

72

cent, and

per

the

of

amount

speak

we

but
but

of

bad

bad

increases

is smaller

the

Memories.

person

having

per

cent, after

days, about
that though
this we
see
with the lapse of time,
longer the interval.
In ordinary language
a
a

faces,and

for

56

two

"

for names;

one

one

From

required for

was

cent, after

per

on.

decay

Variety of

" 4.

65

so

it
yet relatively

about

minutes,

64

about

minutes,

526

originaltime

in.

CH.

iv.,

so

for numbers
good memory
for places
good memory
we
on.
Theoretically,

As memory
further.
carry this division very much
be
of ideal revival,there must
consists in the power

must

relatively
separate
revived.

There

for every

memory
not

must

only be

experienceideally
for

separate memory

name.
particular
cognising
But
ordinary language is undoubtedly right in refor generaldepartments of
distinct memories
for
experience. Mozart had an extraordinarymemory
have
been
music; but he may
very bad at recalling

but

names,

The

numbers.
be

differences

constitution

wonderful

most

accompanied by

These

for each

separate memory

; but

poor

are

for dates

memory

very

for words

memory

largely due

specialkinds

to

of memory

and

may

events.

congenital
also be

may

cultivated.

" 5.

Improvement

of Memory

by

Practice.

"

It

is

in a special
certainlytrue that the exercise of memory
direction
By long
improves it in that direction.
their parts more
to learn
rapidly
practiceactors come
learn
of clergymen who
is true
and
easily. The same
effects of practice
These
their sermons
by heart.
confined
to the
to be
specialkinds of
strictly
appear
ideal

revival

which

are

exercised.

man

who

im-

443

MEMORY,

" 5.]

his memory
It has

for

does

for words

his memory

proves

therebyimprove

not

places.
that

denied

been

be

can

memory

directly

of remembering
improved by practice. The power
depends on the kind and degree of attention given to
the originalexperience. It has been
urged that what
is educated
by practiceis the attention,and not the
of

power

that

Professor

recall.
"

all

improvement

improvement
of

one's

for

James

consists in the

of memory

habitual

tains
main-

instance

of

method

recording

learning,not the power of

retaining,which is increased by practice. I have,"
actors
carefully
questionedseveral mature
says James,
denied
that the practiceof
the point,and
all have
on
learningparts has made any such difference as is alleged.
of
is to improve their power
What
it has done for them
full
Their mind
is now
studying a part systematically.
of intonation,emphasis,gestiof precedentsin the way
culation
facts."*

of

It is the power

"

"

There

"f
James

is

attention

no

doubt

right in assigningincreased
as

of the

cause

practice. It may
important factor.
endeavour

be

can

be

even

and

better

improvement
admitted

endeavour

The

that

that
to

Professor
directed

of memory

by

it is the most

remember

is

an

and

by repeated and prolonged

attention to objects,
the traces
not
more
we
only make
permanent which our experienceof them leaves behind:
also bring them
into relation with other
we
objects:
and so multiply the associations
which
severally
may
and conjointly
contribute
to their revival.
But

to

it may
*

attend;

be

doubted

Principles

whether

of Psychology,

t Ibid., p. 664.

Professor

vol. i.,p. 667.

James's

PSYCHOLOGY.

444

of the

account

to

contains

matter

as

It is

can

for all with

once

hope

never

and
in

better

fagged

or

; and

health

and

fresh
ill.
.

is born

with

general physiologi

no

hours

than

this

than

we

in disease

doubt

fact of observation

more

cording
Ac-

"a

It differs

vigorous
But

his

it is

m.

physiological
quality,
and which
he
organisation,

change.

to

en.

TV.,

truth.

of retentiveness
power
essential part of his
an

constitution.

given

whole

the

the

him,

individual

each

[BK.

that it is

when

we

cannot

are

say."*

point also we may admit that Professor James

is right. But
it seems
to have
escaped his notice that
which
the congenital constitution
tentiveness
gives superior reOn

this

in

certain

is often

direction

connected

It might be
specialinterest in this direction.
of
gives power
argued that congenital constitution
remembering only by giving the aptitudeand impulse
is at least true in part, if it is not
for attending. This
with

the whole

native

truth.

power

But

if it be

of retention

and

we

so

may

Professor
To

acquiredby practice

that

sharp as Professor James

Admitting that native power
fixed quantity,unchangeable by
is not

none

the

James

maintain

this

less demur

appears

distinction between

so, the

to

supposes.
of

retentiveness

exercise

to

the

draw

conclusion, he

or

stands

this
in

education,

conclusion
from

is

need

which

theory.
of

an

hypothesis the hypothesisthat all mental

solutely
objectsare abdispositions
correspondingto particular
If different
and not merely relatively
distinct.
terpene
inhave
common
factors; if they partially
dispositions
each other, then
the experiencesby which
will have
is formed
one
already done part of the work
additional

"

Op. cit.,p.

664.

445

MEMORY.

" 5.]

the formation

requisitefor

of another.*

the facts of

But

corresponding to
dispositions
the
be regarded as partially
experiencesmust
larity.
This is peculiarlyclear in association by simiin his personal
One
by some
similarity
man,
show

association

similar
same.

resemblance

is.

association.

Yet

of the
the

It has

I may

scrutiny,what

the

has

person

not

of

separate link of

behind

by

re-excited

been

cover,
dis-

point

left behind
dispositions

The

other.

formed

not

left
disposition

the
one

another;

of

me

careful

after

even

sightof

remind

may

appearance,

the

that

perience
ex-

my

by
by

the
the

tor.
faccommon
experiencesmust therefore have some
interpenetrate.In general,so
They must partially
there
far as the revival of similars by similars is possible,
of mental
be a partialcoincidence
must
dispositions.
The
same
appliesto association by contiguity. If /3

two

been
b and c have
recalls "y because
be
left behind
by b must
on

associated,the

position
dis-

partiallyre-excited
of /3; the dispositions
left behind
the occurrence
by
therefore
be absolutely
and ft cannot
independent.
of mental
position
disJust in so far as this interpenetration
exists,the exercise

experienceswill improve
When
in the

progress

is

which

certain

do

not

case.

man

the memory
has

need
Of

to be
course

does
Probably James
is
misleading.
language
*

for
a

periences.
analogous ex-

certain

general characteristics
learnt

it does

general is improved by

in

made

for certain

memory

of

amount

learning of a foreignlanguage,further
iar
familfacilitated,
justbecause he has become

progress

with

of the

not

mean

language,

again for every

over

not

follow

its exercise

really

of the

to

deny

ticular
par-

that memory

in

this

or

this

; but

if so,

that
his

PSYCHOLOGY.

446

particular

direction.

analogous

experiences

of

of

of

"

6.

The

will

in

precise
of

little

do

will

progress

Exercise

analogy.

languages

[BK.

only

proportion

the

in

it

for

and

Memory

Past

When

Time.

There

them

discuss

is

of

the

point

origin

and

as

"The

Ideal

is

been

not

It

now.

the

gree
de-

study
tion
reten-

World

is

Construction."

will

as

presented
or

Ideal

part

of

of

the

be

the

ideal

discussed

Construction"

most

one

touched

not

events,

or

necessary

development
which

time-relations,
on

Self

It

have

we

objects

having

as

this

which

memory

remember

we

experience.

past

of

of

aspect

apprehend

the

the

"

upon.

to

formulae.

chemical

important

in.

extend

to

memory

improve

to

CH.

iv.,

often

we

to

us

in

our

convenient

general

to

question

representation
in

the
and

ters
chap"The

IV.

CHAPTER

IDEATION,

Ideal

AND

COMPARISON,

CONCEPTION.

P re-arrangement

distinguished from
Perceptual Pre-adjustment.
Perceptual activityis
guided by the actual presence of perceivedobjects. It
is true
that
perceptual activityconstantly involves
for coming
pre-adjustmentof the body and sense-organs
impressions. But this pre-adjustmentis directly
sists,
prompted by present or past impressions,and it conin a pre-determinationof the future, but
not
" 1.

"

merely in an appropriatewaiting attitude. The only

means
can
trol
conby which the perceptual consciousness
of its experience is through actual
the
course
But
no
can
leap
overbodilymovement.
bodilymovement
The
most
cannot
a
agile animal
period of time.
take
But
the
ideational
a
spring into the future.
consciousness
can
cross
a
bridge before coming to it.
It can
of the end, and it
begin by the ideal anticipation
vening
can
move
freelyto and fro over the series of links interend and starting-point.
between
Thus, if it meets
a difficulty
midway in the series,it need not providefor
that difficulty
it emerges.
at the point where
It may
earlier stage or even
to
an
to the beginning,
go backward
and

plainthat

there

make

the process

suitable

admits
447

re-arrangement.

of all kinds

of

It is

variations,

PSYCHOLOGY.

448

[BK.

iv.,

are
re-adjustments of part to part, which
for perceptual consciousness.
" 2. Conceptual Analysis and Synthesis.

and

"

en.

iv.

sible
imposAll idea-

volves
inas
compared with perceptualactivity
activity
and
kind
some
degree of generalisation.We
that mental
have seen
images are in general fainter and
the corresponding percepts.
than
less detailed
much
of actual senseparticularity
They lack the determinate
volves
in the image inexperience. But indeterminateness
in the meaning of the image
indeterminateness
in so far as expression of the meaning depends merely
of the image without
the presence
on
being otherwise
and developed. Hence
denned
image
any given mental
taken
by itself may be equally capable of representing
of diverse
a
objects. If I think of
great number
mental
wealth, I may have in my mind a vague
picture
mental
of a bale of goods : but the same
image might
had
I been
mind
been
equally have
present in my
of a warehouse.
or
thinking of a wharf, of commerce,
Similarly,a bag of sovereigns might stand
for wealth, or
either
of Enga
miser, or the Bank
land.
The
mental
picture of a spade might stand
for the
either
of digging, for a garden, for a
act
for a grave-digger. But
minateness
indeterthe mere
or
navvy,
of the mental
plaining
image is very far from exthe beginnings of general thinking. We
give
tion
funcan
inadequate view of the generalising
essentially
it
of thought, when
what
dwell
on
we
exclusively
This
omits.
negative side of the process has for its
correlate a positiveside.
In any train of
indispensable
terest
thought,we are under the guidance of a controllinginof the several
Each
constructingan ideal whole.

tional

AND

COMPARISON,

" 2.] IDEATION,

which
representations

ideal

successively
emerge

its part to this ideal

perceptionwhich

actual

We

ideal combinations.
details

of actual

structure

than
But

house.

we

can

more

use

unhewTn

in this account

the

use

is vague

stones

of the matter

implied that the indeterminateness

is compensated for by another
What

fit in to

not

perceptionin building up
can

and

of

in the ideal representation

they will
no

tributes
con-

details

The

structure.

omitted

are

omitted,because

are

449

CONCEPTION.

indefinite

complete
mental

in

buildinga
it is indirectly

of ideal
kind

our

our

tion
representa-

of determination.
in

the

several

definite
images and their meanings is made
relatively
of ideas as the train
and complete by the combination
several
ideas are
The
defined
of thought advances.
by their relations to each other in the ideal whole.
side by side a process
of analysisand
Thus
have
we
of synthesis. By the process
of analysis,
the
one
detail of actual sense-perception
is broken
concrete
up,
and

certain

aspects of it selected.

In contrast

with

the

totalityof perception,these partialaspects

less general or
have
more
or
a
conceptual character.
therefore be called conceptual analyThe analysis
sis,
may
and
the correspondingsynthesis,
conceptual synthesis.
the partial aspects
By conceptual synthesis,
recombined
into
whole.
a
new
are
Similarly,in
have
first to go to the
building a house, we
quarry
from
the singlestones
and detach
it,afterwards hew
into shape, and
then
build
them
with
them
a
new
This may
be illustrated by the simplerecall
structure.
in the order in which
of a series of events
they actually
in sense-experience,
of a number
of objectsin
or
occur
in which
the order
they were
actuallypresented in
concrete

Psych.

29

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

450

word

The

space.

meanings

from

pointof

the

word
here

sensation,and

view

From

of ideal combination.

perceptionthe

the word

and

now

now

here

iv., CH.

different

have

of

and
sense-perception
point of view of sense-

the

the

means

actual

of

moment

of

the direct presence

means

IT.

ject
ob-

an

percipientorganism,as immediatelyrevealed
recalling
by the sensation which produces it. But in ideally
in time, or a grouping of objects
events
a series of
is absent, and can
in space, actual sensation
no
longer
mark
of what
is now
serve
as
a distinguishing
present
details of
what
is here present. The
or
individualising
absent
to a very
large extent
present perception are
and
the here
from
the ideal reproduction. The
now
denned.
In fact,they are
therefore be otherwise
must
into
which
denned
by the combinations
they enter.
To go back to the
purely relative terms.
They become
old example, suppose
that I picturemyself as eatingmy
to

our

I pass

breakfast.*

the

enter

then

table;

in review

successive

breakfast-room
out

pour

the

; then

tea; then

help myself to fish,and so on.

vividlywhat took place,I
then, and think in the historic

of

entering
I

now

am

the

temporal position of

of visual
of
most
verbal

this

supposed

images.

language

I have

is reserved

in their

imagery.

of

ideas

done

so

because

for

meaning,

It is the
not

each

train

people would
naturally
as
description, either

verbal

newspaper;

If I want
may

the

at

to

instead

now

say

sent
repre-

Now

present.

am

I am
breakfast-room,now
sittingdown,
I
Whether
pouring out the tea, and so on.
or
then, obviouslywhat I am doing is to define

now

I have

tally
men-

the

say

sit down

open

then

events.

the

next

recall
a

nature

place by

the

series

substitute

peculiarity

in their

to take

But

of
as

of

for,

words

mental

of
as

past events
or

that

of

means

treatment

chapter.

its relation

by

event

the

to

series

function

matter
in the

of
way

fact
of

of,
accompaniment
they are indeterminate
an

images,

" 2.] IDEATION,

others

in

series.

AND

COMPARISON,
word

The

451

CONCEPTION.

becomes

now

purely

application. Any part of the series

in relation
be regarded as
to what
comes
now
a
may
after it.
before
it and
what
comes
Similarly,by
changing the point of view, any part of the series
which
was
previouslyregarded as a now, may become
then.
It all depends upon
our
a
point of departure.
If we
mentally pass from an earlier part of the train
becomes
to a later,what
a
was
then,
previouslya now
what
was
present or past,
previouslyfuture becomes
relative

and

in

so

its

on.

trains of

example is typical. In all

thinking,the several parts are made
This

ideational

definite

and

minate
deter-

by their relations within the ideal whole

the concrete
In this way
is being constructed.
of sense
minateness
perception is replaced by
kind

is due

determinateness, that which

of

to
we
are
synthesis. In this sense
of Hegel, that thought passes

the

to

with

supplements another, so

and
and

more

is of

different

course

perception,and must
at least equallytrue
synthesis.In

the world
which

the

to

comes

only

senses

become

never

of

very
an

be
small

of ideal

from

of

new

tum
the dicfrom

the

combines
whole

thus

tained
at-

that of actual
of it.

But

of actual

by

it is
ception
perideal

distinctions
synthesis
which

By
presentedas
part is

the

is attained

ideal

aware.

individual

make

to

concreteness

apprehended

are

always

fall short

which

that

the process

relations
can

that the

understand

concreteness

in kind

always
of

falls short

and

The

concrete.

more

as

deter-

conceptual

abstraction

One

abstract

concrete.

to

which

sense

tion
percep-

combination

unified

system of

actuallypresent to
percipient. Thus sense
perever

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

452

tion,
with ideal combina-

ceptionis fragmentaryas compared

in this

and

is less concrete.

sense

growing mind, we
beyond simple perceptionwhen

Comparison.

" 3.

passes

suppose,

stalking

The

The

"

"

in

striking difference
is the

of

occasion

is

hunter

is

what

the

or

not

him, for,though it stands

is

There

he

distinct

remain

ceived
per-

yet

legs,it

two

on

and

him,

all fours

on

never

moves.

idea

percept and

is

like

not

being severally attended

in spiteof
there is known

till,on

compared, what

and

moment

crawls

assimilation

immediate

no

some

presentations.
instantlyrecognised as

like

looks

scarecrow

the

at

may

conflict of

destroyingbiped,because

the

iv.

CH.

to

the

differences."*
Such

comparison is a complex process, involvinga

It crawls ; It does not
judgments,such as

series of

"

"

; and

move

the

like."

There

abundant

are

occasions

call into play mental

might usefully
Whenever
things are in apoperationsof this kind.
pearance
different,althoughthey are for practical
poses
purthe same,
whenever
or
they are in appearance
similar,although for practicalpurposes
they differ,a
solved
problem arises which would be most effectively
by deliberate comparison. By deliberate comparison I
mental
a
mean
confrontingof the two objects,and a
life which

in animal

transition
to

of attention

discover

some

Ward,

Article

edition, xx., p.

78.

the

respect in which

to

one

the

other, so

as

things differ
in which
different things
or
similarity,
their diversity,
and also a fixingof the

spiteof their
agree in spiteof
of
precisenature

in

from

this agreement
in

"Psychology"

similar

or

difference.

Encyclopaedia

Ibid.

Britannica,

If

an

ninth

unpalatablemoth
moth,

bird

resembles

will be

apt

in its
to

453

CONCEPTION.

AND

COMPARISON,

" 3.] IDEATION,

markings a palatable

confuse

them, and

so

meet

ceivably
disagreeabledisappointment.The bird might conthe difficulty
by settinga
attempt to overcome
specimen of the disagreeablespeciesside by side with
and then, examining them
of the agreeablespecies,
one
might consider first one character and then
alternately,
ences.
differof each, so as to find out distinguishing
another
jects
Or again,without
bringing the two actual obthe one
as
perceived
together,it might examine
and
the other
as
ideallyrepresented,and go through

with

the

same

process.

This

would

be much

because

harder

requirea strong and persistenteffort of ideational thinking to keep before

the mind
a
sufficiently
the supposed
accurate
image of the absent object. Now
of the bird actuallyconfrontingthe two
case
objects,
each, and passingin turn from
scrutinising
alternately
characteristic to another, has a strong air of improone
bability.
of fact,we
As a matter
observe animals
never
this interpretato make
as
tion
behaving in such a manner
of their actions necessary
or
even
probable. But if
both are
two
objectswhen
they do not compare
ceived,
perdo so
it is a fortiori unlikelythat they should
when
have
has to be ideallyrecalled,for, as we
one
have
said, this is the harder task. In fact, we
good
it would

reason

to

re-affirm Locke's

but

dictum

that

"

brutes

compare

to be
to me," he says,
imperfectly." It seems
the prerogativeof human
it
when
understanding,
has sufficiently
to cast about
distinguished
any idea,
and consider
in what
circumstances
they are capableto
be compared." *
"

"

...

pp.

Locke's
204-205.

Essay

concerning

Human

Understanding

(Fraser), vol. i.,

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

454

We

have

It is the

this view.1*

confirms

systematicobservation

that

seen

iv.,

iv.

CH.

of animals

result most

distinctly
brought out in Mr. Lloyd Morgan's book on Comparative
Psychology. I may here quote an experiment which he
and patience. Taking with
carried out with great care
had
him a dog which
been
trained to fetch and carry,
he threw
stick into a field surrounded
a
by railings.
The dog bounded
after the stick,and brought it back in
his mouth
far as the railings. But here he was
as
fronted
conwith a difficulty
; he could get through himself,
but he could not get the stick through. His experience
had
not
taught him that the only way of succeeding
was
by grasping the end of the stick ; instead of this,
he tugged now
cal
here, now
there, in a perfectlyuncritiIf,by accident,he did get hold of the right
way.
end of the stick,or if Mr. Morgan showed
him how to
assistance
the
to yield him
no
on
proceed,this seemed
of the experiment. He had stumbled
the
on
repetition
no
solution,but could not do the trick again. This was
casual observation
peated
a systematicexperiment re; it was
lar
of simiday after day, and only one of a course
experiments. It is evident that the dog here passed
from

alternative

one

that

so

it,he

shown

from

The

without

another

to

when

failed to

one

he
note

unsuccessful

hit
the

the

on

selective

right one

points in

or

which

parison
comwas

fered
it dif-

attempts.

which

animals

learn

distinguish
what they have
previouslyconfused, or to identifyfor
what
practicalpurposes
they have previouslytreated
different is rather one
of tentative
as
groping than of
*

ch.

Cf.
i.f"

process

the
6.

account

by

of

Mr.

Thorndike's

to

experiments,

bk.

iii.,div.

i.,

" 3.] IDEATION,

express

comparison.

process,

the failure

decrease

circumstances

in

which

455

blindly tentative
alternatives will gradually

of the wrong
chance

CONCEPTION.

in

Even

"

the

animal

an

AND

COMPARISON,

of their renewal."*
it has

will become

been

ceived,
previously de-

cautious

more

Under

and

tive,
atten-

affordingopportunityfor the presentationof

have previously
definite or indefinite,
which
differences,
In so far as this takes place, its
escaped its notice.
behaviour
will become
gradually altered in the two
action will become
respectively.The unsuccessful
cases,
fainter and less persistent
until it disappears,
and
thus

the

will hold

converse

this may

take

of

the

successful

place without express

of circumstances,

action.

All

of two

comparison

lines of conduct,
or
objects,groups
ence
having for its aim the marking off of points of differfrom
points of agreement or of points of agreement
from
Thus
a
points of difference.
dog, in first
learningthe trick of opening a gate by a latch,will,to
the gate. In doing so, he
begin with, scratch all over

accidentallyhits

upon

occasion, there

the

right movement.

be

almost

On

the

much

preliminary
It is only gradually that the
groping as before.
is discontinued,
and the successful
unsuccessful
activity
from
method
the outset.
This
adopted unhesitatingly
of the general principlethat activity,
is simply a case
next

obstructed
other
are

in

one

wrong.

aware

The

direction,tends
When

channels.
not

may

why one
right course

attention

animals
course

is

by the circumstances
Comparison in all but a most
*

Analytic

as

to

learn

divert

itself into

in this way,

they

is

right and another

simply forced upon their
of the

case.

rudimentaryform

Psychology,

vol. ii.

is

an

PSYCHOLOGY.

456

activity.Even

ideational
are

both

present

For

turn.

anything

resemblance
the mind

can

for

the

senses,

each

than

more

of
representation
examining the other.

of

detail

and

comparison, so

characteristic
as

to

iv.,

CH.

TV.

objectscompared
is scrutinised

in

awareness

of

vague

ideal

act

each

when

difference,it is necessary

or

the

the very

the

to

[BK.

the

in

keep

to

before

object in

one

Only

in this way

turn

be

selected

the points of
distinguish

ence
differ-

Hence
tribute
atwe
pointsof agreement.
may
of comparison in animals
in all but
the absence
and rudimentary form, to the absence
its most
or
vague
extremelyimperfectdevelopment of ideational activity
in general.
the process
of deliberate
When
comparison plays an
sponding
life,it involves a correimportant part in the mental
development in conceptual thinking, in the
distinction of the general or universal from the particular.
is always to compare
in some
To compare
special
theoretical
or
practicalend is to be
respect. Some
subserved
by the comparison. The difference or agreement
from

the

be

to

but

discovered
which

is not
has

any

difference

significancefor

or

ment,
agree-

the

guidance
for the solution of a theoretical difficulty.
of conduct
or
Thus
comparison takes place only in regard to the
characteristics which
happen to be interestingat the
other characteristics
being disregarded or set
moment,
most
aside as
unimportant. Objects in other ways
diverse
yet in a certain
respect be compared
may
less similar, and
and found
more
or
objects in other
ways

most

and

process

one

similar
found

advances

be

may
more

or

it becomes

compared

in

less unlike.

possibleto

certain

Hence,
group

as

spect
re-

the

objects

COMPARISON,

" 3.] IDEATION,

according

to

the

in this

or

their other

according

tones

their

attributes.
the

different

most

and
sounds
position,
positions. A shrill
equal loudness, and
of different
It
the

or

taking

blance
resem-

into

count
ac-

musical
arrange
may
of their loudness, disregarding

We

degree

their

according to
In

loudness.

457

their difference

respect without

that

pitch, or

their

sounds

degrees of

to

CONCEPTION.

AND

the

scale

regardin
pitch dis-

of

loudness,

in
of

pitch might occupy the same

the same
pitchwidely different

note

and

low

of the

sounds

one

be

may

be

pitch may

same

of

loudness.

is evident

that in this way

conceptual analysisof

what

have

we

called

details of

the concrete

sense-

perceptionreceives a great development. A complex

mentally separatedinto a pluralityof
object becomes
partialaspects, each of which can form a starting-point
for a series of comparisons,giving rise to different
such as those of pitch
series of graduated resemblances
and loudness, and objects which
far apart in one
are
series will be close together in another.
To
each
of
the different series there correspondsan
abstract
acter
charof the
attribute
guished
or
object consciouslydistinfrom
Thus

the

ideational

other

abstract

characters

category of Thinghood

thinking

from

that

assumes

which

attributes.

or
a

new

attaches

form
to

in

it in

perceptual. The
unity of the thing is distinguished
of its qualities,
from
the plurality
and that kind of predication
becomes
in Language.
possiblewhich is embodied
The
necessityof doing one thing at a time has
and progress
led us to describe the nature
of comparison
reference to the use
without
of language. But
in
fact the ideational activity
which
comparison involves

could

proceed

not

by

occupy

expressive
and

ideas
and

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

458

origin
us.

of

their
these

far

unless

signs,

it
i.e.

relations.

signs

is

were

signs
The

the

topic

guided
directly
nature,
which

iv.,

and

CH.

iv.

ported
sup-

ing
express-

function,
will

next

V.

CHAPTER

" 1. Language

Analysis

such

as

In

Synthesis.
"

is
psychologist

that

not

any

of Conceptual
speaking of Language,

Instrument

an

as

remember

must

we

and

CONCEPTION.

AND

LANGUAGE

what

the

primarilyconcerns

specialsystem

of external

signs

gestures, articulate sounds, or written characters,

of
peculiarmode
and
mental
most
important
characteristic of this function
or
activitythat many
minds
can
co-operate in it as if they constituted a single
of this co-operative
But the possibility
mind.
thinking
of the mental
be grounded in the nature
must
process
I do not mean
it takes place in the individual mind0
as
of language in individual
that the use
thinkingwas or
of intercommunication.
could be priorto its use
as
a means
but

certain

psychicalfunction,
activity.It is a unique

I do

What
could

only

certain kind

is that

mean

take

be

process.

communicated

perceivedobject. In
ideas,it

the

place between

of mental

cannot

the

"

order

minds

capable

of

perience
Merely perceptualex-

except in presence
that A

and

may

of

change
inter-

from
start
a
they must
cuss
basis of common
experience. It is impossibleto disGreek
with a person
who
does not know
particles
a

word

of Greek.

is evident

tion
earliest communica-

But

that

if communication
459

is to be

real

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

460

and

valuable,it

does

to

convey

has

had

not

consider

us

how

one

an

to

not

but

merely

also

he

what

communicate

to

to

to

experienceand of which
?
Let
is this possible
experience. How
I wish
to show
some
analogous case.
or

had

has

pronounce

is either deaf

He

able

be

must

which

something of
B

what

know.

not

possiblefor
already knows,
be

must

v.

CH.

at

he has

which

word

distance,so that

heard.

never

I cannot

adopt

simple expedient of pronouncing it myself in his

for
is to write it down
My only resource
presence.
him
in phonetic spelling. I thus
the
to him
convey
of sounds
sound
new
by exhibitingit as a combination
he is alreadyfamiliar,, I reconstruct
it and
with which
him
thus enable
it out of its phonetic
to reconstruct
the

In

elements.

fact to B
has

become

like manner,

communicate

can

it out of elements
by reconstructing
of
acquainted with in the course

which
his

new

ous
previ-

of ideas therefore
experience. Intercommunication
impliesanalysisof the objectsand processes presented
in
constituents
which
to perceptioninto certain
recur
in various particular
The
cases.
varying combinations
of language,then, involves the analysisof objects
use
and

processes

into
out

It must
factors

which

each

unchanged

in

the

they enter.
They
merely change their

which

without
elements

of

combined

in

inward

supposed that

rigidand

construction
re-

factors.

common

not, however, be

have

remains

of these

their free

and

factors

common

unalterable

nature

which
into

like

not

mode

common

combinations

various

are

these

of

modification.

are
experience which
all kinds
of varying

printers'
types,
external
tion
juxtaposi-

On

the

contrary, the

being continually
in spoken or
ways

AND

LANGUAGE

" 1.]

CONCEPTION.

transform

discourse,mutually

written

of

meaning

varies

word

with

the

point in his valuable

History of Language.
laid

never

the

but

which

that

of

'

general,but

bridle

in

'

of

the tongue

assumed

by

my

general,

'

'

'

phasises
em-

held

was

'

an

woman,'

Paul

Principles
sentences
like, I
drew
never
bridle,'

in

is not

to

The

by John.
Compare such
a
good point,' a point of honour,'
hotel,' the bar of justice,'the tongue

as

bar

In

"

hand

other.

the

work,

John

is not

to

referred

the bridle

'

him

upon

referred

hand

hand,

hand

each

its context.

this

of

401

balance.'

word

in

"

The

stances
in'

the

of

ing
specialmean-

specialcontext

special
be called
its occasional
circumstances
meaning,
may
It is only at a late stage of mental
development that an
identical and
to distinguish
an
attempt is made
express
of meaning prevading the varying
element
persistent
a

or

of a word.
When
the attempt
significations
it constitutes an epoch in the historyof thought.
is made
and
of the scientific
It is the beginning of definition
of Socrates
fame
The
rests
largely on his
concept.
having been the first to insist on a systematicinquiry
In popular and
of this nature.
pre-scientific
thinking
which
the occasional meaning is the only one
to
comes

occasional

clear consciousness.
from

It follows

of communication
express

that

this account

of

words

and

that

process

constitutes
essentially
of language
The
use
concrete

content

Ch.

iv.,p.

73.

their

analysisand
train

of

means

combinations

synthesis which

ideational

thought.
the breaking of the
pre-supposes
actual
perception into its partial
a

constituents,and

aspects and
*

of

of

language as

It Avill repay

the

student

the

re-combination

to read

the

whole

chapter.

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

462

these

form

to

with

meaning

ideal

new

to

the

wholes.

is due

context

The

to

the

iv.,

en.

The

variation

nature

of the

word

only calls up
controllinginterest guiding the

process.
relevant

[BK.

v.

of
structive
con-

what

is

train of

thought.
Ideational

would
from
of
this account
seem
activity
the matter
of the existence
of
to be a prior condition
this is so, but
it is
language. In logical strictness,
equallytrue that ideational thinkingcould only exist in
most
a
rudimentary and inchoate form apart from the
of some
kind of expressivesigns. Language is not
use
merely an accompaniment of ideational activity
; it is
instrument
essential
It is an
to its development.
an
of fixingattention upon
presented
appropriatemeans
ideallyreobjects as distinguishedfrom percepts. It
becomes

the

more

representationis,
"

of the

in

precise mode

language
with.

words,

in

form

some

the

in communication

is

considered

an

mind

with

hearer

be

with

fix attention

of the

the

ideal

abstract

more

less it contains

sense-perception.The
to fix
expressive signs serve

will

ourselves

Within
to

serves

in other

which

ideas

on

content

we

the

details of actual

concrete

attention

necessary

Here

on.

affirmingthat
provisionally
tool to think
indispensable

of

the

the

on

later

object of

others,it

thinker

individual

serves

his
to

it

ideas ;

own

fix the attention

the

ideallyrepresentedobjects
present to the mind of the speaker.*
For illustration of conceptual analysis
and synthesis,
take any sentence
combination
we
or
intelligible
may
*

It is unfortunate

corresponds
for the

psychical

that
to

on

there

is

perception.

state

and

for

no

In
the

word

corresponding

ordinary language
object apprehended

to idea

idea
in it.

is used

as

cept
perboth

"1.]

LANGUAGE

of words.

Each

the

stands

of

for

463

partialaspect of
perception, in other

actual

some

"

is called

for what

objectof

CONCEPTION.

stands

word

detail

concrete

words, it

AND

universal

psychicalprocess called
The
universals expressedby the several
combine
in a unity, each
helping to determine
the rest, so as to form an ideal whole.
particularise
the

"

such

proper

sentence

and

name,

the

skates."

"Nansen

as

may

therefore

be

cept,
con-

or

ception.
con-

words
and
Take

is

"Nansen"

supposed

to

stand

for a universal.
This is true from
not
particular,
The
Nansen
certain point of view.
word
a
nates
desiga
being. But from another
particularhuman
individual
The
Nansen
point of view it is a universal.
is a universal
the unity and
as
connecting identityof
and varying states, relations,
his own
manifold
ties,
qualiand
Nansen
be
activities.
as
perceived must
Nansen
ing,
lectursleeping,or Nansen
eating,or Nansen
in some
other
Nansen
or
skating,or determined
the word
But
Nansen
specific
by itself does
way.
stand for any of these
not
particulardeterminations

for

"

"

"

"

rather

than
The

stands

"skates"

word

"Nansen."
universal.

It

others.

But
Other

it does

people
and

for

in

Nansen

eral.
gen-

the universal
particularises

by

so

skate

in

means

besides

of

another

Nansen,

in

varying times and places.

Thus
the universal
skating not only particularises
but receives particulardeterthe universal "Nansen,"
mination
from
it. The
skatingis not any skating,but
the skating of a Nansen.
Now
if instead of framing
the proposition Nansen
skates,"we
actuallysaw him
inward
outward
translation of
or
skating without
any
the experience into words
or
equivalent signs,there

varying

manners

"

"

"

PSYCHOLOGY.

464

be

would

his

agent in general and

act

general and

in

contradistinction

conscious

no

the

[UK.

between

The

particular
agent.
in the

CH.

between

particularact, or

is involved

function,then, which

iv.,

of

use

v.

the
the

psychical
language,

is the
conceptual analysisand synthesis. Discourse
thinking.
expression of discursive
old and
well-worn
We
now
problem,
pass to an
the question
that of the originof language. Of course

is

"

is not

capable
There

of what

are

of ideas
But

originated.

would

be

called

or

remains

enable

circumstances

the

evidence

records

no

which

ages

may

we

by

means

are

by

state

of

historic
pre-

munication
intercom-

expressivesigns first
at

means

no

swer.
an-

cal
histori-

on

which

under

Language actuallygrows

account.

of remote

to

us

historical

and

loss

on

that

develops under

general laws of its

for its origin. Besides
growth and
this,we have in savage races
examples of stages
of mental
development incomparably more
rudimentary
than our
own
they
; and by noting the points in which
our

eyes,

differ

from

and

apply the
development to account

us

the differences

" 2.

The

we

can

we

may

between

Motor

process

is

ourselves

Element

in

clue
and
Ideal

penetrated through

experiences of movement.
define
to guide and
serve
which

obtain

Passive
motor

to

the

nature

of

primitiveman.
Revival.

"

ceptual
Per-

and

through by
sensations
only

activities.

Besides

the

the attainment
of
directlysubserve
practicalends, there are also constantly present the
involved
in attending
adjustments of the organs of sense
There
the movements
of explorato percepts.
are
tion
of
by which touch and sightfollow the contours
for sounds,
objects. There are the attitudes of listening

movements

LANGUAGE

" 2.]

465

CONCEPTION.

AND

sniffingfor smells, and the like. Ideal

tends to
being a reproductionof perceptual,
and

form

which

the movements

mentally reproducingthe visual

we
mentally follow the outline
in

tend

generalwe

to

reinstate

part of it.

essential

an

process,

of

appearance
of it with

repeat in idea the

the

In

thing

eye, and
cf

movements

in recalling
a
sound, we
adjustment. Similarly,
better
or
mentally repeat the attitude of listening,
may
still,mentally imitate the movements
by which the
able
is produced. If it is a sound
which wre are
sound
ocular

less

or

more

vocal

own

of
the
the

this

respect

by

it.

greatest with

is

of

means

articulate

mentally

we

organs,

in

power

imitate

to
successfully

our

Our

the

words

in
recall them
we
ordinary speech, so that when
of mental
form
images, we
constantlyreproduce
motor

process

of articulation

well

as

the

as

mere

sound.

revived

element

has

peculiar importance,
of freelycontrolling,
ing,
detainbecause
our
power
modifying,and repeatingmental images depends
of controlling
in a very large measure
on
our
power
The
constituents
their motor
or
accompaniments.
is capable of dischargreason
ing
why revived movement
This

motor

"

specialfunction is that
analogous and proportionateto
this

movements."*

actual

it and

command

over

example
*

is

it in

ideal

suppliedby

Analytic

f'si/rh.

distinctive

Psychology,

the
vol.

the

that

this

motor

of

processes

it,the greater
"f A
representation.
articulate

i.,p.

213.

is so,

intimatelya

more

with

it is

over

of controlling

power

show

have

peculiarto

our

"To

only to point out that

given experience is connected

we

control

our

sounds

is

our

good

of ordi-

t Ibid., p. 215.

30

nary

has

speech.

"Let

any

word

almost

lie in the

loud
may

control

as

the

do

almost

what

with

that varies
with

as

same

holds

We

we

them

trace

can

with

good

and

vivid

words,
with

greater

or

accordingto
cannot

in

as

repeat the
its

vary

of articulate

such

actual

cases

Many

thing, and

one

odour

other

sounds.

take
the

associative
some

scale

So

will

far
be

to

appearance

in idea

varying
*

as
we

as

we

of

series,

of

cession
suc-

We

with

of times

certainty";we
the

can

have

indirect

circumstances.

smell, and
of its

in

another

thousands

"

free

of articulate

case

varying the order

rapidity,
our
caprice or convenience.

same

; but

accuracy

in the

to

smells,or

produce
mentally re-

can

and

is

of

that

as

as

odour

intensityat

recall of the

The

utterance.

persons

cannot,
one

this respect, it appears

the

of the sound

order

unfailing definiteness,precision,and
cannot

repeat

may

simplergeometricalfigures.
them
trace
as
we
mentally much

We

less

this,one

the

from

pass

the

reproduction

is another.

control

We

as

it

great vividness

with

accurate

it.

say

invert

physically."* Contrast
of organic sensations.
odours

tion
articula-

from

but, apart

may

freedom

much

he

that

unfailing definiteness, precision,

even

may

find

rapidlyor slowly,
emphasis or with emphasis

certainty
; we
emphasis or without
and

with

will

mentation
experi-

represented sound

likes with

one

of times

it thousands

the
;

mental

v.

CH.

chief restriction appears

The

sensation

actual

rv.,

the internal

over

make

to
inability

for

; he

sentence

or

external.

the

select

one

any

great

as

over

as

to

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

466

any
and

odorous

We

freely run

loudness

depends

on

of

objects or

simply

cannot

up

and

down

intensities ; according to
Ibid.

in

power

all

AND

LANGUAGE

" 3.]

CONCEPTION.

467

analogy,we should be able to do this,if we possessed

of actuallyproducand habitually
exercised the power
ing
the smell, and
varying its intensityby our own
movements.

It is in the motor

elements

of the mental

image, and
the image as
in the control which
a
they yield over
whole, that we have ultimatelyto look for the origin of
expressivesigns,or in other words, of language,in the
said that language
of the term.
We
have
broadest sense
of fixingattention
is an
on
appropriatemeans
ideally
represented objects,as distinguished from
perceived
of controlling
ideal represenobjects.Since the means
tations
constituents
of mental
lies in the motor
images,
be found
here or nowhere.
the source
of language must
first definite stage in the development of expresThe
sive
signs is constituted by the tendency of ideas in
far as they have
motor
a
so
aspect to issue in actual
movements.

" 3.
Actual
Bain

Tendency

Motor

of

Movement.

No

"

Reproduction
one

has

done

more

to

pass
than

into
Dr.

into

prominence the importance of the

of ideas,and he has also laid great
constituents
motor
to pass into
emphasis on the tendency of ideal movement
In the mental
actual movement.
revival of experiences
of energeticaction, it is," he says,
notorious
cumstanc
cira
excitement
that,if there be much
attending
the recollection,
we
can
only with great difficulty
vent
prefrom
ourselves
A
gettingup to repeat them.
describe
child cannot
anything that it was
engaged in,
without
stances
actingit out to the full lengththat the circumwill permit.
No
better example could
be
to

bring

"

"

...

furnished

than

the

vocal

recollections.

When

we

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

468

recall the

impression of
it out,

speak

not

about
the

to

larynx,the
.

do

we

of weak

incontinent

or

muttering

without

just
"

"

persons

v.

articulating
parts
all sensiblyexare
cited.

point. The
tongue, the lips

think

hardly

can

sentence, if

that

Some

or

feel the twitter of the organs

we

to

come

word

en.

iv.,

nerves

talk

they

"

to

themselves."

is restrained

f Since
speakingor acting."
Dr. Bain first wrote
these words, psychological
investigation
has very
their general purstronglyconfirmed
port.
The
is
out
tendency of ideas to act themselves
of psychology. Probably Dr. Bain
now
a commonplace
this tendency is ordinarily
exaggerates the degree in which
realised.
of the organs
of speech
The
twitter
about to come
feature of
to the point is not
constant
a

Thinking

"

inward
doubt

articulation
that

in

it is very

all persons.

aloud, he

by

no

It

nerves.

rather

disregardof
has

to

is often

absorbed

in their

their social
to

he

what

persons

found

great deal

In

understates

confined

means

in

frequent,and

invariablypresent.

in

his

of weak
those

or

who

with

the

is

correlated
one

as

Social

process.

The

brain

with

the rest

The

Op. cit.,p.

Senses

and
358.

the

of the

is

brain

edition,

which
of

the

to

pass

process

organism,that

Intellect, fourth

tion
conven-

restraint

Ideational

tensely
into the

thought

follows.

with

habit is

become

the
actual
utterance
ordinarilyput on
thoughtswhich pass through our minds.
The
general theory of the tendency of ideas
movements

most
al-

incontinent

we

into

no

ing
think-

; this

surroundings.
do

about

says
case

is

people

some

trains of

own

there

But

so

is

mately
inti-

processes

p. 357.

AND

LANGUAGE

" 3.]

take

in it cannot

place

creates

nerves

and

may,

of

overflow

flowing
over-

in

to
particular
directlyconnected

; and

"

excitation

brain

the

to

constantlydoes, take place without

and

muscles

the

subject
thought-readingthe

in
of it. Thus
being at all aware
is revealed
place where an object has been hidden
the thought-readerby slightmuscular
pressures
twitches
unconsciouslyproduced by his guide, who

time

the

hidden
On

object and
the

most

whole,

are

the

ideational

in

of

trains

of

them

to

on

the

idea

it is to be

and
all

of the

found.

present mental

our

unless

others.

But

need

the

arises

conditions

primitive stages

more

to

thought proceed for

distinct
and
conspicuous

movement,

in

different

level

any

actual

communicating
very

the

at

attention

place where

part without

embodiment
for

his

concentrates

development,
the

"

of efferent

complex apparatus
functional
unity between

This

muscle.

measure

some

whole

The

the muscles.

it is most

which

parts with

those

in

without

parts of the body

other

to

469

CONCEPTION.

of

tion.
evolu-

is just strugglinginto
activity
independent existence, so that it may be regarded as
extension
little more
than
an
or
supplement of perceptual
ideas
can
activity,
scarcelyfail to pass into
The
life in general is a life of
overt
movements.
more
the more
likelyis bodily activityto
bodily activity,
into ideal process.
Besides this,
enter
must
we
ber
rememthat the less developed and
habitual are
trains of
difficult they are
to sustain ; so
that
thought,the more
Where

whatever
and

means

ideational

offer

support of the

partialrepetitionof
means

themselves

process
the

of actual movements

for

will be

the

furtherance

utilised.

But

the

ideallyrepresented object by
yieldsa ready and effective

PSYCHOLOGY,

470

[UK. iv,,

v.

CH.

of

we
fixingattention on the object. Hence
ments
regard the actual expression of ideas by movemay
as
primary, and the absence of such expression
the result of a comparativelyhigh degree of mental
as
development.*
if we
that the tendency to act out
But even
suppose
means

does

idea

an

privatetrains

own

arises to

occasion
that A

find distinct realisation in the

not

and

are

It is .Z?'s turn
B

of

thought,it must

communicate

with

when

so

others.

Suppose
important work.

co-operatingin some
to do
something, and

either fails to do

do

ual's
individ-

what

wait

^4's to

is

pectantly.
ex-

requiredof

him

tional
wrongly. Suppose that A has no conventhat he
language to express himself in, or even
used
has not
language of any sort until that moment.
If he is capable of ideallyrepresentingwhat
he wants
JB to do, he can
scarcelyfail in his impatienteagerness
make
movements
to
indicatingwhat is required. It
be sufficient to point to some
object actuallypresent.
may
This does not strictly
speaking involve the use of
a
language. But if he uses
truly imitative gesture or

it

does

or

combination
birth

of

rope

and

the

of imitative

language.
imitate
of

act

actual

point of
"

fancy

you

will

chattering
believe
M.

H.

your

of

act

body
internally

hear

eyes

Kingsley,

with
when

West

man

or

such
you

of
.

the
.

energy

African

idea

own

from

lower
when

even

coming
and
from

Studies.

classes
you
down

them

that

he

that
has

of

hauling

psychological
of language

Africa

think

sittingalone

the

expression

of

of

are

to

imitation

The

primitiveform

woman

learn

his
Thus

most

main

of

away

the

is the

instance, point

hauling.

movement.

view

the

instead
forest

for

may,

hauling is simply

issuing in

He

the

his action

gestures, then

narrow

you
no

bush
can

ternally
ex-

in the

path
hardly

companion."

"4.]

LANGUAGE

is the imitative

of this

in favour

evidence

shall

We

gesture.

471

CONCEPTION.

AND

proceed to give

now

position.

Signs.
Many writers appear
that all language worthy of the name
must
of conventional
signs. Such a view creates

" 4. Natural

difficulties.

unnecessary
of

language

as

such

nature

of

resemblance

using

state,

or

gether
alto-

conceptual analysis and

by a system of natural signs

A
to

and

largely

sign bears in its own

to the mode
thingsignified,

the

stand

least

at

adjunct characteristic
gestures which

employ

natural

producing it,or

or

sist
con-

essential function

The

deaf-mutes

for themselves.
a

sume
as-

of

means

uninstructed

as

devise

be fulfilled

synthesismay

to

"

of

alone

to

action,

some

it.

Merely

and

not

as

strative
demon-

part of

expressedor understood, are not to be counted

as
signs. It is true
part of the language of natural
that they are
But they
signs and that they are natural.
is relevant;
which
not
are
language in the only sense
of conceptual analysisand
for they are
not means
thesis.
synThey consist in acts drawing attention to an
in a certain
object actually present or to be found
direction.
But if the objectthus indicated is pointed to
for its own
not
sake, but merely as a sign of some
absent
with
or
object which it happens to resemble
kind
of natural
which
it has some
connexion, the gesture
is a true
expressionof ideas and therefore belongs
strict sense.
Demonstrative
to language in the
signs
also become
part of language when
they belong to a
context,

context.

Thus

if

points to another man,

gesture-language. For
to the

man

as

he

imitates

man

the

act

it does

presents

an

action

and

then

of

pointingis a sign of
not
tion
merely draw atten-

himself

at

the

moment;

on

is

used

only

as

as

of

means

which

iv.,

at the

man

OH.

v.

moment

representingsomething else ;
as
representingthe man
forming
perat the

is not

he

moment

forming.
per-

Similarly,the direct expressionof emotion

be regarded as language. But
it is otherwise
is imitated,so
the expression of a specialemotion

cannot

when
to

the

convey

this

conveying to

is true

in

act

his

itself

language ;

meant

which

made

to

makes

Earlier

it

convey

So, too,

by

only
the

but

C will be

some

the

becomes

idea

so

of

only a

when

way

if B

angry

or

the

C and

is not

act

of

imitation

animal

ing
notic-

pointsto

^4's

For

emotion,

that

if A

Thus

certain way

own

his idea

alter his conduct.

sound

language.

expressionof

direct

of the emotion.

idea

preparing to

frowns,

is

of

means

action

an

not

of the

contrary the presence

the

it is used

as

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

472

thing is
the

thing

of

does

acteristic
charnot

in

mimicry
or

animal

the sound.

writers

originof language have been

of explaininghow
much
a
perplexed by the difficulty
could
be established
convention
to the meaning of words
as
of a community
between
the different members
of comwho
not
were
municating
alreadyin possessionof a means
quently
fretheir ideas.
This
has been
difficulty
used as an
argument for referringthe originof
it disappears if
But
language to a divine revelation.
the natural
we
expressionof ideas to be prior
suppose
of arbitrary
to the use
signs.
for the primitivenature
Positive evidence
of natural
and
from
of deaf-mutes
the case
signs may be drawn
A deaf-mute
called Kruse, a highly educated
savages.
and a distinguished
man
teacher, has left on record an
of the spontaneous origin of natural language
account
on

the

LANGUAGE

" 4.]
in

the

minds

of

signs.
"most,

at

knows
while

makes

cannot

command
"

strikes

What

"

says

another,
"

that

the

who

the

distinction to him

is,while

such

tional
conven-

deaf-mute

between

one

signs of objects
and
once
signsby which he knows these objects,
them
tokens of things. And
again; they become
he elaborates
the signshe has found
for singleobjects,

thing and
are

He

what

or

those

473

CONCEPTION".

AND

distinctive

he describes

imitates

their forms

for himself

in

in

thought with hands, fingers,

and gestures, he develops for himself
suitable signs to
him
of fixing
serve
as
a
means
represent ideas,which
ideas of different kinds in his mind
and recalling
them
And
thus he makes
himself
to his memory.
a language,
the so-called gesture-language; and with the few scanty
and
for thought is already
imperfect signs,a way
broken, and with his thought as it now
out, the
opens
ther."*
language cultivates and forms itself further and furAccording to Schmalz, the more
intelligent
form
natural signsspontaneously,
deaf-mutes
if they are
not
At first
altogetherneglectedby their fellow-men.,
they point to the objectsin which they are interested,
in order to indicate their wishes.
If the objectsare not
in sightthey fetch them
conduct
others
or
to them.
The deaf-mute
pointsto a dish or a jug and so indicates
the dish or jug contains.
his desire for what
"If he
bread
he brings the whole
wants
loaf,together with a
knife,and he hands both to the person who is to cut a
air,or

them

is not

slice for him."

There

signs from
monkey may

demonstrative

of the kind
*

the

employ.
described
Quoted

But
are

much

distinguishsuch
intelligent
gestures an

cases

to

in which

occur

inadequate.

by Tylor, Early

History

"

The

of Mankind.

devices

deaf-mute,

PSYCHOLOGY,

474

be, wants

it may

drink

drinking-glassin

nor

the

to

one

hand

fetch

or

in order

[BK. iv,,

of water

; he

the room,
the

other.
him

lead

he

cannot

takes

He

v.

neither water

sees

that

so

CH.

some

point
one
by

place where the

is. The
the appeal is made
water
fuses
reperson to whom
deaf-mute
The
is perplexed and
to move.
barrassed.
emFinallyhe adopts the device of pointingto
his mouth."
This
is something more
than
a
practical
expedient. It is the expressionof an idea. But the
sign is ambiguous. The person addressed may, through
real or
a
pretended misunderstanding,give the deafmute
something to eat instead of something to drink.
He is thus driven
his meaning by a combination
to define
of gestures
of natural
rects
context
a
signs. He dihis hand
towards
his mouth
he
again,but now
it as if it held a glass,
time imitating
at the same
curves
the act of drinking.
stood,"
himself underAt last he makes
the

to

to

the

"

"

"from

and

this

describe

absent

language

of natural

time

forward,

he

learns

forms

for

himself

he

objects,and

to
a

betokening and prosigns,at once

ducing
*
human
of thought."
a distinctively
power
In a certain degree what
has been
said of deaf-mutes
A
child's gestures
appliesalso to ordinarychildren.
are
intelligent
mand
long before it has any extensive comof intelligent
speech, although very early and
it in the use
to instruct
persistentattempts are made
"

of

and

words,

them

in the
and

Ueber

t Col.
Smithsonian

use

such

no

of

attempts

f
gestures."

shipwrecked mariners
die

Mallery

Taubstummen,
in the

Annual

Institute, vol. i.,p.

pp.

are
"

made

to

instruct

Missionaries,explorers,

acquirethe language

of

267 seq.

Report
276.

of the

Bureau

of

Ethnology

of the

LANGUAGE

"4.]

CONCEPTION,

AND

475

of natural signs.They
through the medium
at the same
gesticulations,
point to objectsand make
associated
time observing what
articulate sounds
are
with these motions by the persons addressed."*
ever
Whenof
is at a loss to express himself by means
a person
ject-matt
words he naturallyhas recourse
to gestures if the subadmits of it. "Without
having ever before
of the signsused by Indians or deafmade
seen
or
one
not
mutes, he will soon
only catch the meaning of
their's but produce his own,
which
they will likewise
of gestureThe
comprehend."!
primitive character
language is indicated
by its widespread use
among
This is partly due to the inadequacy of the
savages.
signs of their conventional
language, and partly to the
make
the spoken words
of
diversities of speech which
lers
Travelto each other.
neighbouringtribes unintelligible
have
reported the existence of tribes whose oral
for ordinary intercourse.
language is inadequate even
Their evidence
called in doubt, but apparently
has been
races

savage

without
Bubis
each
in

sufficient

of the island
other

West
to

It is wTell established

reason.

of Fernando

Miss

in the dark.

Africa

tells
to

propose

go

us

Po

to

the

understand

cannot

Kingsley in

that among

that the

her

the Fans

fire in order

Travels

it is
to

see

mon
com-

what

have
reason
we
people are saying. But the second
assignedis probably the more
important. The fullest
the
development of natural
signs is found
among
American
North
the diversities of conIndians, where
ventional

languages

within

limited

area

are

very

numerous.

The

free

and

copious
*

Ibid.

use

of imitative
t Ibid.

gestures is al-

PSYCHOLOGY.

476

universal

most

all

[BK. TV.,

North

over

America,

and

CH.

v.

it is also

It must
not be
widely spread in South America.
supposed that the same
signsare everywhere in common
This
is far from
There
is no
use.
being the case.
is only possibleby
code.
code
A
common
common
It must
the vast
be fixed by usage.
convention.
But

very

which

distance

separates different

tribes

does

not

mit
per-

arbitrary
uniformityarisingfrom habit. An
imitative
strikingoutlines
gesture delineates the most
of an
of an
characteristic features
object or the most
of this

action.
of

different individuals

But

people do

outlines

and

features.
various

"by
his

gait when
horns, and
these

always

not

not

sometimes

characteristics."
fixed

by

of these

selection

for instance

deer

be

may

signated
de-

of

by
expressingfleetness,
rapid motion, by the shape of his
of several of
by combinations
*
come
Besides this,when
a sign has bemodes

it may

usage

in various
takes

in

in the

agree

different bodies

and

ways,

as

modified

become

conventional

and

viated
abbre-

understanding

the

place of self-interpreting
pantomime. It might
therefore be expected that Indians
dialect of
using one
natural signswould
understand
other Indians,using
not
a

diverse

that
a

an

dialect.

Indian

deaf-mute

or

It would

should

on

the

vice versd.

appear

still less

first encounter
But

probable

understand

in fact it is found

in

that

of signsmutual
spiteof the diversity
understanding
is possible
between
all who
have any expertness in the
of imitative gestures.
However
use
specialsignsmay
principleremains the same, and this
vary, the formative
formative
flexible
principleadapts itself in the most
A
understand
at
man
way to varying conditions.
may
*

Col. Mallery, op.

cit.

once

gesture which

he

has

477

CONCEPTION.

AND

LANGUAGE

" 5.]

seen

never

before.

If any

signsis not comprehended,

Indian skilled in the art of imitative suggestiontries
an
It is often sufficient
of conveying his meaning.
new
ways
to reproduce in full pantomimic detail a gesture
form.
If
abbreviated
had first been given in an
which
this expedientfail,it is always easy to try other modes
another
of representation.In one
or
experts in
way
to interchange ideas in the form
sign-languagemanage
of long dialogues and narrative without
vention.
any priorcon-

one

of the

more

Of
for mutual

conventional

that

it is assumed

course

there

is

basis

of interest and

understanding in community

experience.
" 5.

Natural

Thinking.

"

Signs

Instruments

Expression by

essential function

analysisand
experienceis

as

of

language
synthesis
; by it
resolved

into

natural
as

the

means

of Conceptual

signs fulfils the

of conceptual

content

of

concrete

stituents
relatively
elementary conin new
ideal
which
are
freely recombined
the signs of gesture-language
That
structures.
bring
with them
an
apprehension of the general or universal
and
tails
specificdeaspects as distinct from the particular
their very
of perceptualexperience is plainfrom
An
imitative gesture can
nature.
only suggest general
features
to a class of objectsor
characters
common
or
The
actions.
thought it expresses or evokes is only a
completion. It is
fragment of a thought and demands
and
indeterminate
requires further definition from a
The
itself
context
context
expressed or understood.
consists of other imitative
gestures, each expressinga
universal.
Each
of these relatively
relativelyindeterminate
universals
indeterminate
and
particularises

PSYCHOLOGY.

478

defines
defined.

Just

we

as

random

at

is

others, and

the

so

illustrate

can

we

combination
intelligible
analogy holds good in another
conventional

the

of

CH.

v.

tional
conven-

random

takingat

of imitative

The

gestures.

respect also.
word,

iv.,

and
particularised
ing
this process by tak-

illustrate it by

can

any

sign, like

them

combination
intelligible

any

words,

by

[BK.

natural

The

modified

becomes

in

'

in

meaning
We

and

varying contexts
illustrate

under

stances.
varying circum-

both

points simultaneously. An
asked the same
acquaintance of Colonel Mallery'sonce
favour
of two
chiefs successively. Each
in replying
used the common
sign for repletionafter eating, "viz.
the index
and
thumb
turned
the body, passed
towards
may

"

from

up

the

made

being

with

meant

other,

made

truculent

different

the throat

; but

in the

one

case

gentle motion and pleasant look, it

and granted the request ; in the
satisfied,'

am

accompaniment of a
read, 'I have had enough of that.'"
for bodily repletion
derives a metaphorical

violently,with
it

sign used

meaning
meaning

from

theory

that

the

the

in both

context

and

cases,

in each.

" 6. Conventional
The

to

frown,

the

Here

abdomen

Element

in

Gesture-

Language.

"

natural

the
signs are psychologically
most
primitiveform of language has two advantages.
first of these
The
is,that self-interpreting
signs arise
there is any need
naturallyand spontaneouslywherever
The
for them.
second
is, that they rapidly tend to
become

more

or

less conventional

between

members

of

of

community so as to pave the way for a system

purely arbitrarysigns. The imitative gesture tends

to

become

the

same

more

or

less conventional

inasmuch

as

the

" 6.]

AND

LANGUAGE

479

CONCEPTION.

depend, not merely on its

intrinsic value as a self-interpreting
sign,but also
before.
its having been
employed and understood
in circumstances
occur
a first occasion, the sign may

understanding of
own
on

On

in

or

this

specialcontext
then

were

occasion

second

in

teacher

the

edge

of the

not

that

but

that

that

one

of

it would

it had

because

cuttingoff

right hand

; the

the

stood
underdumb
the

among
left

with

arm

of this

reason

on

and

named

was

be

not

been

deaf

"The

sign

understood

be

may

or

if the

that

so

time,

institute

action

the

by

sign was

anything peculiar about his arms,

from
he came
Spandau, and it so happened
had
of the children
been
had
at Spandau and
there

there

this

it

ing;
mean-

circumstances

absent,

first

just

Berlin

the

children

seen

the

the

to

as

these

first occasion.

the

on

be

nevertheless,

doubt

no

occasion

may
for

made

understood
the

leave

subsequent

on

to

comes

which

context

it

was

with

man

sign might
of

members

arm."*

one

institution

the

understood

be

to

come

It is evident

who

and

knew

that

used

by

of

nothing

its

derivation.
One
tend

to

natural
highly important way in which
signs
is through abbecome
conventional
breviati
relatively
is a strong disposition
There
to abbreviate

familiar
to

be

gestures.
substituted

Mallery
convey
forward
wise.

observed

the idea
bent
This

stick, bent

at

The

mere

for

the

of old-man.

his

back,

and

Tylor, Early

movement

itself.

"

Indian
He

elbow, fingersand

conveying

movement

Cheyenne

not

hint of

any

History

of Mankind.

he

side-

closed

thumbs

supported

Colonel

attempting to
his righthand

held

sense,

comes

found

his

frame

long
in

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

480

totteringstep by

imagined."*
By processes
language must

the

of this

stick

held

those

as

iv.,

( n.

before

was

v.

only

who

employ gestureof
familiar
with the possibility
become
a conventional
arrangement for the expressionof ideas.
But the natural system never
ner
actuallypasses in this maninto a conventional
principle
system. Its formative
that of imitative repreall through essentially
remains
sentation.
deaf-mute
and
the Indian
The
rarely lose
between
sign
sightaltogetherof the natural connexion
unable
to
and signification.A bystandermay be totally
in conversation,
detect the meaning of the signs used
owing to abridgment of natural pantomime. But the
deaf-mute, or the savage, is able if required to act out
in detail his abbreviated
signs may
gesture. Natural
lead up
conventional
to
a
language, but they do not
develop into one.
The
guage
lan" 7. Origin of Conventional
Language.
of natural
signs is pervaded by the systematic
tion.
unity of a singleformative principle that of imitaThis gives it so strong and tenacious a hold upon
that it can
the mind
only be displacedby a conventional
language which has also a systematicunity of plan. It
be displacedby a chaotic multiplicity
of detached
never
can
and disconnected
signs,each of which has to be
remembered
separately
by an independentmental effort.
kind,

"

"

mind

The

human

The

conventional

gestures

must

could

not

endure

signswhich

therefore

form

are
some

burdensome

so

to

load.

displaceimitative

kind

of

system,

fied
uni-

visible gesby general formative principles. Now

tures
and practically
are
theoretically
capable of forrn*

Annual

Report

of

Bureau

of

Ethnology,

vol.

i.,loc.

cit.

481

CONCEPTION.

AND

LANGUAGE

" 7.]

ing a conventional system. The

taught a finger-languagewhich

deaf-mute

is sometimes

is

purely conventional.
of easily
remembered
He makes
ual
mana limited number
signs,each correspondingto a letter of the alphabet,
and by successively
combining these he spellsout words
Such
and
sentences.
a
position
language has a unity of commakes
it manageable. There
is in it
which
a
expression and
systematiccorrespondence between
similar,expresmeaning. Where
meaning is partially
sion
is partially
similar ; where
meaning is modified,
and
expressionis modified in a correspondingmanner
degree. But the important pointis that the systematic
unity of composition belongs in the first instance to
articulate speech. The
manual
alphabet is merely a
translation of the oral alphabet. Further, it could only
have

been

devised

alreadyanalysedinto
a

conventional

not

system of
a

deaf-mute

its

had

elementaryconstituents.

system of manual

analogous
could

articulate utterance

after

the

or

other

visible

been
Now
ments
move-

conventional

finger-alphabet
spontaneouslyout of a previous
grow
up
imitative gestures. We
might as well expect
or

an

to

untutored

savage

to

invent

the steam-

ageable
light. A limited and easilymanset of manual
signs is required. But on what
the signsto be selected,
and on what prinare
principle
ciple
are
they to be limited ? Oral languagehad been in
for long ages before
its alphabet was
discovered.
use
of a similar system of visible signs
But the invention
would
have
been
covery
incomparably harder than the disof the alphabet. The
discoveryof the alphabet
the discovery
of unityof composition in a structure
was
But the inalreadyexistingand familiar to mankind.

engine or

Psych.

the electric

31

PSYCHOLOGY.

482

[BK.

iv.,

CH.

v.

dependent

invention

been

discoveryarisingthrough reflective scrutiny

experience,but a highly artificial creation.

not

of familiar
On

of

hand, articulate

the other

characterised

process

visible

alphabet

is

utterance

by unity

of

would

as

have

natural

composition.
by the structure

This

of
unity of composition is determined
the organs
of speech. There
is no
need
to invent
an
in sylalphabet before combining elementary sounds
lables
The
and words.
alphabeticalsounds which form
the vital constituents of all speech were, as Ferrier
says,
from
"there
the
beginning." Undetected, but yet
possiblea systematic
present and operative,they made
correspondence between
meaning and expression. This
kind as that
correspondence is not indeed of the same
which
characterises the imitative gesture. Any isolated
imitative gesture has a direct affinity
with
the thing it
of this direct self-interpreting
represents. The absence
is just what
from
the conventional
affinity
distinguishes
the natural sign. None
the less,systematic
ence
correspondis possiblewhere
direct resemblance.
there is no
The

rise and

corresponds
does

not

fall of
the

to

and

correspondence
of

its utterance

varies

more

may
manner.

between

meaning.

fall of

So, apart

what

in

mercury

rise and
it.

resemble

sounds

the

from

the

thermometer

all

between
similarity

they signify,there
the

Where

relations

it

temperature, but
be

may

of sounds

and

a
lations
re-

is

similar,
partially
be partially
similar; where
meaning
may
less in this or that specialmanner,
or
pression
exless in a corresponding
more
or
vary

This

we

find

meaning

to

be

the

case

in

all known

languages.
It is here

that

philological
analysisbecomes

impor-

LANGUAGE

" 8.]

tant.

In

all

languages

AND

there

CONCEPTION.

are

483

traceable

certain

paratively
com-

elementaryphoneticcomponents called roots,

expressingprimary universals or products of conceptual
ing
variouslymodified and enteranalysis
; and these roots
into various combinations
conceptual synexpress
thesis
discursive thinking. They blend and combine
or
in continuous
speech just as the correspondingconcepts
in continuous
blend
combine
and
thought. This is
possiblebecause of the ultimate unity of composition
is resolvable
into elementary
of the phonetic material,which
in isolation
alphabeticsounds which do not occur
but as parts of an articulate complex.
" 8. Certain Other Theories
of the Origin of Speech.
guage
Attempts have been made to explainthe originof lanble
without
emphasising the importance of the visiThere
three main
are
gesture as the starting-point.
have
been
nicknamed
theories of this kind, which
by
Max
Muller the pooli-pooh theory,the bow-wow
theory,and
the
ding-dong theory. Their more
pretentious
the Inter jectional,the Onomatopoeic, and the
titles are
Pathognomic theories. The principleinvolved in all
these theories is essentially
the same.
They all attempt
back
conventional
to
trace
signs to natural
signs;
from
but they exclude
consideration
visible gestures,
and confine attention only to vocal signs. It is evident
that to mimic
the mewing of a cat, in order
to convey
"

the idea of that

going

animal, is

all fours

and

as

much

an

imitative

gesture

humping the back for the

It is mimicry of this kind on which
the
same
purpose.
bow-wow
theory relies for explanation. The same
holds good of imitating
the cry of fear, in order
either
the idea of the emotion
of the approach of
to convey
or
as

on

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

484

en.

Y.

dangerous object. This is the sort of expressivesign

is most
which
primitiveaccording to the pooh-pooh
a

theory.
The
ding-dong theory is more
distinction of being advocated
According

it

to

subtle,and
Professor

by

it has

the

Steinthal.

of

specifickinds

objects so affected
him, or to use Max
him, correspondingly

elicit from
to
as
primitiveman
Miiller's metaphor, to ring out of
The
most
primitivewords would
specificutterances.
the organism
out from
therefore be phonetictypes rung
of

first

the

is

There

man

or

harmony

and

of sound

with

struck

when

men

sense

which

idea.

an

does

not

The
by another.
of poetry consists
of literary
charm
styleand especially
vocal expression
between
largelyin the subtle affinity
which may
exist
and the objectsor activities expressed,

depend

the imitation

on

apart from
The

zigzag is
and

this way,
zigzag

motion
What

wide

sound
of

the

of sounds

zag

good

vorpal blade
is

went

rather

thus

another.

one

The

zig

goes

describinga

the line

expressiveof

blade,

to

illustration.
that way,

goes

Again, take

course.

"The

The

the

sound

one

resemblance

any

word

of

snicker

the
than

snack."

gleaming
of

the

and

sound

rapid
of

it.

trinsic
has often this incall reduplication
philologists
"wide
a
expressiveness,
e.g. a "big big man";
of
sea"; "far far away." Among the Botocudos

Brazil ouatou

stands

for stream, ouatou-ou-ou-ou

is the

sea.

In

ance
metaphoricalexpressivenessof vocal utterguise
detect under
somewhat
a
we
deceptivedismay
the essential principleof the imitative gesture.

this

Even

the

disguiseis

; here
more

kind

same

of

kind

same

485

present in the

not

of the

more

of the

CONCEPTION.

AND

LANGUAGE

" 8.]

thing.

of

case

of sound
Other

cation
redupli-

represents

instances

may

tent
mysterious. But the mystery to a large exdisappearswhen we consider that articulate speech
consists not merely in articulate sounds, but also and as

look

more

well

in the

motor

of articulation.

process

The

tongue

zigzag in utteringthe word zigzag.

of the clock,but
imitates not only the sounds
Tick-tack
of the pendulum by a correthe rhythmic movement
sponding
actuallydoes

go

of

movement

the

mutes

use

way.

Heinicke,

mute, nineteen
able words

of

organs

Even

tongue.

articulation

in

born

had

old,who

things."

invented

of these

Some

deaf-

this imitative

quoted by Tylor, mentions

as

years

for

the

"

many

deafwrite-

arbitrary
;

were

eating,and schupt for

drinking,were, as Tylor remarks, an imitation of the
in eating and
of the mouth
movements
drinking. In
in the Negro-English
like manner
to eat
njan means
food.*
dialect of Surinan, and
Thus
njan njan means
obvious
the ding-dong theory is in its more
tions
applicaof the imitative
reducible
to the general principle
but

at

least

gesture.
little value

Vague
cannot

and
in

two,

an

is not

explanationof

recondite
the

for

part of it which

That
as

mumm

the

so

is of

originof language.

affinities between

first instance

reducible

constitute

sound
a

and

natural

spontaneous language, because

sense

and

they are not sufficient to

preting.
self-intermake
the vocal utterance
or
self-significant
For this it is not enough that a word
should
its applicationis
be dimly felt to be appropriatewhen
It is necessary
that the sign should
be
alreadyknown.
*

Tylor, Early History

of Mankind,

p. 73.

PSYCHOLOGY.

486

stamped

so

make

to

with

character

the
its

clear

be admitted
become

that when

creation

determining the
and

These

similar

meaning
a

sense

part of the general doctrine

it must

hand,
of

of

word

has
ity
affin-

words.

new

all be

must

that

v.

operate powerfullyin

selection

theories

CH.

general feelingof

may

and

iv.,

as
thing signified
and
given context

the other

the

once

and

sound

between

On

of convention

matter

of the

applicationin

given circumstances.

under

[BK.

regarded

as

natural

signspsychologically
precede conventional signs. They are true and
useful inasmuch
as
they emphasise the part played by
tive
imitain imitative expression. The
phonetic elements
of vocal

use

utterance

paves

the

for

way

the

velopmen
de-

conventional
speech. Why
to consist almost
entirelyof phonetic
language has come
elements
have
tion.
we
attempted to explain in the last secThe
reason
why natural signs have to so large
been
extent
an
displacedby conventional signs lies in
of conventional

their

and power.
superiorconvenience
" 9. Advantages of Conventional
Language.
primary and essential procedure of the language

signs is
the
and

The

of natural

itating
processes by imof their sensible appearance

represent things and

to

broad

of
especially

characters

"

which

features

their appearance
are

to

the

eye.

But

the

capable of being so imitated are of

abstractness.
or
grade of generality

comparativelylow
They represent an analysisof perceptualexperience
a

into

universals

versals.

But

and
the

its reconstruction
universals

out

themselves

of these
are

very

unifar

being simple and ultimate.

They in their turn
and constituents
are
intrinsically
susceptibleof analysis,
thus revealed are
again susceptibleof further analysis,
from

and

Now

on.

so

the
dissection,
to

the

COXCEPTTOX.

advanced

more

either

result

is this process

within

in the intercourse

or

487

of

helplessis pictorial
representation

more

the

express

the

AND

LANGUAGE

" 9.]

individual

the

of different minds.

sciousness
con-

But

of

ply
mentally representing a universal is simof conceivingit. Where
the power
the mental
presentati
redoes not exist,
the conceptiondoes not exist.
mind
Hence
whose
discursive
a
thinking could only
find expression in self-interpreting
capable
signs,would be inof the higher reaches
of abstraction.
Broadly
speaking,natural signs are capable of fixingattention
power

universals

on

constitutive

are

of particular

characters

objects as presented in perceptual experience;

they can only to a very limited extent fix attention

but
on

which

universals

which

universals.

constitutive

are

thinking which

The

gesture generates concepts

characters

depends
it

; but

of other
the imitative

on

hardly generate

can

ing
conceptual system, in which there is an ascendscale of generalisation,
passingfrom speciesto genus,
and
from
and
to higher genus,
so
on
through a
genus
series of gradations till the highest genus
is reached.
a

It

seems

which

beyond the
works
through

unaided

of

powers

natural

signsto

the

frame

thought
system of

classification.
This

higher
says
to

impotence

of

the

universals

is

easily illustrated.

Tylor,

show

is too

abstract

an

that the tailor makes

makes

sewing

"

imitative

the

the table.

"*

the

table,he

coat, and

Early

the

coat,

would

to

History

or

of Mankind.

make,"

deaf-mute

that

represent

sawing

Schmalz, "The

express

"To

idea for the

the carpenter

According

to

gesture

the
the

and

more

penter
car-

tailor

planing
general

[BK. rv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

488

CH.

v.

magnitude such as broad, narrow

;
be accurately
long, short ; thick, thin ; high, low ; cannot
expressed; the most that can be done is to teach
suitable to the largest
the deaf-mute
are
signs which
Often
a
pable
general concept is caproportionof cases."*
of pictorial
expression; but only in a way which is
and circuitous when
cumbrous
tional.
compared to the convendeterminations

of

series of imitative

be

gestures may

with

effect the same

single word would
greater precisionand certainty.Thus

who

wished

where

in

travelled
train

to

the

conception of
wheels, and the third
of

mode

expression ma}r

analyticthan
what

them

by
totality
could

use

If there
of

far
than
uses

the

that

use

of

he

had

universals

one

sign. But
signs if
occasion

this

Now

first

more
sight appear
train.
single word

It

and

of

the

conventional

of smoke.

that

at

the

reconstructs

language
there

give

need

were

in

expresses

remember

must

we

out

that
for

its
we

them.

analyticdescription
railwaytrain,that descriptioncould be given with
more
fineness,precision,and adequacy in words
in imitative gestures. The
conventional
language
word
because
is enough.
word
The
guage
lanone
one
were

imitative

pantomime
describe

why

three

many

of

to

the

into

resolves

Indian

an

the idea of
only convey
bits of pantomime, one
senting
represomething covered in,another

the

that of

deaf-mute

purpose

train, could

successive

three

by

to

convey

needed,

to

gesture

because

it cannot

because

it cannot

is it unable

to

express

generalconception of
*

Ueber

die

uses

do

an

separate bits of

three
with

less.

It is forced

directlydesignate. Now
by a singleappropriatesign
railway train f The reason

Taubstummen,

p. 275.

is that

the

of

concept

railway train

480

CONCEPTION.

AND

LANGUAGE

" 9.]

high

too

possesses

degree of universality. It gathers up into unity a

great multiplicityof special features, functions, and
a

relations.

difficult

be

would

all,in

at

the

gesture language,
of

aid

convention.

of

and

in

being directly expressed

in

gestures, where

imitative

the

convention,

only

so

is not

the

as

intended

signs, without

has

been

as

by

by

select

be

to

sufficient

appear

divined.

it difficult to

makes

certain

apart from

to

convention

is

The

depictionof
may

to

is associated

and

the

or

may

person

If

train.

successful
All

in

representation

is

reached,

as

in

the

ficiency
de-

gesture
of

rectly
dithe

belongs

to

Proper

Name.

ity
peculiar-

or

directing attention

depends

others
insufficient,

proves

understanding

be

intended.

circumstances.

the

to

incapable

specialcharacteristic

some

not

with

and

individual

an

expressing the universalitywhich

individual

at

same

imitative

The

are

enable

to

The

refer

self-expressive
sign.

and

such

as

of

previous

no

to

self
it-

the

communication

possible is

them

meaning

also

person

of

many

on.

capable

of the
object, which
particular characteristics
once
important and easily presented to the eye,

exhibit

the

within

embraces

there

course

instance

traffic,and

natural

Hence

press
ex-

locomotion, its function

its

particulardeterminations

all these

it

to

even

for

as

comprehensive unity which

the

which

some

concisely,or

express

communication

of

means

Now

to

included

are

mechanism

principle or
as

these

Among

of

context

on

this

may
case

or

be

that

added

of the

and

acteristic
charuntil

railway

VI.

CHAPTER

EXTERNAL

THE

AS

WORLD

CONSTRUCTION.*

IDEAL

Unification of Perceptual

" 1.
function

continuous

consciousness

ideational

of

whole

occurring in

the

the

Data.

detached

data

to

of

of individual

course

"

It is the

connect

in

sense-perception
experience. The

made
continuous
are
sense-perception
them
with
each
other by interposing between
ideally
representedlinks. The physicalobject reveals itself in
and
actual perceptionas existing,
changing
persisting,
activityof the percipient.
independentlyof the motor
Its characteristic
nature
as
physicalobject essentially
this independence of the percipientsubject
involves
and his changing positionin relation to it. But the percipient
in regard
not only alter his relative position
may
isolated

facts

of

actuallyperceivingit ; he may also

himself
aside from
it altogether,
to such
turn
remove
or
As
distance
that it can
no
a
longer affect his senses.
difference
to
no
change of positionon his part makes
absence
the thing as physicalobject,so his presence
or
to

it,while

can

make

he

difference

no

it

as

to

its nature

and

existence.

ideallyrepresents it,he will represent

and changing, although it
existing,persisting,

therefore

When

In

connexion

necessary

re-read

is

he

with
ch.

this

ii. of bk.

chapter,

ii.,div.
490

the
ii.

student

should

recall

and

if

" 1.]
is

THE

EXTERNAL

WORLD.

491

ing,
longerperceived. He will represent it as existif
and changing in the same
manner
as
persisting,
in
in its presence
and actually
he were
observingit. Hereof extending knowledge of malies the possibility
terial
things and processes far beyond the limits of
actual perception so as to construct
an
ideallyrepresented
of which
world
fragments are
only detached
actuallyperceived.
which
We
have
to assign the motives
now
prompt
of ideal construction.
The
first
and guide the process
of these
is that which
constitutes
the impulse to all
theoretical
as
distinguishedfrom
practicalthinking.
ence,
incoherIt is the endeavour
to clear experience from
tradiction,
contradiction,and ambiguity. Incoherence, conand ambiguity obstruct
the onward
flow of
of mental
ideas.
Where
they rise,therefore,the course
Now
it is
activitywill direct itself to their removal.
obvious
that conflict must
an
continuallyarise between
object as actually perceived and the same
object as
ideallyrepresentedon the basis of previousperception.
A man
leaves an object at rest in one
place : he returns
and finds it in another
place : the discrepancycan only
be removed
by ideallyconnecting the two experiences
links representing
in which
mode
some
by intermediate
the transference
from
one
place to another may or must
have taken place. A fire is left burning brightly
; after
interval nothing is found
but grey embers.
an
Percept
and remembrance
be connected
must
by ideal representation
of a fire gradually decaying. Again, the fire
which
is left burning brightlymay
after a long interval
of time
found
still burning as brightly as
be
ever.
Here
the representationof the fire as graduallydecayno

[BK. TV.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

492

The

out.

some

as

Apart

theoretical

be

removed

interfered

from

It has

percept.

may

having

as

one

the
perception,

and

actual

incoherence

it alive.

keep

the

with

collides

ing

for

ideal

gone

meantime

conflict between

strangeness of

motive

not

vr.

by representing

in the

actual

mere

en.

to

idea

objectacts

an

construction.

The

of things
to fit it into the general scheme
inability
come
impels the subjectto trains of thought directed to overthe difficulty.
is on
the whole
Merely theoretical interest however
of secondary importance ; and the more
a factor
tive
primithe stage of mental
development attained,the less
important it is. The pursuit of knowledge for its own
tion.
evoluof mental
sake is a comparativelylate outcome
In early stages of human
development thinking
is mainly subservient
to practical
ends, and its impelling
of practicalneeds.
motive
lies in the pressure
of ideal interpretation
carried on
Thus
the process
was
Merely
only so far as it supplies a guide to action.
theoretical speculationmight exist as a sort of amusement

mere

it

but

strenuous

followed

not

was

function

they
course

of the

serious

and

mary
He-interpretation. The priis the framing of
construction
"

of ideal

are

attainment

of

head

be

in the

formed
the

The ideal
practicalends.
which
of use
thus arise are
only in so far
translated
into action.
The
plan which is

for the

combinations
as

in

manner.

" 2. Verificationand

means

out

of events

plan may

arrangement.

arrangement

or

must

which
may

When
is verified

put into execution.

takes
not

it does

by

so

the

execution

the

ideal

the

ideal pre-

place in

conform

to

conform,

the result.

Now

When

events

pre-

fall

otherwise

out

EXTERNAL

THE

"2.]

than

by the result.
impulse to thought.

is contradicted

there

is

new

In this way,

ideal

order

be

may

is a,

sequence

#, c,

is verified.

c, m,

d will be

other

relevant

On

is the

practicalend

the

On

d.

m,

is perpetually

the

original
the

#, c, d, but

",

sequence

plan is carried
This provokes a

when

#,

a,

plan is reached.
In

data.

failure,

ideal combinations

The

into

the

c, q.

construction,in which

of ideal

process

of events

sequence

execution,

be

of

case

construction

utilisingnew
may

In

effective

an

of ideal

the process

findingand
train,there

actual

until

be modified

must

ideal pre-arrange-

the
anticipated,

was

ment

493

WORLD.

new

the

represented
trial,this ideallyrepresented
subsequent occasions,whether

same

substituted
conditions

the
different,

or

for the sequence

are

similar.

sequence

"?,where

c,

Thus

ideal

struction
con-

in its turn
and
practicalactivity,
struction.
practicalactivityyields fresh material for ideal conIt may
that a plan of
happen of course
succeeds
and
action sometimes
sometimes
fails,owing
to conditions
beyond the agent'scontrol and possibly
When
this is the case,
beyond his power to foresee.
subserves

of his ideal

effective re-construction
and

he

his chance

take

must

scheme

of

is not

success

or

sible,
pos-

failure

in each

instance.
Again, it may happen that
particular
conditions entirely
the result depends upon
outside
the
that his action is quite inof his experience,
efficie
so
range
such

Under
cessation of the

of
activity

execution, if
strong.
in the

is

We

circumstances

the

have

widespread

an
use

but
reallyhelpless,

there

will

ideal combination

interests

involved

are

practical
sufficiently

of this in modern

of

medicines.

he tries every

means

no

or

instance

quack

be

The

times

patient

that suggests

PSYCHOLOGY.

494

itself.

In

primitivestages

more

whole

[BK. iv..

systems of ideas

of

arise

mental

en.

vi.

ment,
develop-

in this way,

which

as
superiorpoint of view stigmatise
ology
mythor
superstition.
Real
trol
insightinto physicalnature, and effective conits processes,
ical
are
over
acquiredmainly by mechancontrivance
and mechanical
execution.
Weaving,
basket-work, pottery, building,the construction of tools
and
yield in early stages of development a
weapons,
real knowledge of the nature
of physicalthings and a
real control over
In such mechanical
them.
operations,
ideal analysis
to
intranslated
and synthesisare
accurately
real analysisand synthesis,
and recombination
a real separation
we

from

our

of the
of

parts of

matter.

Thus

the

tion
constitu-

physicalworld is learnt by actuallytaking

it to pieces and putting it together again. In general,
is in proportion to the
insight into natural
process
arts.
degree of development of the mechanical
The
is embodied
in
which
knowledge of nature
science is essentially
modern
of the same
type. There
is however
cially
artifiWe
one
now
important difference.
physicalconditions for
separate and re-combine
the sake
of obtaining knowledge, and
not
merely for
made
with
practicalpurposes.
Experiments are now
love
of
the
a
interest, because
purely theoretical
veloped.
sake has become
knowledge for its own
strongly de"3.

the

Space

as

Ideal

Construction.

perfectlystraightlines
can

conceive

because
possible,
abstraction

line

in nature, but

to

in ideal

regard

as

"

none

There
the

are

less

no

we

perfectlystraight. This is
construction
tal
we
can
by menirrelevant
the physicalcondi-

be

which

tions
drunken
in

EXTERNAL

THE

" 3.]

actuallyprevent perfect straightness.A

tries to walk
straightalong a road ; but

man

spite of

his

efforts

his

In

his

zigzag.
to

intends

to

to

is

course

is that

pursue

with

againsthis

pursue

more

which

the

will.
he

less

or

the

mind,

own

is contrasted

pursue

compelled

495

WORLD.

would

he

course

tends
in-

he

course

The

spicuously
con-

is
he

course

apart

pursue

It is thus an ideal
conditions.
interfering
due to conceptual analysis.Now
construction
it is possible
in this way
irrelevant all
to disregard and
treat
as
contrasted
with
those
as
properly physical conditions
from

certain

which

conditions
space,

as

such.
of

will admit

contained

in

the

line,as straightas

the

are

apart from

very

nature

of

of space

nature

other

interferingconditions,
ideal construction
to
as
a
perfectlystraight
appears
line.
the conception of a perfect
In a similar
way
circle and other perfectfiguresarises.
It is possibleto
notice
different degrees of roundness
before
attaining
the concept of a perfect sphere or
circle,just as we
different
notice
degrees of bigness, although there
neither is nor
be an ideal of perfectbigness. Having
can
had
than
experienceof ", which is rounder
a, we
will differ from
b in degree
try to make
c, which
may
of roundness
hinder
or

us

as

b differs from

in such

the nature
abstract

of the
from

attempt

an

material

such

a.
are
we

conditions

The
our

obstacles

deficient skill

own

have
and

which

to

deal

with.

If

consider

only the
of space, we
have
nature
ness.
a
concept of perfect roundThe
of this development is probstarting-point
ably
found
in the attempt to make
to be
things as
or
as
as
round, as straight,
possiblein the prosquare
cess
we

of

mechanical

construction.

In

this

way

there

PSYCHOLOGY.

496

will

be

to

come

and

squareness,

or

into

pass
with

the

roundness,

ideals,at

these

Euclid

which

ideal of

an

[UK.

of

made

us

vi.

straightness,
mately
rude, will ulti-

or

mathematical

abstract

has

first

en.

iv.,

conceptions

familiar.

infinityof space has a like

origin. Progress from place to place may be arrested
regarded
by all kinds of physicalconditions ; but if these be disof space
and the nature
alone
considered,no
is discernible
from
one
reason
why movement
position
limit.
should
have
another
A
to
spatiallimit is
any
the boundary line between
one
part of space and an
fore
adjoiningpart ; it is a limit in space, and cannot thereIt is by mental
be a limit of space.
process of the
conception

The

described

kind

that

the

the

perceivedor imaged

as

Time

" 4.

of time

case

in

how

than

between

or

past.

we

what

and

now,

But

in this
has

sensuous

sense

or

between
that

have
the

one

the
seen

tion
distincand

now

according

the

to

besides

this relative antecedence

is also

is not

specialstamp
vividness

what

we

call

may

of present sensation.

merely
or

defined

mark

and

upon

and
an

sequence,
sub-

absolute

Present

time

but
by its relations,
it,constituted by its

definiteness.

It thus

forms

for ideal construction

of time-order.
starting-point
is prior to it is regarded not merely as relatively

fixed
What

but

We

in

may

the moment

"

then,

of

process

regard any part of the series as a

future
precedes or follows as relatively

there
now,

The

"

greater difference

relative, so

becomes

view

point of

and

now

space

conceived.

as

in that of space.

even

from

ideallyrepresentedtime-series

an

another,

space

Construction.

makes

construction

ideal

to

Ideal

as

is made

transition

as

past;
absolutely

what

is

subsequent to

it is

re-

EXTERNAL

THE

" 4.]

WORLD.

497

future.
but as absolutely
merely as relatively
Past and future are still defined only by their relations ;
from
which
define them
is
but the starting-point
we
tion
not arbitrarybut fixed,and fixed not
by ideal construcTo
As Dr. Ward
but by actual sensation.
says :
a
passed through the
being whose presentationsnever
first divested of the
transitions which
ours
undergo
again re-invested
strengthand vividness of impressions,
and
with them
brought back from the faint world of
of 'now'
and
ideas
the sharp contrasts
'then,' and
emotions they occasion,would
be quite
all the manifold
In the obligationto wait and work
unknown.
in
there is much
hope or dread of what is still to come
time-order."*
The
than
more
apprehension of past

garded

not

"

"

"

...

'

'

and

in this absolute

future

in

sense

immediate

the

pre-supposes

ing-point
start-

experience of the
ideal construction
in two
moment
an
directions,
; and
the one
on
hand, of what has preceded,on the other,of
is to follow,the actual now.
On
what
the whole, anticipation
of the future
be regarded as prior in
must
the order of development to reminiscence
of the past.
For the primary stimulus to ideational activity
comes
needs ; and these are in the first instance
from practical
concerned
in

the

made

to

links

hunger

procure

out

train

food

Given

activityis
or

drink.

of ideas

of satisfaction.

Article

"Psychology,"

present

urgency

thirst,the primary

or

for

the

It is thus

state

Trains

Encyclopaedia

of

need

of ideas
Britannica,

demand

devisingof
called

the
representing

connecting the present

state

xx.,

future.

ideational

upon

follow

of

way

means

the

with

sense

to

successive
with

ture
fu-

representing
ninth

edition,

p. 64.

Psych.

on

32

PSYCHOLOGY.

498

[BK.

iv.,

vi.

en.

previoussequences of events will at first be called into

play mainly by the need for data derived from the past
in providing for the future.
But
the grand
to
use
is not to be found
in dealings
stimulus to reminiscence
with the physicalworld, but in the personal and social
interests which

shall have

we

Self-Consciousness.

There

to discuss

of

characteristics which

two

are

the head

under

the future from

the past apart from
abstract
distinguish
priorityand subsequence. The future is uncertain, or
in other words, its anticipationmay
take the form, not
of one
definitelyfixed series of ideal representations,
of

but
with

of

number

each

other

But

the

one

definite

alternative

for

exclusion

of others.

already been
Besides
this,past

The

future

less

degree

himself

actions

is

relation

something which

determined

and

so

as

he
to

modify it,if

tolerable life in the world.

control.

Retrospection

data
So

for

far

what

have

considered

the

individual

to

is sometimes

plainthat this
by the clock.
"in
us

divers
that

time is

time

does

called
not

selected

in

is to

at

But

the

only

the

or

subject

be

live

and

past is beyond his

of

in

use

ing
supply-

future.

only the lapse of

subject,or in other

subjectivetime.

coincide

have

greater

survive

with

time

Shakespeare tells us that

with
divers
persons";
paces
moves

the

to

future

and

of

agency

he

pre-arrangingthe

we

it appears

can

; in it

continuallyadjusting his

be

must

form

practical activity.
be

may

the

by

to

compete

consciousness.

determinate

has

altogether different

an

in

predominance

past has alreadytaken

alternative

lines,which

constant

rate.

evidentlysubjectivetime, and

time

words

But
as

as

it is

measured

time
Newton

travels
tells

Shakespeare's
Newton's

object-

ive time.
minutes

In

time

distinguishedfrom

as

construction.
it

which

find

The
to

comes

pass

ent
is differ-

of time

is found

conceived

be

hours

joyment
en-

by the clock. Objective

subjectiveis a product
beginning of the process

measured

as

in the

lovers

Two

may
subjectiveestimate

The

time

ideal

by

like hours.

lovers' conversation

like minutes.
from

499

WORLD.

and danger
positionof great difficulty

appear

may
of

of

EXTERNAL

THE

" 4.]

in

the

practicalactivity. Lapse of time is

often an
important factor in the attainment of practical
ends.
It takes
certain time, for instance,to
a
travel from
one
given place to another, or to cook
for clay to
to boil,or
a
piece of meat, or for water
harden
in the sun.
in practicalcalculations it
Now
will not do to leave the estimate of the lapseof time in
of the individual.
such cases
to the varying impressions
of procedure is to find some
The
only effective mode
in its beginning and
other
coincides
which
process
of

conditions

termination
to

with

the

measured.

be

takes

Thus,

get from

to

process

one

of which

duration

the

if the

question be, how

place

to

another,

long it
sufficient

of the
by reference to the course
may be found
of a
It will take perhaps from sunrise to sunset

answer
sun.

summer's

day;
of

from

or

this mode

of

sunrise

till

The

noon.

procedure depends

themselves

at

of events
defined
more

process

intervals.
in

If it is found

general can

for

by saying that they take

that

ciency
effithe

upon

discoveryof uniform standards of measurement.

best supplied by rhythmic processes
which
are

or

is

These

repeat

the

tion
dura-

practicalpurposes
the

same

time

as

be
one

of a certain rhythmic process, this

repetitions
has proved its efficiency
standard
of measas
a

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

500

The

urement.

is the

use

which

interval

which
ideal

call

we

it

Thus

if

they

start

to

the

proved

the

occupy
the

will occupy

tion
posi-

one

fixed

movement

riod
pea

over

fixed period

another

the

same

same

time

time.

same

terminate
dissimilar

time
on

one

on

another

like conditions.

Causality

to

The

Objectivetime is thus an
principleon which it rests
similar,and taking place

as

Ideal

purely perceptual level,there

modes
of procedure which
have
past, and

vi.

clock.

they will
simultaneously,
if two
so
on.
Similarly,

found

occasion,they
" 5.

the

conditions, will occupy

are

occasion, under

So

minute.

and
simultaneously,
processes

again,constitutes

otherwise

processes
similar

under

of

hands

CH.

commonly

most

now

the dial constitutes

on

construction,and

is that

the

hour.

an

call

we

we

minute-hand, startingfrom

returningto

and

smaller

of

movement

of the

movement

which

process

TV.,

discontinue

unsuccessful.

modes
To

Construction.
is

"

On

the

tendency to repeat
proved successful in the
of procedure which
have
a

this extent, the

category of

But for
causality
operates in perceptualconsciousness.
the merely perceptual consciousness
the questionwhy
ence.
a
given course
produces a given effect has no existIdeal construction
is continually
asking this question.
It is the very essence
of the process
by which
ends
-devised for the attainment
of practical
are
means
and its termination
the starting-point
to interposebetween
series of ideallyrepresentedlinks,each
a
stituting
conin a train of causes
an
indispensableterm
periences
leading up to the ultimate effect. These practicalexwhich
events
yield material for interpreting
of the subject. Thus
take place apart from the agency

EXTERNAL

THE

"5.]

WORLD.

501

possibleto ask why A produces Z", and to

answer
by saying that A produces B, and that It produces
So far as this ideal
(7,and that C produces D.
is determined
less practical
construction
or
by more
with mechanical
experiencessuch as those connected
of
contrivance, it yieldsa true insight into the nature
But strong interests of a practicalor
physicalprocess.
often
need
for explanation
theoretical kind
create
a
either altogetherinsuffidata for explanationare
where
cient
it becomes

take

In such

absent.

or

which

form
and

Because

cock-sparrow

absurd.

good example
the stile.

over

the

milk,

As

the

higher point of

his bow

whose

woman
as

the

kill the

red
and

will

view

breast

cat

arrow.

series of this kind

simple causal

to

robin

the

it with

shot

soon

began

cat

the

old

"

has

Why

of

story of the

the

from

appears

fanciful

the ideal construction

cases

is

pig

would

had

lapped up the
rat
began to

rat, the

not

go

hang the butcher,

the butcher
began to kill the ox, the ox began to drink
the water, the water
the fire
began to quench the fire,
began to burn the stick,the stick began to beat the
dog, the dog began to bite the pig,the pig in a fright
and so the old woman
the stile,
jumped over
got home
that night." In savage
thought,there are abundant
amples
exof causal explanationwhich
remind
of these
us

gnaw

nursery
The

rope,

word

lie in
are

This

began

to

fables.

asking why
may

rope

why

may

have

given effect
discoveringwhich
a

another

application.In
is produced, the interest
of a given group
of conditions

essential to the result,and

which

irrelevant.

result
inquirynaturallyarises when the same
under
circumstances
apparentlydissimilar on

lows
fol-

the

PSYCHOLOGY.

502

whole,

or

fails to

similar

on

[BK, iv,,

under

appear

the whole.

To

circumstances
find

CH.

vi.

ently
appar-

is here

cause

to

tions,
points of identityin apparently dissimilar condiand of difference in apparently similar conditions.
is a West
African
There
a
story according to which
from
hunter
took the first hint for weaving nets
templating
conHis wife suggested that
the spider'sweb.
and similar articles in like manner.
he might make
mats
He tried,but failed to give them
shape. Accordingly,
he went
back
the procedure of the spider,
to observe
so
the pointsof difference
between
the animal's
to note
as
method
and
his own.
discovered
He
that the spider
its
started
and
wove
always with a fixed framework
web
that.
on
task, he made for
Going back to his own
himself
of sticks and poles,and
a framework
by means
succeeded
in giving proper
so
shape to the articles he
made.
He had compared the two
modes
of procedure,
to distinguishthe
so
as
points of agreement from the
and in this way was
able to explain
pointsof difference,
why a certain result should follow in the one case, and
in the other.
It is by such
a different result
processes
of analyticcomparison that universal laws of nature
are
discovered,which laws may form the basis of
ultimately
and complicatedmechanical
contrivances
such exact
as
the steam-engine or
the electric telegraph. In early
stages of development, the distinction of the essential
find

part of

from

cause

irrelevant, and

degree
and
of

is

the
in

of advancement

accidental

the

main

is very

The

without

savage

in the mechanical

never

the incantations.

and
the

proportioned to

thinks
The

of

Arsenic

arts.

incantations,according to Voltaire, will

sheep.

crude

kill

using

medicine

flock

the

man

senic
arac-

503

WORLD.

EXTERNAL

THE

"6.]

surgicaloperationswith all kinds of

ceremonials
having nothing to do with the result.
Lamb's
In Charles
dissertation on
roast
pig,we have a
fanciful exaggerationof this feature of savage
thought.
Bo-bo
discovers the flavour of roast pig by accidentally
in
of firinghouses
The
custom
settingfire to a house.
order to roast
"till in process of time
pigs continued
a sage
Locke, who made a discovery
arose, like our

companies even

...

that the flesh of

swine,

animal,

other

of any

indeed

or

the

might be cooked (burnt, as they called it)without

necessityof consuming a whole house to dress
The exaggeration in Lamb's
story arises from his
chosen

within

the

for them
He

that it would

result,so

natural

phenomena

disease

as

operativeconditions are in the

and
control
even
beyond the ken

mind.

is essential ;

interests

construction

ideal

Here

and

since

the

demands

concerned

be

he

had

chosen

death, in which

and

main

the

the

easy
the accidental.

disengage the essential from

scarcelyhave exaggerated if

to

would

such

in the

fall

of

control

and

practical experience

agents interested

ing
hav-

all essential conditions

in which

case

it."*

of

beyond

the

uncultured

fix upon

cannot

the

what

strength of the practical

the
discovery of some
basis of practicalproa
cedure,

operativeconditions to form
causal
cumstanc
efficacyis ascribed to all kinds of cirin reality
which
are
irrelevant,such
totally
the evil eye, the malignancy of departed spirits,
as
the magical practicesof witches, and
like.
On
the
these assumptions,elaborate
methods
of procedure are
based.

Such

with

methods

are

truly curative
*

Essays

of

Ella

often

more

measures,

or

less intermingled

which

(Ainger's edition),p.

prevent
168.

the

being wholly

result

much

whole,

not

is laid

stress

more

of accident.

matter

than
inefficient,

and
In

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

504

treating a disease, it is obvious

depend merely on drugs, or the

are

may

either

used.

Other

which

their

by

conditions
very

the

the

nature

cannot

way

within

does

cure

the

tient
pa-

drugs

same

imagined
except in

come

the

control

of

the

man.

Thinghood an Ideal Construction.

that for perceptual consciousness

" 6.
seen

efficient.

therefore

are

vi.

the

on

like ; for

when

recover

or

uncertain

partialand
medicine

die

and

that

CH.

is irrelevant

is relevant

what

on

But

what

on

iv.,

distinctness

unity and

of

interest

is

We

"

whatever

have
has

separate thing.

is

whatever
acts as a
primarilypractical,
whole, and is capable of being acted on as a whole, is
that conceptual analysisreone
solves
thing. We have seen
the unity of the thing into its constituent
parts,
qualitiesand relations,and that conceptual synthesis
of these constituit by ideal combination
ent
re-constructs
and relations.
parts, qualities
Very important developments of the process of ideal

Since

interest

arise out

construction
of

The

forms.
causal

The

nature

of the

them,
The

first line of

other

departure in
as

these

connexion

ultimate

as

basis

lines

mechanical
man

of the

category

two
causality.These assume
to give a
thought endeavours
vidual
and unity of the indinature

has

of

and
the

pre-supposes

them

first of

Inasmuch

the

thing as

uses

connexion

that of

explanationof
thing from the

parts.

of

with

Thinghood

of the

interaction

intrinsic

unity and
instead

of its

of

explaining
of causal explanation.
thought takes its point
and,

contrivance
himself

and

actuallyput

execution.
a

pieceof

mechanism

together,so
is able

function, he

by showing

to

how

505

WORLD.

EXTERNAL

THE

" 6.]

fulfil a certain
it may
tion,
explainwhy it fulfils this functhat

the

parts

are

and

combined,

act

togetherin producing a
kind
of explanation may
The
certain result.
same
self
himhe cannot
be applied to things which
afterwards
He
construct.
ideallyanalyse and combine
may
he cannot
in a mechanical
what
actuallytake to
way
assume
piecesand put togetheragain. He may even
elements
which
constituent
are
beyond the reach of
and by ascribing
to these fixed modes
actual perception,
of behaviour
in relation to each
other, he may explain
the products of
he can
observe
the phenomena which
as

on

other

each

so

as

to

work

Modern

their interaction.

theories

of atoms

and

cules
mole-

of ether are
particles
examples of the highestdevelopment attained in this
Atomic
and
theories
direction.
explain the nature
of perceptible
mode
of behaviour
things,by assuming
less
as
elementaryconstituents of the physicalworld "counttheir minuteness, persistent
atoms, invisible from
in their duration,and
unchangeablein their properties.
These
coalescingin most manifold fashion,
atoms, now
now
binations,
comwithdrawing unaltered from these fluctuating
and
produce by the varietyof their positions
of natural
the different
kinds
motions
products and
their changeful development." *
The
essential presuppositi
and

of

of such

they assume
the

whole
mode

as
same

nature

way
is

the

theories

ultimate

of behaviour
*

of

motions

the

is that the elements

shall

in the

supposed

to

third

in identically

circumstances.

same

in relation

Lotze, Microcosmus,

always behave
be
to

constituted
each

Their

by

other,and

edition, vol. i.,pp.

which

31-32.

their
this is

PSYCHOLOGY.

506

Explanation is more
less varietythere is

invariable.
the

ultimate

the

[BK. iv.,

It would

atoms.

complete
in the

be

CH.

and

vi.

factory
satis-

constitution

of

perfectfrom

most

point of view if all natural processes could

and
interaction of
be explained by the combination
in themselves
atoms
homogeneous, so that the resulting
be purely due
to
variety of material products would
varietyin the way in which identical elements are put
together. This mechanical
point of view has been applied,
with success,
to a large extent
to living
even
of self-acting
organisms. The construction
machinery
has had
an
important influence in suggestingthis line
Our
of thought.
rest repeatedly
eyes,"says Lotze, cannot
and
land
bordercontinuouslyon this remarkable
of self-actinginstruments, which
their
derive
material
from
of their operation
Nature, but the form
from
of conhuman
ceiving
volition,without our whole mode
Nature
being affected by these observations.
in fact that not from
We
know
within,by a spontaneous
effort at development, but
under
extraneous
bodies
acquired this
compulsion have the combined
admirable
Far simpplay of mutually adjustedstates.
ler
to the
propertiesand effects belonged in themselves
substances
which
we
cording
combined, varying acparticular
mechanical

"

"

to

universal

conditions.

These

laws

with

the alteration

invisible forces

our

of definite

mechanical

skill

into
compelled (by the cunning combinations
it has beguiled that which
holds them) to work,

has

such

must,
ends

conditions
without
that

are

that

their

conformityto
of

any

purpose

our

purposes."*
*

Op. cit.,p.

their
Such
18.

which
under

universal

own,

realise

human

laws
the

contri-

EXTERNAL

THE

" 6.]

507

WORLD,

questionwhether
not
animated
even
composed partlyor
organisms were
having their originin "the
wholly in a similar manner,

vances

could

world's

course,

in

one

way,

suggest the

but

not

which

sometimes

combines

the

another, and

in

sometimes

elements

in each

of these

inexorablyinitiates the system of movements

sponds
operationsthat, according to general laws, corre-

groups
and

to
matter

the

actual

of their connexion."

mode

of fact, physiological
explanation,so

far

As

as

it

principle.
The mechanical
point of view, which has received so
vast
tremely
a development in modern
science,sprang from exand
rudimentary beginnings in primitive
meagre
of mechanical
construction
thought. The power
strumen
and
analysisimplied in the making of the simple inalmost
if we
of savages
seems
infinitesimal,
elaborate
it with our
machinery. It is utterly
compare
the remotest
of a
insufficient to suggest even
possibility
mechanical
explanationof the complex processes and
of livingorganisms
products of nature, and especially

goes,

and

is based

on

this

their behaviour.

the mind

Yet

of the

savage

not
can-

simply ignoring the play of the

surround
him
natural
forces
which
and
continually
his life and
influence
activityfor good and evil,but
all for evil. In particular,
disease and death are
above
neglect. The pressure of
phenomena which he cannot
practicalinterests compels him to act and to contrive
kind of ideal construction
of acting. Thus
some
means
in order that he may
is for him
sit down
a necessity
not
helplessin face of a vast varietyof phenomena which
think of explainingon mechanical
he cannot
even
prinremain

at

rest

Ibid.

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

508

quires
simply a familiar fact which rethat individual thingsexist,
ing
havno
explanation,
of behaviour.
distinctive
It
propertiesand modes
is a familiar fact that such
things are composed of
and
acted
act
are
on
together, so that
parts which
change in one part is accompanied by changes in other
parts. All this he does not think of explaining,but
it without
questionas a basis of explanation.
pre-supposes
line of thought which
he follows
Hence
a
we
Instead
of explaining
call the anti-mechanical.
may
and interaction
the unity of the whole
by the combination
of the parts, he explainsthe combination
and
interaction of the parts by the unity of the whole.
He

ciples.

him

vi.

en.

To

that the

knows

it is

the

unity as
if
a

nail
of

cry

pain.

sole

links

of

entirelyoutside the circle of

nothing of afferent and efferent
into

his

because

brain

in

processes

foot, his
he

is

one

and

ideas.

nerves,

part.

or

When

being

are

mouth

utters

kind

individual

organs of speech
of
that as this mode

that

mechanical

speech

and

knows

facts

of

organs

vidual
indi-

same

of the two

his

muscle.

; he

foot, his

of his

the connexion

But

of intermediate

series

of his head

crown

into the

runs

is part of the

sole of his foot

The

emit

He

by

lies

knows

of molecular
the
a

of which

nail
cry

runs

simply

both

foot

important point is

of
explanationtakes no account
mechanical
conditions,it is not subject to mechanical
The
limitations.
between
the
sympathetic communion
by
parts of a whole is not supposed to be conditioned
those

relations

interaction

in space

depends.

and

It is thus

sympatheticcommunion
supposedparts of the same

the

time

on

which

mechanical

possibleto represent
when
the
as
existingeven
individual whole
are
widely

separatedin
interaction

ideas

The

absent.

are

of mechanical

conditions

that the

so

space,

509

WORLD.

EXTERNAL

THE

" 7.]

and

practicesof
great degree

the

primitivemagic and witchcraft depend in a

this enlargement of the conception of individual
on
unity. Disease or death may be produced by operating
the cuttingsof a person'shair, or the parings of his
on
is far

what

the

the

man

in

to

" 7. Ideal

function
It

be

Its

whole

and

to

and

of

as

ideal

distinguished

If

that

that

this

from

were

science.

even

and

quires
ac-

In

some

this

measure

tiger'steeth, a
ing
by appropriathe

share

may

Instances

shall have

to

of

refer to

Co-operative Process.

combination

the

of

the

merely
so, there

whole

that

the

little use

view

by
be

the

of

society.
capacity for
to a solitary

the

parts.

explanation
no

of

contains

explanation

mechanical
would

becomes

merely, but

savage

substituting

explanation

suppose

truth.

lie in

in

chapter.*

individual

the

in

person,

we

like

part,

whole,

good-fortune.
and

In

the

fierce ;

deceased

next

remarked

crudity

instead

one-sided
whole

be

should

error

of

and

confidentlyasserted
be of
thought would

ideation al

It

of

Construction

not

may

brave

language,

-Through

with

individual.

himself

the

again in

other

the

another.

innumerable,

are

from

thing may be
By wearing

person'sskill

this kind

custom

regarded as

operativein

some

one

belongings

that

them

of

make

may
the

with

nature

transferred

self
him-

them.

to

is often

whole

dissevered

been

connexion
way

of

present and

it has

when

misfortune

cause

nature

manner

some

common

person

hair- cuttings,
and so
nail-parings,
happens to these may not by sympathetic

communion
manner,

the

their

bury

that

so

food, when
it is

Hence

away.

to

savages
on,

of his

the remains

nails,or

But

great
parts

truth.

by

the

it is
can

equally
yield the

place for philosophy

as

510

PSYCHOLOGY.

animal.

[BK.

iv.,

CH.

vi.

a social function.
thinking is essentially
Other animals
co-operate in work and play,but only men
united in
men
are
co-operate in thinking. Where
many
end, each single mind is,
strivingto realise a common
The
to speak, part of one
so
great collective mind.
ideas occurring to each are
communicated
to all. What
be valueless
to C respectively
to A, to .Z?,
or
occurs
may
the ideas of ^4,J5, 6Y,taken
in combination,
: but
in combination
form
real advance
a
: even
they
may
of D,
be futile,yet when
they reach the mind
may
feasible
they may fall on fertile soil and suggest some
plan of action or plausibleline of thought.

The

Such

which

debt

by

of

means

individual

the

is two-fold.

language

social

to

owes

by it in possessionof data which he could

personal experience.
acquired by his own
is based
he himself
not
only on what
heard,

and

done,

heard,

and

done.

others

not

from

but
both

the

His

also
In

debt

debt

of
to

of

trains

social

have

His

ing
think-

has
have

their

of

placed

never

place, he

results

their

his

others

second

the

merely

what

on

the

results

his

ways

but

is

He

course
inter-

seen,
seen,

receives
tions,
observa-

thought.

environment

In

is immense.

is not

merely confined to interchange

of ideas by means
of language. Imitation
also plays a
large part. In doing or attempting to do what others
before
have
done
him, he re-thinks the thoughts which
have
passed through their minds ; and he also in the
tion
imitasame
as
acquires novel ideas, inasmuch
process
is rarely,if ever, exact
reproduction of that which
The
actions imitated
is imitated.
are
or
usually more
less modified
imitator.

and

What

lead
has

to

been

new

results
said holds

in the
true

case

of each

for the

rela-

generationto each other ;

its applicationto successive
generationsis even
important. Every child in learning the language

tions of the
but
more

of

511

WORLD.

EXTERNAL

THE

" 7.]

of the

men

same

assimilates

its ancestors

whole

outline

the

whole

tem
sys-

of

ysis
conceptual analand
synthesis,which has been acquired by the
and
mental
bodily activityof past generations. It
and
acquires knowledge by question and answer,
by
of the
a
meaning of words, as
gradual divination
in
than
used
by
ordinary conversation, far more
The
words
direct
and
tences
senpersonal experience.
of

ideas, the

in

system

"

fall

that
are

kind

soon

"

upon

the

"

"

ear

his

lips,express
experience, as the common
upon

which

not

it were,

of
so

child

much

"

and

his subjective

experience

of

his

objectiverule or
his shall conform.
to which
ample,
Why, for exmeasure,
does a child have no difficulty
about the relation
that has given philosophers
of substance
and
qualities
much
trouble ? and why do all children understand
so
it alike,whatever
their experito understand
or
seem
ence
have been ?
Why ? but because the language
may
e'en use,
they must
put into their mouths, and which
and all ; involving,
settles the point for them, one
it
as
in itself
does, a metaphysicaltheory which, whether
serviceable
unexceptionableor not, has been found
We
use
our
through all the generationsof men."*
own
private experiences"mainly to decipher and
of knowledge that is
verify the ready-made scheme
of our
mothergiven to us en bloc with the words
is the result of the thinking,
less
tongue. This scheme
of all the genor
more
conscious,and mainly practical,
*

becomes,

Croom

as

Robertson,

Philosophical

an

Remains,

p. 68.

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

512

erations

of

speaking
articulately

gradual increase
The

from

educational

another

each

influence

is

learned

to

in the

do

again in
possiblein so
over

elders,and

its
far

as

of

child

individual

it attends

human

to

is

the
What

has

As

to

learn

behaviour
a

have

men

This

case.

the

part played

matter

to

is

do

only
of its

of

fact,

mainly occupied in attempting

of action current
in the society
the modes
to
the child belongs. Even
the play of children
to which
is penetrated through and
through by this imitative
Children
take the place of their elders
character.
can
in the next
them
generation only by learning from
of acting which
for the genthose ways
are
necessary
eral
of social organisation.But in this process
scheme
but also systhey acquirenot only bodily dexterities,
tematic
combinations
of ideas which
could
they never
attained by their own
have
unassisted efforts. Besides
of human
this,the material environment
beings is in a
of human
a creation
thought transmitted
large measure
from
sils,
utenone
Tools, weapons,
generationto another.
buildings,gardens and cultivated fields,are all
intelligence.They are material
products of human
and visible form
arrangements embodying in outward
trains of ideas which have passed through human
minds.
these objectsappeal
Flowing from human
intelligence
to human
intelligence.The child, in learning their
and use, re-thinks the thoughts which gave them
nature
the

childhood

with

on

generation
wholly dependent upon the
one

strives to imitate them.

period of
reproduce

vi.

en.

each."*

to

past, the

own

passed

men,

by no means
of language. The
use
importance of
be exaggerated.
by imitation cannot
on

iv.,

Op. Cit.,p.

69.

THE

EXTERNAL

this way,

as

" 7.]
In

being.
are

transmitted

to

the

from

that

so

much

ideas

the lower

animals

one

be

to

like

grow

avalanche

an

material

accumulatingand retainingnew
Now

of

in this

do not

make

in part to
not

do

Their

constructions
to

work

their

own

does

not

instance,so

intelligence.

do

arise

it does

and

tendencies

environment.

other

mals
ani-

may

be

said

But

they do

designsframed by themselves.
rected
not
embody trains of ideas diof

attainment

the

an

of

in execution

so

create

manner

themselves

definite constructive

with

ever

it advances.

as

by their own
birds,beavers
Bees, ants, nest-building
for

environment

guage
help of langeneration

oped,
by it further develcomparativelysmall beginnings
next

civilisation may

human

the

by

as

the
imitation,

direct

and

513

WORLD.

from

not

foreseen

trains of

ends.
ideas

in

the

trains of ideas

awaken

their

As

in

first
the

which repeat the same

activities.
generations
Each
new
generationis born with the instinctive aptitudes
of its progenitors
and
and
propensities
repeats
On
their doings in the same
the
undesigning way.
of man,
other hand, the works
as
they arise from ideaideational thought. The
tional thought,so they arouse
same
understandingwhich was needed for their production
for their reproduction. Hence
is needed
the educational
influence of an environment
moulded
by human
hands
mals
to embody human
designsdoes not affect the anidwell with man.
The
human
which
intelligence
incorporated in the products of human
industry is
akin
the
to
intelligible
only to a mind
essentially
successive

human

mind.
is

The
a

social

external

world

product.

independent of the individual

Psych.

It

as

must

ideal

an

struction
con-

therefore

subject in

the

be
same

514

and

manner

is

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

degree
of

independent

thus

introduced

external

"

become

social

the

reality,

real world

minds

also, and

which

the

if

they

become

so

individual

mind

ideal

Besides

the

On

Social

the other

hand,

other

societyto

the verification

by actual experienceby
corresponding perceptual experiences,another

required.

senting
repre-

by

of ideal combinations

verification is

only

structure

in

current

binations
com-

can

entertained

are

belongs.

ideal

The

individual

parts of the

of

constitution

the

factor.

in the

arise

permanent
the

in

is

There

members.

factor

new

vi

organisationin general

its individual

which

social

as

TV., CH.

kind

is

endorsement

ideal combinations

of

means

of

sary.
neces-

which

are

in

societytend to maintain themselves

in the mind
of the individual,
even
though he has never
himself verified them, and
even
though his own
sonal
perrather
than
to them
experience is unfavourable

generallycurrent

otherwise.
dares
in

Now

deny

to

his direct

as

harmless
he

is

so

flat.
"

kind

is that

againstthe
built

of

is

is round

; there

is

show

the

; he

by

multitudes
than

matter

work

by

as

the

is true

of

he

nothing
ness;
round-

it,it

observe

can

who

is

garded
generallyreis generally spoken of as a
is more
and what
important,

maintaining

vast

up

"

the

generations. It

his

person

of persons

himself.
own

The

reason

individual

ideal construction

which

co-operativethinking
that

know

who

this ideal

of

structure

ideas
has
many

is in

development ; and that as it grows

rectifies itself,
excluding ideal combinations which

process
it

is met

far

such

of lunatic ;

spoken
he

so

with

person

earth

Now

crank

less about

much

been

that the

contrary,

be

to

seems

then

personal experience to

the

on

and

of constant

EXTERNAL

THE

" 7.]

ing
integralparts of it,and receivit has previouslyrejected.
which

previouslyformed

had

itself others

into
But

the

this advance

supposed
his

does

earth-flattener

of

own

do

product.

not

so,

of the

figuresas

in

antagonism

his

strength of
the

established

social

criminal, the only

This

to

be harmless

is

in which
so

case

ideal

diversified

or

is

settingup

to

the

social

accredited

sentatives
repre-

of the
his

general system of
fore
pretensions: he there-

appearing in the
privatejudgment in oppositionto
order,

taken

he

same

is therefore
way

as

garded
re-

lunatic

difference

sidered
being that he is conand amusing.
from
our
own
complex society,

construction

that there

and

in the

by societymuch
or

ative
represent-

individual

isolated

own

the

are

development

an

individual

an

ideas in this direction,scout

forward,

as

experts who

The

as

appear

puts himself

he

merely
privatethoughts
to

515

WORLD.

is no

is

so

vast

in its extent

singleperson

who

can

and
hold

fragment of it,and its various branches are

plex
guardians. These comassignedto the keeping of special
of play to the inconditions give a certain freedom
dividua
in more
is absent
which
simple organisations.
In more
primitivecommunities, such as we find among
savages, the general stock of ideas is assimilated by each
individual,and all are equallyits guardians. Thus the
the individual is incomparably
pressure of societyupon
coercive.
more
Any privaterebellion againstinherited
be
and
resented
and
accepted tradition would
pressed
supwith great speed and
certainty.Thus primitive
societies are
ably
intenselyconservative and remarkin their modes
of thought. Each
unanimous
thinks
in
the rest think, and dares not
as
persevere
any in-

more

than

PSYCHOLOGY.

516

novation

which

activity
to

is

does
the

on

with

been

handed

whole

tradition,

justify

developing

not

and
down

actual

improving
from

[BK.

find

general

or

in

to

explain

experience,

than

ideal

the

generation

its

scheme

to

vi.

Ideal

acceptance.

occupied

more

CH.

iv.,

finding

sons
rea-

consistency
in-

apparent
in

which

generation.

further
has

VII.

CHAPTER

SELF

" 1. The

AS

Personal

CONSTRUCTION.

IDEAL

Series.

"

On

perceptuallevel,
experienceinto two

the

of conscious
bi-partition
parts,one belonging to the Self and the other to the NotSelf. To the Self belong all sensations like the pain of a
wound, which exist or at least persistindependentlyof
external
impressions; all organic sensations and appetites
of free movement.
; all active impulses and experiences
To the Not-Self
belong all those experiencesto
in order
which the organism must
adjustits movements
ends.
them efficient in the attainment of practical
to make
Now
ences
adjustmentis possibleonly in so far as the experito which
adjustmentis made arise from conditions
independent of the organism itself and its movements.
if
Thus
changes and differences in sense-experience,
free motor
and so far as they depend purely on
ties,
activibelong to the Self. Only in so far as they are
determined
for and not by the percipientsubject do
it possible
they possess the independence which makes
activities being adjusted to them.
to speak of motor
the physicalobjectreveals itself in actual percepThus
tion
and changing in relative independe
as
existing,
persisting,
of the motor
activityof the percipient.
of ideal construction
is analogous. This also
The case

there

is

517

518

is

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY,

activityprimarilydirected
order
it must
to be effective,

ends
practical
adjust itself to

which

it does

not

relations

physicalobjects and
On

other

the

hand,

the

tions
condi-

conditions

These

create.

vii.

; and

to

an

in

CH.

iv.,

are

ideallyrepresented.

as

of ideal construction

process

is

volved
activityof the Self, just as the motor
activityinin perception is. The
ends
tated
pursued are dicof the Self.
So too the order and
by the nature
of these
of devisingmeans
for the attainment
manner
order in
ends is largelywithin subjective
control.
The
which
ideas occur
is very far from
corresponding with
In ideal construction
the
the order of objectivefacts.
an

mind

with

starts

nature

end

the
and

the

compared which
separated in space

in

with
see

see

time.

the

order

their

actual

touch

it

; in

end

of

jects
thought obrepresentedtogether and
of
The

nature

holds

in which

relations.

The

afterwards,or
But

are

same

this

no

widely
true

of

parts and

the

perceived in

it afterwards.

order

the

train of

order

object are

thing and

first and

the

and

In

be

may

perceptual process;
an

of the

last.

comes

processes

of
qualities

idea

way

sponds
corre-

percipientmay
he may

touch

it

subjectiveorder

nothing to do with the physicalrelation of tactile

and visible qualitiesin the thing itself. We
may look
but they do not
at the parts of a buildingsuccessively,
actuallyoccur
successively.
when
ideal representation
Now
is concerned
not with
justs
the physicalworld
but with the Self,it follows and aditself to what
order.
have
called the subjective
we
and
It follows
adjustsitself to the order in which the
experiencesof an individual have actuallyoccurred in
of that individual.
be illusthe life-history
This may

has

AS

SELF

" 1.]
trated
and

by

the

order

of

of
qualities
may

distinction

it has

that

say

condition.

His

the

of

nature

is asked

If he

he
qualities,
he

that

it,that
order

in

The

say

may
felt

and
order

for

therefore

in which

put it

his

to

heard

and

ear

good

merely
to

it has

these

it

at

and

nose

only

ideal

The

order

of

in

of

the

Self

in
appetites,
ideational impulses

construction

is the
as

tinguished
dis-

of the

Reference

to

cannot

thinking of

the

so

and

experiences actuallyoccur,

we

it,

smelt

crackle,and

construction

organic sensations

the order

because

idea without

the

on

himself.

began by looking

and
activities,

these

concerned.

but

in

activities.

from
are

his

that

out

is in

"

impulsesand

motor

he

it,that
to

he

and

reference

found

that

of

thoughts follow the subjectiveorder,

occurred.
which his experienceshad actually

material

consists

has

he

testing the
cigar it is,he

concentrated

are

exposition

after

flavour

cigar,without

the

put it

he

His

on.

thoughts
how

then

excellent

an

of

order

between

discovery. If a man,
cigar,is asked what sort

519

CONSTRUCTION.

IDEAL

it

as

objectswith which they

these objectsis involved,
think
of a perceptionor
the perception or idea of

something.
It is evident

that the

bodilyorganism must be a very

prominent constituent of the Self as thus apprehended.
The
order
in which
sensations come
to us
depends on
of the body and
of the organs
of sense
movements
under
control.
which
and
are
our
Organic sensations,
those which
persistafter external impressionssuch as
and blows, are
localised in the organism itself;
wounds
and since these are
the organism, being inseparabl
subjective,
connected
with
be regarded as
them, must
Even
belonging to the Self rather than the Not-Self.

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

520

the mind

when

in its

is absorbed

rv.,

CH.

vn.

train of ideas,the

own

of its own
body constitutes an important part
presence
of its experience. Whatever
objects may be absent,
the

itself is

body

it and leave it behind.

from
away
into actual experience; it is not

which

to

It

cannot

condition

external

an

move

constantlyenters
itself;it

conform

activitymust

motor

We

always present.

is the

ity
activbeing any motor
At the same
at all.
time, it does not belong purely
jects.
obIn some
it is just like external
to the Self.
ways
One
perceiveanother,
part of the organism can
tween
just as it can perceiveanything else. This analogy bethe body and other material thingsbecomes
more
and more
ment
completelyrealised with the general developof knowledge ; till in the end it becomes
possible
of there

indispensablecondition

organism

Self in abstraction

of the

conceive

to

such.

as

development.
civilised

often
say
a

"

The

not

I took

glassof

Social

it.

have

These,

have

individuals
such

dependent

a
on

Development of Self
far only given an
stract
ab-

so

is meant

said
as

the

in

in the

to

by

case

as

ideal

motives

from

other

community

each

his fellows

and

in

the
the

struction.
con-

which

of the external

arise

each

Self

of the

nothing

primarilypractical,and
In

more

Factor

of what

We

different

in

"

We

"

account

are

"

and

wine."

Consciousness.

prompt

"

"

The

" 2.

word

of educated

even

ordinary language as
refers directlyto the body ; as when
we
a pit," I swallowed
walk," I fell down

men.

as

material

ordinary thinking

the

foreign to

the

tellect
very late result of inIt constitutes a point of view

this is

But

from

world,

relation
same

individual

of

munity.
com-

is

their conduct

even

than

521

CONSTRUCTION.

IDEAL

AS

SELF

"2.]

have
We
seen
physicalenvironment.
and
of thinking effectively,
for the power
that even
so
adjustinghis actions to physical conditions,he is
of language
dependent on intercourse with others by means
He
be continuallyadaptotherwise.
and
must
ing
is

he

his

on

himself

to

He

strive to

must

their emotions, their trains of

way

is led to

he

it is true

history. Now
his

own

Self, but

very

though they

are

ideas,and

they

that
are

other
none

that
the

their experiences,

their
on.

of their

Selves
the

duct
con-

each

towards

so

end

less

actions,
In this

tive
subjecare

not

Selves,

Selves.

other

of
Interpretation

determine

construction

ideal

the

and

ideallyrepresent

impulses which

the

to

determine

himself

towards

of his fellows
other.

which

conditions

study the

he must

; and

his social environment

of others

the behaviour

only be
data derived from his own
founded
on
experienceof the
ideas which
and
and
motives
guide his own
prompt
in the very
of constructinga
Thus
actions.
process
representationof the subjectiveexperience of others,
of his own
construct
he must
a
representation
tive
subjecexperience. He is continuallycomparing others
ence.
with himself,noting the pointsof agreement and differEvery advance in his knowledge of them is also
in his knowledge of himself ; and, converseadvance
ly,
an
in his knowledge of himself
advance
is an
every
in his knowledge of others.
The
result
advance
same
be

may

reached
has

towards
He
as

must
to

in

somewhat

different way.
dividua
The inonly to consider the attitude of others

not

himself,

shape

can

but

his

pleasethem

own

and

his

own

ways
secure

attitude
of

towards

them.

thinkingand actingso
their friendly
behaviour

[UK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

522

towards

himself.

require of

fellows

his

about

is

he

what

between

comparison
think

Thus

him.

In

vn.

en.

constantlyurged

is and

he

iv.,

this

and

does

his

what

is forced

he

way

to

to

and
thoughts,actions,capabilities,

own

the like.
In

this way

environment

the

supplies the prompting

in which
series

the

this

But

motives

social

of

the social factor.

only

as

link

the

part of the

one

tion,
construc-

past and

remembered

is

relationships

ideal

an

present Self appears

embracing the

future.

of

in

expected

function

of

only suppliesmotives for the

ideal
construction,it also suppliesessential material
self-consciousness.
entering into all developed human
The
the thought of
thought of Self always involves
manifold
and
complex relations to other selves. A
man's
ideal representationof himself
includes
the
own
view
he

which

wishes

he
them

"

of him

The

thinks

other

take

to

they will

that
take

It not

if he

of

take

of

acted

him,

the view

which

the view

him,

take

of

him,

in certain

that

or

characters,attributes,
functions,or
of the self

constituents

forth.

so

other

organic
our

point of view, decidedlybeyond anything that

directlypresented in any series of our isolated

experiences,however
one's

self-consciousness

self

in
reallyexists,

and

estimates

the possessor,
one

the

extended.

feels

of

of

some

of their

or

or

not

and

of one's
ideal

the

judge

notion

least

of their
cannot

of one's

be

can

inner

that

the

vain,
one's

thoughts

worthy,
abstract
for

if not
When

envy.

self in and

own

is

one

other,for

is at

praise or

does

presence
real

way

others, and

guilty,one

conceived

involves

When

would

they

extend, from

commonly

cipates
anti-

he

and

ways,

which

from

the

guilt. In

perience
ex-

all

SELF

"2.]
such

not

it,to

be led

from

now

of self-consciousness

himself

takes

who

being

"

which

without

the

brief,a

in

a profession,
office,

have

to

self would

be

not

end,
a

vast

appeal

to

that

the

self

get form

as

social

position,an

group

of functions

to

appear

to

were

estimate

to

or

view

as

appears

by it,or

in the

comes,

thus

behold,

to

points of

such

523

could

influenced

otherwise

or

It is

and

not

in the world

others

there

it.

it would

that

something

to

self of self-consciousness

the

cases

CONSTRUCTION.

IDEAL

AS

itself to

atively
be, rel-

cipher,while these functions

speaking,a mere
at once
are
regarded as organicallyjoined to the self,
in it,and, nevertheless,are
and
centred
unintelligible
unless one
and
goes beyond one's privateconsciousness,
takes

of

account

the

ideas

and

estimates

of

other

people."*
As

the

idea

of Self

relations

its relations

to

vary.

involves
essentially

other
In

selves,it will vary

relation

Self ; in relation

receptiveSelf ; in
controllingSelf.
in

about

fancied

people who,

as

I then

beholders,

the

abasement,

my

ideal

the idea of

to

relation

accordingas

enemies

superiorsit

to

is

it is

To

bative
com-

submissive,

inferiors it is

to

rying
va-

dominant,

If I strut
again quote Royce :
dignity,my non-Ego is the world of
cordingl
Acfondly hope, are admiring me.
"

exist,for myself,as

model.

If

non-Ego
people whose

sink

is the

in

the

beheld

despair

world

of the

and

of

all

self-

conceived

imagined contempt interests,

but overwhelms
I exist for myself as the despised
me, and
I speak, my
Ego, worthy of their ill-will. When
or
non-Ego is the person
addressed, and my
persons
real

or

Prof.

"

Observations
Royce,
Psychological
Review, vol. ii..No.
*

on

Anomalies

5, pp.

437-438.

of

Self-Consciousness,"

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

524

vn.

CH.

speaker. If I suddenly note that,though I

talk, nobody marks me, both the non-Ego and my Ego
dramaticallychange togetherin my consciousness."*
influence
of the social factor in determining selfThe
of
consciousness
is largelybound
up with the process
It is a conspicuous merit of Professor
win
Baldimitation.
that he has brought this point into full prominence.
He distinguishes
the projecttwo
ile
phases of imitation
and the ejective. In the protectivestage, imitation
of activity
is as yet relatively
unsuccessful ; the mode
imitated
and
the experiencesconnected
with its exercise
less beyond the reach
of the
or
are
as
yet more
ence.
imitator; they have not yet become
part of his existThe
conception of himself involves a contrast
between
what he actuallyis or does, and what he is trying
Ego

is the

"

be

to

this coincides

do ; and

or

himself

and

the

this is the

case,

projected/

it contains

his

with the contrast

In

imitated.

person

conceptionof

the

which

elements

other
do

not

so

tween
be-

far

as

is

person

into

enter

conceptionof his own

present self,elements which
and
he is only trying to assimilate
incorporatein the
On
the other
and
hand, when
conceptionof himself.
the

so

as

his imitative

ceases.

His

far

his

conception of

the

other
to

out

into

person,
the
the

other
other

efforts have

conceptionof
the
he

succeeded, this

himself

coincides

other

person.

In

simply

ascribes

his

person,
person,

"

he

or
ejects,

instead

of

trast
con-

with

thinking of
own
ences
experithrows

them

projecting, or

as
something beyond what he has
regarding them
himself
actuallyattained. "For
example, last year I
who
had great skill
thought of my friend W. as a man
*

Op. cit.,p.

443.

525

CONSTRUCTION.

IDEAL

AS

SELF

" 2.]

readily on the typewriter

included
these acof his personality
complishmen
sense
; my
called
in what
I have
a
'projective'
of myself did not have these elements,
My sense
way.
capacityto acquire
except as my thought of my normal
delicate
movements
was
comprehensive. But now,
do both
these things. I
learned
to
this year, I have
taken
have
the elements
formerly recognisedin W.'s
personality,and by imitative learningbrought them
who
think of myseli as one
to myself. I now
over
rides
able

who

bicycle and

the

on

the
the truth

we

on

'machine.'

myself thus only as my

personal accomplishments of
learn

now

which

marks
particular
of myself,have

is this

that

call

now

very

But

of

think

to

writes

and

'wheel'

wrote

thought
W.

am

cludes
in-

So

...

of the

many

I think

mine, when

just this origin. I have firstfound

in my
of my
them
social environment, and by reason
have
social and imitative disposition,
transferred them
if they were
of me,
true
to myself by trying to act as
and
so
coming to find out that they are true of me.
And
further, all the thingsI hope to learn,to acquire,
if I think of them
in a way
to become, all
to have
clear thought of my
are
possiblefuture
now,
any
before I acquirethem, possibleelements
of my
thought
of others,of the social
alter,'or of what, considered
had

"

"

'

we
generally,

To

see

of
the

case

may

the full
the

idea

call the

Prof.

of

of children.

Baldwin,

Social

pp. 10-11.

socius.' "

importanceof

social environment
*

'

Self, we

all that
and

imitation in the
must

Children

have

development
consider
especially
to

is necessary

Ethical

learn
to

Interpretations

from

make
in

Mental

their
them

velopment,
De-

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

526

members

of the

societyinto

Baldwin

notes

that

iv.,

CH.

vn.

which

less
Unthey are born.
pulses
aptitudesand imthey are born with the connate
of acting
for acquiring the ideas and
the ways
in the community to which
current
they belong, their
existence
is resented
by the community. They have
of survival
in savage
little chance
communities, and
in the more
civilised their positionis a very uncomfortable
even
one.
They are for the most part locked up
in prisons or
child is
lunatic
asylums. The normal
perpetuallyengaged in acquiring the habits of thought
and action
of its elders, and
in doing so is constantly
developing the idea of Self by a process of imitation.

mental

the

child

has

characteristic

two

attitudes, corresponding respectivelyto

the

In
protective"and "ejective" phases of imitation.
the first,
he is receptive,submissive, and respectful.In
dainful
disthe second, he is aggressive,self-complacent,
and
or
patronising. The two attitudes correspond
"

different social relations.

to

is

pole of

one

...

be, depends

to

other

it to

on

which

pole, over
be.

If the

child's

The

child

other

has

presents

ominous, dominating, instructive

imitative

novel

against what

is

he
other

serves,

'subject'over
ments
elerecognisesnew

hand,

rightto
has

be

gone

there

is

trembles, he

are

different.
further.

to

persons
In
He

the
has

certain,
un-

self is

the

"

he

the

features, or

protective.'He
of personal suggestion not yet accommodated
consciousness
is in the learning attitude ; he

His

features,then

it is

control, calls

no

involved

person

pole
which

particularrelation
the

self
of him-

sense

which

relation ; and

the

on

"

slave.

whom

case

But

tates,
imithe

his attitude has

of these

mastered

on

to.

tic
the dialec-

all their

fea-

tures, he

developments

new

ejects'them,
an
'eject'is a
4

the

as

person

consciousness

that

to

brothers

is

read

it what

makes

in his

intercourse

with

the

able, out
it.

will, in

individual
of his

It is

he

so

who

thinks
of

store

own

ejectiveto him,
Now

sense.

sisters,
notablythe

and

them

psychologicalexpression is; for

whose
has
consciousness
only

into

he

527

no
they do, he anticipates

what

in it which

elements

those

the

himself

do

can

CONSTKUCTION.

IDEAL

AS

SELF

" 2.]

that

perience,
ex-

for he

is what
ones,

younger

of

are

youthfulhero.
They are his ejects'; he knows
them
by heart,they have no thoughts,they do no deeds,
he could not have read into them
which
by anticipation.
his superior activities on
So he despisesthem, practises
them, and tramples them under foot." *
the Many
All selfSelves.
" 3. The One Self and
consciousness
impliesa division of the total Self. When
I think about
myself,the I and the myself are never
I have
idea is
an
quite identical. The Self of which
from
the Self which
has the idea.
always distinguished
As Professor
Royce observes, "I can question myself,

to

'

our

"

and

for

wait

an

can

answer;

reflect

upon

my

own

meaning; can admire myself,love myself,hate myself,

of
laugh at myself; in short, do or suffer in presence
my

and

states

own

taught me

to

do

processes

whatever

suffer in presence

or

of others."

social

life has

of the states

and

My total Self includes the whole

succession
of my
personalexperiences; and it therefore
includes that special
life in which
I
phase of conscious
think of myself. But this specialphase at the moment
of its existence
itself be part of the object of
cannot
processes

Op. cit.,pp.

18-19.

t Psychological

Review,

No.
vol. ii.,

5, pp.

454-455.

PSYCHOLOGY.

528

it is

which

Of

aware.

[BK.
the

even

course,

CH.

iv.,

present

vn.

moment

is

usuallyidentified as part of the

tion
total series of personalexperiences; but the identificadistinct
involves
a
phase of conscious
process,
includes
and
as
part of its object both the I and the
myself involved in the primary self-consciousness.
of self-consciousness

is

There

yet another

in which

way

necessarilybroken
up into a number
of the individual
The
life-history
of very

multitude

and

states

of

At

moment

as

they

is

each

partialselves.

often

other,

of self-conscious

from

and

braces
em-

ous
incongru-

usually fixed on
of experience. In

specialmodes

differ from

Self which

any

total Self is

consciousness
and

tendencies.

these

of

diverse

reflexion,attention
other

the

the

one

or

far

so

present

is

thinking about them, there is a tendency

if they were
distinct selves.
to regard them
as
relatively
Thus
when
his conduct
and
a man,
on
sober,reflecting
his mental
attitude when
on
drunk, can
hardly recognise
himself

the

"

say,

was

time."

as

not

the

same

myself,"or,
Self of

The

In

person.

our

"

was

dreams

fact,he

not

is

is

apt

to

quite myself at

usuallysharply

ing
distinguishedfrom the Self of waking life. The wakSelf generallyrefuses responsibility
for the thoughts
actions
of the dreaming Self.
and
In such
instances,
the

person

himself

and

feels that
these

is between

there

there

is

more

difference

between

than
specialphases of his life-history,
himself

but

and

other

These

are

principlehas a wide application.

is always a tendency to refuse to recognise the
There
is overcome
sudden
Self which
or
by some
exceptional
as
one
by peculiar-conditions,
impulse,or transformed
extreme

and

the

cases,

same

with

the

persons.

the normal

Self,

The

IDEAL

AS

SELF

"3.]

antithesis is found

same

persons
the

often

in the

with
and

ourselves

other

In

such

often

cases

The
moral

conflict between

the

consciousness,and

is transferred

persons

consciousness.

own

sciousness.
con-

by conflicting
two
were
quasi-

if there

as

as

if

of the

one

identified with

two
true

our

tion
rela-

the

to

of tendencies

conflicting
groups

between
our

present

is divided

individual

same

of

moment

the other,contendingor exposcriticising

tulating
it. The analogy of the relations between

were

one

the

appears

on
only in reflecting

not

mind

the

When

impulses,it

in

also

past states, but

529

CONSTRUCTION.

within

example, perhaps,is
principleand temptation.
is
tendencies
conflicting
Self,i.e. with the normal
best

thought and action ; and the other tendency is

foreignand intrusive.
regardedas something relatively
"If the tendency to the estimated act is a passionate
tious
tendency,a vigoroustemptation,and if the conscienthen the
judgment is a coldlyintellectual affair,

flow

of

dimly reminds me of cases where other people,

rather than
authoritative and dignified
pleasing,have
But
if,on the other hand,
reproved my wishes.
and if my conthe conceived
act is less keenly desired,
scientious
either fervently
tic
enthusiasplansare justnow
I myself
or
sternlyresolute in my mind, then
in presence of the conceived
am
act, as if judging
now,

situation

...

another."

We

selves those

future, or

must

add

to

had

might

been.

past and

ent
pres-

exist or might exist in the

may
have
existed in the past. There
is

It is
*

Psych.

actual

which

always an antithesis between

have been, and ourselves
as
we
we

the

ourselves

wish

to

as

be

we
or

are

wish

or

that

always possiblein reviewing the

Royce, op. cit.,p.

454.

34

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

530

en.

iv.,

vn.

pictureof it so as to represent
ourselves
as
thinking,feeling,and acting,not as we
have
actuallythought, felt,and acted, but as, from our
present point of view, we should wish to have thought,
We
can
felt, and acted.
disregard actual conditions
with
ourselves
and
limitations, and mentally endow
and
neither
nor
we
qualitieswhich
possess
powers
have possessed,and we
can
ly
imagine situations especialtion
the admirafitted to call them
into play, and
evoke
of our
social environment.
Without
going to such
extremes
as
this, a man
simply say to himself,
may
did I not work
Oh ! what
I have
been ! Why
a fool
his
allow
instead of play?" and the like; and he may
mind
follow
to
out, by a train of ideal construction,
representationsof what he would have been in the past,
transform

to

past

the

"

future, if

present, and
ideal
the

constructions

he

most

are

future, especiallyin
to

and

and

do,

other

represent what
what

is to

in
relationships,

happen

with

accordance

to

its social

it,in

to
dency
ten-

is

future

of the
to

is

There

young.
Self

the

reference

in

common

the

Such

otherwise.

acted

had

be
and

present desires.

day-dreaming ; but it may also

be of the greatest practicalimportance ; for a man's
under
his
future, unlike his past, is to a large extent
control.
own
By dwelling on the representationof
This

is sometimes

himself
a

he

as

direction

tends
said

to

be

realisation
from

Self.

the

wish

would

is

realise

to

mere

given
his

to

be,

to

When

what
self-realisation,
of

future

Self

imperfectionsand

as

which
activity,

his

ideal.

of

instead

the

ethical

is meant

constructed

limitations

must

he

is,

actually
end
be

is
the

by abstracting
of

the

present

"4.]

AS

SELF

IDEAL

531

CONSTRUCTION.

Under
mal
norPathology of Self-Consciousness.
the tendency to regard various actual or
conditions,
less
or
more
possiblephases of the Self as if they were

" 4.

"

is not
carried so
persons
metaphor for literal fact. The man

far

distinct

remind

always
into

up

in the

other

each

still knows

or

can

in

is not

realitysplit
from
distinguished
personalities,
in societyis
person
way as one

himself

he

that

pluralityof

mistake

to

as

same

in many
from
another
But
cases
distinguished
person.
the analogy is no
of insanity,
analogy for
longer mere
is brought about
the patient.So great a transformation
in the train of his experiences,
that the present phase
cordant
of his life-history
and disis altogetherdiscontinuous

with

his

time, the present

same

and engrossing,
and the idea of
persistent
so
feeble,that his whole actual bygone
past relatively
historyis either partiallyignored and partially

phase is
the

so

re-constructed
Cases

themselves
the

have

skin
been

received
said

had

But

there

him

at

You
is

in which

insane

patients

great personages
God

even

When

he

to

know

Father

no

Austerlitz ; what
machine

ask them

to

never

such

person.

the

as

and

Father,

poleon,
Naact

as

want

wretched

he

other

some

since the battle of

wound.

to

lies in their power.

"A
soldier
become
believed himself to
insensible,

far

dead
a

be

to

Messiah, or

accordinglyas
whose

is ascribed

or

extremely common

are

believe

he

the

At

past.

make

made
a

to

better

said me,
Taine,

but
On

asked

was

how

Lambert,
you

where
Austerlitz,

see

In

is not

him

; you

p. 377.

is ?
killed

; it is

ought

speaking of

always it"*
Intelligence,

health,

ball

cannon

look like him

his

Lambert

Father

here

one.'

to

as

he

to

self
him-

PSYCHOLOGY.

532

delusions

Such
in the

iv.,

en.

vn.

this

depend on a profound change

personalexperience,which makes the
as

of

nature

[BK.

with

present discontinuous

the past.

disorders

Nervous

of continuity. In
bring about such breaches
with the
general,a change in the experiencesconnected
to
body, and especiallywith organic sensation,seems
tend

be

to

an

essential

in

factor

the

Sometimes

process.

the

resultingillusion relates speciallyto the bodily Self,

and
does
not
profoundly affect the continuityof personal
in other respects. Thus
existence
whose
a patient
abnormal
will feel as if
bodilysensations have become
he were
made
of glassor butter, and come
to suppose
But
materials.
that he actuallyis composed of such
when
the illusion is not limited to the bodily Self,but
involves
of his

the
life-history,

alteration

of the

transformation

of

tone.

highly important

factor

in

produce

it may

change

of

either

emotional

states

attended
But

; alteration

by

emotions

general
are

not

of

feeling: they also involve

conative tendencies,either in the way of
of shrinkingand
or
aggressiveactivity,

characteristic

expansive and
Now

may

be

attitude.

merely specificmodes

aversion.

in emotional
or

idea

probably lies in profound

Organic sensation is a

reason

emotional

individual's whole

be

we

have

seen

initially
vague

that these
and

conative

undirected

to

dencies
ten-

cific
spe-

objects,and that, so far as this is the case, they

find.
fasten on
When
they have
any objectthey can
Thus
not
an
a
object,they make one for themselves.
herd of cattle,enraged by the sufferings
of their
of one
number, will vent their fury on the innocent victim,if
other objectof resentment
obtrudes itself
or
no
enemy
Thus
their attention.
on
emotions,in so far as they are

IDEAL

AS

SELF

" 4.]

themselves.

initially
vague, tend to define
of
tional plane, the process
of
to

ideal

If

construction.

pathologicalconditions
and persistent,
whole
which

in this way
with

the

with

connexion

definition

takes

emotional

the

the idea-

On

the

form

moods

due

tense,
sufficiently
profound,in-

are

systems of ideas will arise

quite discontinuous

and

cordant
dis-

past experienceof the subject.

actual

moods

emotional

Now

be

may

533

CONSTRUCTION.

in human

certain

social

life

commonly

situations.

These

arise in
same

define and
pathologically
may
of corresponding
explain themselves
by the ideal representation
the patientand his social
relations between
environment.
Suppose that one's depressed emotional
ium
condition,as in melancholia,or at the outset of a delirof persecution,contains
of suspicionor
emotions
emotions
of conscientious
resembling the normal
guilt,
Then
these
the feelingof social dread.
or
feelings
assimilate in one's
tend
actual
to
surroundings,or
in one's memories, data which
patient
suggest, to one
of his deeds,
an
actuallybelieved social condemnation
actual judgment of his inner conscience
or
an
passed
his sinfulness,while to another
patienthis own
upon
of emotion
hostile scrutiny
sorts
suggest an especially
of his appearance
inner sense
or
an
by the passers-by,
hide
from
that he
must
possible scrutiny. On the
other
of these
hand, feelings quite the reverse
gest
sugto the exalted
bered
rememgeneral paralyticwhatever
fancied
social relations,
or
expressinghis vast
the fragments of left-over social habits which
powers,
still survive in his chaos
permit him, in passing,to
express."*

moods

when

they

arise

"

Prof.

Royce,

Psychological

Review,

vol. ii.,No.

5, pp.

456-457.

the idea of Self is

Now

social relations,that
involves

past and

the

ideal

an

this amounts

cases

between

bound

so

separate persons.

In

other

the

present and

of

to

Selves

two

the idea of
of

continuity
they appear
be

to

neously
simulta-

another.

one

these

of

that

appear

strife with

at

vn.

Self also, and

the

breach

en.

TV.,

re-construction

present Self,so

be

cases,

with

up

re-construction

ideal

an

in extreme

to

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

534

times
Some-

subjectidentifies himself with one of them,

he is perplexed as to which
of the two
and
sometimes
he reallyis. It very often happens that this division
of the Self into two, one
of which
as
a foreign
appears
in some
Thus
by hallucinations.
person, is determined
man's
from
be
stolen
to
cases
a
thoughts appear
him
volition,the
because, independently of his own
the

which

words

his ideas

he

themselves

utter

hallucinations
"

sense.

of them
off his

run

the

the

to

form

are

this way,

his

is not

express
of

of the
The

own.

his.

tory
audi-

His

cular
mus-

ing
sound-

thoughts

tongue, get spoken in his stomach, creak

out

mockingly echoed or in the

commented
by another power."* He explains
upon
mocking repetitionby ascribingit to another person
as

he

walks, are

who

is hostile

idea

of this other

motives
to

" 5.
idea

either in the

thoughts

forth,in

in his shoes
end

mind

own

at least hallucinations

or

The

his

within

uses

The

of the

abstract

to

him

and

contemptuous,
person

in various

supplying him

and

and

he

fills out

ing
ways, attributwith words
propriat
ap-

his character.
External

and

Self includes

developments the
*

the

Internal

in all but

idea

Ibid., pp.

of

456-456.

"

its latest and

the

The

Self.

body

as

most

the

ve-

" 5.]

IDEAL

AS

SELF

535

CONSTRUCTION.

activity.There is also
perceptionand motor
another
garded
why the body should be repowerful reason
as
part and parcelof the Self. The idea of the
includes the idea of its relation to other
Self essentially
But it can
selves.
only exist for other selves in so far
in bodilyform.
it appears
to them
as
But however
importantthe body may be, it can never
the most
Self or even
be regarded as the whole
as
sential
eshide

of

Its attitudes and

part of the Self.

so

far

they differ

as

from

of other

those

movements,

material

things,

by something inside the organism.

emotions, painfuland pleasant
They follow on volitions,
tute
sensations,and the like. These experiencesconstithe inner Self,and the body as it presents itself to
initiated

be

to

appear

the external
more

less

or

instruments

is their instrument

observer

that in which

analogous

to

used.

The

are

emphasised by
the body
which

thinking,in
while

the

Thus

dreams.

the

between

kernel.

inner

be

mind

in

even

we

the

body

as

outer

But

we

find

way

material
inner

and

cent,
apparently quies-

The

is true

same

of

primitivestages of
antithesis recognised

most

find

of ideational

process

may
is active.

development,

human

the

other

between

contrast

Self is

outer

in

used

an

husk

that

and
the

the

more

soul

as

primitive

representingthe existence of the inner Self

from
differ
Modern
theories
our
own.
essentially
substance,
regard the soul as simply an immaterial
or
identifyit with the brain, or say that it is just
of

modes

the

continuous

All

these

views

naturally and
mental

series of
are

very

conscious
remote

inevitablytaken
development. The savage

from
in

themselves.

states

those

earlier

cannot

which

are

stages of

find out

what

the
for
the

vn.

by exploringthe inside of the body,

after death
this is possibleonly after death ; and
inner
Self no
longer manifests its local presence.
post

examination

mortem

inner

Self is not

is not

the

the

CH.

Self is

inner

Thus

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

536

internal

an

brain

heart

or

conceptionof
series of

mere

of the

or

simple

conscious
of

power

only show that the

of the body ; that it

can

organ

lungs.

On

the

immaterial

other

hand,

substance, or

states, pre-supposes

conceptual

abstraction

of

velopmen
detirely
en-

In all his pracbeyond the reach of the savage.

tical
dealingswith the world, he has to do with things
Even
extended
in space and appreciable
by his senses.
in his social relations,other persons
only exist for him
have
in their bodily presentment.
how
Now
we
seen
and
slow
gradual a process it is by which the
very
ception
disengageswhat is essential in a conprimitivemind
from

the

This

irrelevant

material

in which

bedded.
it is im-

impossiblefor the savage to

disengage in its abstract unity the conception of a
Hence, in ideallyreprepurely immaterial existence.
senting
the internal Self,he follows the analogy of his
general experience of personal beings. The internal
Self is for him more
less a repetitionof the external
or
If a man
Self.
lives and moves,
it can
cause
only be beit

makes

"

This

he

has

mode

of

little

man

inside

who

him."*

moves

thinkingis perhaps partlyoriginatedand

in any
it is stronglyconfirmed
case
by certain special
experiences. Among these dreams
play a prominent
part.

who

man

in his dreams.

of the person
*

is absent

The

dreamt
Fraser,

The

or

dead

appears

to

another

impressionof the actual presence

of is often extremely strong, and
Golden

Bough,

vol.

i.,p.

121.

AS

SELF

"5.]

637

CONSTRUCTION.

IDEAL

easily suggests the theory that though the ordinary

the
external body is lyingin the grave or at a distance,
inner
counterpart of this body, the soul,has actually
But such apparitions
not
are
appeared to the dreamer.
All
dreams.
confined
to
pathologicalconditions of
tion,
body and mind, due to disease,drugs,hunger, exhausof this
and so on, tend to produce hallucinations
kind

; and

savages,

conditions

these

much

more

so

than

are

among

ourselves.

among

which
difficulty

this the extreme

common

very

the

human

Add

mind

to

finds

personalexistence after
is not
The
death.
merely that of realising
difficulty
that the
in the abstract,but of realising
annihilation
dead person has ceased to play his habitual part in the
ordinary life of the living. The habits of thinkingand
actingof his survivingfriends and relatives have grown
fixed on the assumption of his presence
up and become
is always a conflict between
There
these
them.
among
conditions
introduced
pre-formed habits and the new
tressing
by his decease, and the conflict is often intense and dissurvivor feels a shock of surprise,
The
often
painful,when he misses his intimate friend from his
habits of thought lead him
usual place. His rooted
to
ideallyrepresent the dead as still having an existence
analogous to his existence when alive. He is thus prepared
and dreams, in
to meet
illusions,
hallucinations,
the dead
with the personal
which
once
more
appear
and garments of the living,
with no
dulity.
increappearance
in

realisingthe

On

termination

the

contrary, the

explanationfor his mind

present. We

of

must

is that what

remember

theories
psychological

natural

of the

that

he

and

necessary
is

actually
physiologicaland
sees

originof dreams

and

hal-

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

538

lucinations

beyond
utterly

are

of savage

the range

ordinarybody

the

relation between

The

CH.

and

vn.

ception.
con-

ternal
the in-

impersonationis not conceived in a mechanical

counted
The
unity of the whole individual is not acinternal
the
between
for by the interaction

way.

Self and

the contrary, the

On

Self.

the external

reason

lies
sympatheticcommunion
the bare fact that they form part of the
the soul is
In ordinary waking life,
individual.
same
supposed to be locallypresent in the body. But it may
depart from the body without severingthe connexion
them.
At least a modified form of sympathetic
between

soul

why body and

ultimatelyin

in

are

but

departure is

temporary

only illness,or
communion

well

trance,

which

brought

out

will ascribe the

is

dreams.

case

and

of

body

supposed to involve
The
sympathetic

independent of

in the

soreness

or

of the

the death

often

The

them.

between

still continue
may
final departure of the soul means

communion

local

The

dreams.

fatigueof

his

has
his soul
painful struggles which
dream
wrestlingswith other souls during

presence

is

savage

body to
undergone

the
in

its temporary

migrations. So presents and sacrifices to the departed

are
usually offered at the tomb as if to the body; the
benefit goes to the soul.
It is very
commonly believed
that the burying of the body with appropriaterites is
Thus
an
indispensablecondition of the soul's welfare.
the Greeks
supposed that the shades of the dead must
the earth,
of Styx or
about
the banks
haunt
wander
until their bodies received the rites of sepulture.After
these,they could pass to the under world and mix with
kind.
It is instructive
that the regionsto
their own

" 5.]

AS

SELF

IDEAL

CONSTRUCTION,

539

which

are
departedspirits
supposed to go are in primitive
thought generallyrepresented as faint reproductions
of the actual world, and the societyof ghostsas
analogous to the societyof the living,retainingsuch
relations as that of master
and slave,rich and poor, and

the like.

Since

visible and still

spiritis only occasionally
and since in general the relations
more
rarelytangible,
of the livingto it are
and dim, there is
somewhat
vague
a tendency to regard it as
substantial.
being itself shadowy and unBut on this point primitivethought vacillates
often find the spiritual
a
great deal. We
body
the same
representedas existingand behaving in much
manner
as
an
ordinary body. It is sometimes
sented
repreas
eating and drinking,wrestlingand fighting,
and sometimes
intermarryingwith the living.Marriage
between
and a disembodied
is not
a livingperson
spirit
the

in Chinese

uncommon

folk-lore.

But

these

are

tional
excep-

Familiar

dealingswith spiritsare most

often supposed to be the privilegeof magicians and
often make
it a regular part of
medicine-men, who
their professionto catch departed souls in snares, and
either detain them
in custody,or bring them
back
to
the body to which
they belong.
If there are
material impersonationsof one
dividua
intwo
cases.

there

why

there

find

that

is

should

no

not

in the

reason

be

more.

primitivethought

As

often

nature
a

matter

of the

case

of fact

we

ence
recognisesthe existof several.
The
and
flexions
reexplanationof shadows
by opticallaws is beyond the range of the
mind
cordance
accordinglyinterpretedin ac; they are
savage
with the system of ideas familiar to primitive

PSYCHOLOGY.

540

thought. They
much
be
as

impersonationsof

are

the

as

man's

shadow

bottle ; she then

set

it free and

of water.

the

stole

so

the

young

"

As

have

different

and

with

the

the

functions.

kra.

Thus
ascribe

the

of

each

to

own

pool
land,

supposed to
Tshi-speaking
individual

two

the Brahman, or
body,
is especially
connected
kra
dreaming, and of birth and

his

The

phenomena

in his

about

impersonationsare

people of the Gold Coast

impersonationsbesides
soul,

projectedit upon

in

water."

the

on

different

Sometimes

vidual,
indi-

whole

imprisonedit

and

moved

man

moved

shadow

vii.

CH.

to
they seem
soul, but they are often regarded
a
Polynesian story of a girlwho

is

There

distinct.

the

iv.,

is ; sometimes

soul

the

identified with

[BK.

"

of the
and
visions it passes
out
heredity. In dreams
with
some
body ; after death it acquires connexion
kra has passed through
other body, so that each man's
The
a long series of distinct embodiments.
srahman,
leave the body without
or
soul, cannot
suspension of
After death, it passes to deadobvious vital functions.

land, which

in its social and

other

of

which

the

world

in

arrangements

is

it has

previously
If the man
lived.
has died before completingthe proper
of life,
the srahman
term
lingersabout its former
habitation.
During life,body, srahman, and kra are
vidual,
indiregarded as different impersonationsof the same
that what happens to any of them
so
may affect
counterpart

the whole.

The

adventures

of the

incidents
kra.

in

"If

a
a

dream

are

believed

native, having

in the morning with

overnight,awakes
of
aching muscles, and the usual symptoms
concludes
that during
rheumatism, he at once
chill

to be

taken

stiff and
muscular
the

night

"5.]

SELF

his kra
in

has

AS

feels

he

pain

to

in

another

toilsome

some

Jcra, and

he

made

or

exertions

the

541

CONSTRUCTION.

engaged

been

conflict with

IDEAL

pursuit,or

attributes

the

the

flicted
in-

blows

locallyseparate experienceof the

the soul
Jcra is the experienceof the whole man, including
and body.
The
part
primitiveview of the internal Self as a counterof the external
ally
body has only been very gradudisplaced by the growth of civilisation. Even
far from
ourselves
at the present day it is very
among
People still believe in ghosts which apbeing extinct.
pear
under

form

the

and

It is true

person.

part regarded

most

is

and

there

one

described

"

the

Here

as

that

very

these

clothes of the living

ghosts

attenuated

forms

for

are

the

of matter,

popular impressionthat they are impalpable,

But
presented
realthough visible.
they are sometimes
There
is
as
being very palpable indeed.

twisted

up

first

The

in

popular monthly magazine which

soft paper." |
gunbarrels like so much
clear conception of a purely immaterial
a

principleis probably to
long after Plato the old
form
As

in the

even

clearer

lightthe
of

the

ascribed

notion

survived

of matter

the progress

be

of

to

Plato.

spiritas

an

But
ated
attenu-

in scientific

thinking.
of thought and knowledge brought into
ception
unityand continuityof nature, the con-

material

even

soul

became

modified.

There

tendency to explain its originas part of the general

of physicalnature, and
its resemblance
course
to
the external
The view
body was no longer insisted on.
taken
that life and
was
thought were
propertiesof a

was

Ellis,The

t Pearson's

Tshi-speaking
Magazine,

Peoples of

March,

1898,p.

the
255.

Gold

Coast

of Africa,p.l51.

PSYCHOLOGY.

542

certain form
universe.

of matter

The
of

phenomena

this

from

the

In

later

of

which

supposed to be derived was

best examples of doctrines
among

vn.

throughoutthe physical
given by the
theory was

breathingand

soul-substance

CH.

diffused
to

cue

[BK. iv.,

vital

heat.

The

individual

air rarefied
of this kind

eral
gen-

souls

were

The

heat.

by

found

to be

are

gards
repre-Socratic
philosophers.Anaximenes
the soul as being essentially
sentially
air,and air as being esof the nature
of soul. Air in generalis to the universe
what
soul is to us.
Heracleitus regards
our
own
between
the internal soul and
breathingas a connexion
the surroundingair from
which
it is originally
derived.

soul
was

became

often

find

the

doctrine

assumed

commonly

constitute

to

the

of

generally accepted, the

stillvery

it,and
We

times, when

link

division

material, and

immaterial

an

material

old

soul

exist

togetherwith
between
it and
the body.
of psychicalfunctions
tween
beto

immaterial

souls.

Ethical

and

functions
often ascribed to the immaterial
were
religious
principle,while all lower functions, such as sensation,
ascribed
to the
perception,appetite,and the like,were
material principle. Even
in comparatively
recent
times,
sometimes
find the immaterial
soul recognised only
we
by way of submission to theological
dogma, all ordinary
conscious
functions
being ascribed to material soul.
Thus
brutes

Bacon
"

says

must

"

The

sensible

clearlybe regarded

attenuated

and

made

soul
as

invisible

by

"

soul

the

of

stance,
corporeal subheat ;

breath

of flame
and
air,
(I say) compounded of the natures
and
having the softness of air to receive impressions,
the vigour of fire to propagate its action."*
this
To
*

Works

(Fpedding

and

Ellis),vol. iv.,p.

398.

" 5.]

SELF

sensible
"

soul

he

He

demands

should

be

"handled
in

immortal
this

the

difficult
The

it

;
to

what

last
soul

doctrine

of

in

animal

The

and

the

soul,

but

They

merely

are

immaterial
it.

no

longer

other

Thus
;

matter

conscious

is

is

of

material

recognised

for
of

With

the

displaced
as

figment,
*

Ibid.

even

by
of

body
selves
them-

which
is

and

of

this

the

acted
is

Descartes

from

the

experience.

and

advance

in

form

as

by

matter,

the

the

rigidly distinguished

and

it became

fine

regarded

body

mode

between

mechanism

of

example,

conscious

soul

merely

sharply

link

the

on

of

consist

of

the

acts

doctrine

for

very

do.

contained

longer

kind

any

is

it

and

it to

held,

as

no

are

part

the
it

thought

connecting

existence.

physiology,
was

principle

by

the

spirits

they
of

capable

of

spirits,"

constituting

matter

and

scientific

"animal

Descartes.

for

survival

important

material

left

has

Bacon

in

investigated

theologians,

for

topic

and

uncreated

be

cannot

and

innate

are

The

"

faculties

these

they

as

soul."*

principle
a

of

as

appetite,

memory,

origin

physically

[sensible]

is

see

the

"

faculties

such

imagination,

that

immaterial

way

ascribe

to

reason,

will."

543

CONSTRUCTION.

appears

understanding,

inherent

IDEAL

AS

on

soul

like
from

all
all

modern

position,

VIII.

CHAPTER

AND

BELIEF

" 1. Distinction
A

"

man

himself

between

safety. This
for him

actual

easilyimagine

can

of his fist. But

lion,and

ideal combination
idea

Imagination.

has
is

no

to look

pose
supto his

longer possible

pouncing on him and

tearinghim to piecestakes possessionof his mind, and
excludes
the fanciful picture of his own
The
powers.
same
happen without his actuallyencounteringthe
may
lion.
If in his arm-chair
he
is planning a hunting
expedition to take place the next day, such ideas as
that of killing
of the fistwill be exlions with a blow
cluded,
and they will be the more
completelyexcluded
the more
he is in the pursuitof the practical
strenuous
end

; the

an

and

Belief

sittingin his arm-chair

killinga lion by a blow

that he meets
own

IMAGINATION.

of the

lion

in view.

This

the

tween
example brings out the essential distinction beBelief and Imagination. All belief involves objective
control
of subjectiveactivity.The
of
nature
nations
object thought about enforces certain ideal combito

control
upon
So

the

is not

the end

long

as

exclusion

of others.

absolute; it
towards

the

which

subject is

this

objective
It depends
is conditional.
mental
is directed.
activity
strenuouslyaiming at the

544

But

" 1.]

IMAGINATION.

AND

BELIEF

545

tions
practicalends, only certain combinaof ideas are
possiblefor him, but if his mind is
of practical
results or on
bent on
the achievement
not
of new
the attainment
knowledge, almost any ideal
combination
be possiblefor him
which
does not
may
He
contradiction.
involve an
cannot
explicit
imagine
round
and square, black
and
a thing as
being at once
clude
white ; he cannot
mentallymake two straightlines ina
destroyingtheir straightness
space, without
;
but apart from
such
struct
limitations,he can
ideallycon-

achievement

all
and

man

of

of

manner

form

to

as

so

relations ; he

picturea giant with a hundred

is always some
restriction on
besides
restriction
of

due

that

in each

to

ideal construction,

contradiction

overt

There

on.

; but

being restricted by the

if he is thinkingof normal
mentally frame a narrative

of the

Thus

object.
he

women,

which

may

has

reference

no

he has

whom

woman

play of

so

can

the

tion
depends on the general direcmental
So far as the reat the time.
striction
activity
exists at all,his mental
attitude is one
of
of ideas

them

heads, and
the

; he

centaur

horse

case

belief ; the flow

and

of

image

an

combine

can

or

seen

to

heard

any

actual

of.

So

nature
men

about

man

or

far,the play

of his ideas will be

down
will

free ; it will not be bound

relatively
the less,it
by conditions of date and place; none
he is not at liberty
be tied,inasmuch
duce
to introas
into his mental

with

the normal

make

them

between

the

belief in
Psych.

the

of human

nature

breathe

their shoulders.

construction

credible

and

narrative

is bound
the

as

beings.

have

fire,or

So far he

features

at

He

must

their heads

by

the

incredible.

historical

variance
not

beneath

distinction
There

is

no

fact; but belief

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

546

human

about
and

through.

On

the

other

hand,

play of his imaginationdoes not

beings,but to certain creatures
have

wider

much

guided by

range,

initial

of its

assumptions.

The

the

human

; it will then

own

it will still be

but

through

actual

to

vm.

that

suppose

refer

CH.

in it

generalis involved

in

nature

iv.,

more

less

or

subsequent

flow

of

by the anterior flow of ideas ; if a

by imagining fairies inhabitingflowers,
of them
as
giantsinhabitingcastles ; so

ideas will be restricted

has

started

he cannot

think

that

in this

man

even

there

case

is

certain amount

consequentlyof

restriction and

jective
of ob-

belief.

in the
objectiverestriction is at its maximum
edge.
ends, and in the pursuitof knowlpursuitof practical
find
It is therefore only in these cases
that we
is not blended
full belief, belief which
with imagination,
Now

"

contrasted

but
confine

our

of

motives

with

ideal

efficient action.
will make

which
a

man

For

moment

we

may

The
practical
activity.
primary
lie in practicalneeds.
construction

attention

combinations

Ideal

it.

to

are

Only
action

builds

first framed
those

therefore

efficient.

bridge

with

across

By
a

are

ideal
stream

view

to

sought

for

tion
representabefore

he

thingimportant to him is that

he comes
it.
the bridge shall not give way when
to use
is strictly
the flow of ideal construction
limited.
Hence
of use
be
as
can
are
Only such ideal combinations
translated into corresponding perceptual experience;
In
others, therefore,are as far as possibleexcluded.
far as ideal constructions break
lated
down
on
so
being transof perceptualactivity,
the attitude of
into terms
has happened is the actual fact ;
disbelief arises. What
what was
anticipatedis contrasted with it as a false,
comes

to

it ; but

the

one

" 2.]

opinion. In this .way

and the false,
between
widened

becomes

It appears

IMAGINATION.

AND

BELIEF

and

547

the

antithesis between

the

credible

and

the

the

true

incredible,

deepened.

from, this that the

attitude

of belief

and

disbelief is

prior to the free play of imagination. But

the savage
is by no means
even
always in a strenuously
He
has his time for play as well as
practicalmood.
for work
of play,he indulges
other forms
; and
among
in the play of ideas.
When
he is comfortable
and idle,
it gives him
pleasure to represent things not as they
are, have

been,

will be, but

or

he

as

would

like them

to

He

in any way
which
happen to interest him.
may
his imaginings to his comrades,
communicate
may

and

they

be,

or

be

may

Such

handed

works

down

from

generation to

eration.
gen-

the

plays of Shakespeare,or
the novels of Thackeray, are
vanced
examples of the most addevelopment of this mode of mental activity.
Conditions
" 2. General
of Belief. There are two
main
pointsof view from which the problem of belief
be approached. It is at once
must
of activity,
a condition
and conditioned
by activity.
The relation of belief to activity,"
pressed
says Bain, is exby sayingthat what we believe we act on.' *
as

"

"

"

"

'

This

of

than

scrutiny will
Just
must

because
be

be

to

seem

may

show

that

belief

in

which

is

condition

alone
*

Mental

of

the

condition

means

of

To

an

end,

we

action
Moral

Science

of

But
is

quence
conse-

closer

superficial.

activity,
activity

strive after

an

end

for its attainment.

necessary

makes
and

belief.

criticism

of belief.

strivingafter

rather

statement

condition

is to strive after the

Hence

strive after the

with

view

(1872),p. 37".

to

lief
bethat

PSYCHOLOGY.

548

[BK.

iv.,

en.

vm.

practicaland
in determining
This holds good
of practical
as

psychologicalpossibility.Thus
theoretical needs
play an essential part
end

what
in

shall and

we

shall

pursuit of

the

ends.

The
for

theoretical

of

man

useful
that

until
the

he

end

to
no

one

aimed
in

its mark

is

ought
at be

both
as

advance

to

apt

to

meet

pull

constructed
a

them

clingsto

he

He

himself

has

knowledge,
towards

him.

to

edge,
knowl-

advancing knowledge, clingsto

working hypotheses;
are

well

as

science, eager
of

sake

the

believe.

not

the

criticism
man's

down

better.

result
practical

cases

because

mind

or

an

they

by

ing
urg-

house

Whether
increase

presses

of

forward

it may, shaping those beliefs,

beliefs,which are most helpful to

best

clingingto those
per
it,and passing by those alternatives which would hamand paralyseits activity.
with the increase of
The
which
is concerned
activity
knowledge is in order of development subsequent to
ends.
The
the activity
which
directlypursues practical
ideal construction
which
is directlysubservient
to action
cerning
brings into being a connected
system of ideas conthe world
Theoretical
and
the Self.
activity
consists in further development of this same
system of
results.
It
ideas without
direct reference
to practical
free play of the imagination,but consists in the
is no
of beliefs,
velopmen
it is the further deformation
just because
of a pre-formed system of beliefs. The conditions
and limitations of this system as a whole
apply
refuses
all enlargements of it. It excludes
to
to
or
include all merely imaginary combinations.
side of the question.
Let us
turn
to the other
now
but
Belief is not only conditioned
by mental activity,
and

"

restriction of mental

involves

also

is of the very

coercion

IMAGINATION.

AND

BELIEF

2.]

endeavour

belief,we

in its

consciousness.
of
of A

JB

as

is

There

Where

or

of doubt

state

accompanied by
which
that

so
a

arrive

shall be

we

of

play

mere

determine

shall

at

able

to

is

find

as

purely a

it is

ter
mat-

shall think

we

belief

no

disbelief.

or

of choice

something

not

is

selves
our-

the other,
or
way
arrive at a belief.
is
There
us

is absent.

restriction

it is

this freedom

imagination

belief

framing

individual

own

whether

when

effort to

an

our

feel that

we

not-JB^there

as

In

represent real existence

arbitrarychoice

own

our

in determining

be the sole factor.

to

fluence
in-

Whatever

have

may

independentlyof

nature,

own

such

as

activity.Objective

of belief.

essence

subjectiveneeds
belief,they can never

549

one

this

when
For

endeavour
belief

actual

to

belief,
dis-

or

of

is necessary.
subjectivefreedom
Thus
belief is at once
and
dependent on activity
limitation of activity.There
is no contradiction ; on
on
the contrary, the two
coincide.
pointsof view ultimately
Belief
depends on subjectivetendencies, just because
some

these

tendencies

it.

Ends

but

in order

only

can

to

work

cannot

use

themselves

realised

be

we

means,

by

must

the

have

without

out

use

of

means;

belief

some

in

their

the impulse to pursue

end
is
an
efficacy
; hence
also an
action
impulse to form beliefs which will make
for the attainment
of the end
possible. But it is not
within the range of our
arbitraryselection to determine
what
will lead up to a given end, and what
means
will
This depends on
not.
the nature
of the real world
in

which
a

we

live.

belief be

There

always

other

than,

some

and

must

therefore

endeavour

in the
to

framing of

conform

independent of, our

to
own

ditions
con-

sub-

PSYCHOLOGY.

550

[BK.

iv.,

vm.

CH.

Our
wise
otherto attain ends
inability
jectivetendencies.
than through certain means
constitutes a restriction
less definite channels.
within more
of mental
or
activity
freedom
identical with
If wishing were
having, our
be no
such thing as
be absolute,and there would
would

belief.

The

certain

result

combinations

mental

without

ends
wish

resistance

of the

and

belief,
"

form

our

of

our

of

the

tread.

Importance of the
of Belief. There
"

co-operate in the formation

the other

jective
Subare,

of

Neither
objective.
be operative.

must

importance may vary greatly.

make
it necesof practical
needs may
sary
decision
where
a
objectivedata are
death
climbs
cliff to escape
a
by

who

must

attain

independent
independently
we

be

relative

to

come

drowning
though he

more

is sufficient by itself ; both

their

He

no

which

on

which

urgency

scanty.

walk

can

and
subjective,

one

But

to

control

what

thinking,to

Our
can

in the Relative

factors

keen

we

Objective Factors

of these factors

The

we

ground

" 3. Variation

then, two

free;

submittingto

will, than

or

will.

make

to

ing
devis-

In

us.

free

not

are

we

be

effective,cannot

we

issue in

will

independentlyof

end,

an

steps which

the

fixed

are

to

means

of

nature

would

foothold

whatever

use
never

trusted

have

to

presents itself,
it without

ing
press-

practicalneed to
ity,
a
belief,because indecision would paralyseactivtions
the mind
whatever
must
rest
on
objectiveindicaor
suggestions it can
find, however
slightthese
motives.

So

On

the

may
to be

The

which

be.

where

other

there will
satisfied,
mind

will occupy
lie in the line of

there

hand,

is

where

there

is

no

interest

tendency to form a belief.

itself only with those questions
direction of its own
activity.
be

no

551

IMAGINATION.

AND

BELIEF

" 3.]

subjectivefactor is the more

primitiveis psychical
prominent and dominant, the more
ly
development in general. Primitive beliefs are nearinfluence

The

all relevant

the

the

to

which

interests

tical
pracsavage

involved,

are

body of belief often resting on

foundations.
what
to us extremelyfrail objective
appear
does
The
not
concern
itself,or only
primitive mind
fall outside
with questionswhich
itself,
slightlyconcerns
interests.
circle of practical
of its narrow
the range
But increasingknowledge finds relevancy where
ance
ignorin neglectingwhatever
does
fails to find it. Thus
not
obviously relate to immediately engrossingneeds,
is really
the primitivemind
which
must
neglect much

they

take

shape

relevant
data
their

to

them.

of the

utmost

relevancy is

Hence,

in

the

importance
hidden

and

formation

effort.

Thus

of

objectivedata
with

Besides

do

which

its immediate

not

aims

constitutingthe

formation

of
to

formed.

belief, the

determine
When

the

made

be

cannot

of

the
the

apparent
is

narrower

predominance

mind

is blind

obviously connect
and

belief,

ignored because

will be

the greater is
interests,
subjectivefactor,because the

the circle
the

patientmental

without

of

in

of immediate

activities of the

the
these

Wherever

confined.

circle

narrow

within

interests
are

of

selves
them-

tendencies.

impelling motives for

subjective factor also
nature

to

of

the

beliefs

the
tributes
con-

which

negativejudgment would
lyse
parathe active tendency is a force arrayed on
activity,
the side of the positive
If a
judgment, and vice versa.
certain ideallyrepresented combination
presents itself
the only condition,or the most
favourable
as
condition,
of attaining
a certain
end, the active tendency towards

are

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

552

this end

is of itself a

believe

tendency to

CH.

iv.,

in the

vm.

ideally

of this is tantaIf denial

mount
represented combination.
to sacrificing
a cherished
aim, the whole strength
of desire
helps to enforce the affirmative side. Thus
of vigorous and
are
temperament
courageous
persons
this
Indeed
they wish to believe.
apt to believe what
stated as a maxim
is sometimes
holding good of human
credita
creduntur, quae
beings in general. Tarde
not
must
laedunt, says Ovid ; but we
push this view
of
is one
attitude
far.
the general mental
Where
too
or
fear,or timidity,
gloomy suspicion,it does not hold
good. Fear or timidityor gloomy suspicion favours
the tendency
belief in disagreeablealternatives.
Where
is not
to face and
fightdifficulties and dangers, but to
evade
and
them, action will be most effectively
escape
of the
view
unfavourable
guided by taking the most
circumstances*
be

on

the

safe

of
superstitions

this influence
It should
between

side.

There

which

savages

of fear upon

belief is not

other

to

as

and

to

the

psychologicalpoint
be

is much
shows

in

is better

the

manifest

to

religious
traces

of

belief.

condition

so
activity,

may

false,it

that the distinction

clearlyunderstood
and the objective
co-efficients of
subjective
tinction
a
logicalbut a purely psychologicaldis-

Whatever

It

is

alarm

an

be

the

make

if

Even

that

ways

the

controls

enforce

difficult
of view

control

one
or
an

thus

limits

and
way

of

jective
sub-

thinking,

is from
impossible,
objectivecoercion.
exercised

does

not

reallyproceed from the nature of the object as known

to more
highly developed minds.
Logical analysisfrom
that
show
the point of view of higher knowledge may
is operativeis some
association of ideas,which,
what

it may

though

and

casual

be

recogniseit

to

casual

as

from

of

view
and

that
events

and
must

mind

is unable

which

irrelevant,the
if it

as

appear

less

the

none

coercive

proceeded

of the

objectrepresented. The words

and
"irrelevant"
imply that a systematic
objectiverelations has already been formed,
this system excludes
of things
the connexion
suggested by the association which is called

the nature

"casual"

insistent,is
for

But

of the association

power

or

and

vivid

irrelevant.

553

IMAGINATION.

AND

BELIEF

" 3.]

and

irrelevant

casual.

But

mind

has

which

not

tained
at-

this

tween
distinguishbesystematicview cannot
control reallyproceedingfrom
the nature
of the
object,and control proceedingfrom what is recognised
connexion
at a higher standpointas^a merely subjective
to

of

ideas.

Hence-

savages

to

appear

confuse

to

us

jective
ob-

with

tween
"saaj"jfrctive
necessity.Any association beA
and B
through which the idea of A vividly
calls up the idea of J3 may
lead to a
insistently

and

belief in
anger
the

real connexion

trample

we

doing the

man

real and

man's

avoid

to

moment

on

himself

between

them.

If in

it
portrait,

believingthat we
a direct injury.
belief that

fit of

is difficult for

by

are

The

the

savage

act

has

injuredin
such ways.
He thinks,for instance,that by destroying
he can
a man's
footprints
spoilhis journey or make him
lame.
So the Chinese
believes that by hanging up in
a

permanent

ancient

his house

influence
whom

the

coins
There

which

is
On

coins
of

the

were

is

he

men

for

secures

spiritsof
issued.

can

the

Such

be

himself

the

emperors

instances

tective
prounder

are

numerab
in-

nothing in the beliefs thus formed

with the preformed system of beat variance
liefs.
the contrary they are
in full harmony with

[BK.iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

554

and

subjectiveinterests

Hence

this.

insistent

of

associations

together with

ideas

vm.

CH.

vivid

unresisted

exercise

control.

subjectivefactor is more
in primitivethought is that the preformed
dominant
perfectl
body of belief is comparativelysmall in extent and imfully
organised. A body of belief is more
organised in proportion as the denial of this or that
into its composition
of ideas which
enters
combination
main

One

involves

the whole

unified

reason

greater and
system.

whole

to

the

why

destructive

more

Savage

nearly

beliefs

the

are

same

alteration

not

woven

extent

as

into

in
a

civilised

objectivefactor is
tions
convicof pre-established
the influence
smaller.
For
of
in determining the credibility
or
incredibility
new
objective. However
suggestionsis in its nature
the old beliefs have been formed, and whether
they are
true
or
false,they are affirmations or denials of real
sistency
of its inconis rejectedbecause
existence.
Whatever
is accepted because
with
them, and whatever
be inconsistent with them, is accepted
its denial would
it is felt to be implied in or excluded
or
rejectedbecause
the
Thus
by the constitution of the real world.
factor develops as the general
influence of the objective
more
highly
body of belief grows in extent and becomes
beliefs; hence

the

influence

of the

systematised.
enough, truth
the gainer; for error
be
cannot
must
ultimately be
in relativelyearly stages of
self-consistent.
But
made
of an opposite
the process the result is to a large extent
the pressing
Beliefs shaped in ignorance under
kind.
of practical
needs help to produce new
beliefs,
urgency
In

this process,

when

it is carried

far

and

give rise

to

the

united

any

part of it.

shaped and
community
factor
of

of

individual

determined
in

which

paramount

depends

course

beliefs at first

came

adequate basis

in

by

Factor.
social
to

are

the

is

But

its

importance.
on

the

into

by

process

fact,their social

in

the

objective
logicalvalue

an

which

current

these

When

being.

extent

current

This

struction
con-

Hence

immense

an

with

Ideal

"

product.

beliefs

lives.

he

that

so

resists interference

of the whole

beliefs of the

of error,

organisedsystem

an

force

555

IMAGINATION.

Influence of the Social

is,as we have seen, a

" 4.

the

AND

BELIEF

" 4.]

have

endorsement

no

simply

safeguard them againstdoubts to which the

experience of individuals might otherwise give rise. If
belief in witchcraft,for instance,is already established
a
to

serves

in
have

in

will have
who

community, those persons

their own
experience evidence
immense
an
advantage over

who

venture

may

reasoning

and

to

exhaustive

for

research

its

they
reality

individuals

any
The

most

will

have

them.

oppose

think

acute

little

chance

againstthe most flimsyand prejudicedtale of

old women
causing sickness in children or preventing
the cows
from
It must
futile and
seem
yieldingmilk.
other explanationsof these pheto put forward
nomena
perverse
when
there alreadyexists an established explanation
which, so to speak, forms part of the social order.
The

adverse

critic is

an

eccentric

who

person

individual
He

is

thing

fancy in oppositionto the whole

promptly suppressed. It is however
that

such

critic should

itself apart from

the

of

his

community.
a

arise within
intrusion

sets

very

rare

the

munity
com-

fluences
foreign in-

PSYCHOLOGY.

556

[BK.

en.

iv.,

vm.

their
people of a community often maintain
of the
each other, as the inhabitants
beliefs by trusting
ScillyIslands are said to have eked out a precarious
livelihood by taking in each other's washing.
Features
Belief. We have
" 5. Some
of Primitive
of new
beliefs depends at every
that the formation
seen
The

"

step

in

Thus,
have

to

side

we

familiar

are

established.

are

the power

to

have

us

understanding of

natural

of interaction
modern

of the

or

savage,

the

in the

not

are

the

parts which
there

Hence

is

individual

the

no

they are separated from

this,the primitiveview
individual
this

respect

which
he

whole

has

the

ours.

influenced
and

connected
habitually

in

thing
any-

thing

mines
deter-

the connexion
of

the

thing.
parts of
when

even

Besides

in space.

is and

call casual

we

on

component

other

of what

differs from

unity

act

interact

not

each

powerfully

should

the

produces
reason
why
should

to

present

bers
ignorant memstractly
early thought, it is ab-

of its parts ; it is not

whole

of

the

society. For
conceivable
that anything should
else. The
unity of the individual

of

ning
begin-

tions
generalcondithings constantly

to

even

of civilised

the connexion

ical
mechan-

certain

which

culture

particular,

limited in the range

material

between

into

come

In

was

process

extremelyrudimentary and
there are
its application.Hence

the mind

yet

construction,and

of mechanical

recognisedby

not

stages of development.

in earlier

being

beliefs which

thought, we
reviewing the historyof human
of two
take account
points. On the negative
remember
that complex systems of
have
to

which

ideas

of the

the nature

on

part of

is not
The

by

savage

an

is in

associations

irrelevant.

thought with

Whatever
a

person

BELIEF

"5.]

IMAGINATION.

AND

557

thing,he is disposed to regard as part of that person

or
thing, and as having sympathetic communion

or

with

it.

body

with
has

who
done

to

that what
to

continues

He

to

associate

vividly the

dead

lost

ghost,the amputated limb with the man

it,and he cannot
help feelingthat what

the

body

the

is done

the

associates

makes
to

man

who

man's

the
has

difference

amputated
lost it.

clothes,or

limb

the

to

makes

he
Similarly,

his tools

and

is

ghost, or
a

ence
differ-

ly
habitualweapons,

himself ; in thinking
belongings,with the man
of the personal belongings,
he is impelled to think
of the person, and he is led to regard them
as
part and
these external
parcel of the total personality.Hence
external
appendages are for him no mere
appendages ;
the unity of the individual is present and
operativein
them.
By appropriatinga dead man's spear, he may
appropriatehis skill and good-fortune, and the like.
The
unity of the world in general is vaguely conceived
or

his other

after

analogy of the unity of the individual thing.

The unity of the world is not explainedaccording to a
and abstract laws regulating
the connexion
system of uniform
of its parts. On the contrary, thingsand events
are
supposed to be capable of sympatheticcommunion
world.
just because they form part of the same
thing
Anyfrom
this point of view may be reallyconnected
in determinate
acteristic
charways with anything else.- Specific
and modes
of behaviour,will appear
powers,
ultimate and inexplicable.They will appear
what
as
as
should
call occult qualities
intrinsic to the things
we
themselves, and not as admittingor requiringfurther
nexion
analysisor explanation. Any interaction or real conbe accepted as a fact,if it be vividlyimmay
the

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

558

in relation

the mind

pressedon
interest.

example,

For

of

course

the

world

future

belief in
Often

divination.

keener

no

Hence

signs and

is felt in

find

we

in various

is made

all

over

of

methods

and

omens,

more

or

that which

than

events.

appeal

strong practical

some

is

there

widespread practicalinterest
the

to

vm.

CH.

iv.,

to

ways

superhuman being supposed to possess prescience.But

in the most
simple cases, anything which is found suggestive
the

to

interested

persons

be

may

regarded

as

Tshi-speakingtribes of the Gold

in a variety
Coast, divination is practisedby the priests
of ways
ment.
as
they are guided by the capriceof the moof ascertainingwhich
In time of war, a method
a

the

sign. Among

party will get the better,is

to

of

names

the

and
when

the

the

it is

rope

of

is that

breaks

fastened

rope

being pulled,the
called

is called

which

name

on

combating parties are

gain the advantage. We

fortune-tellingby cards,

out

at the

out

nately,
alter-

moment

will

party which

the

the belief in
compare
found
is sometimes
which
may

ourselves.

among
This

imposed on
knowledge,
nature,

trasting
point to be emphasised in conlimitations
with savage thought. The
ideal construction
by our pre-existing
of
view
especiallyby our mechanical

is the

then

cultured
our

and

first

non-existent

are

consideringthe

besides
savage

mind,

of the

ideas

unity is

we

familiar

among

seen

to

for
ideas

the

which

savage
are

mind.

absent

But

from

the

the

positivenature
ing.
most
are
predominant in his thinkthat the conceptionof individual
him and constantlyutilised by him ;

must

which

have

We

but

haul

While

till it breaks.

tree

to

also

all individuals

consider

those

which

are

most

famil-

"5.]

and
iar,interesting,
himself

and

lives.

Hence

which

things in
a
as

source

in
of

terms

Whatever

having

good
his

analogous to
failure

to

natural

events

and

beings,

human

are

"

"

the

and

understand
and

existence

more

or

as

him
less

possiblebecause of his
mechanical
explanation of
is

This

own.

fixes his interest

himself,is regardedby

evil to

of conscious

sort

some

of

his attention

arrests

of

known,

societyin which he
and
constant
prevailingtendency
primitivethought to interpretall
personal life and personalrelations.

the

find

we

best

members

the

559

IMAGINATION.

AND

BELIEF

the

processes.

the

When

and

structure

is fullyunderstood,
operationof a piece of mechanism
it can
no
longer be regarded as a separate and independent
prompted by internal impulses,analogous
agency
will of personal beings. But
where
the printo the
ciple
of action is regarded as
something ultimate and
of the individual
independent,intrinsic to the nature
ing
thing,there is nothing to prevent the mind from treatthe
as
personal or quasi-personal. The
agency
the whirlpool appears
cataract
or
a
livingthing to the
he ignores
poet in his poeticmoods
; for in these moods
is simply behaving in accordthe fact that the water
ance
with
certain
abstract
laws
under
certain given
conditions.
This fact is not ignored by the savage ; it
has never
been realised by him.
Hence
what
may be a
transient
play of imaginationin the civilised mind, is
the permanent
It is permanent

and
and

serious

attitude

of the

serious because

it is

own

fellows

mind.

prompted and
In presence
of personal
himself
utterly helpless.

upheld by practicalneeds.
feel
never
agencies,he can
He
can
always attempt to influence
his

savage

in

society. He

them
can

as

he

fluence
in-

propitiate

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

560

course,

these

in

case

the

incalculable

into

elements

to make
only serves
anthropomorphic point of

the

possiblethe

this

But

of the

survival

prayers,

introduce

perverseness

problem.

vm.

by self-humiliation,
by
threats
and
punishments. Of
often fail ; but they fail frequently
means
of human
beings. Personal
caprice and

by offerings,by
and
even
by
flattery,
them

en.

iv.,

view.

Failure

can
always be explained,and apparent success
Continued
always be regarded as convincingevidence.
malignancy on the part of the supposed personalagency
of neglect
can
always be ascribed to deep resentment
of injurydone
to it,consciouslyor unshown
to it,or
consciously.
can

it is

Besides

things
had

have

would

still

been

worse

say

if proper

that

methods

taken.

been

not

always possibleto

primitiveconceptionof
personalexistence differs in many points from our own ;
in the mode
of personifying
and this difference
appears
natural objectsand agencies. Just as the human
son
perhas an internal and external self,personified
things
It has

have

also

been

shown

that

an

internal

and

self in

duplicateof

the

of

case

the

the

external
human

self ; and

beings

is

as
a

ternal
the insort

of

body, so all things which are regarded

of a
as
separate agenciesare supposed to have spirits
kind.
doctrine
Hence
similar
the widespread savage
double."
The ghost of a spear
that everythinghas its
exist and kill people after the spear itself has been
may
sacrifices of food, clothes,and utensils
destroyed. When
made
to the dead
counterparts
are
body, their spiritual
that the
are
appropriatedby the soul. We saw
personat
imindividual
have
not
same
only two but many
may
of this kind,all in sympathetic
communion
"

AND

BELIEF

" 5.]
with

each

other,

so

IMAGINATION.

the

that

561

unity

of

the

whole

is

This is even
operativein all of them.
of natural
when
true
more
agencies personified,
they
are
powerful and important. Savage deities often
in this way.
To select an
originateand are conceived
is a god called Behnya worinstance
at random, there
shipped
by the Tshi-speaking tribes of the Gold Coast.
Behnya is primarily a river ; he has also a human
He
has an
image and
shape, with whip and sword.

present and

stool,which

offered

victims

into

cut

was

used

outskirts

of

hostile

force

certain

rock

to be washed

to him.

The

with

body

the blood

of human

of the human

victim

small
the
to

in

pieces,and distributed round the

town, rendering it impossiblefor a

make
which

There

entrance.

an

his

influence

was

also

was

present and

the human
operative. Thus the river itself,
shape, the
image and stool,the pieces of the body of the human
all separate vehicles of the
victims,and the rock, were
influence

of

Behnya.

He

was

impersonatedin

all of

the

v.

them.*
*

Ellis, The

Psych.

Tshi-speaking

People

of

Gold

Coast, chap.

36

CHAPTER

IX.

FEELING-TONE

OF

IDEAS.

pleasuresand painsof ideational process have two

sources.
They are either due
of the feeling-tone
of an
actual sensation
to a remnant
depende
in ideal revival,
or
or
perceptionpersisting
they arise inin and through the ideational process itself
directed toward
It must
also be
end.
as
an
an
activity
borne
in rnind that trains of ideational
thought always
have
an
accompaniment of organic sensation faint or
intense.
sibility,
senThey occasion changes in the common
which
have often a conspicuousfeeling-tone.
ing-tone
FeelConditions
" 2. Revived
of Feeling -Tone.
Its recurrence
be directlyrevived.
cannot
of the originalconditions
depends on the re-instatement
of production. Now
the
reproductionof the
percept in the ideal image is at the best only partial,
and we
should
therefore
expect the revival of feelingof course
also. Much
allowance
tone
to be partial
must
" 1. Introductory.
"

The

"

be

made

for

differences

between

individuals

but

it

generallythat the pleasuresand pains of

in the correactual sensation
sponding
are
very faintlyechoed
ideal images. Some
of intense
apparent cases
revival
are
illusory,
being reallydue to concomitant
organicsensations. Thus the idea of undergoing a sur-

may

be

said

562

IDEAS.

OF

FEELING-TONE

" 2.]

563

gicaloperationmay produce a widespread and intensely

sensibility
disagreeabledisturbance of common
; but the
idea of being
does not belong to the mere
feeling-tone
that
seem
Excluding such cases, it would
cut, etc.
sensational pleasuresand pains occur
only to a
strictly
very

limited

in

extent

revival.

ideal

guard againstmaking

visualise

who

vividness

enjoy them
approaching

ment,

in

also

can
a

way

can

absolute

too

Probably persons

We

must
a

colours

in their ideal
more

nearly

ever
how-

statement.

with

great

re-instatethe

actual

experiencethan persons who visualise poorly can

readilycomprehend.
The
tion
pleasuresand pains due to perceptualcombinaand
in general more
in space
time are
perfectly
have
recoverable
sufficient power
of
a
by those who
ideal imagery. The
visualise distinctly
who
can
man
in recalling
before
and vividly,
his mental
may,
eye a
to
his
a
picture or a landscape,renew
large extent
few persons
originalenjoyment of it. There are some
giftedwith an exceptionalpower of auditory revival
who
can
as
enjoy music almost as well in reminiscence
main
in actual hearing. The
drawback
they find is the
them.
effort which
it costs
Actual
hearing is very
sense

much

In

easier.
actual

perceptionan object may be pleasingor

not
of
through the immediate
displeasing,
feeling-tone
the sensations
which
it produces or their grouping in
and
time, but through the previous experiences
space
with
which
it has been
connected.
The
sight of a
bunch
of grapes
give pleasure in part because we
may
have had the experience of eatinggrapes.
The feelingtone

is due

to

the re-excitement

of the

cumulative

dis-

PSYCHOLOGY.

564

[BK. iv.,

CH.

ix.

by previous experiencesof the

this cumulative
dispositionis also rewith it the feeling-tone.
excited in ideal revival,and
of the
In general,the agreeableness
or
disagreeableness
behind

positionleft
object. Now

ideal revival is not

conditions,it

is

about, and
here

With
And
And
And

and

here

Upon
With

by

referred

to

have

been

of

reminiscence.

flake

foamy

of

number

effect of
the

of ideal

objectspleasantly
past experiences

total result is

tremely
ex-

pleasuresand pains

revival of past activities in which

triumphant or

difficulties overcome,

grayling,

succession,and

lies in the reminiscent

lusty trout,

golden gravel.

the cumulative
in

silvery waterbreak

agreeable.
very important source

we

the

out,

I travel

similar poems,

In this and

are

many

some

sailing,

there

there
as

me,

Above

toned

there

and

here

in and

blossom

and

here

ing
interfer-

degre'e.
best effects by accumulating
which
pleasingassociations
is a good example.

produce their
references
to objectsround
cling. Tennyson's Brook
I wind

in

generallypresent

often

Poets

apart from

intense ; but

so

defeated.

the greater in

Where

we

The

greater the

general is
have

been

the

ure
pleas-

successful

struggle,the pleasure of ideal revival is often

unmixed
than
the pleasure of the original
much
more
experience. In recalling
past obstacles and difficulties,
been
that they have
have
we
always the consciousness
the disagreeand this reduces
to a minimum
ableness
overcome,
of the original
struggle. We are not bound to
after

dwell

unpleasant parts

the

on

detail than
length or in more
Even
pleasures of success.

The
raised

past

us

to

success

or

itself is

in

failure

as

more

from

of indifference.

victory. If

of

on

the

been

have

we

more

feated,
de-

pleasing
pleasing than dismere
lapse of time has
which we
can
regard

matter

past strugglescontinues

our

where

view

point of
kind

experienceat
is required to enhance

is that the

reason

565

of the

is often

reminiscence

IDEAS.

OF

FEELING-TONE

any

the

This

reminiscence

ground

to

of

be interesting,

givesus pleasure rather than pain.* Besides

less lightly
over
or
rences
occurcan
always skip more
in their ideal
be disagreeable
would
which
even
it

this

we

revival.
All

that
be

must

we

said

have

with

understood

It is necessary

to

revival

of

feeling-tone
important qualification.

about
one

distinguishbetween

the

attitude

of

ideal
imaginationand the attitude of belief. The mere
of an
objectmay in itself give pleasure
representation
or
ure
pain ; but this must not be confused with the pleasor
pain arising from our belief in the existence
of the objectunder
non-existence
or
given conditions.
the pleasure of ideal revival
is at its maximum
Doubtless
of the pleasure of anticiit takes the form
when
pation.
A
livingin a crowded
citymay take
person
and woods
trees
and mountains
recalling
pleasure in ideally
a mere
as
source
play of imagination. But a new
he finds that he can
of intenser
pleasure arises when
take a holiday and
land
actuallyvisit the scenery of ScotSwitzerland.

or

is

mind
*

Of

continue

course

The

reverse

disagreeablydisturbed
this is not

to affect

the

unfavourably

when

case
our

when

occurs

by

the

the

consequences

present

position.

thought
of

his
that

past defeat

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

566

these

beyond

thingsare

Ms

reach.

"

busy

iv.,

CH.

ix.

reads

man

day, and finds himself led off

by a reference to anglingor tropicalscenery to picture
for Scotland, or
himself
with his rods packed en route
for the fairylandof the
booked
by the next steamer
Indies.
West
Presently,while the ideas of Jamaica or
cied
at least as vividly
are
imagined as before,the fanfishing
preparationsreceive a rude shock as the thought of
a

novel

his

close

the

at

of the

recurs,9'*

work

attention

of

direction

The
to

"rude

existence

actual

the

is due

shock"

to

the
non-

or

previouslymerely imagined.
This brings with it a desire for the actual experiences
of reach
belief that they are
The
themselves.
out
this desire and produces pain which
thwarts
displaces,
often though not
always completely, the pleasures of
imagination. In general, the thought of a pleasing
reach
gives
object which is recognisedas beyond our
there is a desire for its
pain rather than pleasure when
actual possession.To enjoy the pleasureof ideal revival
of unattainable
be able to
in the case
objects,we must
adopt the attitude of imaginationor make-believe, and
this is very often impossible.
" 3. Feeling -Tone
Activity itself.
of Ideational
forms.
two
assume
Belief. Ideational
activitymay
On the one
hand, it may be directed to the production
of what

existence

has

been

"

of

some

of

our

knowledge

it may

be
of

quite the
*

result in the

new

Ward's
xx.,

real

of the real

world,

world;

or

on

to

the increase

the other

play of the imagination. The

pleasureand pain in the two cases
a

mere

and

same,
article

p. 74.

"

it will be well

Psychology," Encyclopaedia

to

treat

them

Britannica,

hand,
tions
condinot

are

sepaninth

tion,
edi-

rately. In
make

to

both

it

so
as
activity
conduces
to pleasure; and
efficient,
conduces
it inefficient,
it and makes

whatever

furthers

first those

trains

cases

more

obstructs

whatever

567

IDEAS.

OF

FEELING-TONE

" 3.]

pain.

to

shall consider

We

the increase

of

obstruction

and
and

production of real results or

of furtherance
knowledge. Two modes
be
distinguished, the material
may
the

towards

directed

are

which

of ideas

"

the formal.

Material

which
of

plan

the

to

or

the

actuallybar

would

stances
circum-

ideallyforeseen

consist in

obstacles

of

occurrence

the

to

way

tion
execu-

desired

event.

body's power of
of thinking ; whatever
power
structs
of a plan, obthe execution
seen.
foreit is ideally
of the plan,when
the formation
If I am
planning an excursion and discover that
railway arrangements at a certain place are fatal to
hinders

Spinoza says, whatever

acting hinders the mind's
would, in fact,obstruct

As

the

its execution, this circumstance

ideas

just

belief that
the

it would

as

certain

ideal train of

interfere
has

with
said

been

their

will

event

thought,just as

train of

the

actual

of

obstacles

facilitate the execution

of

is

with

interferes

itself would

event

What

occurrences.

of

ances.
further-

which

would

equally true

circumstances
an

The

realisation.

occur

the

flow of my

the

arrests

arrest

previsionof

The

the

facilitates its

ideal scheme

formation.
Formal

furtherances

obstacles

and

the form

of the flow of ideas

those

are

which

depend
ideas

than

on

themselves.

They are
misapprehension or

to

the

actual

due

and

rather

confusion

circumstances

of

the

not

to
on
case.

on

error,
our

the

noran
igpart,

Doubt

CH.

iv.,

ix.

arisingat a critical point arrest

of ideas, just as the positiveprevisionof an
If in laying our
obstacle
does.
plans for

contradiction

and
flow

excursion
at

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

568

certain

no

means

there
fit for

our

conflict

thought.

Suppose

that

there

will be

will

be

blocks

the

that

now

state

have

we

of

flow

not, be

train

unjustified,

onward

of

progress

authority,A, says
that there
another, _Z?,

one

train, and

train,the

no

will

and
equally justified

are

an

belief that

The

suspense.

belief that there

purpose
their

that

so

in

held

ternal
ex-

train arrangements

the

place are unfavourable, but that

of finding out
what
they are, the

activityis
will,and the

mental

that

discover, not

we

the

of

is intensified.

suspense

arisingfrom ignorancepasses into the doubt

of
The
statement
arisingfrom positivecontradiction.
furthers
stimulates
the one
and
while
activity,
person
of the other suppresses
it. If in the long
the statement
doubt

The

we

run

come

just at

runs

the time

and

tension

evidence

upon

we

constitutes

proves
it,there is a

want

in

bound

onward

an

that

which

the

release

flow

of

train
from

thought
of

highly pleasurablefurtherance
activity.Similarly,
apart from any previous doubt

which

contradiction,the
to

the

arrange

fit into
source

is the

each

fact that

mere

details
other

of

without

hitch

pleasure. Another
struggleto find connexion

isolated.

our

efforts continue

This

is

ourselves

complex plan

of

spite of

find

we

perhaps best

that

condition

between
to

so

able

they
is

hindrance,

or

formal

or

appear

data

of

illustrated when

pain

which

detached
we

in
and
are

attempting to follow the train of thought in another

person'smind? either by reading or listening. We are
the statements
between
lookingfor a logicalconnexion

FEELING-TONE

which

follow

the

or

of

effort the

is felt when
and

coherence,

and

painfulit is.

more

facts which
in

detached

have
minds

our

for

hard

too
subject-matter

instead

if the

other ; but

each

IDEAS.

OF

When

we

discern

apparentlydisconnected

and

the attention

we

as

and

one,

the detection

We

of these
we

for

resources

and

command

can

apprehension

but

common

of

the

us,

greater

laid down

our

ence
incohermental

correspondingpleasure
been previously
disjointed
are
one
brought under
be exemplifications
of the
different

conditions.

activityis increased.
principleamong diverse
instead of all
particulars,
being taxed in the separate
come
membra,' they be'disjecta
to

once

command

of

resemblances."

new

find

we

at

seem

expositionbe bad,

the

to
point of view, and shown
same
principleworking under
of mental
Here
the
efficiency
"

569

have

at

our

posal
dis-

enlarged field

an
*

the

structio
general principlethat obof mental
is painful,
and its furtherance
activity
pleasant. This is true, if properly understood;
which
there are
are
fusion
concomplications
apt to cause
if they are
not
carefully
all,
explained. Above

it must
end

have

be

noted

does

that

an

obstacle

to

the attainment

of

necessarily
bring mental activityto a
standstill.
is reallypainfulis dead
What
strain comparable
to pushing againstan
unyieldingwall. But an
formal
or
obstacle,whether
material,to the attainment
of an end, may
the flow
heighten instead of arresting,
of ideas,just as the dangers of mountaineeringcall into
of the climber, thereby increasing
play the resources
his bodilyand mental
and contributing
to his
activity,
an

Ward's

article

xx., p. 70.

not

"Psychology,"

Encyclopaedia

Britannica,

ninth

tion,
edi-

PSYCHOLOGY.

570

[BK.

in face of which
pleasure. A difficulty
is painfulin proportionto
himself helpless,

feels

man

the

ix.

CH.

iv.,

strength

On
the
tendency which it thwarts.
calls his powers
into
other
which
hand, a difficulty
of pleasbe a source
fuller and more
varied play,may
ure.
it will be actuallyso or
Whether
not, depends
of the case.
It is necessary
the specialconditions
upon
kinds
of end : in the one,
between
two
to distinguish
it is part and
tained
parcel of the end that it should be atin a certain
activity
by our own
; in the
way
of

the

conative

is

other, it
with
hit
for

or

without

mark

of indifference

matter

our

with

co-operation.If we
stone, it will give us
hit the mark

it

whether

occurs

trying to

are

satisfaction

no

; it will

give us no
and
satisfaction to walk up to the mark
place the stone
it. So in guessinga riddle it gives us comparatively
on
little satisfaction to be told the solution; the pleasure
lies in findingit out for ourselves.
On the other hand,
if we
tent
are
hungry and desire food, we are perfectlyconit placed on the table for us.
Our satisfaction
to have
is not at all diminished
by the fact that we did not
it ourselves ; on the contrary, the necessityof
prepare
be an actual
preparing it ourselves would in most cases
drawback.
two

We

kinds

between
of

else

somebody

have

of

them

fact,they

to

ends,
as
are

stated
so

as

the
to

bring

the

out

sharplyas possible. But

for

the

most

these

between

contrast

as

antithesis
a

matter

with

part blended

each

other, satisfaction lying partlyin the attainment of the

final result,which
call the material
end, and
we
may

partlyin
the formal
man

who

the

process

end.

We

of

attainingit,which

may

suppose

that

delightedin guessing riddles

we

CEdipus

; and

call

may
was

ordinarily

"3.]

FEELING-TONE

lie in

his satisfaction would

himself.

But

he

when

findingout

had

the

with

deal

to

571

IDEAS.

OF

for

answer

the

Sphinx,

his satisfaction would

mainly consist

of

being eaten.
would
ordinary riddle,difficulty
pleasure, because it would give

Thebes

Now
be

and

in the

mainly a

scope

case

in
of

his
an

of

source

own

in the

deliverance

from

escape

"

for the fuller exercise

of his mental

But

powers.

in

guessingthe riddle of the Sphinx, the conditions are

of Thebes
altered ; for here the welfare
and
essentially
his own
life were
these interests had
at stake, and
a
much
greater relative importance than the exercise of
inasmuch
his ingenuity in guessing riddles.
Thus
as
the difficulty
the attainment
of the
doubt
threw
on
material
end, it would
bring unmixed
pain, which
would
and overbear
the ordinary
probably overwhelm
pleasureof (Edipus in overcoming intellectual obstacles,
We

may

sum

up

in face of

conation

follows.

as

The

continuance

of

dead
gives rise to mere
in so far as the subject
strain,and is therefore painful,
feels himself
On
powerless to deal with the obstacle.
the other hand, so far as the obstacle calls into play the
of the subject to overcome
resources
it,it heightens
free mental
and
to that extent
activity,
gives rise to
in this case
condition of pain is
a
pleasure. But even

introduced
makes

if and

doubtful

so

the

an

obstacle

far

as

the presence

attainment

of

that

of the

obstacle

final result

of

The
activitywhich we have called the material end.
pain is the greater, the stronger the doubt is,and the
greater the importance of the material end.
must
We
obstructed
carefullydistinguishbetween
and diminished
activity
activity.An obstacle blocking
the onward
progress of a train of thought has for its

PSYCHOLOGY.

572

first effect

intensification

[BK. iv.,
of

ix.

CH.

conative

the

tendency
It is only in a gradual
it -renders
ineffective.
which
in intensity,
until it is
way that the conation diminishes
other activity.This takes a longer
displacedby some
an

the stronger the interest involved.

time

or

The

of

removal

The

obstacle,either by

an

by external circumstances,is a
resultingpleasure is by no means
of the

is less,and

our

of

source
a

mere

often

tension

is not

it is greater.

When

prolonged and

too

pleasure.
lent
equiva-

Sometimes

pain of previousobstruction.
very

ity
activ-

own

the

it

ing
preced-

intense,the pleasure

pain which
such an activity
is its pre-condition.Thus
as
solvinga
chess-problem is predominantly pleasing,in spite of
periodsof dead strain,in which there appears no hope
So
novel
of solution.
with
a
a
good plot creates
checks
and releases
pleasureby a series of alternating
is found
in
of mental
extreme
case
activity. The
A
of the ludicrous.
certain forms
impels the
pun
mind
to identify
objectsutterlydisconnected with each
of relief for

This

other.

is

so

that

course

of the

flow

relief which
the

case

involves
of

that

called

be

it

with

be

the

and
conflict,

But

thought.

the

scarcely gives rise

pain

comes

may

part exceeds

most

of

transient
can

the

at

On

all.

source

of

obstruction
to

the other

insightinto
keen

the

structio
ob-

an

anything
hand

true

the

state

of

pleasure. Mental
mediatel
heightened is im-

activitysuddenly obstructed and so

ation
is so much
set free,and
greater than the situthat it has nothing to do but enjoy itself.
demands
It

be

should

increase

or

noted

further

which

that

mental

the

conditions

same

activity
may

excite
initially

it.

Let

also be
us

take

which

the

ditions
con-

the

case

FEELING-TONE

" 4.]
of

from

transition

opening

of the

which

conscious

life in

this there

will

because

and
are

of routine.
obstructed

conations

the

besides

were

atively
compar-

rich

it has
But

; the

One

"

is the

end.

ideational

same

The

process

will

transform

besides

his routine

ambitions

he

habits,so

has
of
soon

changed
which

into

is

matter

mere

condition

the

this there

become

them

them
of

which

to

man

been

open

previouslylatent

conscious

; but

as

wealth

opposite case

many

calls
satisfaction,

imagination

the material

the

by poverty,

Feeling -Tone

Imagination.
of

But

his

partly because

time

same

crushed

because

of

of these

In

poor,

of life

conations

conscious

" 4.

accession

be

attention

no

these

poor,

satisfaction

in his mode

they

as

remained

conations.

projectswill

course

which

he

becoming

man

paid

be

in

large part

tendencies

it will at the

conscious

much

effect may

period of poverty.

the

sudden

tendencies, and

and

first the sudden

One

actually played

field for the

rich

tune,
for-

field for the satisfaction of conative

while

The

them.

into

riches.

into

come

displaced by more
pressingneeds and partly
of the hopelessness of attempting to satisfy

were

free

he has

Consider

to

be many

latent

573

IDEAS.

that

one.

poverty

tendencies

they

lost

that he has

or

the

finds,either

who

man

OF

into

denies

being.

of Ideational

Activity itself.
grand characteristic of the play
absence
end

of what

we

have

called

is

simply the working-out of

itself,
apart from any specialresult

produced in the real world or in the advancement

of our
knowledge of it. This gives imaginationa
great advantage as a pleasure-yielding
activity. In
pursuingmaterial ends, we are subjectto the real conditions
to be

on

which

their

attainment

depends.

We

are

PSYCHOLOGY.

574

thus

compelled

that

we

are

that

we

meet

for

strong

as

lion,this

lion

the

rending

is

imposes.

hand, limitingconditions
If

only

like

begin by fancying

we

and

Samson,

as

ix.

culties
diffi-

and

of the real world

imagination,on the other

imposed by ourselves.

are

CH.

iv.,

obstructions

all the

the constitution

which
In

face

to

[BK.

proceed to fancy

favourable

kid.

If

nity
opportuother

the

on

meeting a lion,the problem

actuallyanticipate
need introis how
duce
We
to avoid
being rent ourselves.
obstacles
into the flow of imaginative activity,
no
by imaginary
easilybe overcome
except such as can
conditions
and
to enhance
our
so
serve
pleasureon the
Take
for example such an imaginary narrative
whole.
hand

we

Dumas'

as

Of
in

there

course

the

Christo

Monte

play

be

must

Three

The

or

certain

Musketeers.

internal

coherence

imagination. Explicit contradictions

pains of obstruction as they do in the

of

give rise to the

ends or of knowledge.
pursuitof practical
the logicalincoherence
Besides
arisingfrom
doubt

contradiction,there

or

affectingthe
apart from
of

an

reference

this head

Under

its

better
in

pleasing. We
but
a

its

may

apparent

pavement.

by
that

its function.

parts appear

the

it appears

on,

idea

the

or

of

the

quite well

in

kind
a

of

on

key

of
so

unfit for its proper

the
that

ment
pave-

the

mosaic,

interferes with

same

sight of

worked
effect

relief,the
know

structure

for this purpose

; if it is

object,

an

non-existence.

function

The

and

unevenness

The

of

ence
of incoher-

kind

incongruitybetween

trodden

it is the

its existence

to

comes

object and
is to be

level

formation

is also

explicit

eye
it is
our

more

so

that

is
even

idea

un-

of

unpleasantness is produced
elaboratelydecorated
function.

Similarly

FEELING-TONE

" 5.]
the

lover

of

favourite

books

volume

Most

people who
like

words
This

have

of

English mode

down

due

be

may

if he

discomforted

feels

upside

575

IDEAS.

OF

the

on

to

accustomed

been

ordinary
they see

annoyed when
and
colour
color.
spelt honor
in so-called
phoneticspelling."

spelling,are
and

honour

habit.

of

the

to

pleasant
Un-

shelves.

violation

mere

sees

effect is intensified

"

pictureshadows do not fall as the direction of the

before the
lightrequires,the result is unpleasing even
detected
and formulated.
ilarly,
Simincongruityis explicitly
in the development of character
in
incongruities
If in

novel

of
is

the

obstruct

of ideas

flow

unnaturalness,even

though
kind

recognised. This
explicitly

attach

all forms

to

brought

under

of

the flow of ideas

" 5.

is true

say much

more

pression
im-

contradiction

no

of incoherence

activity.It
imagination,because

may

is here

in distinction from

fects
it afbeliefs

non-existence.

Emotion.

in bk.

of emotion
to

such

and

and

Sentiment

of

as

concerningexistence

the

create

ideational

head

the

and

"

After

the full treatment

div. i.,
ch. iv.,it
iii.,
about

it at this

is not

point.

cessary
ne-

What

of

mutandis,
perceptualprocess, holds, mutatis
On the perceptualplane,the actual presof ideational.
ence
of a dangerous situation
excites fear ; on
the
ideational,the ideal previsionof a similar situation has
effect.
All the general characteristics
of emoa similar
tion
enumerated
in bk. iii.,
which
div. i.,ch. iv.,
we
" 1, apply equallyto perceptualand ideational process.
is only one
There
to
point which
require
appears
more

extended

emotions, so

far

treatment
as

they

at

had

this stage.
not

organic change, usuallyexhibit

their
a

We

noted

that

primary originin
character.
parasitical

PSYCHOLOGY.

576

[BK.

iv.,

en.

ix.

in the main

secondary phenomena, and presuppose

the existence of more
The
tendencies.
specific
anger, for instance,produced in a dog by taking away
its bone
the specific
appetitefor food.
pre-supposes
the ideational plane the specific
Now
tendencies
on

They

arc

condition

which

the
varied

more

and

perceptualtendencies.
which

grow

world

the
Each

of the

and

in certain

act

convenient

to

considered

from

this

better

word

that

any

is

have

the

their conative

certain

general

point of

for

name

ideal

It does

selected

for

of

aspect.
feel and
It is

circumstances.

view.

be

can

primary

construction

general tendency to

under

ways

of ideal

process

parably
incom-

are

systems of ideas

the various

Self, have

of ideas

system

than

complex

All

in the

up

of emotion

occurrence

systems,

not

the

appear
purpose

employing it we extend
its application
If
beyond the range of ordinaryusage.
we
applicationto the word, we may
give this extended
mental
dispositions
regard emotions which pre-suppose
organisedthrough previous trains of ideational activity,
of sentiment.
as
episodesin the life-history
credit of first drawing attention to this distincThe
tion
and
between
emotion
sentiment
belongs to Mr.

than

and

Shand,
Emotions

"

we

cannot

are

in

feeling.

stable

sentiments,

our

"

and

sentiment,
term

in

sentiment, though

'

love

love

'

to

of

do

better

Whereas

affection

express,

than

quote his words.

and
qualifya more
adjectival
the
specificorganisationof

sense

every

so

for

sentiment

that

love of

as

comfort, and

all

friends, the

our

our

we

can

homeuse

the

ness,
knowledge, art, goodinterests,as interest

interest in books,
profession,
collections,self-interest,these, so far from
being

in

our

health,fortune

and

"

IDEAS.

OF

FEELING-TONE

"5.]

577

other feelings,
the
and qualifying
are
adjectives
the first attach themselves,
stable centres
to which
relatively
the complex
the substantives of these adjectives,
the
contain in their possible
which
wholes
life-history

mere

entire

of the emotions.

gamut

is

pleasurein
presence and desire in absence, hope or despondency in
of its loss,injury,
fear in the expectation
anticipation,
in its unexpected
or
destruction,surpriseor astonishment
of our
interest
changes,anger when the course
is opposed or frustrated,elation when
we
triumph over
obstacles,satisfaction or disappointmentin attaining
our
desire,regret in the loss,injury,or destruction of
the object,
joy in its restoration or improvement, and
for its superiorqualityor excellence.
And
admiration
In

the

of

love

object

an

this series of emotions

another,

consider

Now

often
of every

with

sentiment

in

one
or

we

in

when
interest,

emotions

same

in
oppositeobjects,

which

order, now

present.

are

these

how

of love

sentiment

in every

there

now

occurs,

appropriateconditions

the

name

selves,
repeat themthe

life-history

dislike

or

hatred.

pleasurein the presence of the

object,desire to be rid of it,to escape from its presence,
except we can injureit or lower its quality,
hope
of accomor
plishing
despondency according to the chances
this desire,elation or
disappointmentwith
it is thrust upon
success
or
failure,anger or fear when
and persists,
us
surprisewhen the unexpected occurs,
regret or grief,not in its loss or injury,but in its
There

is

presence
*

"

pain instead

and

Character

217-218.

Psych.

of

prosperous
and

the

state."*

Emotions,"

Mind,

N.S., No.

18

(April, 189C),p;i.

PSYCHOLOGY.

578

large extent

actual

sentiment

ix.

is to

and
dispositions

Such

sentiment

as

at any
experienced in its totality
is felt only in the specialphase which

by

circumstances

the

parting from

are

CH.

iv.,

be

It

is determined

and

between

consciousness.

of

states

moment.

we

distinction

friendshipcannot
one

emotion

distinction between

The

[BK.

feel

friend,we

our

him

of the moment.

If
; if

sorrow

we

long absence, we feel joy.

actual experiences
The joy and the sorrow
are
; but the
includes
the susceptibility
sentiment
which
to either according
in its totality
be an actual
to circumstances,
cannot
*
experience. It is a complex emotional disposition
manifests
itself variouslyunder
tions.
which
varying condithe actual exThese
periences
are
varying manifestations
about

are

meet

to

which
that

so

far

as

call emotions.

Thus

experienceis
by the manifold

concerned

we

actual

is constituted
manifests

after

itself.

this must

But

be

we

emotions

may

the sentiment
in which

understood

with

important qualification.We must not suppose

sentiments
are
capable of manifestingthemselves
emotions.

same

name

the

contrary, the

character

it
an

that all
in the
of the

different according to the nature

specifically
ence
the sentiment
which
it depends ; and the differon
be important enough to justifya different
may
for the emotion.
This is specially
exemplifiedin

emotion
of

On

say

is

the distinction
to

The

personal and

"emotions

the
to

common

or

presence

hatred

of the

of

See

have

human

bk.

differentiations

new

object,desire
*

which

emotions

ence
refer-

impersonalobjectsrespectively.
love of whatever
to our
object

complicated with

become
love

between

being.
for

Pleasure

in

the

in

the

it in absence, for the

cb. iv.,"
ii.,

5.

OF

FEELING-TONE

" 5.]

preservationof
or

anger

fear

its

when

existence, for
it is

579

IDEAS.

its

superiorquality,
threatened, hope, admiration,

disappointment,regret, recur, and constitute the love of

the object,of its well-being; but the specific
emotion
of sympathy is differentiated.
The
nearest
approach to
love of inanimate
this in our
structions
things,or those great conof our
thought, business, knowledge, art,
of
morality,is the interest we take in the continuance
the object,in its improvement, or
heightened quality,
in the pain which
and, conversely,
any loss of quality,
if we
Now
injury,or destruction occasions.
supposed
the object were
self-conscious
and took pleasure in its
continuance
and
own
improvement, and felt pain in its
a
injury or lowered
quality,there would then occur
sympathy or identical feelingexcited in two conscious
to the same
beings in reference
object. Thus where
human
arise coincidences
beings are concerned, there necessarily
of this sort which, multiplyingin those common
situations where
danger or
injury is present,
of sympathy as a new
develop the emotion
component
of the love of the object. And
in the process
of developmen
guishing
pity acquires a qualitativeflavour distinit from
the pain felt in the injuryor destruction
of inanimate
objects.
In the next
place,the pleasurefelt for the excellence
of an
or
superiority
objectthat we love, develops into
the

new

where
to

win
is

emotions
there

is

of

respect and

or
superior power
where
admiration, reverence
a

reverence

respect

qualitywhich fails
this superiorquality

And
both
recognisedas moral.
something of fear blend in this emotion
flavour and specific
qualityof its own.

admiration

and

and

it

give to

PSYCHOLOGY.

580

consider

Lastly,
feel

when
in

and

the

is

or

it

undo

and

recall

has

that

done,

without

sees

rather

no

the

possible

its

it,

deep

escape."
*

Op.

and

regret

despondency
*

cit.,

pp.

218-219.

sorrow

its
futile

And

effort

for

lution
reso-

too

and

what
of

or

and

to

remorse

fear

the

with

own

desire

resolution

and

hope
a

the

with

the

ance
Repent-

of

character

hope

own,

differentiates

universal

same

different.

future

with
the

the

of

outcome

repentance.

ourselves,

past,

of

blend

with

this

on

pass

character

horror

but

we

the

make

to

of

terested
in-

concerned,

the

hatred,

to

and

remorse

acquired

has

that

blame

love

revival

mere

no

regret;

the

of

emotions

new

from

we

are

we

are

but

ix.

that

that

beings

accidental

not

change

the

or

anger,

human

en.

iv.,

sorrow

or

object

any

where

is

action

our

regret

injured

love,

or

the

how

have

we

[BK.

has

even

been

repentance,

despair

which

X.

CHAPTER

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 1. Ascending

Levels

Development.
of Conative
with
inseparablyconnected
"

Conative

development is
cognitivedevelopment. If we consider conation in the
its negaits positivefrom
can
abstract,we
distinguish
tive
We
also
can
phase, appetitionfrom aversion.
its varying degrees of intensity
and
distinguish
ence
persistand its feeling-tone.But
entiation
beyond this all differ"

of

conative

consciousness

is

differentiation

This does not imply that

cognitiveconsciousness.
conation
is secondaryto and dependent upon
cognition.
The
of expositionin this work
refutes
whole
course
such
is meant
is rather
that
an
assumption. What
conation
and cognitionare
different aspects of one
and
the same
terminat
Cognition gives the process its deprocess.
of

character
no

process
From

at all to

this

without

have

process

levels of

is

there

would

be

character.

point of view, we

levels of conative

of

conation

may
as

different
distinguish

connected

with

ent
differ-

generalmental development. On the plane

cludes
perception we have the perceptualimpulse; this ininstinctive impulses. Its general characteristic
in it finds immediate
involved
that the activity
ex581

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

582

guided by

pressionin bodily movement

The

perceptualimpulse without

character

involve

may

certain

external

losing its

x.

pression
im-

essential

of ideal

amount

CH.

iv.,

pation.
antici-

distinctly
higher plane when
trains
ideas become
to form
self-sustaining
sufficiently
of the
that are not wholly shaped by the circumstances
We
desire to live again through experiences
can
present."
of which
there is nothing actuallypresent to
of an end
ideal representation
remind
us."*
The
mere
of an
rected
be the primary starting-point
activitydimay
itself
this activitymay
to its realisation ; and
partlyor wholly take the form of trains of ideas. It is
But

we

reach

the

word

"

"

at

this stage that

its most

has

desire

priate
appro-

application. Perceptual conations are better

described as impulses.
the development of ideational
With
thought, higher
forms
of desire
arise.
of generalisation
The
process
We
brings with-it generalised conative tendencies.
aim

at

the

fulfilment of rules of conduct

production of
particularcase.
which

have

this

specialresult

that

or

Ideal

construction

sets

instead
in this
before

of the
or
us

that
ends

previouslyrealised. These ends

be so complex that they can
ually
only be realised gradmay
renewed
as
opportunity
by activities persistently
allows.
The
ing
writingof a book and sometimes the readof it,may
the
serve
as
an
example. Sometimes
ends are
the individual
such
cognises
reas
ideallyconstructed
never

to be

unattainable

only contribute
Sometimes

been

there

his share
is

in his

op.

lifetime.

bringingthem
whether
they can

towards

doubt
Ward,

own

cit.,p.

74.

He

can

to pass.

be

com-

" 2.]

VOLUNTARY

583

DECISION.

a
certaintythat they cannot
pletelyattained,or even
of this last kind are
the
be completelyattained.
Ends
ideals."
highest,and are generallycalled
" 2. Conative
Aspect of the Conception of the Self.
the concept of the Self as expressed in the
Under
lifeword
I
is included
in systematicunity the
historyof the individual,past, present, and future, as
it appears
and to others ; togetherwith all
to himself
its possibleor imaginary developments.
have
ready
alWe
described
the way
in which
this complex ideal
construction
We
have
to
now
point out
grows
up.
in the
that its evolution
for the originof Will
accounts
strict sense
and
of the word, as implying deliberation
"

"

"

"

choice.

Voluntary action is
impulsive action, and
tendencies.
action
in

the

difference

isolated conative

conflict

first considered
tendencies

When

in their relation

included

in

the

in

is,that

to

of impulsive

impulse
whereas

tendency ;

voluntary decision special conations

are

of

follows

from

deliberation

The

from

sharplydiscriminated

be

to

their ends

and

the total system

conception

of

the

Self.

disconnected

impulsessimultaneously
prompt
of action,if the conception of
to incompatiblecourses
Self does not come
into play,one
interferes with the
other
in a quasi-mechanical way.
is merely a
There
trial of brute
Instances
them.
are
strength between
two

sometimes

found

characteristic
oscillation
is
"

begun

expressionof

between
in

in young

two

animals.

and

their mental

modes

of

state

action,each

then

is

The
sort

of

of which

gives place to the other.

When
child suddenly comes' face to face with
a young
and
the imstrange dog, the impulse towards
turn

and

children

PSYCHOLOGY.

584

from

pulse away
The

child

goes

tells

Titchener

to

up

are

realised

the

dog,

that

us

"

CH.

x.

quick succession.
back
to its father,

runs

on.'M

so

in face

iv.,

in

dog again, and

the

approaches

[BK.

of

the

Professor

impulses,

two

right hand, and (2) to seat

the left,"he actually
himself
at his typewriter-table
on
towards
the door
and
a
right-hand movement
began
slued round
without
then all at once
to the typewriter,
having closed it."| All of us can no doubt recall
similar experiences.
in no
this alternate jerkDeliberation
resembles
ing
way
in oppositedirections,as if pulled by a string,and
follows
it is not a mere
the decision which
triumph in
another.
tary
Volunstrengthof one isolated impulse over
action
does
follow
either of the conflicting
not
tendencies, as such ; it follows our
preference of the
It is the conception of the Self as
to the other.
one
shut

(1) to

door

the

on

"

"

agent which
not

do

makes

"this"

Each

for

of

present

the

total Self.

before
may

In

he

have

been
*

its results

"I"

word

is

sidered
con-

stands.

belongs

to

the

The

Self

of

the

this is

individual.

his present mood,

him,

"shall

or

structed
part of the ideallycon-

as

the

is

only a transient phase

If the impulse is realised the completed
take its place as a component
part of

of
life-history
it.

this"

I do

moment

; but

moment

action will
the

which

alternative

The

line of action with

whole

present

of the

"shall

in isolation but

not

the

difference.

the

"that," but

or

that?"

impulse

"

may
the

Titchener,

He
with

may

Primer

of Psychology,

\ Ibid., p. 247.

; but

principleof

and

and

bottle

desire to get drunk

habit

live to

p. 246.

gret
re-

glass

sobriety
lifetime.

If he
will

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 3.]

585

of the

yieldsto temptation,the remembrance

stand out in painfulconflict with his
He

unable

will be

to

think

normal

act
dencies.
ten-

it without

of

the normal
Self
between
incompatibility
and the present impulse, if vividlyenough realised at
ing.
drinkwill restrain him from
of temptation,
the moment
If it is not sufficient,
further developments of the
efficacious. He
conception of Self may be more
may
This

pang.

think

of

himself

churchwarden

as

or

elder;

he

may

of his better moments

aspirations
; he
the thought of himself as reflected in
call to mind
may
friend who
the dead
other minds,
expected so much
be so shocked
from
at his lapse,
him, and who would
the talk of the general public conceived
as
pitying,
think

of the ideal

"

"

contemptuous,
he would

malicious.

or

like

look

back

He

may
such

even

consider

episodeon
his death-bed.
Obviously,this detailed development of
in the man's
what is included
conceptionof himself as
of
a
whole, might go on interminably. As a matter
be needed
not
at all.
fact, it is possiblethat it would
I do such
He
a
might simply say, "What!
thing?
could
How
have occurred
the thought ever
to me?"
how

In

this

case

the

to

to

an

concept of the Self in its vague

mere

detailed development would

be suffiwithout
cient
totality
The
to produce a decision.
thought of getting
drunk
the man
attracts
; but the thought of his getting
drunk
repels,so as to give rise to instant rejectionof
of action.
the suggested course
" 3. Deliberation.
Very often,however, the thought
of the Self does not at once
give rise to a decision,
positive
or
negative,but only to arrest of action,so as to
It may be that the way in
give time for deliberation.
"

PSYCHOLOGY.

586

which

this

or

that

affect the

Self

as

ideal, can

only

of

Self

the

reinforce

or

of

such

becomes

be

simply doing

may

include

lines

of action.

thing

two

or

In

be

Self,and

from

The

as

if

actual

to

developed
that

arises
in

definite

decision

Deliberation.

undone

and

is

no

they
incompatible
;

or

essential
two

or

of them

considered, each

are

in

deliberatingmay

When

cases.

ference
difmore

has

general concept of
pared
they have to be com-

the

with

point of

view

other.

follows.

of
A

view

in

certain

deliberation
line

of

be
may
action being

as

myself as I shall be if
this representationof
less detail until that
is called
In the

kind

tend

possible,I contemplatemyself as I shall

I put it in execution,so as to make
it part of my
and on the other hand
I contemplate
life-history,

suggested
be

to

are

leavingit

or

two

general point

described

mind

relation

this

each

with

the

cept
con-

concept of Self and

there
principle,

the

brought into

way

less

or

directlytend

other

this

more

definite lines of action

to

not

the

each

to

In

more

desire ; it will rather

before

between

by

its consequences

possible.

alternatives

The

and

with

this is so, the

will

whole

relation

in

detail

action

action, until

and

realised,would

consciousness

thought. When
as

of

action

the

before

determine

suppress

postponement

if

conduct,

brought

be
to

prolonged train

of

x.

CH.

iv.,

whole, past, present, future,

sufficient fulness

of

line

[BK.

I leave

it undone.

I follow

or
hypotheticalSelf in more
in the process
which
turning-point
a

Voluntary Decision emerges.

more
developedforms of deliberation

of mental

another,comes

see-saw.

out

Now

one

there

alternative,and

predominantlybefore

is a
now

consciousness,and

mind

the

is

attracted
variously
desires

The

turn.

way

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 4.]

called

are

is often

repelledby
which

aversions

and

the

Hence

Motives.
called

and

587

arise

this

in

of deliberation

process

Motives

Conflict of Motives.

in

each

are

before consciousness
as
impulses. They come
reasons
They
why I should act in this or that way.
not
are
independent forces fightingout a battle among
mere
a
themselves, while the Ego remains
spectator.
motives
On
the contrary, the motives
are
only in so
of the Self,and
the nature
far as they arise from
suppose
prethe conception of the Self as
a
determining
factor.
this it follows that the recognisedreaFrom
sons
not

mere

for

of decision.

cause

Self

decision

as

them

there

what

this

involves

stated

completely analysed or
reasons

the

motives
is

action.

the

motives

the

Or,

deliberation

for

deciding:

triumphant
to

put the

of deliberation

motives

always

lies the

can

is

be

never

of

when

in another

case

going

definite

is

motives

for

while

way,

the

the

on,

decision

the

become

going on,
are
regarded as possiblemotives
decision is formed, they become

process

entire

form

the

of

process

are

made,

in

the

specialmotives.

or

While

constitute

never

Behind
and

whole,

can

the

competing

for action
actual

sires
de-

when

motives

for

action.

"4.
decision
from

the state

it may
been

of suspense
the

mean

attained.

decision
The

Voluntary Decision.
It
is ambiguous.

most

as

state

It will

to

of
be

alreadyformed,
obvious

difference

The

"

the

mean

may
the

phrase voluntary

state

resolution

of resolution
when

simplestto
the

state

between

transition

of

it has

treat

being

the

state

or

once

first the
resolved.
of inde-

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

588

cision and

that of decision

is that in the first

iv.,

CH.

do

we

x.

not

going to do, and that in the second

ating,
do know
what
we
are
we
going to do. While deliberare
we
making up our mind, and we do not know
formed
have
When
is going to be.
mind
what
we
our
know

what

we

decision,we

conception of

are

have
the

come

to

Self has

know

our

minds.

own

fixed

become

where

The
it

was

line
The
realisation of one
previouslyindeterminate.
of conative
anticipatedas
tendency is now
definitely
far at least as external
so
part of our future life-history,
conditions
will allow of its execution.
tive
Opposing conatendencies
either cease
to operate, or
they appear
only as difficulties or obstacles in the way of carrying
decision.
out our
They are no longer regarded as possible
of action.

motives
belief

that,so

state

of

will

not

mind,
be

far

as

we

We
are

have

concerned

the lines of action

carried

come

to

which

to

in

the settled
our

present

they prompt
placed outside

They are thus

the sphere of deliberation,
in consequence
and
to
cease
be motives.
If they persistat all,they merely serve
the execution
of our
to make
voluntary decision more
painfuland difficult. But they do not on that account
impair the strength of this decision ; on the contrary,
they may only give an opportunityfor exhibitingthe
of
the full emergence
With
strength of the decision.
the decision,the conflict of motives, as such, ceases.
"This
termination
of the
struggle does not merely
that one
mean
impulse or group of impulseshas turned
It might conout
its opponents.
to be stronger than
ceivably
manifest
its superior strengthwithout
a
sation
cesof conflict.
When
two
unequal and opposite
forces are
the particle
will move
applied to a particle,
out.

" 5.]

VOLUNTARY

direction

in the

of the weaker
a

of

of

still continues

velocity. The

impulse is not of
opposing impulses are

589

stronger force

the

force

diminution

DECISION.

; but

of

triumph

this kind.

itself in

manifest

to

In

action

the

the

tary
volun-

perfectvolition,
not
merely held in check ; they
driven out of the field. If they continue
to exist,
are
they do so as external obstacles to a volition already
formed.
They are no longer motives ; they are on the
in the way
of
same
footing with any other difficulty
a

attainment."*
On

the other

motives

the

hand,

in the

which

of deliberation
of

course

deliberation

persist after
motives

of

because

we

the

it, or

may

is the

so

out

founded

It is

that

certain

and
qualified

desire
in

us

lies

desired

end

" 5.

The

examine

to

we

because

free-will,as
Article

p. 357.

by

author

the

aversion
the

going

are

to

belief is
a

motive.

present

cona-

Volition

as

judgment
the

of

(1)there

call

our

to

state

(2) this
we

act,

that

attainment

far

so

of the

desire it.

we

of

the state

it is

by

we

define

may

bring about

Forming
how

we

defined

shall

of deliberation.

in

recognisedas having ground

Thus

which

reason

adopted,

follows

lies

us

the

recognised

an

Thus,

of action

course

of

in

as

of

will the

have

analysedas

far

that kind

on

tive tendencies.

as

be

the

We

its alternatives.

omitting it,or to
voluntarydecision
carry

least

at

be

to

as

voluntary decision.

desire

belief

is over,

side

the

on
arrayed themselves
action that actuallycomes

process

Decision.

of decision

"

We

supervenes

have
on

yet
that

this

point the vexed questionof

called,arises. According to the liberAt

on

"Voluntary

Action,"

Mind7

N.S., vol. v., No.

19,

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

590

least in

tarians,the decision,at
of

intervention

of the individual

constitution
and

past experience. The

say

that

in

operating
is

There

the

them

like

of

the

tions
condi-

itself.

deliberation

factor

new

which

in the

Jack-in-the-box

to

by heredity

outcome

of

no

vious
pre-

of the libertarians

natural

process

according to

emerges

determined

opponents

is the

decision

the

as

traceable

not

x.

the

present in the

deliberation,and

of

process

CH.

involves

cases,

factor,not

new

some

iv.,

ruptly
ab-

of

moment

deciding.
it must

Now
state

and

of indecision
it

that

definite

those

previous
the

the facts

Deliberation

and

courses

then

be

of action

apprehended

in

regarded

another.

and

relation

to

to

the
to

state

play

be

alternatives.

of

motives
the

standstill

are

As

restored.
cease

of unstable

nant,
domirelatively

Self.

tendency
a

of

ence.
its exist-

assume

their consequences

of conative
comes

as

vicissitudes,as

advances, equilibrium tends

deliberation

to

becomes

The

outcome

least say that

at

can

oscillates between

tendency
of

or

disprove
definitely

cannot

we

of

intervention

the

compelling us

kinds

all

impossible to give a

or

factor, we

mind

conative

one

through

The

obscure,

unaccountably

development

If

may

equilibrium.
First

is not

far from

are

be

to

maintain

of such

presence

is often

the

hypothesison psychologica
probandi
certainlythe onus

But

conditions.

from

libertarian

the

who

which

factor

new

it difficult

makes

disproofof
grounds.

with

of decision

that

to

transition

that the

frequently appears

This

abrupt.

rests

admitted

be

to

because

passes

alternative

fully

more

the

process
New

take
it has

velopmen
de-

place;
done

be that

may

it,has

sciousness,
predominance in conpersistent
that the mind
no
longer tends to revert
is made
At this point the mind
up, and
in the judgment, "I will do
formulated

so

the others.

to

the

is

result

this rather

and

that."

than

there

But

of

one

decided

other

are

It may

the

without

other

which

mind

The

predominance.

alternative

one

any

which

cases

present

that deliberation

happen

without

to

relativelystationarycondition, it
with the motives for
the alternatives,

this

In

its work.

591

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 5.]

result.

comes

to

acquiring

first to

tends

tend

if it does

or

supervene,

of

intervention

the

of the

outcome

to

factor

deliberative

find

and

one

would

then

and

that

seem

decision

ought

it must

be

is not
Now

process.

under

definite

new

supervene,

new

still
stand-

developments
superiorityto either,and
No

give a
It
the result is hopeless suspense.
these conditions
under
no
voluntary
occur

culty.
diffi-

more

to

due

to

merely

the

as

matter

conditions

such

voluntary
into
existence.
decisions
frequently do come
They
be of wide-reaching importance like Caesar's
even
may
the Rubicon.
But
determination
to cross
probably in
of

fact

all such

we

that

instances

one

both

or

of

two

traceable

and

of a psychologicalkind
are
recognisable conditions
operative. These are (1) aversion to the continuance
and
of painfulsuspense,
(2)the necessityfor action of
kind.
be that though we
It may
at a loss to
are
some
of action,we
the
decide between
two
courses
are
none
"

less
may

not
fullydetermined
be obviously worse

lines

of

conduct.

much

in the

same

We

way

to

than
may

as

remain

we

inactive.

either
then
take

of the

choose
a

one

cigarout

Inaction

alternative
of
of

them
a

box,

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

592

it is

when

which

matter

no

of

alternative

one

be

may

have

Or

conditions.

other

under

ineffective

been

of

view

decision, though it would

determine

sufficient to

for

motives

the

x.

comparativelyslightpredominance

necessityfor action, a

the

In

select."*

we

CH.

again,

being pressedto decide, either by aversion to the state

of irresolution,
or
by the necessityfor doing something,
which
to be
seems
we
simply adopt the course
may
in our
minds
at the moment,
although we
uppermost
have

continued

we

to

Or

deliberate.
decision

the

allow

to

circumstance

such

as

determine

that if heads

turn

up

if tails turn

and
_Z?,

aversion

an

do

we

up

having one's

to

sent
mentally conmay
determined
by some

If

for

motives

contrast,

issued

has

A.

turn

This

is due

the

with

not

chance.

to

predominance
deliberation
to

come

if

has
be

they

fullyworked
decided
had

on

been

again,the necessityfor
*

happens

mentally

been

set

in

present in preceding

trivial result of the

momentary

voluntary decision.

place before

takes

in such

alternative,the

one
are

do

we

has

chance

acquire

determines

volition

Sometimes

acts

which

the

thus

They

that

in part to

it often

opposing motives

the

but with
deliberation,

appeal

of

alternative

other

and

up

determined

conduct

in favour

A,

heads

But
arbitraryand irrelevant way.
that immediately after the appeal to
and

We

penny.

Curiouslyenough, the

an

made,

shall do

we

frequentlyhappens.

reverse

if

uppermost

the fall of

J5.

shall do

we

up

we

be

to

irrelevant

if tails turn

remain

it would

that

confidence

no

itself out.

which

would

the
In
have

process

of

this way,
been

pressed
sup-

Here
fullyconsidered.
and
imacting in some
way,
more

Op. cit.,p.

364.

operativefactors.
pulse
imof some
often lies in the intensity
the reason
not
of the present Self which derives its strength,
its relation to the total system of conduct, but

patienceof
But

from

593

DECISION".

VOLUNTARY

" 6.]

from

the state

of

indecision,are

of the moment.

the circumstances

liberati
through which the process of depasses, it will often happen that this isolated
will acquire
intensity
impulse through its momentary
the full development
such a predominance as to arrest
into play,
of other motives, which, if they had
come
In

would

vicissitudes

the

have

given rise

to

different

The

decision.

cision
de-

placeafter imperfectdeliberation
called impulsive. It is not supposed to be
is generally
degree as that which takes place
voluntary in the same
which

thus takes

after fuller deliberation.

The

agent often

commits

the

knowing that he will live to repent it. Most cases

of deliberation
of yieldingto temptationare
cases
rested
arand
short by the transient strength of a
cut
present impulse. It is in such instances that the agent
in retrospect that he might have
is most
keenly aware
He feels that the
did.
acted otherwise than he actually
not
act does
fullyrepresent his true self. If he had
inoperative
fullydevelopedall the motives which were
the momentary
impulse
owing to imperfectdeliberation,
might have been suppressedinstead of realised.
The
" 6. Fixity of Voluntary Decision.
ence
persistwhen
with which a voluntarydecision,
once
formed,
is often much
maintains itself againstobstacles,
greater
for by the strengthof the desire
than can
be accounted
act

"

which
reasons

was

its motive

for this.
on

Psych.

One

at

the

outset.

There

are

many

is that the line of conduct

is identified

with

the

mined
deter-

conceptionof
38

Self.

[UK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

594

"When
realise

certain

becomes
of

that

in

end,

the

judge

ipso facto
Failure

myself.

defeat.

my
in the

face

These

are

far

so

endeavour

by

conception

of the

ure,
regarded as my failbecomes
strengthened

volition

Thus

realise that end

it is

realise

to

emotions.

all the combative

and

varying kinds

individuals

of

varying degrees

of

all tendencies

to

strength in

different

hold

out

merely
struggleagainstopposition,

it is

are
opposition,

or

inasmuch

enlisted

integralpart

; but

in the

of the idea

because

of the

service

will,

willed is

of the line of conduct

the idea

as

x.

shall

lies I

me

to

integralpart

an

of obstacles
of

in

as

CH.

iv.,

an

of Self."*

fixityof will is also strengthened,often in a

tion.
high degree,by aversion to the state of irresoluvery
Suspense is in itself disagreeable; and when we
it by a voluntary decision, we
have
emerged from
Besides
shrink
from
this,
more.
lapsing into it once
prolonged and repeated indecision is highly detrimental
knows
who
in the general conduct
of life. The
man
"The

his

mind

own

is far

more

always wavering.

Hence

strong tendency

abide

it is

resolution.

social

by
no

with

kind

Volition

we

we

most

the

there

persons

is

who

man

is

by a resolution,just because
ened
tendency is greatly strengthIf
upon

weak

are

we
us

Mere

we

ing,
vacillat-

and

shall be

vanity may

viewed
far to

go

the will." f

also becomes

that

conduct,

depend

in

of contempt.

it.

on

This

relations.

will

one

to
give fixity

belief

to

efficient than

So

soon

fixed
as

we

by
have

the

action

attained

which
the

lows
fol-

settled

going to follow out a certain line of

immediately begin to adapt our thoughts
are

Op. cit.,p.

358,

t Ibid., p. 359,

and

deeds

and

more

committed

mind

the

more

it would

If I

have

has

of my

and
kind

work

The

other

and

instead

topicssuch

as

this

whole
responding
cor-

begin

about

to

outfit

do,
I

men

to

New

for my

with, the

advanced

more

going

am

to

channels

arrangements

I shall meet

co-operate with, and

mind.

of

Guinea

of savages,

tribes

to

another.

psychology,the

on

savage

kind

the

and

activity.
thing,the

to

New

to

flows into
activity
preformed resolution.

about

of adventures

my

one

on

customs

lecture

to

particular.The

voyage,

going

on

and

my

books
in

Guinea

mental

set

To

ments;
arrange-

others;

mental

with
up

become

decided

the manners
investigate
of stayingat home

read

in

more

on.

our

upset by being diverted

be

once

direction

disturb

to

expectationsraised
own
general flow of our

the

more

determined

course

be

be

to

come

baulk

to

The

the

to

thus

We

it would

from

withdraw

arrest

this belief.

to

595

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 6.]

the
to

am

these, engross
process

is the

volition acquire. "To

disturb
my
the whole
with
system of tendencies

greater fixitydoes
it is to

disturb

it has

which

such

myself to
to

draw

for
be

extent

an

In

this way

that it becomes

mit
com-

impossible

back."*

Perhaps
to

interwoven.

become

the

by

individual

fixityof
reasons

volition

is not

such

these.

differences

inherited

as

counted
adequatelyac-

There

appear

in this respect which

so
constitution,

that

pend
de-

they cannot
be explainedby psychological
generalities.In some
men
infirmityof purpose appears to be innate. They
be relied on.
change like a weathercock, and can never
Others
their voluntary resolutions with a
follow
up
upon

Op. cit.,p.

358.

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

596

Some

" 7.

Resistance"

of Greatest

Line

the

in

Action

"

obstinate,and

born

are

men

x.

utterlyunreasonable.
others vacillating.

is often

which
dogged persistence

en.

only
place and are maintained
tary
volunthe case
when
by an effort. This is especially
decision follows some
general principleof conduct
ideal aim, in oppositionto an intense impulse
some
or
is excited and maintained
of the present Self which
by
Professor
the actual conditions
existingat the time.
has laid great emphasis on this experience. We
James
volitions take

Some

"

"

feel,in
when

all hard

the

line

the

the

at

even

it.

He

who

the

were

under

as

when

refuse

we

surgeon'sknife

the

himself
exposes
for duty'ssake, feels as if he were

cries of

pain, or

he

line

if the

pervious and

more

moment

very

prevail,were

ideal motives

more

greater resistance,and

of

motivation

coarser

one,

and

rarer

line taken,

if the

volition,as

of

cases

who

to

of

easy
to

low
fol-

represses
loquy
social ob-

followingthe
He
line of greatest temporary
resistance.
speaks of
tions.
conquering and overcoming his impulses and temptaBut
the sluggard,the drunkard, the coward,
in that way
talk of their conduct
never
or
say they
resist their energy,
their sobriety,conquer
overcome
their courage,
There

be

can

describes

the

interpretthem
view.

and

so
no

facts
as

forth."*
doubt

that

Professor

accurately.

evidence

But

in favour

he
of the

If volition is

James

here

proceeds to
libertarian

of preceding
merely the outcome
conditions,it must follow the line of least
psychological
but in the cases
described it follows the line
resistance,
This would
of the greatest resistance.
to imply
seem
*

Principles of Psychology,

vol. ii.,p. 548.

the

of

intervention

this

which

experienceon

admitting
carefullythe

analyse more

must

it is based.
when

said in " 4 that

We

Before

factor.

new

conclusion,we

51)7

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 7.]

voluntary decision

was

tendencies
either
opposing conative
to operate, or
cease
they appear only as difficulties or
decision."*
of carrying out
in the way
obstacles
our
The
disappearance of opposing tendencies,on the one
as
obstacles,on the other, are
hand, or their persistence
alternatives which
the two
correspond to action in the

formed,

once

line

"

whether

Now
the

upon
which

and

resistance

of least

line

the

they persistor
absence

or

presence

we

which

conditions

Thus,

to

out

hand,

if

the

use

is

volition

no

continue

"

hard

to

and

decision

of

moment

control.

of

greatest

sistance.
re-

pends
disappear,de-

of

circumstances

simplestcase is
that in which
we
voluntarilydecide in opposition to
some
present organic craving, such as the craving for
drink.
The
craving itself is maintained
by organic

over

have

in

after

because

the

decision

Professor

it is both

is in

decision

favour

of

very

is made.

James,

formed

againsta persistentobstacle.
the

in the

operate both

phraseology of
"

The

On

and
the

the
ried
car-

other

indulging the
animal
motives
tend to disappearaltogethe
appetite,counter
instead
of persisting
obstacles.
as
They are
maintained
not
truded
by organic conditions,nor are they obthe mind
As
on
by any other circumstances.
the man
has given way to temptationand begins
as
soon
to drink, he loses sight of the considerations
had
which
restrain
him.
to
Besides
previouslytended
this, the
if he takes
drink itself,
obliterates
enough of it,soon
*

See

above,

p. 588.

any
to

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

598

lingeringtraces of reluctance.
drink
the man
certainlydecides

least resistance

indeed,

all.

at

On

of

direction

in the

still

appetiteitself

the

resistance,because

in

hand,

decides

virtuallyno
deciding to

be

x.

resolving

direction

in the

may

other

the

he
appetite,

his

there

in

Thus

CH.

iv.,

of
sistance
restrain
re-

est
great-

persists

after his decision.

The

of

motives

adopted
large part in

themselves

our
us

their

that

with

conceptionof

as

in the

obstacles

resolution.

is not

realisation

decided
our

was

him.

Regulus,

of

moment

in

conflict would

to

his

death
to

after
thage,
Car-

all that

awaited

which

remain

sist
per-

to

return

thoughts
at

Rome,

less acute.

much

been

have

identified

be

to

They thus
and
resolution,

determining

hardly dismiss from

giving up and the violent
Perhaps if he had decided

his mental

cumstanc
cir-

other

to

Self.

the future

could

he

sistence
per-

of
opposed to the course
be so complex, they may
play such
to obtrude
life,that they continue
when
are
even
we
decidingor have

may

upon

is due

obstacles

as

the

interests

The
action

when

dissimilar
essentially

is not

case

by family and friends, and with all kinds

he would
of congenial channels
for his activity,
open
avoid
to
probably have been able to a large extent
dwellingon the thought of his violated promise.
If this analysisbe correct, cases
volition
of "hard"
Surrounded

do

not

show
the

separate

that
weaker

two

in the process
motives

questions.

decision

issue out

other

become

The

triumph.
The

first

inoperativewhen

We

is,How

up

must

does

to

cision,
de-

carefully
untary
the vol-

liberati
previousprocess of decies
far do opposing tendenthe voluntarydecision is

of the

is,How

leads

which

" 8.]

VOLUNTARY

made

In

this has

obstacles

determine

such

for the

account

decision
or

is

tends

here

of

case

followed

by

relation

the

of

new

required to

certain

independent of

the

of consciousness

carries

which

action

of

for

mode

of

will

and

of voluntary

state

questionas to
consciousness,is quite

followed

be

the

have

volition

the

to

the

thought, we

The

"

question whether

will

in

voluntary

between

bodilymovement.
Motor
is not essential
efficacy
decision as a psychicalfact.
the nature

effect.

direction

the

consider

to

that

is

assume

proves

way

Setting aside
voluntary attention,where

determines

merely

no

"

it into

carry

present the

in

Bodily Activity.

and

normally

to

But

result.

Volition

" 8.

libertarians

the

as

It

adequate, and

not

are

"hard."

conditions
psychological

the

volition.

the

conditions

that these

factor

with

they
operative,

volition

render

and
do

nothing to

which

remain

proportionas they

constitute

599

DECISION.

not

or

by

this mode
train of

certain

organism and in the environment.

If I will to produce an explosionby applying a lighted
match
the less a
to
gunpowder, my volition is none
occurrences

volition
match

acts

out

goes

out

in

in

because

Similarlythe
turns

the

between

constitution
executive

powder

is

contrary

movements
our

the

less

my

limbs
; but

conscious
occurrences.

it does

and

state

not

which
When

be

damp.

to

if it

act,

or

connexion

The

is necessary

the

volition

intention.

of the

of

to

apparatus refuses

of consciousness

of the

its execution

proves

modes

existence

series

to

of

the

none

muscular

my

certain

of

course

volition

that

way

or

the

ing
correspondto

enter

the

tenance
main-

into the

precedes the
the

conscious

PSYCHOLOGY.

600

is

state

should

of

one

volition,it

forward

look

this kind

is
But

an

at

or

is necessary

essential

of the

falsehood

or

the

OH.

x.

subject

either as
bodilymovements,
least as possible. A belief of
titude.
ingredientof the voluntary at-

the existence

Its truth

that

iv.,

the

to

certain
practically

[BK.

is in itself sufficient.

belief

is

matter

of

ence.
indiffer-

mining
preciselyanalogous way we must, in deterthat
to produce a gunpowder explosion,assume
be dry enough to take fire. But
the powder is or may
in
that the gunpowder
it is by no
means
necessary
point of fact should be dry."*
sponding
Normally, however, volition is followed by correfessor
How
does this take place? Promovements.
factory
satisJames
has supplied what
to be
a
appears
of volition
to this question.The
answer
passage
of the
is accordingto him a special
into movement
case
The
out.
general tendency of ideas to act themselves
of an
action tends
to give rise to
mere
representation
In

the action

and
itself,

conditions.

it

will do

so

in the

absence

of interfering

ing
crookTry to feel as if you were
whilst keeping it straight.In a minute
your finger,
will fairly
tinglewith the imaginary change of position
;

"

yet it will

reallymoving is also
Drop this idea, think
with

sensiblymove,

not

all brakes

part of what

you

of the movement

off,and, presto

because

have

its

not

in mind.

ply,
purely and simit takes place with

effort at all." f

no

It very
without

Article

frequentlyhappens that ideas pass into action

precedingvolition. "Whilst talkingI become
by

author

on

"

Voluntary

Action,"

p. 355.
f Principles

of Psychology,

vol.

ii.,p. 527.

Mind,

N.S., vol. v., No.

19,

601

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 8.]

dust on my
pin on the floor or of some
I brush
the conversation
sleeve.
Without
interrupting
no
express
away the dust or pick up the pin. I make
resolve,but the mere
perceptionof the object and the
to bring
of themselves
notion of the act seem
fleeting
the latter about." *
Experiences of this kind are very
have
We
common.
already had occasion to dwell on
in imitative
the tendency of ideas to express themselves

conscious

of

gestures

; and

to

show

in that connexion

proportion to

that

ideas

tend

vividness

their

adduced

we

to

and

act

other

themselves

dominance

dence
evi-

out

in

in

sciousness.
con-

tion
specialcase of volition. Volithe
because
is normally followed
by movement,
voluntary decision gives to the representationof the
act decided
on
a settled
predominance in consciousness
of alternative
courses.
as
against the representations
We

This
seems

now

turn

to

is Professor

the

James's

account

of the

possibleto push analysissomewhat

matter, but

further,so

it
as

predominance arises. During the

of deliberation,the subjectis as yet uncertain
process
of action
he is going to do.
what
Incompatiblecourses
With
are
ideallyrepresentedas possiblealternatives.
of
the voluntary decision
the belief that one
comes
to

them

show

how

the

is to be carried

out

to

the exclusion

It is this belief which

of the

others.

givesto the idea of the action the

This is perhaps
predominance leadingto its execution.
takes
best illustrated by what
place in the hypnotic
that the hypnotised subject
It is well known
state.
responds passivelyto all kinds of suggestions from the
hypnotiser.Within certain limits it is only necessary
*

Ibid.,

p. 522.

to

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

602

suggest the idea

of

action

an

or

group

CH.

x.

of actions

to

patientthat he
his eyes or his mouth, cannot
cannot
unclasp his
open
with
and
he will immediately be smitten
hands
*
Tell him that
absolute
impotence in these regards."
he is a pig or a lion or a baby or Julius Caesar, and he
the part.
dition
will proceed to enact
Subjectsin this conexecute
will receive and
suggestionsof crime,
and act out a theft,forgery,arson, or murder."
| Now
idea tends to have
though the suggestionof the mere
this effect more
or
less,yet the result can be produced
the
when
with far more
certaintyand conspicuousness,
operator imposes on his patienta beliefthat he is such
and such a person, or that he is going to do such and
such a thing. Hence
suggestionsmainly take the form
will not do
of assertions,
will do this,You
such
as, You
the patienthas once
When
that.
adopted the belief
the ideas of
that he is going to act in a certain manner,
lows.
alternative courses
are
suppressed,and the action folbring

performance.

about

"Tell

the

"

untary
probable that the predominance which voldecision gives to the idea of a line of action is
connected
the belief that this is the
with
essentially
line which
we
are
going to follow out, to the exclusion
It

seems

of other

alternatives.

strictest

place

me,

so

in

"

In

the

an

to

moment
as

Ideas.

Fixed

involuntaryaction is one which takes

if
Thus
oppositionto a voluntary resolution.

sense

determined
in the

Action.

Involuntary

" 9.

to

make
of

certain

action

give rise

to

Op. cit.,vol. ii.,

p.

an

603.

the

stroke

at

muscular

unintended

and
billiards,

apparatus

fails

jerkymovement,
t Ibid., p. 605.

if

action

my
do

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

"9.]
is

strictly
involuntary. But

interest

not

What

here.

us

of

is the defeat

will,not

the

with
interfering
conation.
unsuccessful

603

its

accidental

reflex

by
of

example

an

restrain

effort to

an

execution, but

have

We

by

with

concerned

are

we

this

like

cases

stance
circum-

onistic
antag-

an

this in the

movement

over

normally sufficient control. Suppose a

party of soldiers to be climbing a crag in the dark so as
to
surprisea castle. Noiselessness is a condition of
defeat
A
success.
sneeze
or
a
cough probably means
to
and loss of life. Now
it is possible
to a large extent
restrain the actions of sneezing and
coughing; but if
is sufficiently
membrane
the irritation of the mucous
intense and persistent
temporary repressiononly makes
which

have

we

the ultimate

be determined

may
is

strong

so

to

and
the

outburst

to

as

is

sneeze

to

not

give
a

violent.

more

sneeze,

him

although

conation

; to

restrain

to

this

instance

sensation

place because
sneezing has
of the intense
There
the
ideal

will

the

and

on

an

idea.

impulse
The

it is

None
is

involuntaryact

not

the

great uneasiness.

indulge it would be a relief.

the sneeze
impulse prove irresistible,

In

of the soldiers

One

dency
ten-

painful,

the

less,if

involuntary.

follows

It does

on

not

ganic
or-

take

ideal

representationof the act of

predominant,but merely because

the
become

irritation of the

is however

wide

is defeated

by

the

membrane.

mucous

class of instances

obtrusive

in which

intensityof

an

idea

representation.In spiteof the mental assertion

not
we
are
going to perform a certain action,the
of that action,owing to other conditions,acquires

and

maintains

that

ultimatelyleads

dominance

to

its realisation.

in

consciousness

which

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

604

This

object is

looking down

Owing
upon

with

him

the

vast

of

intense

vividness, and

feels himself

he

have

may

contrary

it is called.

idea," as

that

the

fixed

independent of
possiblethat the impulse to
strength to

peopleactuallydo
this way.
This result

overcome

however

It

is in

realise

; he

may

imperfect powers
which

themselves

is not

would

under

common

that

pathologicalcases
deliberation.
have

vivacityfrom
it is always
cient
acquire suffiSome

in
precipices

down

This

is

The

restrained

mains
re-

normal
the

fixed

partlydue
conative

the

act

to

dencies
ten-

lie in

unity and
only be very inadequatelydeveloped in
stances
inthere
relation to the act contemplated. But
are
in which
this explanationdoes not apply. In
it is not the absence
of inhibitingtendencies,
such instances
but the positive
strengthof the impulsiveidea
abeyance ;
totalitycan

the

of

it may

it still

contrary volition.

reallyformidable.

becomes

its

will ; and

the

throw

But

derives

idea

conditions

idea

itself

obtrudes

identifythe idea of the action with the

He
mentally asserts, I shall not, or, I
as
a rule this voluntary decision
triumphs

"fixed

conditions.

the

thought

He

clear volition to the

down.

to

; and

true

the

execution.

it into

and

Self.

the

of

him,

himself

like to throw

be

tower,

beneath

depth

its consequences

carry

distinct

will not
over

into

cathedral

and

action

of the

utterlyrefuse
idea

top of

fascinatinginterest

the

to

impelled to
very

the

it would

of what

thinks

idea

as

eminence, such

an

and

ideallyrepresented
the only feeling
when
even
A man
intense aversion.
standing

it is that of

towards
on

not

x.

the

when

happen even
desired, and

may

en.

concept

of

the

Ego

in

its

leads

which

of a man
gives a case
idea of killinghis mother.
everything; I love you

was

""To

drives

idea

to

desert

in

order

In

time,

the

that

of

mother."

gives place

to

tells him

one

and

home,

impulse

secret

without
and

home

come

But

"

is

tion
cessa-

kill

arrives

his

mother
Some

and

dead,

he

as

tation,
temp-

soldier.

thought of killinghis
killinghis sister-in-law.

home.

returns

this

by

him

stimulated
to

incessant

an

becomes

his sister-in-law

that

past

Tormented

you.'

his

leaves

time

some
"

kill

to

me

he
Still

yet for

soul ;

all my

with

605

Ribot

action.

to

possessedby the
you,' said he, CI owe

who

"

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 9.]

he
he

cordingly
acsees

rible
living. He gives a cry, and the terThat
impulse seizes him again as a prey.
very
brother
him
makes
his
tie
'Take
fast.
a
evening he

sister-in-law

his

solid rope, bind

tell Dr. Calmeil
insane

an

there

if I

as

cured.

me

the

only

commit

to

This

is

; but

similar

the

Ribot,

Psychology,

Self

Maladies

Never

let

de

la

vol. ii.,p. 542.

the
have

he

'

Sir,I

shall

whole
Volontt,

to

of my
"

am

behave
think
to

be

on

text;
any prelibertywill be

fixed

idea

taken

note

arranged
p.

out

me

77, quoted

was

not

and
effect,

in which

adduced

important

as

his entrance

house.

I abhor.'

easilymight

it is

What

so.

your

in which

be

to

will
regiment. You
perhaps I shall pretend

which

could

cases

got admission

establishment

I shall make

crime

it

he

and

go

the

me.

use

case

of

moments

believe

Never

so.

of the

and

barn,

evening before

in

were

At

him

From

The

inmate

an

in the

wolf

the director

become

to

.'
.

asylum.

to

wrote

like

me

it

is the
on

the

ecuted
ex-

many

actuallydid
conflict between
side of the

by James, Principles of

60G

volition,and
its

isolated

the

strengthmerely

of the

impulse to

from

pathologicalconditions.
which

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

In

resists the will arises

idea

itself does

these

arise from

any

idea

the

fixation

fixation of the

desire for its

by

conation

the

cases

primarilyfrom
The

an

x.

rives
de-

which

the fixation of

in consciousness.
not

action

CH.

iv.,

idea

object. But

conditions,the
pathological
in
of involuntary action
those
commonest
are
cases
idea becomes
fixed through intense
which
an
appetite
or
cravingarisingfrom organicconditions. To take an
have
a morbid
example given by Mr. Shand, a man
may
to
cravingfor drink or opium, and the ideas which move

under

normal

as

opposed

its satisfaction may

there

are

four

indulgencein
man's
This

express
is

to

at last become

possiblealternatives.
the drink

or

volition

at

opium
the

here

irresistible. Now

may

moment

In
be

the first

contrary

when

he

place,
to

the

drinks.

As
a
occurrence.
rule,
probably a very rare
when
the impulse is strong enough to produce action,it
is also strong enough to prevent or displacean opposing
volition.
In the second
place,there may have been
from
the action ; but
to refrain
a preformed resolution
pulse
at the moment
it takes place,the contrary imat which
the field
to pre-occupy
as
acquiressuch intensity
of consciousness,
that the volition is temporarilyin
so
is non-voluntary
abeyance. Here action at the moment
rather than involuntary
taking a broader view we
; but
call it involuntary,
to
because
it runs
counter
a
may
volition which
has only lapsed for the time being,and
in consciousness
recurs
immediatelyafter the act is over,
in the form
of remorse.
In the third place,the action
effect before
take
a
voluntary decision has been
may
In the midst of the conflict of motives,the
arrived at.

idea
so

to

as

before

know

we

our

minds.

own

the

while

of

process

We

itself out.

working

become

appetitemay

action

into

pass

is still

deliberation

animal

the

correspondingto

vivified

607

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 9.]

act

may
while

man

still

he is to drink
a
glass of
mentally hesitatingwhether
or
not, will find that the organic craving has so
spirits
vivified the idea of drinking that he is swallowing the
whether
to do
so
or
spiritsbefore he has determined
action is then involuntary,
because
it interrupts
The
not.
It may
also be
of forming a volition.
the process
the
be that from
involuntary in a deeper sense
; it may

constitution

of the

have

willed

man's

possiblebefore
organiccraving may

acting.

the

interests
and

be

may

interests

all the
were

taken

still be

which

are

there

away,

general

volition

left.

tary.
involun-

the

totality

opposed
would

be

on

to

moment

lifetime,so

indulgence

little left but

that

the

It may

is discordant
that the

as

hand

the other
the

or

taken

cravingwere
If

the
act

is

mean

with

the

tween
intervals be-

morse.
periods of indulgenceare embittered by reIt is supposed that the morbid
craving by its
There
is,
intensity
prevents full deliberation.

the

isolated

of the
of

is

less,there

between

appetiteitself. Thus the denial

have
a
good meaning.
voluntary may
the volition

regarded as

If the

morbid

that

place,the

tion,
genuine volivoluntary at the

the

made

had

by indulging in the drink

craving itself considered

animal

Self would

the

None
be

may

isolated impulse.
relatively
away

of
be

tainly
cer-

deliberation
fourth

the

therefore

place.

defeated
the

In

motive

the

action

comparison

opium,

may

it takes

in which

sense

of

action

the

at which

time

be

would

nature, he
if full

otherwise

been

and

whole

in

assumed,

it is

man's

the

volition

determined
Of

action.

voluntariness

the

way,

of

matter

of

eating

tend

think

to

Coleridge

as

play,
have

of

ideal

the

action

an

of the

kind

it is alien from

misfortune, because

of

involuntariness

We

like

man

fair

they did not determine

regard the questionin this

we
or

degree.

of

system

found

they had

x.

if

even

when

course,

vast

CH.

iv.,

consciousness,would

in

developed themselves

and

nature

if

which,

tendencies

conative

is

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

608

opiumexternal

aspirations

his true Self.

To this
regard as constituting
hold
do not
Coleridgeresponsibleso much
extent, we
the unfortunate
tered
as
craving which possessed and mas-

which

we

him.

In

judgment

would

" 10.

be

of
deficiency
proceeding from

Self

the

depends

as

tendency

be

can

Self and

of the

it includes.
both

self-control.

when

this is

degree in

in which

this

in self-control

conditions.

the

the

special
concept

one

which

arise from

hand,

the

one
powering
over-

isolated impulse may

relatively

evolution

fullyformed

On

that

tendencies

may

trol
con-

it exists

which
or

is

ing
determin-

and

with

into relation

Failure

due

prevent the

The

whole

system of conative

our

involuntary
section,are

Self-control

as

degree

of
intensity

last

Self

the

brought

of

cases

the

of two

nature,

meaner

in the

discussed

whole.

the

upon

the

All

"

have

we

of

man

different.

very

of

cases

or

of

case

Self-Control.

which

action

the

of the

concept

of Self

even

organised. On the other

hand, the defect may lie in the degree of development
self-consciousness has attained,or in organicconwhich
ditions,
kind, which disorganise
mostly of a pathological
the Self,and prevent the full development of its normal
contents.

To

quote Dr.

and

Clouston

"

The

driver

may

VOLUNTARY

" 10.]

that he

weak

be

so

or

the

horses

control

cannot

be

may

DECISION,

609

well-broken

hard-mouthed

so

that

horses,
driver

no

conditions
arise from
Both
pull them up.
may
An
imbecile
or
dement,
purely cerebral disorder.
self.
appropriatesit to himseeing something glittering,
can

not

such

do

to

known

have

that

motives

The
.

do

acts

not

would

other

operate in such

steal who

man

lead

said

he

had

persons
I

persons.
no

intense

longing for the article he appropriatedat all,at least

in abeyance,and he could
but his will was
consciously,
not resist the ordinarydesire of possession
to
common
nature."*

all human
"

It is not

and

impulseand

of

the

with

only

this

Professor

James

marks
re-

those

classed imbeciles
technically
exhibit this promptitude of

dements

who

tardiness

of inhibition.

drunkards

often

On

Ask

half the

mon
com-

why it is that they fall so

and they will say that most
to temptation,
tell. It is a sort of vertigo
they cannot

prey
time

you

Their

them.

know

nervous

centres

have

become

unlocked
sluice-waypathologically
by every passing
conceptionof a bottle and a glass. They do not thirst
for the beverage; the taste of it may
even
pugnant;
reappear
and
morse.
rethey perfectlyforesee the morrow's
But when
they think of the liquoror see it,
they find themselves preparing to drink, and do not
than this they cannot
stop themselves; and more
say."|
We
have
a
good example of the inverse case in which
the concept of Self is fullyorganised and easily
oped,
develbut finds itself impotent in the face of an abnor-

Clinical

Lectures

of Psychology,
t Ibid., p. 541.

vol.

Psych.

on

ii.,pp.

Mental
540-541.

Diseases, quoted by James,

Principles

[BK. iv.,

PSYCHOLOGY.

610

x.

CH.

who was
mally intense impulse,in the case of the man
possessedby the fixed idea of murdering his mother.
The
through which the
process of ideal construction
concept of Self grows, is gradual,and reaches different
The
more
degrees of perfectionin different persons.
highlysystematisedand organisedit becomes, the more
effective

life is dominated

whose

of

have

which

great

extent

man

of

children

in

children

that

creatures

the

ciples
general prindevelopment of

is absent

accordinglyfind

We

to

are

and

impulse; they

of deliberation,so that
power
the conative
tendency which is

comparativelylittle

action

tends

excited

follow

to

and

supported by

Remoter

Self

which

the present

represented.
present

of the future.

enough
moment

He

cannot

for

time

so

as

as

ideally

savage

He

in order

soon

the total Self

is predominant

wastefullyexhausts his
indulgence,and is improvident
in a regube brought to work
lar

object which

; but

thinks

action

determines

persistentmanner.

other

some

the

ment.
mo-

operati
comparatively in-

are

Self,not

in riotous

store

and

Thus

of the

circumstances

the

considerations

The

he

and

conduct; but this involves

savages.

savages

ideals

by

conceptual consciousness
and

is greatest in

Self-control

it is.

he

may

gain a
happens

to

his immediate

industrious

be

little money,
to

covet

end

is

at

or

the

attained,

longer of working, but only of enjoying

his gains. He is scarcelycapable of pursuing a distant
aim, which
requires persistentand repeated activity
continued
for a long time without obvious result. Ends
which
at least in part immediately attainable seem
are
his
determine
the only ends
to be
which
effectively
action.

no

For

this

reason

he does

not

the
appreciate

YOLITNTAKY

" 11.]
value
has

of time.

for him

does

great business
whole.

He

of life which

the transaction

in which

relative

merely
be

the moment

as

tance.
impor-

part of the

subordinated

to

the

necessityof completing

the

he

than

it

must

feel

not

pursuing at

rather

regard

not

does

is

he

absolute

an

He

end

The

611

DECISION,

is interested

in time

to

ceed
pro-

sorelytries the
gether
patience of the civilised European by spending altotime and energy
on
relatively
disproportionate
"time
is money"
trivial bargains,etc.
Such
mottoes
as
do not appeal to the savage mind.
The
holds of
same
other

to

children,as

young

is to them

worth

may

be

all know.

we

Attention.

either

The

bird

in the hand

in the bush.

thousand

Voluntary

" 11.

often

he

Hence

matters.

"

determination

ation
voluntarydeterminto perform certain

determination
to certo attend
or
a
tain
bodilymovements
objects. Attention, so far as it follows upon an
express volition to attend,is called voluntary attention.
All attention which
is not so initiated is non-voluntary
attend
When
not
or
we
spontaneous.
merely without
in opposition to
volition to attend, but
an
express
such a volition,attention is in the strictest sense
voluntar
inand
not
merely non-voluntary. A good
in
illustration of voluntary attention is to be found
certain psychologicalexperiments,in which
the experimenter
object,
fixes his attention on
an
uninteresting
in order
observe
to
phenomena attending the
"

of

process

object
when

for

he

fixation.
the

sake

attends

to

He
of

it.

determines

to

observing what
The

attend

to

takes

spontaneous

and

the

place
the

tinct:
voluntary direction of attention are not merely disthey are also antagonistic.Everyone desires

PSYCHOLOGY.

612

futile worry

and

regulatedas

to

to avoid
so

well

at

will from

[BK.

fret ; but

able to

be

irremediable

no

iv.,

has

one

divert

x.

mind

his

misfortune, and

CH.

thoughts

unavoidable

anxiety. When, owing to overwork, our

minds
are
cupied
besiegedat nightby a subjectwhich has octo comus
pose
during the day, we vainlyendeavour
will to expel the intrusive
ourselves to rest.
We
cannot
thoughts; but we
keep up the effort persistently
it is relaxed,the spontaneous
soon
so
as
; and
of

sources

of

movement
"

attention

recurs,

and

murders

sleep."*

mental

All

tory"
trainingand discipline
depend on the vic"This
voluntary attention.
usually takes

of

time.

The

resolution

devote

to

attention

to

an

attractive
un-

subjectcan only succeed after repeatedeffort

followed
wanders
at
by repeated failure. The mind
and requiresto be again and again recalled to its
first,
form
We
task.
ourselves with a
a
design to occupy
certain topic. So soon
this design is being carried
as
out,

we

cease

it.

prompted
which

to

think

We

of it and

think

had

of the

instead

resolved

of

motives

the

which

ter
subject-mat-

ject-matt
study. But this subis, ex hypothesi^ uninteresting.It cannot,
attention.
therefore,command
Accordingly our
from
the point,and
have
to be
called
rethoughts wander
effort of will. This fitful alternation
by a renewed
we

of attentiveness
until

fatigueand

and

tedium

to

inattentiveness
cause

may

task

the

to

continue
be

On

the other hand, interest may grow

up
better
known.
When
subject of study becomes

happens,

the

periods of

until
prolonged,
*

Author's

the

Analytic

concentration

necessityfor
Psychology,

vol.

become

deliberate
i.,p.

241.

oned.
abandas

the
this

ally
gradueffort

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

"11.]
to

ceases

in

exist.
such

Thus

it fails in

When

is to

cases

function

the

create

613

of

tion
voluntaryatten-

attention.

spontaneous

and

this,it produces only exhaustion

life
to spend his whole
disgust. A person condemned
efforts to fix his mind
in constantlyreiterated
on
a
hopelesslyuninterestingtopic,would go mad, commit
tion
suicide,or sink into a state of coma.
Voluntary attenbelongs coincidentlyto the province of intellect
of
conduct
and
volition.
It is the
to that of practical
ject
the understanding,'and, like external conduct, is subIn intellectual moralitythe fundalaw.
mental
to moral
*
virtue is patience."
The
to attend
voluntarydetermination
plays a large
liberati
and
important part in the more
complex forms of dethe value
of conflicting
We
may
compare
l

and

to

find that
may
certain motive

we

view

relation

in

motives

the

total

system

considered
or

group

from

of

this

of motives

lives;

our

point

has

of

the

not

We
prominence which it ought to have.
then attempt to give it this strength and
ence
prominmay
by voluntarilyturning our attention in a certain
candidate
Thus
direction.
ation
a
preparingfor an examinfind in himself a strong disposition
ness,
to lazimay
He
tempting him to spend a day in idleness.
at the outset
siderations
very faintlyrealise the specialconmay

strength and

make

which
he

may

at

the

same

such

time

know

important,and that
bitterlyregret doing so.
are

will
not

constitute

decision

to
*

motive

apply himself
Author's

Analytic

inadvisable

course

This

sufficient to
to

work

Psychology,

neglectsthem
at

the

lead

instead
vol.

i.,p.

but

tions
considera-

that these
if he

outset

may

definite

to

of

play;

242.

he

but

[BK.

PSYCHOLOGY.

614

it may

fix attention

to
to

so

which
reach

sufficient to

be

give to these reasons

lack.
they initially
and

steadiness

with
that

the

For

in

will

we

manner

the

attend ; and

to

" 12.

Freedom.

True

denial of the

is claimed

by

on

It

as

must

in

this

the

be

supposed
chapter implies a
not

issue out

of the

in which

sense

ordinaryconsciousness

"

not

attend

whole.

doubt
have
only thrown
humanity. We
of such freedom,
theory of the nature
of liber tar ianism,
which
goes by the name
choice.
By contingent choice is meant
does

fluence
controllingin-

the
a

to

of

which

in

act, but

our

of the will in the

freedom

freedom

such

said

have

anything we

that

"

conspicuous.

determination

voluntary

concept of the Self

of the

these

as

ation
voluntarydeterminvoluntary determination

obviouslydepends

directlyand

cases

The

of the

out

will

work

to

go

is most

only

not

he may

way

to

It is in such

volition.

our

issues

act

to

decision

of freedom

we

cases

the

In this indirect

energy.

consciousness
such

rise to

effective

and

distinct

x.

sion
voluntarydecifor working, and
the reasons
liveliness
the strength and

give

on

CH.

iv.,

total process

on

the

theory
of

or
a

tain
cer-

tingent
con-

choice

of mental

psychologicallaws, but springs

fired out of a pistol.
into being of itself as if it were
of
arise by a kind
free decision
This theory makes
spontaneous generation. Those who oppose libertarianwith

life in accordance

ism

sometimes

call themselves

Determinists.
libertarians

Some

de-

in

identifying
with contingent choice ; they only disagree in
freedom
denying the existence of such choice. As againstboth
terminists

these, we

agree

with

maintain
and

that

that

the

freedom

mination,
consists in self-deter-

self-determination

means

self-con-

as
Self-control,

trol.

in

as

this is to

be

only in

life exists and

conduct.

the system

acts

Another

are

of the

free

agent

of the Self

constitution

just the
exists

character

the

from

that

say

The

whole

as

sists
con-

degree

in

degree in which this

brought into relation

it includes."*

which

Self

the

the

the concept of the Self and

tendencies

it in " 10,

whole.

depends upon
specialtendency can

that

with

of

Self

the

it exists

which

flow

defined

have

we

proceeding from

control

determining

and

or

"

615

DECISION.

VOLUNTARY

" 12.]

as

in

of conative

way
far

so

; for

of putting
as

they

character

is

Character

whole.

unityand continuityof conscious

manifests
itself in systematicconsistency
Animals
can
scarcelybe said to have a

so

far

as

their actions flow

character, because

from

disconnected

impulse. If an animal could be supposed to think and

but only to
speak, it could not refer its actions to itself,
that moment."
is
its impulse at this or
f Character
little developed in savages
as
compared with civilised
of considerlittle power
ing
men
relatively
; for they have
particularactions in relation to an organised system
the development of character
Now
of conduct.
two
and the development of freedom
are
aspects of the
his own
acts
A man's
are
same
only when
process.
when
he is himself in doing them," $
they express
rather than his momentary
his total character
impulse.
"

"

"

which

can

coincides
Professor
*

P.

this account

from

It follows

that freedom

an

be

ideal

and this ideal

completelyrealised,
with that of self-realisation,
as
expounded in
Manual
J. S. Mackenzie's
of Ethics. " But
never

608.

t J. S. Mackenzie,

Manual

of Ethics, third

edition,

J Ibid,, p. 96.

" See

is

especially bk. ii.,ch.

v.,

" 12,"The

True

Self."

p. 95.

PSYCHOLOGY.

616

the

of

examination

an

of

will

individual

the

relation

This

such

science

finite

The

it is

Psychology

he

the

thing

same

object,

but

that

Will
as

and

and

means

have

is not

the

and

truth

metaphysician.

possibility

their
the

mode

of

individual

are

occurrence

mind.

it.

will
as

and

or

being
of

now

this

have

like

it,

toothache.

your
such

categories

correspondence.

ultimately
we

an

ness
consciousfrom

may

by

garded
re-

that

exactly

of

any

so

thought

toothache

psychologists,
of

far
a

resemblance,

of

something.
of

has

deavour
en-

miracles.

possible

very

thought

freedom
As

of

intend

explicable

not

are

he

intends

may

you

is

any

we

that

modification

that

or

is

or

object

saying

of

categories

miracle

it

mean

present
an

thought

ultimate

how

verse.
uni-

the

view

it becomes
the

and

utterly inexplicable.

ordinary

plain

causality, substance,

Hence,

in

he

toothache

my

the

of

conscientiously

indeed

as

"

toothache,

and

explain

has

reality

is

chology
Psy-

thought

of

x.

involves

"

resembles

which

point

consciously

can

that

say

the

more

cannot

individual

from

by

miracle,

the

Psychology

it

the

special science,

the

and

closely

explain

between

mind,

as

more

to

To

relation

the

with

discussion

full

Its

Ethics.

with

nor

CH.

rv.,

neither

lies

freedom

about

word

last

[BK-

deal

thought,

time-processes

topics
not

but

for

with

only

taking

the
the

with

place

INDEX.

ACTION
.

Analysis: generalpsychological.
:

tendency of

pass into, 468

and volition,599.

Bk.

ment,
[^Move-

Analytic

Action,

99-100, 101, 102, 121,

429, 430,
385, 407-408,
465, 466, 611-613.

68.

total

of,to form

Psychology, author's

quoted,12-13, 21, 59, 65,

Volition.]
and passive
sight,362, 372,
373.
combination

I.

conceptual,449.

Voluntary
Active

ideas to

of, with

doctrine

Anaximenes:

regard

374.
disposition,

to the

soul, 542.

feeling-attitude
Activity: mental, distinguished Anger : specific
68.
in, 63.
from feelingof activity,
analysisof, 307 seq.
[SeeConation.]
546.
and belief,
in animals, 308.
practical:
of belief,547.

condition

as

:
practical

of,

relation

and
to

theoretical,548.
restricted by belief,549.
as

feeling-toneof, 566

mental

fallacy of

seq,

253

Aesthetics

of

characteristic

mind

of

that

seq.

for

favourable

"

of, 23 -'24.
in, 243.

in. 265.

in, 308.
comparison in, 453

anger

primary

from
distinguished

"

memory-image,
illustrating
perceptionof

depth, 378, 380.^

Alphabet : and conventional

character

of,

543.

Anti-mechanical

481.

light-waves,

spirits": doctrine

''Animal

uage,
lang-

seq.

513.

in,
in, 615.

construction

394.

Amplitude

defining

varied
persistency with
251
effort displayed
by,
seq.
ditions
adaptationto varying conideas

161.
positive,

of

mind,

in, 253-255.

productionof, 160.
and contrast effect,161.

as

between

human

perceptualprocess

"

"

negative,159

conditions

analogy

of, and

in
necessary
mental
processes

tinguished
of, dis-

psychology,6.
After-image:

of, 21.

states

care

from

22.

ception,
per-

seq.

pointof view

oi

conditions

of interpreting
difficulty

Animals:

Adaptation to varying conditions,

as

fear

310.

134.

in savage
617

point of view
thought, 508.

INDEX.

618

Ants

of

instances

adaptationto

varying conditions

Aversion

in,254-

and

the

sensation-

reflex,132.

255.

Aphasia :

and

motor

perceptual,

45.

Appetition:

positivephase

as

of

aversion, 66-67.
and

"

the

BACON:

132.
sensation-reflex,

soul, 542.

74.
Appetitivecontinuity,

Aristotle

referred

"

Arrest

192.

Wundt's,

side

of facilitation,

experiments on, 26.

90.
reproduction,8'lseq.,
in men
and in animals, 263.
of
determining feeling-tone
282.
perception,

on

of

on

ideas,419

the

Baldwin, M.

assumptions of, 107-108.

108 seq.
criticised,
Attention
of conation,65.
; form
end of, 65.

images,

of, 247,
tal
men-

"

when

248.

of,to imitation,271.

Belief

non-

"

"

"

tary,
volun-

voluntary,

:
:

as

and

vision in

habit, 99

seq.

negative phase

conation, 66-67.

on

fishes,

seq.

discernible,
separately

and

23.

imagination,Bk. IV.,

distinction
relation

"

and
as

and

between,

of,

and

seq.

practical

to

546-547.
disbelief,
conditioned
by activity,

547.

involuntary,
[See
Voluntary Attention.]
Aversion

524-

546.
activity,

611.

Automatism

on

imagination, 544

between

ejective

imitation,

ch. viii.

390.
"

Bee-community,

attitude of : and
prospective
the "not
ness,
yet" consciousdistinction

of

176.

time, 388.
"

(note).

139.

feeling-toneof, 276 seq.

ing
partplayedby : in determinestimate
of lapse of

"

to

consciousness,8.

Bateson, W.

Beats, 174

relation

: on

experiments
squirrels,
251, 265.

tion,
percep-

of, without
possibility

belief

525, 526-527.
Batchelder

278.
"

to. 298

phases

seq.

prospectivenature

of

projectiveand

on

"

"

246

relation

referred

"

"

as

to

movement,

467.

Faculty

of

ideal

547.
activity,

Psychology, 107.

characteristic

of

tendency

pass into actual

I., ch. iii.

of

enemy

larity,
simi-

423.

[SeeIdeas.]

seq.

Associationism,Bk.
as

ment,
move-

reproduction by

on

and

"

of free

352.

Association:

"

195.

restriction

on

98.

"

innervation-

the

on

theory of the innervatiuii-sense compared with

18.

to,

sense,

experiment, 24.

negative

A.

his

end, 86.

an

his

Bain,

directed
essentially

process :
towards

"

"sensible"

the

on

involving restriction of
activity,549.
relative importance of subjective
as

"

of

and
factors

of, 550

objective
seq.

INDEX.
"between

distinction

Belief:

jective
sub-

610

in

Casuality:

ideational

and

objective
of, purely psychological,

factors

"

[SeeSavages.]
subjectivefactor in primitive,

from
of

in

revival

of

feeling-tone,565.
as
influencing action after
voluntarydecision,601.
Belt: quoted, 310.
Berkeley : theory of vision of, 3(55.
confutation of his theory of
vision,366.
Bethe, A. : on smell in ants, 186

(note).
368 seq.
perception,
: spatial
perceptionof the,

change,

Character

problem

educational
imitation

of

on,

in

imitation
of idea

development

of self

contingent,614.
necessary

for

the

syntheticand

Cleland:

of

the

the structure

on

eye, 144.

Clouston,Dr.

failure in self-

on

control, 608-609.
visual

ing
illustrat-

the,

perception

197.
Coenaesthesis,

Cognition:

dimension, 372.

far

part

of the

self,535.

[SeeOrganism].
Brain : description
of the, 35 seq.
of, 13
Bridgman, Laura ; case
26.
(and note),
Thomas

on

ultimate

as

"

as
Cognitiveprocess:
4.
psychology,

consciousness

58,
Cold

of

tions,
associa-

stq.

object of

and

its object,

59.

sensations

of.

perature-sen
[SeeTem-

degree of

saturation

distinction

Bulb, the, 36.

neutral

between,
tints,145.

combination

of

\see

perceptualconsciousness,

148.

differences in saturation

Causality,
Thinghood.]
Causality: category of, 314.

and

whether

simple or complex,
seq.

of,

143.

426, 427.

500.

of

relation of, to conation, 581.

Colours

CATEGORIES,312

mode

being conscious,56

Condillac,

114.

competition

Organic
[_See

Sensations.]

of

Blind-spot,145.
Body: and mind, Introd.,ch.iii.

314,

of

512.

in, 525.

345.

operationson

in

influence

importance of

seq.

analytictouch in the, 344.

analyticexplorationin the,

"

of, 21.

states

signs in, 474.

learningof language by, 511.

106.
psychologist,

combination

on

illustration of

natural

Classification:

Brown,

dependenton

as

mental
"

Blind

how

385.

15.
introspection,
Children : difliculty
of interpreting

Choice

third

guished
distin-

consciousness

freedom

Binocular

342

500

development of, 615.

Chess-

557.
of

Change -consciousness

primitive, 556

seq.

attitude

construction,

seq.

influence of social factor in

formation
of, 555.
of

ideal

as

552.

features

sciousness,
con-

315.

and

intensityof, 150.
complementary, 156.
"

effects of contrast

Colour-blindness

on, 158.
: total,151
seq.

INDEX.

620

Colour-Blindness

total

of,to pleasure
displeasure,234.
coincidence of, with feelingof sensation,235.
tone
in perceptualprocess, 245.

Conation

and

twilightvision, 153.
partial,153 scq.
of explaining,
: modes
partial

"

154.

partial:types of, 154-155.

Colour-tone

143-144.

of,

Comparison, Bk. IV.,

"no

ch. iv,

390.

experimentson,

Conative

attitude,63

by, 456.
development of conceptual
subserved

illustrated

"

"

of
repetition

Complexity of light-waves, 143.

Complication: as mode of specific

of

differences

"

sight by touch,
qualification
touch by sight,93.

242.
perception,

reproduction in

of

perceptualprocess,

263.

perception,367.
tendency to alter presented

: a

"

varyingdegreesof
of

"

end

588.

of, 64.
as

attained

processes

arid negative phases

positive

"

as

invariable

constituent

nature

habit,

of

seq.

dependent on
74.
continuity,

ative
con-

ch.

iv.

[SeeLanguage.]

words

as

expressing,

463.
and synthesis,
Conceptualanalysis

consciousness,67.
of: and

of

232

ch. iv.
Conception, Bk. IV.
and
IV.,,
Language, Bk.

Concepts:

of, 66.
"

581
,

voluntary decision,

in

unity :

tal
by menonly, 64-65.

defined, 66.

"

of

feeling-tone

sensation,

of

effect

tendency : different degrees

of,compared, 67-68.
and

relation of, to attention, 65.

"

association,422.

ascending levels

"

ciple
prin-

process : cumulative
of, 77 seq.
"

387.

fundamental

changes in body and external

from 6 4
orl d distinguished
w
end

retentiveness

primary

as

object,63-64.
"

80.

seq.

in visual

Conation

by rhythm

music,

in, 81.

92.

form

and

verse

illustrated from

as

stimulus,

other illustrations of,81.

in qualityof sounds, 91.

illustrated from qualification

in

by rhythmic

same

illustrated

"

reproduction,91.
example of, from

to

78 aeq.

analysisin, 457.

of

relation

retentiveness,77.

and
"

seq.

of,
unity, 73-74.

conative

ends
practical

or

cognition,

to

581.

453.

ideational activity,456.

of

of,

relation

:
continuity

theoretical

present

389.

the
"not
yet" and
more"
consciousness,

and

454.
as

perception of

time,

of

emotions,298.

fear,300.

and

deliberate,452.
in animals,
in animals :

attention, 247.

and

146.

Colour -tones :
graduation
series of, 147.
Colour- wheel, the, 158.

relation

relation of, to
"

differences

"

and

"

light-sensation,

in

and

101.

448

seq.

INDEX.

Concomitance

and

conscioxis

between

nervous

[SeeParallelism.]
and

Conscious

action

of

between,

50

between,

process

more,"

pared,
com-

of, to

and

43

"

correlation

tween,
be-

precise relation
and
46

nervous

cess,
pro-

of,74.

of the

"

"

Ladd
and
and

centres

word

by

division

it is not

total

"

function

of

part of

wider

ultimate
: can

never

from

biological

42.

of functions

modes

it exist

of,

56

apart from

in,

entirelyneutral,

the

in

Coughing

marked,
definitely
:

bodily

division
evidence
for
functions in, 45.
of
division
functions

as

of
in

45.

sensation-reflex,

127.

sensations,

[See
and

62.

functions

44.

organs,
"

Cutaneous

60-61.

of

correspondingto

not

52.

feeling?
total:

as

ments,
move-

43.

9.

individual

of

localisation

centres, 40.
reflex actions, 41.

three

reflex

sub-cortical

point of view,

sub-cortical

whole,

process,
and

42.

8.

the brain, 49.

"

35-36.

produce

to

certain

function

on,
on,

why

of

by,

use

there is not
prison t where
total unconsciousness, 8-9.
Baldwin

of

35-36.
,

actions,41.

writers, 8.

"

conscious

function

Consciousness, 7.

"

of, 420.

of law of, 421.

qualification
relation
of,to continuity of

and

48.

use

law

Cortex, the: descriptionof

seq.

"

"

mediate,
im-

Continuityof interest,74. \_Sec

Conative
continuity.]
Control.
[SeeSelf -control.]

transfer of energy from,

unliketo material process, ly,
end

of

relations

interest,422.

process,

seq.

"

"no

72-73.
"

nervous

and

yet"
390.

vous
ner-

the cortex, 35.

immediate

"

of,

of

385.

''not

Contiguity:

relation

and

the

"

distinguished

consciousness

change,

seq.

pi'ocess, 35.
"

in

from

con-

54

of,"

span

in time, 384.

process

change

comitance
con-

of

theories

connexion

"

as
"

hypothesisof

"

on

79.

in, 48.

"

experiments

"

process:
one-sided

nervous

hypothesis

sentially
es-

conative, 75.

50 aeq,

process,

of:

Consciousness, processes

Pressure

186

seq.

sensations

Temperature

tions.]
sensa-

absolutelyinactive,67.
without
objectivereference,

never
"

69.
"

generalunity and continuity

DARWIN

'"

theory of

tional
emo-

gestures, 311.

of, 72.
conative unityand
of. 73.

his

continuity

Darwinian

theory

"

17.

data

ing,
support-

INDEX.

622

: his Elementary
Davis, Ainsworth
Physiology recommended,
36 (note;.

spontaneous origin
of natural signsin, 472-474.

Deaf-mutes

of

expression

in

Distinctness

Double

how

"

it

of

process

"

414.
hallucinations,

as

of retina's

view

A.

referred to, 574.

in, 586.
of

conflict

as

of

state

H.

unstable

of,

librium,
equi-

590.

mination
deter-

referred

"

of

the

and

by,

Education

Ellis

Dewey,

theory

of

on

theory
language, 483

Discernment

of
Discontinuity

Discourse,

origin

of

of, 201.

use

work,
Dispositions,76,
"

"

"

III.,

div.

i.,

range
nature

seq.

conditions

of, 286.
emotional

mood, 286-287.
"

in

(note).

83.

character
parasitical

organic sensations, 288.

general theory of,as organic
sensation, 289
of

criticism

"

modification

cumulative, 77, 80, 81.

psychical,and
physiological,

relation

of

"

of,288.

and

persistenceof, 76.
modification
of, 77.

102.
psychophysical,

of

distinguishedfrom

"

"

term

of, 284
of, 285.

arousing,285-286.

422.
interest,

60

varied

sources

"

Disparateness,368.
this

540-

worship,561.

Bk.

characteristics

464.

Displeasure:

of savages,

savage

wide

"

seq.

of the

imitation,524.

63.

135.

threshold

ft'.

attitude in,
specificfeeling-

"

"

Ding-dong

language

in, 510

ch. iv.

134.

of

of

dreams

on

Emotion

177.
Difference-tones,
Differentiation : and integration,
of sense-organs,

of

541.

emotion, 294.
Difference-threshold, 201.

"

libertarians,

James's

on

(note),181

influence

imitation

Ejectivestage

thought, 582.

"

to, 170

and

543.

614.

J.

memory,

(note).

terial
ma-

to, 289.

in ideational

Determinists

referred

"

attend, 613.

doctrine
soul held

Desire

tiguity,
con-

441.

part played in, by

to

of

law

on

experiment of, on

"

imperfect,593.

ment
experi-

421.

taking place after

decision

Descartes

own

lightin, 415-416.

motives, 587.
as

seq.

arises,585.

generalpointof

"

pared
com-

as

images, 402
pain of, 277.

illusions,415.

Dumas,

impulse, 267.

percepts

stimulation

with

contrasted

of

contact, 353.
as

"

"

Deliberation

experience,340.

with

cision.]
De-

[See Voluntary

and

Dissonance, 176.

Dreams:

of universals,487.
Decision.

extensive

Distraction

articulation in, 485.

impotence

Dispositions,cumulative

seq.

James's

ment
state-

theory of, 290

of

seq.

James's

theory of, 297 (note).

of, to pleasure-pain
and conation,298.

INDEX.

Emotion

qualitative Exposition :

ultimate

623

of

differences in, 299.

distinguishedfrom
299.
disposition,

in ideational process,
576

Emotional

ment,
senti-

"

guished
distin-

:
dispositions

from

moods,

"

seq.

sentiments

mood

emotion,
"

and

experiments on

"

of

cause

discontinuity

past

and

of

use

connected

present

word, in reference

conative

"

to

process:

and

of

the

External

view

of,

from

that

tinguished
dis-

of

world

"

of

construction,

ch.

Space, Time,

by, 616.
\8ce Learning by

Ideal

Eye

stages
in

"

"

vi.

[See

Thinghood,

Construction.]
in

the, 137

in psychology,

as
illustrating,
psychology, 25.

IV.,

351.

as,

ideal

: as

Bk.

24 seq.
Aristotle's,24.

development

of

seq.

insects,139.
of

structure

the,

144-145.

stereoscope
in

Experimental

method
from

guished
distin-

vation,
obser-

mere

19-20.
"

"

"

as

movements

free space

"

discussion of freedom

Experience.
experience.]
Experiment : as method

"

ii.

of:

perception

yielded by

psychology,6.
'"

meaning by,

exploration,348.

of

point

of

III., div. ii.,ch.

47.
Ethics

337

movement,

reality: perception of,

Bk.

of,
hypothesis,

interaction

senses,

340.

ing
mean-

conservation

other

341.

acquirement

"

of, 74.
ideallyconstructed, 582.

Energy

with,

with, 336-337.

active

seq.,

tendencies,66.

law

and

"

of conscious

"

experiments on

"

selves,532.
:

tactile sensibility,

connected
334-336.

between
End

extension,

334.

286-287.

tendency of. to persist

particularise itself,
as

separablefrom

as

"

287-288.
"

of

extension, 333.

distinguished from

active

338.

movement,

gestures, 311.
"

of, and

real, 348.
physically
constituent
:
as
Extensity

578.

as,

stituents
con-

as

"

"

seq.

material

spatialorder

"

ments.]
Senti-

[See

and

334.

emotional

300.

order

of, 330-331.
and local signature,332.
distinguished
fromextensit-y,

575.

distinguishedfrom

and

analysisof, 330

formal

"

of,

519.
discovery,

Extension

emotional

order

"

limitations
drawbacks
and

called

of, 26.
of, 26.

of,27-28.

on

27.

function

in insects'
due

to

eyes, 139.

attention,96.

experimental illustrations of
of, 98.

nature

formation

imagery

by words,

Titchener

Facilitation
"

mental
up

FACETS

of

habit

as

ample
ex-

of, 101.

Faculty psychology, Bk.

"

positive and

forms

of

I. ch.iii.

negative

fallacyof, 105.

INDEX.

G24

Faculty psychology: useful as

Feeling-toneof sensation: general
scheme
of classification,
theory of, 234 seq.
of sensation

105-106.

Fear

analysisof, 300

stated

seq.

disadvantageous and
advantageous, 301-302.
relation of, to bodily pain,
when

of sensation

"

cised,
criti"

intensity,and
pression
imunfamiliarityof an

suddenness,

causes

of,

conditions

of,

as

"

Fechner:

his

Weber's
Weber's
"

anger
310.

visual

on

"

"

"

"

and

wear

explanation
203 seq. [See
law].
imagery, 404.

IV., ch. ix.

conditions
of, 562

revived

"

seq.

ideas, Bk.

of

*"?".
.

law,

imagination and

"

revival
"

belief

in

of, 565.

of ideational

ultimate

56,

necting
con-

of attention, 276 seq.

ations,
associto pre- formed

of

as
Feeling-attitude:
mode
of being conscious,

theories

due

282

and

logically,
physio-

repair, 236
[8ee
seq.
Sensation.]
of perception,
Bk. III., div.
i.,ch. iii. [SeePerception.]

305-306.
"

it with

303.
"

termining
de-

235.

303.

Spencer's theory of

"

conditions

itself,
activity
[SeeIdeas.]
ing
developmentofreason-

566.

Ferrier:

on

and

60.

cognition,GO.
presupposes
relation
total
of, to our
consciousness, 60,

62.

kinds

of : besides
pleasure
62-63.
displeasure,
: in the emotions,63.
specific
Feeling-tone : as generic word
for pleasureand pain, 62.
Bk. II., ch. iii.
of sensation,
of organic sensations, 210

speech, 313.
on
alphabeticalsounds, 482.
Fixation-point: distance of, in
visual perception,374.
Fixed
ideas ; opposed to volition,
"

and

604.
in

"

pathologicalcases,

604-

605.
normal

under

conditions,

606.

Text-Book
of
Foster, M. : his
Painrecommended,
Physiology
sensations.]
seq. [See
of specialsensations,217 seq.
37 (note).

"

"

of sensation

its relation to

his

"

218.
intensity,

of sensation

"

variations

of,

"

on

219.

of

"

of

of

"

sensation

and

quality

"

on

"

on

sensation, 221.
sensation

224

of

frog,
nerve

tendency,232

regard to
yellow,155.

negative after-images,

on

positive after-images,
162.

and

organic

welfare, 229.
of sensation

of

in

159-160.

seq.

factors determining,

226.

sensation

differences
sensation

diffusive

of, 222,

of sensation
of

37-39.
stimulation

on

fibres,136.

character

"

experiments

and
seq.

conative

light-sensation, 170
(note).
noises and musical sounds,
on
171, 172.
on

INDEX.

Foster,M.

smell-

on

"

sensations,

Geometrical

pressure -sensations,186.

differences

between

and

surepres-

temperature-

sensations,189.
-

of

discrimination

on

after

language,

470.

Signs.]

impotence of, to
express
higher universal, 486-188.
Goldscheider
: experiments of, on
of joints,
191.
sensibility

of

threshold of discernment,

on

of

"

ments
move-

anaesthesia

skin, 191.
on
hunger and thirst,198.

"

illusion,32.
imitative,as primitive

[SeeNatural

188.
on

"

form

temperature-sensations,

on

"

Gestures

perception
fre-

359.

movements,

184-

185.
on

"

configuration;
of, yieldedby

beats, 174-176.

on

"

Geometric

pitch,172.

on

625

201-202.

experiments of, on nerveendings,215.

Grief: always painful,298 (note).
Gurney, E., 181 (note).
Guy Mannering : quoted, 437.

referred to, 181

(note).
145, 363, 30 j.
centralis,
Franklin, C. L. : on Helmholz'
theory of light-sensation,
"

Fovea

1TABIT

and

automatism,

99

'

165.

seq.

Bering's theory of lightsensation,168.

referred to, 170 (note).
on

Fraser

on

self,536.
Free-will
ing
: questionof, in form589
a decision,
seq.
libertarian
theory of, 590,
"

614.
"

on

Function

a,
:

example

as

"

experiments

37.
misuse

of the

word, in

doctrine of materialism
Fundamental
tones, 178.
Future:

perceptionof
anticipation of :
of

Habitual

from

distinguishing,
past,498,

13

two, 534.
Hallucinations
:

the

self

into

conditions

of,

413.

to

characteristics

Laura

Bridg(note;.
as
determiningon

Hallucination
:
division of

"

past, 497.

facilitation,

actions,99.

man,

relation
relation

"

prior

of

101.

reminiscence

of,

formation
of : analogous to
formation of memory,
436.
Habits
of thought and will, 100.

,49.

389.

formation

Hall, Stanley:

descriptionof

of

101.

consists in self -control, 614615.

Frog

conditions

of internal

view

savage

"

"

"

"

414.
of, to illusions,
414.
to
dreams,
of,

perceptualcharacter

of, 415

modes

of 415.

of stimulation

Harmonic
Hartmann

intervals, 173.
:

quoted, 306.
of, 171.

Hearing: organ
Heat

GENETIC

perature
[See Temsensations ]
quoted by
Tylor,

sensations

of.

theory

of

spatial Heinicke:

perception,361.
Geology : analogy between,

psychology,10
Psych.

11.

485.

and

Heller, T.

of the

011

spatialperception
(note;,

blind, 342

40

INDEX.

626

Helmholtz

of

theory

sation
light-sen-

Ideal

of, 162-166.
of

theory

"

of

analyticpower

the

496

as,

objectivetime

"

as

duct
pro-

of, 499.

ear,

causalityas, 500 seq.

of
in
early stages
502.
development,
504
thinghood as,

180-181.

"

referred to, 161.

[SeeLightSound -sensation.]
sensation,

"

time

seq.

for

accounting

construction:

"

Heracleitus

of the

his doctrine

seq.

soul, 542.
Herbert

type

as

"

associationism,

of

509

107."

in

513.
current

of, 162, 166-170.

"

in

opticalprocess

on

quoted, 287,

eye-

Hume

difference

on

between

515.

"

"

of

Elementary
recommended,

logy
Physio-

state

Hypnotic

action

3 6 (note)
following

from

illustrated

volition

"

the, 601-602.

Ideal

taking

reproduction

of

94, 249 (note).

an,
schematic
:
representation
form

character

of, 403.

motor

element

"

perceptual
pre-adjustment,447 seq.

and

as

"

428

by

world

as,

trains

"

"

"

promptingprocess

of, 491.
and

practicalactivity,

IV.,

space

ch. ii.

association of, 419 seq.

of
of association
of

of

as,

494,

seq.

by

seq.

association of

competition

by

seq.

divergent

associations of, 426.

conditions
on
reproductive

side, obstructing flow

492, 546.
-

"

Percepts.]

law

law

of

of, 412-413.

423
similarity,

motives

"

of, Bk.

409.

relation

and

420
contiguity,

490

seq,

"

compared with

seats

[SeeImages
"

predominant
interest, 431.

external

"

scq.

determined

percepts:

nervous

from

construction.

of

perceptualchange,

guished
distin-

accompanying perceptual

sequence

"

arrangement

pre-

"

464

seq.

533.

beings, 266.
and images, Bk IV., ch. i.
and images : distinction and
relation of, 394 seq.

"

in,

of

definition

in human

"

as

others, 520.

and

process, 264 seq.

in animals, 265.

"

IDEA

ence
subjectiveexperi-

emotions,
Ideals, 583.
Ideas

and

material

of, 519.

of

198.

Huxley

self

of

order

images, 397, 398,

: as an
organic sensation,
his

in,

518.

and

percepts

subjectiveorder

in liveliness

399.

Hunger

primitive societies,

in

"

305.

301,

individual

acquiescencein, 514.

375.
movements,
referred to, 67, 131.
Hobbes:
Hudson:

mals,
ani-

and

children

theory of light-sensation

tiering:

cooperative
process,

seq.

433.

of,

INDEX.
Ideas:

conditions

constructive

on

Image

433-434.

out,

to

act

selves
them-

and

act

selves
them-

and

element of, compared

with
sensations,

in

issuing
gesture,470.
feeling-tone of, 5C2
seq.
[See Feeling-tone, Ideaout,

and

of, to

410.
activity,

pendence
percept : relative inde-

of, 411.

origin of

activity.]

language in
of, 467.

elements

of, into movement,

relation

percept :

motor

imitative

without

percept : relation of, to

408.
subjective
activity,

468.

tendency of, to

passage

sensory

401.

tendency of,

tional

of

flow

side, obstructing

627

Imagery

visual, 404.

visual

preceding volition,

600.

motor

indistinctness

of,

405-406.

Ideation,Bk. IV., ch. iv.

generalisationinvolved

and
and

in,

"

448.

ideas, Bk.

ideas

I., ch. i.

distinction

and

of, 394.
indistinctness of, 406.
unsteadiness of, 409.
indeterminateness
of, 448.
Imagination: distinction between,
and belief,
544 seq.
relation

compared

with

ception.
sense-per-

"

"

determinateness

of, due

to

451.
conceptual synthesis,
of, to language,

relation

"

462.
Ideational

among

"

process

two

-fold

of, 418.
:
activity

566

feeling-tone of,
conditions

of

formal

conditions

of

of, 567-568.
feeling-tone
distinction

obstructed

"

and

"

of geometrical,

32.

of tradition,269.
as
instinctive,272.

learningby,
and

ideal

"

of,to hallucinations, Imitative

of pure,

nature
:

of, to

dreams,

impulse,270

413.

270-271.

with

272.

417.

mental
and

picture,395.

percept :

Impulse :

likeness

of,

396.
and
in
and
in

percept

in

difference

397
intensity,

of,

seq.

percept : difference of,

402
distinctness,

seq.

seq.

seq.

and

animals,

perceptual process,

266-268.

isolated
:

ment
develop-

of,to attention,

in children

verbal, compared

in

of idea of self,524
relation

relation

Image

influence of. 512.

importance of,

of, 413.

414.
"

273 seq.

construction, 510.

educational
"

conditions

relation

"

"

III., ch. ii.

form

"

diminished,

ence
pain arising from incoherin play of, 574.

Imitation, Bk.

between

571.
Illusion : measurement

of

advantage of, as pleasurable

of, 567.
feeling-tone

Illusions

547.
revival

573.
activity,

material

"

of, in

563.
feeling-tone,

seq.

"

savages,

attitude

pect
as-

as

determining

decision,593.

Impulsive
from
Innervation-

distinguished
voluntaryaction,583.

action

sense,

192.

INDEX.

628

Innervation-

existence

sense

discussed,192

of,

intense

seq.

relation of, to volition,193.

facts supportingassumption

"

"

in,

of

arisingfrom

percept

with

46.
hypothesis,
to, 46
objections
and

to

seq.

350.

on

405.
visualising,
on
improvement of memory
443, 444.
by practice,
line
in
of greatest
action
on

on

stereoscope,

resistance,596.

blem,
chess-pro-

illustrated

from

sphere

movement,

of

without

of,

600-601.

15.

"

on

allegeddifficulties of, 16.

improved by training,17.
drawbacks
of, 18.
ness
importance of habit of alertfor, 19.

necessityof cooperationfor,
of

action followinghypnotic
suggestion,602.
of

failure

on

self-control,

609.

referred to, 18, 191

Joints

(note).

experimentson sensibility

of, 191.

19.

method

into

600.

passingof ideas into action

precedingvolition,

on

practice,15.
allegeduntrustworthiness

of volition

passage

on

15.

"

379, 381.
after-images,
389.
organicregistration,

on

14.

from

causing

geometric configuration,

on

Introspection: definition of, 14.

illustrated

as

voluminousness, 337.

on

47.

recall,438.

illustrated from

strangeness

fear in animals, 307.

emotional
311.
on
gestxires,

continuityof, 74. [See

Conative
continuity.]
of, 422.
discontinuity
as factor determining rapidity

"

ing-tone,
determining feel-

289-290.

of power

organic

generaltheoryof emotion,

on

of conservation

law

of energy,
Interest

on

48.

energy,

Interaction

227.
his

quantity:and psychical

Intensive

Prof. W.

sensation

image, 397 seq.

sensational,402.

"

failure of

self-control,608.

JAMES,
compared

as

craving,

colour,

151.

of

fixed

150.

independent

not

idea

606.

present
phase of self in the, 531.
Intensity: of a colour, 143.
differences

tion,
representa-

following an
through intense

persistencyof

following

ideal
603-604.

of, 194.
Insane

action

Involuntary

experimentin, 19.

pendent
Introspective psychologist: deon

work

18.
predecessors,
Involuntaryaction,602

example of,
to

movement,

of

KANT

referred to, 277, 351.

Keller, Helen:
seq.
from

restrain
603.

his

of, 13 (note),

case

26.

ability Kiesow
in-

reflex

referred to, 182

M.

H.

Kingsley,
(note),475.

(note).

quoted,

470

INDEX.

nitive Learning by experience: gradual

[See Cognition,Cognature of process of, 259.
Process.]
referred to, 170 (note).
experiments on animasl

Knowing.
Konig

referred

Von:

Rries,

connected

to, 170

with, 260-262.
of, from
examples

(note)
.

Kruse

natural

on

human

signs,473.

"

beings, 262-263.

and

learningby

tation,
imi-

274.
G.

-LJADD,

T.

on

8.

principleof

on

ness,
conscious-

Lehmann, A. : referred to, 218

(note).
relativity, Libertarians : hypothesis of, 590,
599.

70, 72.

feeling of

on

distraction,

James

"

relation

222.

diverse

on

"

modalities

feeling-tone,223-224.
surplus excitation and
feeling-tone,226.
on
surplusexcitation,297.
on
part played by retina's
own
lightin dreams, 416.

"

referred

Charles:

Lamb,

quoted,
Language : and

Light -sensation,Bk. II.,ch. iv.

of stimulus in, 141.
nature
"

of

analysis

to, 22.

"

459

"

synthesis,

of,

to

imitative
form

ideational

Helmholtz's

gesture the primitive

of, 470.

conventional.
of

criticism of

negative images
Hering's theory of, 169.
present conditions of theory
in

combination, 509.

of, 170.
ing
experiments on : as illustratextensity,336.

255.

meaning,

of

Light-waves

case
perceptual

of,256-

257.

Hering'stheory

and

contrast

256.

Bering'stheory

of, 167.

conventional,

acquirement

as

of, 166-167.

480.

acteristic
Learning by experience: as charof
perception,

"

of

statement

486.

and

theory of,

166.

[See

originof, 433.

advantages
ideal

Helmholtz's

regards negative images,

signs.]

theories of

and

of

effects,165.

signs as, 471.

originof

"

criticism

failure of Helmholtz's
theory
for contrast
of, to account

462.
activity,
464.
origin of,

"

exposition of Helmholtz's
theory of, 162-163.

164-165.

relation

Natural

of,

seq.

seq.

natural

158-

theory of, 163.

objectionsto Helmholtz's
blindness,
colourtheory of, from

conceptual

and

on,

physiologicaltheories
162

v.

intrument

as

contrast

159.
"

conception,Bk.

IV., ch.

effects of

"

503.

"

596.

of, to determinists,

614.

of

on

"

hypothesisof ,

on

"

nature

amplitude

and

of, 141.

length of,

142-143.
and

persistencewith

varied effort,257.

illustrated from

waves

rope, 142.

versing
tra-

INDEX.

C30

and

Manipulationof objects: as test

of what is physically
real,

143.

colour-tone,
"

of:

length

Light-waves,

complexityof, 143.

Lights of different

327.

wave-lengths
mixture

effects of

of,

Marshall,

156

H.

R.

pleasant
perience,
disagreeable ex-

of

phase

mixing,
T.

Lipps, Dr.

of

his

158.

referred

(note).
signature:
and

method

best

differences

of,
and

of,

Matter:
"

jection,
pro-

357-358.
Localisation of

in

of

case

sight,

the

on

"

hatched

bodily

"

on

82.

ness,

242.
perception,
perience,
learning by ex-

and

animals,

453.

256.

of view
from

Logic : point

psychology,
Lotze
"

atomic

on

of,

guished
distin-

"

of

that

4.

in
"

"

primary

and

MACKENZIE,
impulse

in

prof

j. s.

on

children

on

animals, 615.

by,
in

Donative

263.
tinuity,
con-

primary

secondary,84.
89.

of a word, 461.
pointof view, 504 seq,

Mechanical

of, to
application
livingorganisms,506,
in
primitive

thought, 507, 556, 558.

36.
oblongata,
in treatment
Meinong : followed
of Weber's
law, 209 (note;.
Memories
; variety of, 442.
Memory : Bk. IV., ch. iii.
Medulla

ideal of self-realisation

Mallery,Col.

in

occasional:

on

572.

"

apprehension of,

sight in lowly
organisms, 137.
Ludicrous
: feeling-tone of
the,
:

reproduction

perceptualprocess,

distinction between

506, 507.
Lubbock

of

81.

acting machinery
animated
organisms,

and

as

form

theories,505.

seft-

on

the

"

and
in

in

reproduction,87.
way
and primary retentive-

"faculty" fallacy,

(note).
comparison

chick, 85-86.
minimum

as

of

105
"

54.

"

decay of traces, 76-77.

on

immaterial

acquirement of : as
mode
of reproduction,84.
example from tune, 85.
newly
example from

of sense, 44.
organs
indefiniteness
of, 45.

Locke:

of, 52.

53.

of

system
agency,

functions,43.

correspondsto

"

nature

beings,

Meaning,

357.
non-existent

ultimate

phenomenon,

as
as

with

of,

conscious

50.

seq.

combination

part of

on

extensity,333.

"

tone, 236 seq.

feeling: objections
to. 49.
of
destroys
possibilityagency

extension, 332.

Localisation, 356

physiologicaltheory of

Materialism

to, 279

"

differences

"

on

218.

seq.

Local

pounded
ex-

615.
natural
and

474-475, 478, 479.

definition

signs

savages,

"

i"

personal
435-436.

of, 435.
and

impersonal,

631

IXDEX.

of

marks

"

habit, 436.

and

Memory:

good, 437

of

"

by experience,256 scq.
James's
on
theoryof emotion,

good, 437.

"

of

mark

as
rapidity,

"

scq.

mark

as
serviceableiiCts,

"

Morgan, Lloyd : example from, of

adaptation,253.
examples from, of learning

good,

"

294-295.

438.
of

mark

as

recall,
439.

good,

experiment from,

"

Mosso

lapse of time,

decay of,with

Motives

improvement of,"bypractice,

"

attention

factor

as

improvement of, 443

597.

physiological

and

antecedents

of, 34

quents
conse-

Motor

prominence given to, by

attending,613.
voluntarily
of per: relation
cepts
activity
to, 410.

seq.

primary laws of,Bk. I.,

"

411.

doctrine

Mill's

chemistry:

"

I mage

[See

S.

with,

on

of

law

causation,

of

doctrine

chemistry,"110

and

body

"mental

tendency

"

into

ch. iii.

Organism, etc.]
their
aptitude for
:

on

of

snail,

"

pass
ideas

into, 4C8.
volition and

of volition into, 600.

passage

Movements

spatialsignificance

free, 350.

restriction
direction

persistency
example from,
251 -252.
with varied effort,

to

bodily,599.
"

138.
of

ideal,

between

relation

"

of
eye

of

actual, 467.

to pass

imitation, 275.

Morgan, Lloyd

sentation,
repre-

theory of tendency of

"

cess,
Pro-

Nervous

ideal

in
465.

between, one of
sciousness,
Con34.
\_See
interaction,

Monkeys

of,

revival

"

relation

"

in

seq.

Introd.

organic

perceptionof third
dimension, 358.

free

"

Mills, "Wesley: experiments of,

on
animals, 257-259.
Mind

with

sensations,196.
Movement
: active, 337.

102.

his

"

191.

compared

"

of association-

: type
ism, 107.

Mill, J.

"

of, 113 seq.

doctrine
.

Mill's

of

fallacies

image
Mill, James

examples of,190.
originof, 190-191.
experiments connected

sensations:

"

of, 110.

"

images to,

of

relation

"

ch. ii.

obstacles,

persistenceof, as

"

"

process

of conflict of, 588.

cessation

"

304.

Mental

acting,

587.

seq.

past time, 446,

guished
images : primary, distinfrom after-images,

"

for

deciding and

for

"

and

"

self,

587.

increased
in

of deliberation

process

conflict of, 586.

of the
arise from nature

442.
"

fear,

as

441.
"

of

harmfulness

on

302-303.

of, 439.
"

parison
com-

on

in animals, 454.

of serviceableness

conditions

"

of

of power

duration

"

Mozart

memory

438,

442.

in
of

amount

and

free, 352.

of, for music,

INDEX.

G32

Miiller,G. E.

referred

(note),162,
Max

Muller,

on

to,

155

origin of language,

483-

and

noises, 171.
:
combination
of, from

sounds

Musical
"

different

174.

sources,

fundamental

tones

and

referred

Newton:

musical

and

OBJECT

language,

relation

"

of,

to

471-

for

in deaf-mutes.

472-474.

of, among

use

time,

as

of

32.

Obliviscence, 406.
24

Olfactometer,
Onchidium

distinguishedfrom
and

process,

organ
"

function

of

"

sub-cortical, as
of reflex action,37.
: correlation
of, and

process
conscious

process

process, 43 seq.
and the interaction

hypothesis,46 seq.
"

process
: no

and

view

tinguished
of, dis-

of

that

Organic craving
through,

as

idea

fixed

of

cause

voluntary
in-

action, 606.
"

sensations,95,
"

and
"

"

195

differences
m

"

seq.

between,

.'"r, 196.

im^-rtance of, 196.

diffusiveness

of, 197.

accompanying

conscious

common

47.

point of

psychology,5.

36 seq.
-cortical,
:
descriptionof, 36.
system

system

hypothesisof,
[SeeMaterialism.]
:

from

sub

"

and,

-spotsof, 138.

conscious

35.

mechanism

eye
action

48 seq.

Ontology

482.
process

method

185.

One-sided

ventional,
con-

Nervous

seq.

26.

develop into
language,480.

conventional

of psychology,

method

as

experimental

conventional, 478.
not

ceptual
con-

thinking, 477tendency of, to become

do

of,

measurement

presented:

Observation

476.

existence, 13.

actual

understanding

instruments

construction,

ideal

an

Objects: presented,as data of

psychology,10 seq., 16.
presented: need not have

savages,

spite of diversity,

in

of,

subjective

499.

"

mutual

and

498.

"

475.
"

and

its,58-59.

primitive

of,472-474.
spontaneous origin of,

word, in
cognition,56.
the

to

Objectivetime

strative,
demon-

nature

2-3.

an,

cognitive consciousness

"

"

evidence

with

of

meaning

471.
"

psychology

3.
psychological,

relation

theory of spatial
361-362.
perception,
signs:

far

how

is concerned

"

as

sounds, 17 1"

[SeeSelf.]

"

Natural

to, 498.

Not-self.

in, 178.

overtones

perceptual

process, 264.
Noises:

484.

in

of,

states

170 (note).
theories of the

of

revival

excitement:

Nervous

tions,
emo-

197.

cess
profactor tween,
be-

95,
reproducible,
easily
197.

INDEX.

Organic

sensations

thirst

55.

influence of, on

"

of, 55.
,

"pains,"

212.

and

feeling-toneof,

"

perception of 389.
Pathology : data supplied by, to
psychology, 13, 26.
of self -consciousness,
531*^.
Past:

called

when

"

xeq.

reasonforontological
ation
explan-

"

nervous

211.

system,

"

Paul

cognition,214.
feeling-tonedoes

not

Pendular

228.

Percept
emotion,

288

sensation, 229
far

how

"

perience
ex-

primitive spatial presentation

"

as

time-keeper, 388.
belonging to the self

"

as

like external

"

519.

objects,520.

Overtones, 178.

association

"

attention, 246

and

persistencywith

and

conditions, 253
and

sense

sensations

differences

of,21
varieties

of

determined

and

between,

able
incap-

analysis,213.

defeat,

external

61.

phenomena,

53.

of

in

II.,
nexion
con-

ty,
activi-

motor

:
reality

of

world

external

ditions
con-

and

manipulation,327.
not-self,329.

of the self, 329.

spatial,Bk.
idealistic view

to preformed

of, 326.

of the

metaphysicalexplanationof,

due

323.
of

51.

reality:

with

3.

"

material

varying

seq.

Bk.
of external
reality,
ch. ii.
div. ii.,
of external

originof, 214-217.
Parallelism : formula
of, 50.
not an
explanatory theory,

on

to

associations, 282.

word,

characteristics of sensations

based

varied

learning by experience,

"

"

seq.

seq.

adaptation

of
feeling-tone
of the

called,212.

""

to, 242.

and

tone
feelingby success

552.

212.

"

of, 241.
and reproduction

280.

restricted

of

definition

255.

PAINS, 186.

"

[See

reaction,

sensory

essential

"

Pain-

the

251
effort,

as

"

and

129.

touch
synthetic

"

"

image,
aggressivenessof, 402.

and

in, 354.

quoted,

between,

of, 355.

Ovid:

image,

Perception,Bk. III.

"

combined
"

"

spatialperceptionof

analyticand

differences

on, 230.

353.
"

179.
waves,
likeness
of, to

397 seq.

seq.

contributes to,2 29

Organism:

meaning

Image.]

pleasant

effect of alcohol

in

461.

396.

seq.

as
experiments on,
337.
illustrating
intensity,
welfare:
and feeling-tone
of

"

words,

and

"

variations

on

of

"

"

belong exclusivelyto, 227"

good working hypothesis,

198.

as,

feeling-toneof, 210

"

Parallelism

and

hunger

633

ch.

iii.

III.,

div.

ii.,

[See Spatialperception.]

634

INDEX.

Perception: spatial,by
Bk.
.

"

Persistencywith

iv.

organism

352
358

of third

of

365

third

series,537 seq.
Perspective: aerial, as factor in

dimension,

perceptionof depth, 382.

Philologicalanalysis: and conventional
language, 483.

dimension,

Phrenology :

time,
seq.
lapse of time, 385 seq.
of present, past,and future,
389
[See Temporal
seq.
384

of

"

"

of,

refuted
actual

and

III., div. i.,

Pitch, 172-173.
"

internal

continuity

of, 244.

"

of, 266

"

accompanying,

"

in

"

"

time

in,

in

process
518.

geometric

and

defeat
280

as

mining,
deter-

seq.

physiologicaltheory of, 281.

relation

"

"

revival
revival

and

ideal

of,to emotions, 298.

of sensational,5G2.
of

447

Position-sensations:
from

seq.

order in,
subjective

perceptual, 563.

varied

characteristic
251

seq.

effort:
of

ception,
per-

distinguished

movement-sensations,

192.
Present

Persistencywith
as

of

\_See
Feeling-tone.]

adjustment:

pre- arrangement,
"

external

278.

perception

success

384.
pre-

seq.

perception of

forms, 279.

seq.

consciousness:

to, 541.

III., div. i.,

attention, 276

in

movements,

process : pleasure-painin,
276 seq.
consciousness : categories
of,
Bk. III.,div. ii.,ch. i.

"

material
im-

ch. iii.

266.
ideational,
impulsivecharacter

process:

of

conception
soul due

and

process;

"

distinguishing
of, 173.

Pleasure-pain,Bk.

scq.

process : ideas
264 scq.

first

of,to idea-

tional,248-251.
process :
reproduction in,
2G3

of
power
differences

Plato

: relation
activity

distinguished

"

ch. i.

process

localisation of functions,

psychology, 4.
nature
:
insight into, how
acquired,494.
trating
Pillsbury: experiments by, illus98.
facilitation,

in animals, 243.
consciousness
tics
characteris:
Bk.

of

knowledge

from

of,

by

Physical sciences

490.

Perceptions: as series,243.
Perceptual process:
unity
'242
of.
continuity
scq.
"

of

44.

unification of data

process

localisation

as

cerebral functions,43.
44.
criticised,

"

perception.]
"

illustration of 258.

"

Personal

seq.

of

perience,
ex-

257.

scq.

visual

tion,
cona-

learningby

"

scq.

tactual

of,

effort

with

252.

extended,

as

varied

connection

[SeeTactual perception.]
spatial,
by sight,Bk. III.,
div. ii.,ch. v.
[SeeVisual
perception.]
of

"

touch,

III., div. ii.,ch.

perceptionof, 389.

fixed

starting-pointfor ideal
of time-order^

construction
496.

635

INDEX.

Presentation

of

definition

the

Psychologicalpoint of

and

"

object,59.

attends

:
Psychologist

seq.

constantlypresent,187.

Psychology ;

from

of

those

temperature,

"

of, Introd.

scope

point of

189.

of, that of

view

the

into account

takes

magic : dependent on
enlarged conception of
individual unity, 509.
belief.
Primitive
[SeeSavages,

well

object as
subject,2-3.

as

definition of, 4.
distinction
of, from

sciences,4

Belief.]
:

sations,
sen-

spectator, 2.

Primitive

Process

to

ch. i.

points

different

produced at

of

such, 123.

as

differences in, 187.

tinguishe
dis-

that

6.
aesthetics,

Pressure-sensations, 186
"

view

from

word, 57.

mental,

in

20

others,

data

"

seq.

methods

and

other

of,Introd.

ch. ii.
mental

of
difficulty

inter-

children,savages
preting,in
and

analogy between,

"

seq.

of, with

of

case

data
"

Psychical

distinguished

9.

importance

mental

of, 28-30.

as

of intensity

measurement

of, 30
"

imagination

as

of, 12.
of

philology and
14

seq.

tion
of dura-

states: measurement

states

development,

anthropologyto, 13.
method
in,
introspective

fact, 7,
psychological

from

of

works

524.

fact

logy,
geo-

10.

sight,358.
Projective stage of imitation,
in

of

science

as

localisation,357.
"

and

10-11.

connexion

intimate

of,

10 seq.

animals, 21.

356
Projection,

data

presentedobjectsas

"

"

"

scq.

states

measurement

states

measurement

conditions

of

methods

others

seq.

and

observation

of, 24

seq.

quantitativemethods

ternal
ex-

of, 31.

in,

28

seq.

of ob-

jectspresented by

of, 20

experiment
as

in

processes

data

of will

freedom

ately
ultim-

not

explicableby,

means

of, 31.

616.

Psychosis,71 (note).

pointof view
Psychological
from

that

tinguished
disof

physicalsciences,4.
from
distinguished
4.
logic,

"

that

of

from
distinguished

"

that

of

theory of

ledge,
know-

5.
from
distinguished
of ontology, 5.
from
distinguished
"

that
that

of ethics,6.

QUANTITATIVEmethods,

28

seq.

variations

comparison

of,

199.

Quantity :

difference

intensive and

attempt to
31.

measure

between

extensive,30.

intensive,

INDEX.

636

REACTION

of

forms

Reproductionof similars,423
[See Ideas.]

simple,

23.
taken

by

simple, 29.

measuring
simple, 29.
complications introduced in
compound, 30.
for

apparatus

"

"

relation
of, to
:
repetitive
of
similars,
reproduction

"

time

424.

sensory

law of, 76.

psychological

"

effect

of sensory,

Reaction

experiments:

-time
chener

on,

external,

Retina

guished
physiological, distin-

reflex, 125

sensation-

act:
:

"

19.

defined, 125.
or unconscious,

conscious

on
own

spatial
body,

contact, 353.

learning of language by

on

centres,

children, 511.

given

39

of

scheme

on

"

with

knowledge

mother-tongue,

511.
far

they involve
consciousness,41.
when
inadequate, 42.
Rcgulus : mental conflict of, 598.
Relativity: principleof, 71 seq.
Reproduction: takes placethrough
how

"

Rote

[See
Meaning, acquirement of.]

association,
:
specific

mode

83.

complication

dependent

on

on

"

on

"

on

"

on

94-96.

as

of

on

436.
idea

involvingidea

of self

of relations

selves,522-523.

variations

in idea

of

self,

523-524.

self,527.
with
tendency conflicting

division

true

of total

self,529.

emotions

due to

cal
pathologi-

conditions, 533.
division

of self into two,

534.

nature

free

"

on

of ideal, 94.
sensations, 94-95.

to other

association,

90.

mode

Prof.

as

as

of, 90-91.

learningby,

Royce,

"

of

double

on

"

of, 37 seq.
organs
lack of spontaneity
in,

"

353.

sub-cortical

as

Groom.

Robertson,

of our
perception

descriptionof, 37.
experiments on a frog
37-38.
illustrating,

actions

of fixed idea from,

: case

605.

125-126.

"

formation

of the

own
light of, 151.
Retrospection: and introspection,

Ribot, T.
act

89.

of, 145.
description

sation-reflex.]
[See Sen-

seq,

on,

of habit, 101.

from

the

78.

meaning to,

condition

"

ch. ii.

ii

III.,div.
Reduplication,406.
:

"

of

Bk.

Reflex

"

Tit-

28.

perceptionof

Reality:

130.

stimulus

primary, 81.
and reproduction,
83.
of
relation
:
ment
acquireprimary

"

instances

repetition of

of

same

129.
"

of progress,

condition

76.

perception,

and

differentiation,

134.

Retentiveness

128.
"

and

Restriction:

perceptual and ideational :

sation-reflex,
sendistinguished from

"

seq.

Russell, B.

specific,

two

31.

: on

difference

intensive

between

quantities,

637

INDEX.
Self:

SATURATION

organism

degree of, in

thought of :
thought of

colour, 143.
difference in, 150.
a

in interpreting
Savages : difficulty

mental states of, 21.

anti -mechanical
point

on,

524

self

the

hallucinations

of

of,

the

unity
thing, 556.
of, on
unity

of,

views

views

"

on

jective
sub-

to

on

of

the

and

of, 583

signs

perceptual
process,

in

not-self

584.

social factor
aeq.

of, 608.
failure in, 608

definition

of

deficient

chi dren and savages

in, 610.

267-

of

freedom

321.

impulse to,

development of, 520

pathology of, 531 seq,
causes

"

and

internal, 538.

seq.

268.

not-self

relation

in

Self-control

in, 615.

of

seq.

of

Self-consciousness

"

and

representation of

relation

deaf-mutes, 473, 487.

Schneider
to, 257.
: referred
Self

534

primitiveview
of
internal, 541.
[See
Soul, Savages.]
conative aspect of conception

interpretin

natural

531.

internal,

and

of body and
survivals of

610.

Schmalz

relatingto,

primitiveviews

dividual
in-

of

personallife,559.
of personifying
560.
natural objects,
in self-control,
their deficiency
character

representation

internal, 536.
"

their modes

future

savage

of

terms

529.

theories of internal, 535.

"

world, 557.

tendency of,

conflicting

and

illusions

"

"

necessity,553.
"

many

seq.

with
objective

confuse

the

of, 530.

belief

554.

551,

among,
"

true

external

imaginationin, 547.
subjectivefactor of

"

and

tendency,

sympathetic

on

539.

"

of,

seq.
one

the

communion, 538.
views of, on impersonations,

"

in

importance of imitation
development of idea

536-537.

views

to

selves,527 seq.

influence

"

of

536.

by,

relations

selves,522.
of idea of, 523,

other

in, 515.

of internal
representation

involving

as

variation

of, 508.

view

ideal construction

belonging to,

as

519.

will

and,

614-

615.

perceptionof,

Self-realisation

with

328-329.

ideal
that of

of,

cident
coin-

freedom,

"

Bk.

contruction,
IV., chap. vii.
belonging to,an
experiences
not-self,517.
as

ideal

ideal construction

an

activity

615.

"

for, and

construction

order

of, 519.

of

534.

distinguished from
sensible quality,58.

Sensation

of, 518.
material

past and present,529.

conflict of past and present,

Selves

"

of, Bk. II., ch. i.

stimulus, 117, 208.

definition
and

INDEX.

638

Sensation

of, distinguished

: cause

from

object of

Sense-organs:
135

ception,
sense-per-

118.

"

antecedents
mere

"

as

of, 118-119.
arguments for
of, 120 seq.

as

seq.

"

II., ch.

[See Feeling-tone,
Light-sensation, Soundsensation, etc.]

"

logical
physio-

reflex,125.
"

"

instances

pre

"

"

and

ideational

aspect

for

as

perceptual

process,

in,
relative
Sensational
Sensations

purity of,

133.

reproduction of,

94-

"

elements,
as

such

119.

"

attended

to in psychology,

as

such

not

objects but

psychicalstates,124.

and

ment,
senti-

emotions
referring to
to
personal and
sonal
imper578-580.
objects,
example of fixed idea from,
606.

Sidgwick, H. : referred to, 17.

lution
Sight : illustration from, of evoof

sense-organs,

sation,
[^Light-senVisual

perception,

etc.]

: differentiation
-experience

of, 134

seq.

in nature

variation

Sense-organs
in

to,

distinction

on

on

liveliness of, 398

seq.

Sense

136-137.

seq.

and

good

time, 498.

emotion

of special,
217
feeling-tone

force

of

Shelley: quoted, 80.

123.
"

as

576-577.
"

such

habits,311.

mark

437, 439.

between

meaning of, 95.

distinguished from sensory

as

memory,

402.
intensity,

by emotions,

associated

Shakespeare : on
Sharid, A. F.

132.

95.
"

Serviceable

volved
in-

physiologicalprocess

and

between,

as
tional
complex emo300.
dispositions,

Serviceableness

132.

word, as
systems,

ideal

constituted

578.
Sentiments

of, 131

seq.
contrasted
with

of the

use

576.
distinction

tual
percep-

hedonic

and

of

arising from,

emotion, 576 seq.

reaction,

seq.

conative

antithesis

impulses: blendingof, with

name

128.

distinguished from

with

perceptual,133.
Sentience,68 seq.

occupation,

seq.

ftcq.

131.

physiological in

mental

128

impulses:

Sentiment

of, 127.

becomes

210

impulses : in conflict
perceptual,129.
movements

Sensation-reflex,Bk. II.,ch. ii.

distinguished from

seq.

Sensibility:
common,
Sensory elements, 119

viii.

"

of,

growing complexity of, 136.

evolution
of
special, 136

ence
exist-

cognitive state and

cognised object,122 seq.

of, Bk.
feeling-tone

"

"

differentiation

44

division
cortex

srq.

of, 134.
of

tion
func-

Significance. [SeeMeaning.]
of external,
Signs : interpretation
20.

external

corresponds

by
20.

and

means

tion
communicaof

language,

639

INDEX.

of, 382.
Signs : interpretation

Similarity: association

4'23.

by,

Ideas.]
\_Sce
sensation

Smell-

for,

stimulus

184.

"

extensive

"

of,

character

modified

with

mixture

of organismas extended,

"

352

337.
sensations

Smell-

350.

185.

animals,

in

"

by

other

to,
factor

"

in

development

of

of

of
Socrates

tion
imita-

"

red

"

tion
in forma-

Spencer,

to, 464.

Steinthal

theory of, 180.

difficulties

"

character

536

views

of

and
of

division

the,

conception
immaterial

functions

material

doctrine

Space

as

494

Stimulus-threshold,
Striving. \_SceConation, Cona-

last

attitude.]
sensation, 120.
mended,
Tonpsycholo.gie recom-

on

mere

tween,
be-

181

Subjective

and

(note).

objectivetime,

498.
survival

of

objective factors

and

belief, 550

construction,
of

seq.
68

Sub-consciousness,
Sub-cortical

seq.

origin of conception
of, 496.

his

of, 543.

ideal

Stumpf

542.
"

of, 117.
202.

the, as material, 541.

material

370.

definition

tive

of

trated
perception illus-

by,

seq.

modification

"

about

"

11.

binocular

Stimulus:

primitive

ding-dong

"

14.

theories of, 535.

modern

to, 567.

the

illustrating
introspection,

as

"

of, 337.
:

animals, 308.

theory, 484.
as
Stereoscope:
psychological

Helmholtz'

in

theory of, 181.

alleged extensive

"

and

datum,

Ilelmholtz'

'theoryof fear,

his

in
anger
Spinoza: referred

etc.]

Soul

on

"

"

"

151.

II.

303.

"

in,

of

in, 146.

colour-tones

self-

Sound-sensation, Bk. II., ch. v.

stimulus
in, 171.
general theory of, 179 seq.
[SeePitch, Musical sounds,

"

ception.]
per-

Spectrum : how formed, 146.

analytic comparison

seq.

belief,555.

referred

Visual

determining

influence

[SeeTactual

v.

perception,

consciousness, 524.
"

III.,

Bk.

of self

with

connected
in

sight,

div. ii.,ch.

514.
reality,

consciousness, 520
"

of, 361.

-by

constitution

seq.

nativistic

and

genetic

theories

vidual
debt of indi-

510.

in

external

organism,

of the

originof, 360

"

sations,
sen"

eye of, 138.

intercourse

Social

seq.

direct

"

184.

Snail:

general,

III., div. ii.,ch. iii.

III.,
touch, Bk.
-by
div. ii.,ch. iv.
of the blind, 342 seq.
and
free
movements,

Bk.

sigiiS.]

Natural

in

Spatial perception:

["c

finity
in-

centres,

organs

37.

of

seq.
36 seq.

of reflex

action,

INDEX.

G40

Sub-cortical centres
almost

vholly

Tawney,

"

produced

"

on

on

"

on
"

the

on

children's

more"

"no

391.

sciousness,
con-

191.

Tennyson

dolls,430 (note).
Surplus excitation,222 seq.

"

energy
236

and

feeling-tone,
5.

theory

Marshall's

Thinghood

of, 237 seq.

in ideational

TACTILE

:
ments
experisensibility
as
illustrating
on,
3
34-336.
extensity,

III.,

"

of the
352

504.
Thirst

358

free

ments,
move-

as

Time

seq.

"

presentation of

"

in, 359.

"

of the third dimension

our

contrast

perceptionof, 385 seq.

perceptionof lapseof, 335.
empty : meaning of, 38G.
measured
by
lapse of :
:

effect

own

lapse

of

lapse

of

periences,
ex-

mate
esti-

immediate

of, 387.
"

attention
estimate

past, present,
in, 183.

of

386.

body in, 360.

: example from, 531.

182.

animals,

177 ft.

cumulative

Taste-sensation,182 seq.
by touch-sensations,
qualified

in

association

Timbre,
dimension,

(note), 314,

274

263.

tended,
ex-

seq.

on

by,

conducted

(note).

454
on

organism

free movement

Taine

experiments

259-262,

seq.

of the third dimension

"

organic sensation,

an

as

198.

seq.

of the third

"

504

of,with causality,

342

yieldedby
350

thinking, 457.

seq.

Thorndike
:
blind,
seq.
animals
of
velopment,
dehigh stages

in the

345

application

construction,

connexion

"

div. ii.,ch. iv.

as

ideal

as

"

in

seq.

purely practical,318.

"

"

our

of, 317.

451.

"

perception, Bk.

category of, 315

of
variability

"

449,
Synthesis: conceptual,

Tactual

quoted, 564.
guished
knowledge : distinfrom
psychology,

of

Theory

seq.

energy

processofattention,
tion.]
[See Time, Percep-

of

treatment

III.,

part played by, in

perception of resistence,

Tendons

390.

"

and

"

touch, 334-335
(note).
cast-shadows, 382.

on

189.

ii.,ch. vi.

div.
of

sense

of

those

Temporal perception, Bk.

to

association,282.

extensity in

from

skin

of the

points

different

at

pressure,

due
feeling-tone

seq.

of, 188.

classes

"

cortex, 42.

Sully,J.

referred to, 336

188
Temperature-sensations,

cortical process, 40.

consciousness
in, 40.
as
apparatus used by

of

G. A.

(note).

reflex,39.

independently

work

can

"

of,

function

at

and

as

terminin
de-

of, 388.
future

perceptuallevel,3C9.

641

INDEX.
Time:

ideal construction,406

as

Visual

organ

seq.

and objective,
498.
subjective
ideal
struction,
conan
:
objective

"

"

of, 384
E.

Titchener,

B.

363
perception,

perience
ex-

experience,364.

perimental
ex-

method, '11.
reaction-time

on

ments,
experi-

365

reactions,28.
29.
reactions,
sensory
compound reactions,30,
tendons, 191.

on
on

"

on

"

conflict of

on

"

Touch

:
synthetic
343
analytic,
"

of,

dependent
eyes, 368

with

horizon, 347.

Traces

in law

with

of third dimension

monocular, 375

on

to, 372

lines,

dimension
shade

factor

in, 381.

of
aerial

third

:
as

dimension

as
perspective

factor

in, 382.

Unconsciousness, 8.
s :

third

play of lightand

(note).
Uni versa!

curved

379 seq.

deaf-mutes, 485, 487.

referred

lar,
binocu-

dimension

third

of

UPTHOFF:

conditions

and

andstraightor

natural

479.
"

as

377.

of

quoted,69.
signs,

:
on

seq.

secondary

positions,
[See DisEetentiVeness.]

B.

fixation-

of

in monocular

Tylor, E.

required for

pointin, 374.

decay of, 76-77.

Tucker,

dimension

distance

of retentiveness,

Abraham

tactual

development of, 372.

to

76.
"

as

two

seq.

third
of
active vision

taste-sensations,182.
Touch

of

use

on

368.

seq., 346.

connected

by

dimension

of third

"

over
superiority

analytic,343 seq.
applied
analytic: as
346.
largerobjects,

Touch-sensatiomc

of,

tactual,366.

perception.]

union

"

by touch,

modification

"

synthetic,342-343.

"

365.

impulses,584.

[See Tactual

dimension

third

of

conditioned

as

spatial perceptionby.

dimension,

third

seq.

"

muscular

on
"

of

"

28.
"

analysis

of surface,363 seq.
relation of, to tactual

"

the

of

synthesisin, 363.

"

seq.
on

seq.

combination

"

and

499.
: immediate

Time-transience

"

: stages in
ment
developof, 137-138.

words

463.

Visualisation

as

expressing,

power

Voit

case

in

differences

of, 404.
bility
possiof, illustrating
of attention

without

images, 249-250.
on

forgetfulness, Volition:
as

Verification

and

of ideal
492.

Pysch.

-interpretation:
pre-arrangement,
re

definition of

a,

followingline of

589.

greatest

resistance, 596.
motives
obstacles

persisting
in

"hard,"
41

as

593.

INDEX.

642

Volition

599

individual

*eq.

of ideas into action

passage
without
preceding,600.

"

opposed

to fixed

referred

idea, 604.

influenced
of

by

article

his

of

result

"

on
on

spontaneous

IV.

relation

ch.

of, to

of self,583

"

resolution,

on

of, 589
free-will in, 590

"

on

333.
extensity,

on

obliviscence

not

seq.

outcome

determined

"

of

on
on

by

of, 593 seq.

fixity
fixityof : and idea

comparison,452.
apprehension of
imagination and

on

on

desire

of

belief,

by aversion
irresolution.

594.

in

ideational

thought, 582.
referred

of

time-

feeling-toneof ideational
activity,569.

on

self,593.
state

images,

566.

perfect
impulsive: after im593.
deliberation,

to

cation,
redupli-

406-407.
of
unsteadiness

order, 497cessity
ne-

action, 592.

fixityof

and

409.

seq.

591.
deliberation,

"

tions,
sensa-

pleasure-painin attention,

of,

state

formation

for

duction,
repro-

134-135.

on

as

plication
com-

free

276-278.
of

state

when

between

of
copresentation

on

tion
concep-

589.

"

difference
94.

tion,
delibera-

analysis of

"

complication

92.

x.

587.

"

retentiveness,

and

586.

"

72.
continuity,
of

working

scq.

of

result

as

"

12.

immediate

on

cerebral

psychological

on

613.
deliberation,

decision, Bk.

as

J.

from,

tion,
atten-

612.

"

Dr.

of

77-78.
illustration of

by psychological
experiments, 611.

in

functions, 45-46.
reflex act, 125.
data,

illustrated

"

commended,
Physiology re37 (note).

on

tion
determina-

attend, 613.
attention,611 scq.

and

Human

localisation

Ward,

to

"

brain,

the

on

on

author

by

as

tion
concep-

quoted, 589, 592, 594,

595,599-600.

on

sential
es-

35-36.

self,584.

an

"

as

:
distinguished
impulsive,583.

from

efficacynot

of, 599.
belief accompanying
of action,601.
cause

"Waller, Dr.

action

Voluntary

in,

to state

by

502.

differences

motor

"

"

to,

fixityof

595.

601.

movement,
Voltaire

followed

normally

why

decision

bodily activity, Voluntary

and

427

Wasmann,

to, 411, 412

(note),

(note).
E.

referred

to,

255

(note)
.

fixityof

"

that
595.

tion
through acfollows, 594n
:

Weber-Fechner
ch.

law.]

Law,
vii.
[See

Bk.

II.,

Weber's

G43

INDEX.

law

"Weber's

of,

facts

experimental

Wilbrand
"Will

199

of,

origin

412.

by,

described

case

583.

seq.

fact

fundamental

of,

freedom

true

614.

"

of

freedom

cernment,
dis-

of

threshold

stimulus-threshold,

of,

interpretation

psychology,
tary
Volun-

Volition,

[See

616.

202

ultimately

not

by

explicable

202.

on

615.

of

freedom

dependent

character,

201.

and

590.

derlying,
un-

200.
and

of,

freedom

"

Free-will.]

Decision,
seq.

of,

Wolff,

explanation

Fechner's

Words

203.

of,

explanation

seq.

asexpressinguniversals,463.

"Welton,

on

351,

visualising,

quoted,

302.

innervation-sense,

on

theory

his

sense

lation
articu-

194.

208.

405.

Whyte-Melville

over

466.

cerning,
con-

Wundt

of,

limitations

control

of,

207.

J.

461.

"

mental

questions

furthur

of,

meaning

"

204-205.

tested,

of,

meaning

460.

occasional

explanation

Fechner's

of,

203

in

(note).

248

to,

variations'

Fechner's

to

objections

referred

G.:

195.

compared

of

innervationwith

Bain'

s,

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