Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MANUAL
tutorial
OF
Series.
PSYCHOLOGY.
tttnivereitv)(Tutorial Seriea*
OF
MANUAL
PSYCHOLOGY,
BY
GK F.
FKLLOW
LATE
IN
M.A.
STOUT,
OF
IN
MENTAL
IN
PHILOSOPHY
AT
"MIND";
UNIVERSITY;
AUTHOR
PSYCHOLOGY
LONDON
13
W,
B.
BOOKSELLERS
OF
EDITOR
PRESS.
COLLEGE
NEW
YORK
"
HINDS
4
Row,
STRAND,
OXFORD
ETC.
CORRESPONDENCE
CLIVE,
READER
WILDE
OF
"ANALYTIC
OF
"
UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY
THE
LONDON
COMPARATIVE
ON
ABERDEEN
OF
UNIVERSITY
LKCTURER
UNIVERSITY
AND
LECTURER
ANDERSON
ABERDEEN,
LL.D.
OXON.,
CAMBRIDGK,
LATE
THK
EXAMINER
M.A.
COLLEGE,
SCIENCK.s;
PSYCHOLOGY
IN
JOHN'S
ST.
MORAL
THE
GAME.,
"W.C.
1899.
NOBLE,
COOPER
INSTITUTE.
COPYRIGHT,
1899,
BY
W.
B.
CIvIVE.
91383
FEB
3\
1959
PREFACE.
THE
from
genetic
will
contents
successive
ideal
of
by
lower
of
races
The
is
this
sake
dreary
and
papers
by
on
r.nd
formulas
real
for
the
has
the
passed
condition
but
the
in
are
of
the
study
of
student
unless
he
is able
to
who
him.
of
has
is
ought
ming
skim-
An
effective
in
sake,
own
to
interest
with
to
genuine
essential
it
be
even
able
gift
in
the
when
to
do
more
read
books
crammed
a
the
for
than
done
most
real
and
is
evidently
flesh
living
Nothing
examiner
never
The
statements
clothed
be
the
psychological
avail.
no
acquire
to
as
on
dried
must
has
so
himself
of
are
dealing
He
problems,
and
who
to
the
for
to
anxious
most
examinations.
beginner
power
been
student's
thinking.
fail
which
through
that
cut
candidate
psychological
to
the
to
convinced
the
thinking
exasperating
a
the
earlier
reference
mental
of
of
The
world
have
am
to
use
success
Psychology,
imparted
questions
both
his
of
Psychology
to
blood,
the
to
purpose
important
and
the
table
is that
by
phases
psychological
of
introduction
followed
illustrated
which
no
into
For
the
at
mankind.
power
topics.
Psychology
development.
and
reference
is of
himself
real
Self
of
of
glance
order
The
sketchiness.
Psychology
mental
animals.
shortcoming
avoid
the
copiously
construction
illustrated
of
exposition
an
view.
that
been
life
of
point
stages
mental
contains
show
have
stages
live
work
present
bit
to
of
be
subject,
familiar
riders
in
PREFACE.
via
Psychology
there
who
students
are
riders
lie does
as
natural
endowment.
enough
to
be
But
and
over
feverishly the
day
that
they
slip
do
needs
much
learn
to
greatest debt
My
Professor
I have
Text-Book
on
found
Psychology
for
educational
to
leave
the
In
and
with
volume
much
help
in
the
Royee,
and
Mr.
Welton,
J.
Lloyd Morgan.
College,Victoria
of
the
M.
C.
in
Irvine,
Mental
In
Professor
invaluable,
owes
much
Mr.
J. F.
for
to
the
Stout,
the
and
in
has
press,
rendered
and
has
J. S.
Science
I
particularI
suggestions of
me
Mr.
the
Wales,
I have
been
in
Moral
have
Welton.
the
1899.
Ladd,
by
Yorkshire
Mackenzie,
and
by
Tutor
My
Mr.
in the
found
great assistance
compiled
found
read
feel that
their
the
book
brother,
in
paring
pre-
Index.
GK
May,
Ebbing-
Baldwin,
Professor
and
Poster's
abbreviated
general
South
teacher,
my
are
Education
of
altogether
tions
special sensa-
proofs have
University,by
the
specialchapters
James,
My
University College
W.
of
writings
Lecturer
The
from
order
purposes
Professor
Sound-Sensation
haus'
in
to
the
of
useful.
modifications
read
Certainly
is
treating
fourth
be
way.
elsewhere
as
full
to
subject alone
the
external
of Physiologyvery
adapted
have
examination
an
of
is better
mind.
here
Light-Sensation
and
before
Ward.
James
which
statements
merely
rememberable
so
out
lack
treatment
the
better
it in
far from
so
that
is true
of
not
may
who
would
than
dogmatic
It
them
for
even
interesting and
arid
Euclid.
advance
cannot
than
teacher
in
F.
STOUT.
CONTENTS
OF
VOL.
I.
INTBODUCTION.
CHAPTER
THE
SCOPE
I.
OP
PSYCHOLOGY.
PAGE
"
The
1.
Psychological
other
Point
of
View.
Sciences.
"
Presented
1.
of
II.
METHODS
AND
Objects
Data.
as
"
"
Mental
OF
Introspection.
2.
in
Process
PSYCHOLOGY.
Others.
"
and
Observation.
"5.
"
from
1
CHAPTER
DATA
Distinction
2.
Consciousness
"3.
"
THE
"
"
"
"
"
3.
festations
Mani-
Experiment
4.
Methods
Quantitative
10
..
CHAPTER
III.
BODY
1
.
Physiological
"
"
"
Xervous
Psycho-Physical
"
3.
MIND.
and
Consequents
of
the
Function
2.
Mechanism.
and
AND
Antecedents
"
"
4.
of
Metaphysical
Parallelism.
"
Mental
Sub-Cortical
"5.
cess.
ProNervous
of
Correlation
Immediate
Process.
..
Conscious
Explanation
of
Conclusion
34
..
..
CONTEXTS.
BOOK
GENERAL
I."
ANALYSIS.
CHAPTER
I.
MODES
ULTIMATE
OF
CONSCIOUS.
BEING
PAGK
1.
Cognition.
Introductory.
Attitude.
The
Conative
4.
"
" 2.
"
" 3. The
"
"
"
Feeling-Attitude.
Sentience
5.
or
"
sciousness
Sub-Con56
CHAPTER
LAWS
PRIMARY
"
1.
II.
OF
MENTAL
PROCESS.
"
"
"
"
Meaning.
" 7. Association
Reproduction. J 8.
of
Modes
Acquirement of Meaning.
" 9. The Various
duction.
SpecificReproduction, (#)Complication,(i)Free Reproand
Arrest.
Habit
Facilitation
10.
11.
"
"
and
"
"
"
"
and
"
Automatism.
"
Dispositions
"12. Physiological
CHAPTER
THE
"
1.
III.
PSYCHOLOGY"
"FACULTY
71
..
AND
ASSOCIATIONISM.
"
l'
"
103
Chemistry"
BOOK
II."
SENSATION.
CHAPTER
DEFINITION
Sensation
Mere
and
Sensation.
from
OF
Stimulus.
"
"
4.
I.
"
"
SENSATION.
2.
Sensation
Sensation
as
Sensory
Elements.
Cognitive
Cognised Object
as
"
State
.
"3.
tinguished
dis.
117
CONTENTS.
xi
CHAPTER
THE
II.
SENSATION-REFLEX.
PAGE
"
1.
distinguithedfrom
As
frcm
Conative
"
Perceptual
and
Hedonic
Relative
4.
PhysiologicalReflex."
Distin" 2. guished
Ideational-Reaction
" 3.
and
"
Aspect of
Purity of
Sensation-
the
OF
"
Reflex
..
CHAPTER
DIFFERENTIATION
Sensation-Reflex.
the
125
..
III.
SENSE-EXPERIENCE,
AND
ITS
PSYCHICAL
SIGNIFICANCE.
"
1.
Differentiation
and
Integration. "
2.
"
Differentiation
of
Sense-Organs
134
CHAPTER
IV.
LIGHT-SENSATION.
1.
Nature
Introductory. " 2.
"
of
Eye.
the
of the
Stimulus.
"
"
ture
Struc-
3.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Sensation
141
.
CHAPTER
SO
"
1.
Nature
of
Noises
Intervals."
different
Stimulus.
the
and
Musical
"
sources.
"
"
SENSATION
"
2.
Sounds.
and
OTHER
Taste
and
Smell.
Sensations."
"
" 2.
Organ of Hearing. $ 3.
" 5. Musical
" 4. Pitch.
"
Sounds
Musical
Dissonance.
"
General
10.
from
ence-Tones."
"8. DifferTheory of
Sensation
..
..
CHAPTER
1.
of
"
..
"
"
"
"7. Beats
Timbre.
V.
Combination
6.
"9.
Sound-
tJND
..
..
..
171
VI.
SENSATIONS.
Cutaneous
Sensations."
" 3.
Motor
182
..
..
..
CONTENTS.
arii
CHAPTER
THE
WEBER-
VII.
FECHNER
LAW.
PAGB
"
1. The
Experimental Facts.
" 2. Interpretation." 3.
Questions.
" 4. Limitations of Weber's Law
"
Further
"
199
"
..
..
CHAPTER
THE
"
1.
VIII.
FEELING-TONE
Common
OF
SENSATION.
"
"
"
"
BOOK
III."
PERCEPTION.
DIVISION.
PERCEPTUAL
I.
PROCESS
IN
"
1.
CHARACTERISTICS
Definition."
OF
GENERAL.
I.
CHAPTER
DISTINCTIVE
210
THE
PERCEPTUAL
CONSCIOUSNESS.
and
Continuity of Perceptual
Process.
" 3. Attention.
" 4. Persistencywith Varied
Effort.
" 5. Free Adaptation to Varying Conditions.
" 6. Learning by Experience. " 7. Reproduction by
"
2.
Unity
"
"
"
"
"
Perceptual Process.
Process.-
-"9.
"
"
8. Ideas
Impulsive
accompanying Perceptual
character
CHAPTER
of
Perceptual Process.
211
II.
IMITATION.
The
Imitative
269
CHAPTER
III.
PLEASURE-PAIN.
"
Success
" 3.
Pain.
.
"
4.
.
276
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
xiii
IV.
EMOTIONS.
PAGE
"
1.
General
Characteristics.
to Pleasure-Pain
Relation
6.
Analysis of
Emotional
"
"
Fear.
General
2.
and
Qualitative Differences.
"
"
"
Conation.
Dispositions.
"
"
"
"
8.
..
284
312
...
..321
..
GENERAL.
IN
" 2. Analysisof
Extension.
"
"
3.
330
Movement
IV.
CHAPTER
PERCEPTION
SPATIAL
III.
PERCEPTION
Active
..
..
..
CHAPTER
Extensity." " 4.
II.
Reality
"
..
..
CHAPTER
of the Problem.
I.
Categoriesof PerceptualConsciousness
SPATIAL
1L
CHAPTER
External
PEKCEPTS.
SPECIAL
Nature
"
Emotional
5.
DIVISION
" 1.
"
Gestures
.
Perceptionof
Theory. " 3.
" 4. Ultimate
BY
TOUCH.
"
"
"
" 1. Perception of
Dimension,
(") as
(b]as dependent on
BY
PERCEPTION
Surface.
"
"
2.
use
of two
SIGHT.
Perception of
Visual
conditioned
the
342
V.
CHAPTER
SPATIAL
by
Tactual
eyes,
Third
Experience,
(c]as monocular.
363
CONTENTS.
xiv
VI.
CHAPTER
TEMPORAL
PERCEPTION.
PAGE
"
1.
Experience of
Introductory. " 2. Immediate
" 3. Perception of Lapse of Time.
"
"
sience.
Time-Tran-
"
"
"
Organism
Time-keeper.
as
"
"
Past,
Present,
5.
4.
The
and
384
Future
IY."
BOOK
CONCEPTUAL
AND
IDEATIONAL
PKOCESS.
I.
CHAPTEE
IDEAS
1.
IMAGES.
AND
Relation
Imaged.
Image
"
Relative
of
Independence
Object
Percept and
Aspect
and
"
"
Dreams
393
.
CHAPTER
II.
OF
TRAINS
to
Activity. " 5.
lucinations,
Image.
" 6. Hal-
to Motor
Percept
Illusions,and
Two-fold
of
and
SubjectiveActivity, (d]Relation
1.
and
Differences
" 4, Characteristic
Image
Perceived
"
as
of
of Ideational
IDEAS.
Process.
"
" 2.
Association
of
of the Association
of Ideas
" 3. Different Forms
(a)Contiguity(Continuityof Interest),
(V) Similarity.
" 4. Competition of Divergent Associations.
$ 5. Ideal
in the flow
Construction.
of Ideal
" 6. Obstructions
Activity
Ideas.
"
"
"
"
..
..
..
CHAPTER
..
..
..
418
..
III.
MEMORY.
1.
Definition
Decay
of
Memories.
of
Memory.
Memory
"
$ 6. Memory
"
5.
and
"
with
" 2.
Good
Lapse
Improvement
Past-Time
and
of
of
Bad
Memory.
$ 3.
Time.
" 4. Variety of
Memory by Practice.
"
"
"
435
CONTENTS.
xv
CHAPTER
IDEATION,
"
IV.
COMPARISON,
AND
CONCEPTION.
1. Ideal
Pre-arrangement distinguishedfrom
adjustment. " 2. Conceptual Analysis
" 3. Comparison.
"
..
..
"
1.
and
..
CHAPTER
LANGUAGE
Perceptual
Pre-
Synthesis.
"
..
..
447
..
V.
AND
CONCEPTION.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAPTER
THE
"
EXTERNAL
1. Unification
of
as
3.
" 7.
"
Space
"
6.
as
"
AS
"
1. The
Personal
of
the
"
Many
" 5.
The
Series.
"
IDEAL
" 2.
"
External
" 4.
and
as
Ideal
Re-
"
"
as
4.
Ideal
Construction.
"
490
.
VII.
CONSTRUCTION.
The
Social Factor
in the
ment
develop-
Self -Consciousness.
Selves.
Causality
" 6.
Process
Co-operative
CHAPTER
SELF
Construction.
Ideal
as
and
Verification
" 2.
Thinghood
Ideal Construction
CONSTRUCTION.
IDEAL
"
Construction
Ideal
Construction.
AS
Perceptual Data.
"
Time
VI.
WORLD
interpretation."
459
the
"
Internal
Self
517
xvi
CONTENTS,
CHAPTER
BELIEF
VIII.
AND
IMAGINATION.
PAOB
"
1.
Distinction
between
Conditions
Belief
of
and
Belief.
importance
of
Belief.
"
"
features
of
Primitive
the
"
"
Feeling
"
Some
5.
544
OF
of
of
-tone
IX.
Revived
2.
Feeling-tone
3.
"4.
"
"
"
of
Factors
Factor."
PEELING-TONE
Introductory.
relative
the
Belief
CHAPTER
1.
General
2.
Objective
Social
"
in
and
Subjective
Influence
4.
of
the
"
"
Variations
3.
"
"
Imagination.
IDEAS.
conditions
of
Feeling-tone.
Ideational
Activity
itself.
Ideational
Activity
itself
Belief.
nation.
Imagi.
"
"
5.
Sentiment
and
Emotion
562
.
CHAPTER
1.
Ascending
of
Aspect
"
"
the
Decision.
"
and
Ideas."
12.
in
"
the
Bodily
"
True
of
"
Fixity
Self
Freedom
"
"
line
of
of
greatest
"
Self.
the
Decision.
Activity.
10.
Development.
Conception
6.
DECISION.
Conative
Voluntary
4.
Action
of
levels
X.
VOLUNTARY
"
"
9.
-Control."
5.
"
ef
Decision.
"
"
8.
Action.
Voluntary
"
"
resistance.
11.
Conative
forming
Voluntary
"
2.
Deliberation.
3.
The
Involuntary
"
"
7.
Volition
Fixed
Attention.
581
MANUAL
PSYCHOLOGY.
OF
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
THE
"
1.
that
The
Let
looks
the
is
he
it;
at
crackle
which
in
into
words
play
such
smelling,
and
he
far
will
he
is
of
his
aware
own
Psych.
man's
is
of
object.
cigar.
and
ear
he
smells
smoke
to
smelling and
procedure,
to
it before
by
these
it ; he
thus
Now
tasting.
have
we
He
listens
discouraged
not
proceed
functions
the
dryiiess
suppose
had
to
use
These
all
are
standing
terms
for
facts.
the
as
listening,
he
then
tasting.
think
not
if
examining,
as
of
of
quality
his
us
material
it to
puts
mark
may
the
psychological
So
he
"
examining
the
Let
View.
of
testing
smoke
he
describing
in
is
is
to
preliminaries,
brings
he
feel* it;
commencing
Point
engaged
that
say
PSYCHOLOGY.
OF
Psychological
man
us
SCOPE
I.
etc.
of
The
is
man
of
his
pre-occupied
qualities
throughout
sensations,
as
acts
own
of
the
the
of
sensations
1
the
object,
looking,
feeling,
cigar
process.
such;
with
He
are
itself
is
are
not
what
aware
qualifications
1
PSYCHOLOGY.
of his
as
he
consciousness,and
own
is
thinkingof
the
[CH. i.
not
of the
cigar,he
does
cigar; inasmuch
not
think
about
sensations.
On
the other
the
hand,
; and
in consequence
he thinks
of the
man
as
of the qualities
of this object,
aware
subjectwhich becomes
and adjustshis actions accordingly. But the man
himself
takes no
note
of the fact that the cigar is an object,and
that he is a subject; he could not take note of the one
fact
without
taking note of the other. But he is so wholly
absorbed
in the object,that he does not stop to consider its
relation to himself as subject; in other words, though it is
His
an
object to him, he does not think of it as such.
with
the same
that of the
point of view is essentially
The
physical sciences.
point of view of the spectator
is essentially
that
of psychology. Psychology is concerned
with the relation of what is perceived,
in any way
or
thought of,to the percipientor thinker.
It thus appears
that psychology must
take into account
not only the subjectbut also the object. This is necessary
because
be adequately
states and processes cannot
subjective
described
without
reference
to their objects. It is impossible
to name
a
thought without
naming it as the
But
thought of something or other.
psychology is only
concerned
with objects,
if and so far as they are necessarily
implied in the existence of correspondingstates and processes
in the subject. The
object with which it has. to
.
SCOPE
$ 1.]
deal is
some
always an
individual
OF
PSYCHOLOGY.
objectas perceived or
at
time.
some
Of
thought
course,
a:i
about
by
object is
much
than this; the sensible qualities
more
always actually
of the cigarbelong to it both before and after the man
has
smelt,touched, and
tasted
it. Not
the
first
instance,not
with
what
is
known,
but
with
the
of
PSYCHOLOGY."
known;
for
in process
processes
psychologyit
of being known.
whereby
is
something which,
Psychologyis the
individual
an
[en. I.
becomes
aware
is
actually
science
of
of the
world
of
our
The
knowledge of the
cognitiveprocess
world
material
itself is
an
or
any
part
of it.
object of psychology.
the place or fulfil the
itself take
psychologycannot
it investigates. In
function of the cognitive
process which
turning its attention upon the function of knowing, it
its attention from the specialnature
necessarilywithdraws
It must
indeed constantlyrecognise
of the objectsknown.
of these objects; but this is only because
the existence
their existence is involved in the very conceptionof cognitive
But
process.
This
but
line of demarcation
also
other
departments
of
the
philosophy, from
to
distinguish the
We
have
now
physicalsciences.
point of view from that which characterises
psychological
logic,theory of knowledge, ethics,and aesthetics. These
with
all concerned
are
knowledge, feeling,and will,
their attitude
with
their objects. But
is
than
rather
that of psychology. Logic is a normative
different from
the distinction between
science ; it is pre-occupiodwith
It has to show
truth and error.
how
thought must proceed
in order to represent its objectcorrectly. Psychology,
on
the
cognitiveprocess
as
it
the laws
actuallytakes
that
govern
place.
It
is
the
no
SCOPE
"2.]
OF
PSYCHOLOGY.
of
world.
of
"
It appears
to
some
that
philosophers
this
questioncannot
bo
PSYCHOLOGY.
unless
answered
universe
well
give
we
an
account
of the individual.
[CH. I.
of
But
the
nature
of the
give
of the nature
of the universe, as such, is ontology.
account
an
from
Evidentlythis is very far removed
psychology,which
has
only to do with the natural history of subjective
as
as
processes
as
they
What
has
been
an
attempt
to
in time.
occur
said of
ontology appliesalso to
ought to will,not how we
its investigation
further, and inquire how the distinction
between
rightwillingand wrong willingis possibleat all ;
and
it may
this question by
finally,
attempt to answer
giving an account of the nature of the universe as a whole.
the
other
hand, deals only with the
Psychology, on
reference
process of volition as it actuallyoccurs, without
to the ultimate
conditions
to its Tightnessor wrongness,
or
make
which
rightnessand wrongness
possible.
Aesthetics
is precisely
analogous to ethics, except that
the distinction between
beauty and uglinessis substituted
between
for that
right and wrong.
Psychology has
It only
nothing to do with this distinction,as such.
beautiful
to appear
or
inquireshow things actuallycome
with
such
questionsas whether
ugly ; it has no concern
beautiful
what
really is beautiful,or how the
appears
between
distinction
beauty and ugliness is constituted.
beautiful
therefore
is beautiful ;
Perhaps what appears
then
if this be
psychology solves the problems of
so,
aesthetics ; but it does so only by accident.
It cannot
itself show
that it has solved these problems. In order to
do so, it would
have
realitycoincide
is certainly
beyond
the question.
and
to prove
; but
the
that in aesthetics
whether
this be
true
appearance
or
provinceof psychologyto
false,it
discuss
SCOPE
" 3.]
" 3.
OF
Consciousness.
PSYCHOLOGY.
If
conscious
state.
It
we
exists
for
the
consciousness
of
the
this.
Confusion
question by
who
physiologist,
would
in this
has
be
sure
manner.
manifold
modes
is
The
passed the
is that consciousness
difficulty
and
degrees ;
to
arise if
we
and
there
is
PSYCHOLOGY.
[CH. I.
the term
so
as
always a danger of restricting
and
degrees and not
apply to certain modes
has been used by certain
the word
Historically,
the
which
awareness
experiences,as
a
inner
an
justas
perceptionof
the
views, we
only
not
of
awareness
he
though
does
that he is angry,
know
and
in which
of
wood,
As
division
between
contrasted
and
''
with
what
outside
come
crisis
"
we
are
more
tardilyarouses
out
"f
of the
Elements
not.
even
he
does
of
sciousness,
con-
sleep,
less and
sleep,or
us
"the
from
midnight
that
we
as
profound
it is to be
scious.
con-
sink
swoon
the noise
gradually
slowlyaway :
of the crowd
after-dinner
darkness
of the
The
fessor
Pro-
awake,
are
our
of Psychology,p
f Psychology,
Descriptiveand
point of
quote
sink into
we
log
and
as
more,
To
we
we
or
sense
common
...
less,as
as
table
it is the
when
in the
degree is present.
or
when
are
and
to
is
it
that is consciousness.
*
modification
not-mind."*
are
we
are
into dreamless
down
we
we
perfectlydreamless
we
states
or
If
is angry.
states
and
What
what
he
mode
some
says,
mind
What
and
in
of all mental
form
them
total unconsciousness
Baldwin
necessary
Ladd
that
of
these
of consciousness,
state
unconsciousness
consciousness
Professor
cognisance
includes
same.
is not
attribute
we
regarded as
consciousness
that is another
the
not
there
Wherever
is
know
not
own
our
consciousness
states, but
own
have
that
is angry,
man
of
we
our
we
for
writers
been
has
that
definitely
themselves, whether
If
and
others,
to
and
Indeed,
it
material
state
must
self.
sense,
by which
sight and
specialfunction
processes
of the
states
called
lias been
of ourselves
have
we
make
to
nap,
or
as
typhoid-fever
becoming conscious
57
Explanatory, p.
30.
SCOPE
" 3.]
and
becoming
the
gradations
unconscious
of
states
unconsciousness,
sleep,
become
If,
as
of
stage
of
stage
It
There
gradual
become
mav
some
the
suppose,
accompanied
by
some
dim
be
noted
that
are
not
into
is
that
dreamless
is
already
but
begin
to
dreamless
feeling,
feeling
vaguest
consciousness,
it
for
such
no
awakening,
fuller
consciousness,
between
are
sinking
dim
it
with.
itself
sleep
this
of
states
not
states
and
and
phases
are
transition
dimmest
very
their
They
they
last
first
consciousness.
cannot
The
the
the
or
all
unconsciousness.
states.
accompanying
in
are
are
and
transition
consciousness.
nor
consciousness
PSYCHOLOGY.
OF
feeling
is
dim
is
consciousness.
It
should
facts
is
which
derivative
of
account
in
in
into
the
them
proper
consciousness.
and
sense
if,
and
far
which
they
as,
of
explanation
psychical,
character
takes
psychologist
The
so
psychological
are
psychological
their
subsidiary.
only
formulation
the
psychical,
and
there
though
processes
in
some
are
necessary
which
way
are
enter
CHAPTEE
DATA
THE
1.
"
Presented
mental
and
such
the
sensation,*
conceived
of
individual
subject
then
occurring,
of
development
individual
to
the
mind.
also
are
of
the
are
Being
the
effects
of
world
and
psychological
starting-point
in
these
In
psychology
to
other
sciences
biology.
crust:
this
of
Geology
it
inquires
finds
by
*
This
what
respect
finds
actual
an
certain
this
exception
will
be
explained
10
that
are
previously.
The
this
same
time
the
to
that
development
that
for
data
as
formation
psychology.
form
the
nature
an
the
strata,
arrangement
ii.,Ch.
has
1.
an
of
analogy
geology
of
of
Book
presented
they
presents
such
in
at
any
possible presentation
arrangement
processes
to
which
investigating
development,
it
for
causes,
indispensable
causes.
attending
presented
from
important
be
attend,
or
possible
as
or
presented
the
as
its
It follows
essential
most
of
real
is at
world
limits
its consciousness.
objects
mind
pure
exist
processes
occurred
objective
The
limits
the
have
of
cannot
exists
subjective
individual
an
of
development
of
which
or
We
is
moment
any
virtue
in
only
moment
either
can
which
object
attention,
case
perceiving1, willing,
the
at
the
object.
presented
Now,
something.
in
except
discuss
to
perception,
processes
"will,without
or
has
Psychology
"
But
PSYCHOLOGY.
sensation,
as
these
from
OF
Data.
like.
none
apart
perceive,
METHODS
Objects as
processes,
volition,
to
AND
II.
and
earth's
and
arisen.
it
DATA
" 1.]
AND
METHODS.
Similarly,
psychology finds
let
nineteenth
us
to
say,
certain
it
to be
of
world
objectspresented,
Englishman of the
educated
an
century, and
11
presented. The
tion.
arranged accordingto the successive periodsof their formathe psychologist
finds different psycholoSimilarly,
gical
The
world
of the young
strata.
child,or the world
of the Australian
aborigine,are comparativelyprimitive
formations
the psychological
problem is to discover
; and
come
how
the transition
the
to
later
is disturbed
by
take
place in
insanity.
us
take
volcanic
the
is asked
mind,
A
he
would
look
man
sees.
in the
solid.
in
of
looks
He
same
He
earlier
adults
stages
are
now
of
geologicalstrata
similar upheavals also
arrangement
of
case
these
civilised
singleexample
what
from
conditions
cathedral,looking solid
cathedral
made
which
the
psychologicaldatum.
he
been
stages with
Sometimes
familiar.
Let
has
the
various
forms
presentedobjectas
into
manner
go
stereoscope,and
repliesthat
may
of
as
on
he
an
sees
actual
to describe
portant
through a stereoscopeis a most imdatum
for the psychological
theory of the processes
The
of space.
by which we perceivethe third dimension
is produced,not by a solid thing,but
of solidity
appearance
of
representations
by two flat surfaces on which are drawn
different
from
the
other object as
cathedral
seen
or
points of view ; we know, therefore that the perception
solid
figureas
seen
PSYCHOLOGY.
12
of
solid
involve
the
object depends
their
as
of
organ
find
by
which
processes
condition
of
that
solid
exclusion
of
process
which
on
necessary
vision
[en. n.
that
do
not
the
operation on
object itself. We
the
only
essential
tive
operativein producing the distinccertain
peculiar experiences
stereoscopiceffect are
of the two eyes.
These
connected
with the use
experiences
of course
not
are
part of the object; they only become
known
through the psychologicalinquiry which attempts
for the presentation
of the object. The
to account
special
importance of this case arises from the presentationof the
object taking place under experimentalconditions which
be preciselyanalysed.
can
is by no
confined
to
But
the general method
means
"Since
whole
the
it
world, as
experimental cases.
conditions
for
exists
an
be
can
individual
from
consciousness, whether
and
furniture
of
far
earth,'so
as
choir of heaven
the whole
they
known,
are
data
are
'
jBritannwa,9th ed.,vol.
xx.,
imagination,e.g., the
Tales,and
all rules of
four
the
ritual,
mental
far
as
is best
a
books
of Confucius
law,
and
man
the Brah-
Mencius.
We
examination
of
carefullynote that mere
products is valueless for psychology,except in so
it helps us to trace mental
This purpose
process.
served when
the productsas parts
we
can
arrange
historical
goal
however,
must,
of
for
of
that
say,
of
series,in
preceding,and
which
the
each
may
be
treated
as
the
of succeeding,
starting-point
" 1.]
DATA
AND
Thus
development.
METHODS.
13
the
profitablycompare
views
of the
world
it presented itself to Homer,
as
to
Socrates, and to Darwin
the
respectively.Hence
great importance of philology and anthropology to the
science
of
mind.
The
bodied
emproducts of thought are
in
language, so that the comparison of the
of the
vocabulary and
syntactic structure of different
of comparing different stages of
languages is a means
mental
and
evolution.
other
we
The
beliefs
of
comparative study
reference
any
object as
mind
to historical
under
which
space
as
it
different
the
religious
kind
same
of
may
different
conditions.
minds,
This
the
same
to the
same
compare
or
portant
yieldsim-
course
touch, with
valuable
the
holds
same
order, we
presentedto
results,when
on
the
of
good as regards
artistic productions. Again, apart from
and
it is
has
primitiveraces
psychologicalvalue, and
their technical
may
as
space
data
experience in
for
the
of
we
can
blind,we
obtain
may
lightis thrown
abnormal
of the cases
of such
in generalby examination
Under
individuals
Laura
as
Bridgman or Helen Keller.*
the same
the data suppliedby mental
head come
pathology,
includingcases of aphasia,psychicblindness,and so forth. "f
It should be borne in mind
that a presentedobject as a
in the
datum
of psychology need have no actual existence
*
Laura
of the
.mental
Mind,
Keller
were
Bridgman and Helen
of sight and hearing ; and
senses
yet
Bridgman
development. For Laura
O.S.
iv.,p.
149.
For
Helen
Keller
deprived
both
see
see
almost
reached
from
high degree
Hall's
Stanley
Mind, O.S.
birth
of
article in
xiii.,
p. 314,
PSYCHOLOGY.
14
real world.
The
actuallypresent ;
is all with
presence
or
which
solid
but
[CH. ir.
in the
figureseen
it is
none
the less
psychologyhas
is
absence
matter
any
stereoscope is
and
perceived,
concern.
not
that
Its real
physical fact,not of
important for psychology
of
DATA
" 2.]
problem
and
AND
its solution.
METHODS.
Neither
!5
his mental
attitude
nor
while
he
is tellingus
about
the
introspective
problem. But suppose that he goes on to describe how he
he came
to discover its
to invent the problem, or how
came
solution ; he will then be describingthe workings of his
will speak of his disappointment and
mind.
He
own
his renewed
hopes,his despairwhen all possible
perplexity,
appeared futile. He will perhaps tell us how the
ways
problem flashed upon him
understanding of the whole
is
ours
with
suddenly
key-move,
element
every
that
in
it then
his
subsequent mental
All this is introspection.
smooth
and easy.
activitybecame
Consider
next
an
example from the sphere of practice.
A general gives an
important order, or a responsible
scheme
of policy.
statesman
a
puts before the world
the
statesman's
Neither
the
nor
general's order
scheme
psychicalfacts ; but if the
directlyexpresses
led to give the
general begins to tell us how he was
describe the process of his
order,he will,in all probability,
assuming
its
the
right place, so
He
consciousness.
own
oscillated between
one
the
of
state
an
end
to it
his mind
that
lines of conduct
the
other.
indecision, where
there
now
; and
unbearable
prompt action,became
put
us
alternative
time
us
tell
may
by fixingon
one
that
definite
He
was
he
for
;
now
may
tell
need
for
suddenly
decision,without
again,he may
describe
how
the decision emerged gradually out of his
previous hesitation,so that he awoke one morning with a
the rightone.
clear conviction that a certain course
was
any
real conviction
Much
has
worthiness
been
of
that it
written
was
about
the best.
the
far
in
as
an
and
difficulty
untrust-
urged that
basis,
it rests on
an
introspective
unsatisfactorycondition. But it
introspection. It
in so
ps}Tchology,
must
always be
Or
is
often
PSYCHOLOGY.
16
be remembered
must
he
command
his
that
from
receive
may
vast
[nun.
mass
which
due
not
are
to
have
This we
brought out in the preceding
introspection.
section on
presentedobjectsas data for psychology. It is
conceivable
alone
would
serve
as
the
of
invaluable
ultimate
and
test
explain how
mind.
unattainable
of
other
any
world
to
comes
ultimate
data
of
exist
the
But
the
power
to
means.
psychologicaltheories
the
The
by
is their
for the
science
individual
therefore
are
when
afraid
toothache
when
I dislike
it very
much,
or
that
white
figure in a churchyard.
There
is no
that
fallacyor ambiguity in the statement
that
or
feelingpleasedis different from feelingdispleased,
when
that an
action is totally
are
we
fully convinced
impossible,we cannot
voluntarilydetermine to perform it.
was
Facts
by
of this kind
everyone.
witli such
be
can
Now
simple and
of essential value.
saw
be observed
if
with
ease
could
introspection
obvious
It would
and
only supply
data, it would
supplyus
certainty
with
none
the
us
the less
general
DATA
" 2.]
which
in
terms
AND
METHODS.
describe
to
17
mental
The
more
process.
process in detail might be
other data as the ultimate
of such
precisedetermination
and dependent on
hypothetical,
To a largeextent
this is the
test of its correctness.
In this respect psychology is on
a
footingwith
If
sciences.
for
ask
we
the
actual
observations
case.
other
of the
theory
process of natural selection on which the Darwinian
find what
is based, we
very slender foundations
appear
of fact for a very
large superstructure. There are the
The real
experiencesof the breeder,and very little more.
data which
support the weight of the theoryconsist in the
of the actual productswhich the process is assumed
nature
to explain, the actual constitution of animal and vegetable
speciesin their higher and lower forms.
The deliverances of introspection
are
not, however, limited
obvious
issues as we
have
to such simple and
mentioned.
of observation,it is capableof being
Like all other modes
immensely improved by systematictrainingand practice.
The
plain man, as Dr. Sidgwickcalls him, has, as a rule,
no
permanent and absorbing interest in the workings of
His attention is mainly engrossed by other
his own
mind.
attitude is unfamiliar
to
objects. Thus, the introspective
is the chief reason
This unfamiliarity
him.
so
why he seems
"
called
helplesswhen
own
mental
illumination
discern
may
little;
but
again, and
gradual progress.
the basis of
time
his
them
with
The
a
new
result
of
advance.
each
other, he
previous
This
no
way
Psych.
full
first
of discrimination
power
repeatinghis observations again and
in
By
comparing
increase.
becomes
to observe
on
makes
observation
is of
who
course
is
in
only
fine distinctions
2
PSYCHOLOGY.
18
tastes,smells,and
between
helplessness. Advance
of
series
It is indeed
it is
when
even
see
the
as
efforts of
notices
practisedobserver
to
colours,shows
is made
of successive
the way
[CH. II.
at
cumulative
same
result
attention,each paving
a
But
pointed out.
that the
commonplace
what
once
at first tlie
fail
the untrained
besides
individual
of the
practicethere is yet another element in the training1
introspective
help from
psychologist.He derives immense
what
the work
of his predecessors. They teacli him
to
look
for,and
how
and
where
to look
\vhat the
of one
introspection
generationhas achieved becomes the
of the
for f resli progress
in the introspection
starting-point
The
that has actuallybeen
made
in this
next.
advance
is immense,
at once
on
as
comparing from
way
appears
of Aristotle,
this point of view
the work, let us
say,
with
that of William
Nevertheless,it
James.
must
be admitted
that there
are
certain
drawbacks
is directed.
attend
I
at
observe
attend
If I
once
what
observe
to what
takes
the
is seen,
place
process
and
in
of
to the
seeing, I
seeing of
attending, I
must
must
it.
If
first
DATA
" 2.]
concerned
with
AND
METHODS.
19
mental
'escaped him
In
the
the
at
isolated observation
psychology,but
which
rather
is of
its actual
in mind
bear
must
details which
notice
of
moment
place,we
next
then
can
that
appearance.
the
it is not
importance in introspective
of
accumulation
the
had
vast
number
observations,each
minds
be
whenever
noted
that
themselves
the
be set down
This may
as
a grand
perpetuallywith us.
compensatingin a high degree
advantage of introspection,
to be effective
for its drawbacks.
Finally,introspection,
is
for
the
advancement
carried
of
observation, be
in
co-operation.Each
own
results,for
an
essential
in
such
He
part
form
must
be
able
how
to
look
most
easy when
from
mere
for what
they
point out
he
the method
or
business
that
to
number
communicate
must
his
by
on
confirmation
of
modes
of
can
of
the
experts
rest
rejection.Thus,
to
be
to others
himself
to
of
has
state
his
his
it is
results
by others.
exactlywhere and
tested
observed.
This
is
experiment,as distinguished
observation,is followed,and
constitutes
one
of
PSYCHOLOGY.
20
the main
of
true
advantages of that
one
individual,A, may
[en. n.
method.
not
Of course,
hold
good
what
of
is
another,
A by his own
to confirm
inability
experience
should
deter A from
settingdown as true for all men, or
holds good only for some
what
most
men,
persons, possibly
only for himself.
of Mental Process in Others. No one
" 3. Manifestations
observe what
is passing in the mind
of another.
can
directly
He can
only interpretexternal signs on the analogy of his
own
experience. These external signs always consist in
kind of bodily action or attitude.
Thus
when
some
a man
clenches his fist,stamps, etc., we
infer that he is angry.
When
its tail,
infer that it is pleased. The
a dog wags
we
guished
knowledge acquired in this way must be carefullydistinfrom
that which
is obtained
communicati
through interof language. When
tells
by means
a man
that he is or was
he is not directlyexpressing
us
angry,
his anger, but his knowledge of his anger.
He is conveying
to us the result of his own
of
introspection.This source
information
is in no way
peculiarto psychology. It does
B
but
B's
"
differ from
not
by
any
other
of words.
means
The
communication
of observed
facts
inference
peculiarly
psychological
must
on
first understand
understand
the
direct
him.
himself
It may
expressionof
in
happen
the
order
that the
mental
state
the
assertion about
it. He
own
subject's
unambiguous symptoms of anger, and
declare vehementlythat he is not angry.
make
others
inference
from
to
may
may
at
the
contradict
show
same
most
time
DATA
$3.]
In the
AXD
of the lower
case
METHODS.
animals
21
and
children,it
to
difficult,
young
mental
savages
odds
and
of others."
processes
wide-spreadbelief
ends
to
For
in the
the
influence
finds among
of all kinds of
instancejhe
power
of
fortunes
the
person
likelyto
not
which
he
inclined
either
to
be
be
has
There
wholly absent.
been
influenced
influenced,by
or
are
has
considerations
of thirteen
at
table, may
*
make
him
uneasy
AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,p.
15.
moments
felt
in
strongly
in themselves
relies.
the
The
presence
in spite of
PSYCHOLOGY.
22
If lie has
reason.
been
ever
[CH. II.
by the gambling
irresistibly
prompted
having an essential
carried
away
mental
of
state
he
savage,
overborne
so
attitudes
He
then
must
tendencies,that,in him,
conditions
other
by
construct
mental
savagery.
in which
mind
to
carefullyobserve
must
occasional
and
attempt to representa
order
to be
as
transient
and
unchecked
are
occasional,
by opposing forces,and for that
reason
happens
prominent and permanent. It sometimes
that
is
man
tendency himself,
in condemnation
the criminal
The
of the
have
must
snare
besetting
to
assume
be
the
that
natural
act
an
be
never
been
mental
that
us
say
its
his
anything
crimes,except
that
eccentric.
very
is the tendency
psychologist
of the
of
manifestation
in himself
which
attitude
or
tells
brought to
atrocious
most
of
understand
to
Lamb
Thus, Charles
kind
certain
is unable
he
that
in others.
presence
of
destitute
so
certain
mental
would
process
of
meaning in the case
The
another.
fallacylies in taking this or that isolated
action
apart from the totalityof the conditions under
the
seductive
when
It is particularly
which
it appears.
of a
is the object of inquiry. The
animal mind
economy
beehive
to ends, as to
displayssuch adaptation of means
faculty
previsionand political
suggest stronglyfar-reaching
therefore,have
must,
of
kind
human
to trust
the other
in the
this first
actions
examine
in detail
perform
the
constitute the
the
same
impression.
of bees
how
separate
and
it would
But
bees.
We
must
acts
orderlyscheme
first consider
similar insects ;
the individuals
which
of
in
be very
we
concerned
their
must
rash
all
also
severally
combination'
of bee society.
organization
DATA
$ 3.]
We
shall
then
AND
find
METHODS.
that
behaviour, especially
on
the
23
essential
most
modes
queen-bee, are
of
due
human,
very
human
to make
as
us
hesitate
before
which
makes
the
ascribingto them
characteristic
especially
that the division
so
of
of labour
bee
our
can
must
assume
an
have
taken
into
we
until
suspense
which
own,
we
have
workings
the
are
to
so
human.
almost
go
on
introduce
often
are
as
to mislead
of minds
critical
everything
problem.
important because
This
constructed
account
of
the
bearing on
attitude
us
when
describe
we
the
that it is
attempt
human
mental
especially
to describe
very
PSYCHOLOGY.
24
[CH. n.
to criticise
cases
drink
of the horse
of
matter
as
our
is
bibulous
whenever
course
he
takes
who
person,
to
comes
" 4.
observe
under
conditions
The
the
issue
that
is to
is the introduction
such
as
are
may
of
observation
involves
be
more
of
experiment
have
we
ourselves
is intended
to
is to
arranged.
pre-
simplify
apparatus and
employed by
be
used
which
than
one
To
"
extent
some
which
pre-arrangement
In this wide
conditions.
to
Observation.
and
Experiment
certain
the
of
have
with
any
described.
them,
be, what
measurement,
physical sciences.
in connexion
we
of exact
and
kind
often
of
periment
Ex-
of the modes
It
generally
all three.
objectwill
The
be presented
A
assignable conditions.
simple
illustration is afforded by the old Aristotelian experiment
of holding an
the second
objectbetween
finger and the
of the hand, not in their usual position,
but with
forefinger
"4.]
DATA
AND
METHODS.
25
second
the
fingercrossingbackwards
over
these circumstances,there
arises
the
forefinger.
a
perceptionof
doubleness, so that we appear to be touching two distinct
Here
the questionis,what
objectsinstead of one.
object
do we
perceiveunder the given conditions ? Is it singleor
double ?
We
also put a question to introspection
may
Under
and
proper,
that
which
ask
how
far
exists in
our
mental
attitude
in which
ordinarycases
resembles
objects
two
touched, the
unmistakable.
of
sense
of doubleness
appearance
With
the crossed
strangeness and
is
definite and
more
is
fingersthere
hesitancy which
is absent
certain
in the
Another
in which
case
ordinaryperceptionof doubleness.
the primary questionrelates to the presentedobjectis that
of our
stock example
the stereoscope.Here the conditions
of perception are
of a special
pre-arranged by means
these conditions,
apparatus, and the question is, what, under
is the nature
of the objectapprehended ?
Here,
too, the introspective
inquirymay be also raised,if we ask
whether
our
apprehensionof the objectis direct or due to
of inference.
It is also possibleto make
a process
ments
experiin which
the primary issue is introspective.
Thus,
we
attempt to will something which we know to bo
may
do so or not.
in order to find out whether
can
we
impossible,
taneously
Or again, we
deliberately
attempt to attend simulmay
disconnected
to two
objects,with the view of
discoveringwhether attention can be so divided.
Finally,we may experiment on the connexion between a
"
mental
it is
of
state
and
possibleto
mental
its external
discover
process
many
which
manifestation.
subtle
evade
signs
In this way,
and
symptoms
ordinary observation.
PSYCHOLOGY.
26
instance, variations
For
in
[CH.ir.
circulation
the
of the
blood,
and in muscular
accompanying
respiration,
power,
be accuratelymeasured
various
phases of emotion, may
this kind
of experiment
by physical apparatus. In principle,
Whenever
in ordinary life.
often
occurs
we
in order
do a thing to a person,
to see
say a thing or
he will take
how
are
it,we
performing a psychological
experiment.
It is clear that the experimentalmethod
does not disclose
of psychologicaldata.
It is
new
source
essentially
any
under
test conditions,deliberately
only observation
prearranged
of settlinga definite question.
for the purpose
It is not quite accurate
to define it merely as observation
and
in
Helen
or
deliberate
things, without
any
preour
come
part. All pathologicalcases
In such cases
as those of Laura
Bridgman
have
we
an
opportunity of observing,
on
this head.
under
under
Keller
test
of
are
the
blind
the
conditions,what
by
psychologist. He
and
arise in the
may
of
ordinary course
arrangement
test conditions
For
test conditions.
under
deaf
from
of touch
sense
alone
can
their
birth
in
order
to
watch
the
consequences.
The
but
experimental method
it has
which
we
also
wish
in the normal
by
the
artificial
certain
to
course
are
investigate
of mental
arrangements.
of ideas
which
interests
is determined
subjectsthe
in
mind
often
drawbacks.
association
question
has
labour
us
The
often
and
life,
For
is how
great advantages;
such
conditions
as
conditions
occur
interfered
are
only
with
instance,experiments on
under
the
this
which
defect.
succession
ordinary thinking.
to
very
But
are
The
of ideas
experiment
quite remote
DATA
" 4.]
those
from
of
the
isolated
presentedto
idea which
AND
normal
words
which
interest,
as
this is to cultivate
27
of
thought. In experiment,
objects are
successively
other
and
of them
of
flow
or
person,
each
METHODS.
he is called
on
to
suggeststo him.
the first
name
Thus, continuity
is
all-importantin ordinarythinking,is
excluded.
Another
the experimental
question in which
method
is seriously
defective is that relating
to the mental
of words.
When
we
imagery accompanying the use
select a word, and ask ourselves what imagery
deliberately
it calls up in our
minds, we are by the very process of our
inquiryinterferingwith the result. We are looking for
mental
imagery, and we have no right to affirm that the
imagery which we find would be present if we had not
been
in such a case
looking for it. The only safe course
frequentlycatch
may
a
natural
in
manner
perpetual readiness
minds,
own
that
or
the habit
most
The
been
without
Titchener.
at
of
it
the
possiblefor
exact
observer
If
we
say
investigatorscan
judge whether our
we
so
enthusiastic
to
out
get
ditions
specialconbeing (1) to render
performed,and (2)to
disturbinginfluences during
first
at the desired
preciselyhow
go through
conclusions
trial,test,or
will to
was
advocates,
certain
conditions
it
psychologist.
introspective
has
experimentalmethod
under
who
to rule
his observation,and
form.
the
difficult and
most
experiment is
An
in which
manner
help the
one
any
of its most
"
objectof
once
the
observation, carefullymade
:
that
in the act of
of the
equipment
specialfunction
well stated by one
Professor
watchfulness,so
using words in
the ordinarycourse
of thought. This
is taking place in our
to notice what
deliberatelyresolvingto do so, on this
ourselves
specialoccasion, is
necessary
of
we
the
are
have
same
rightor
result in
worked,
pure
other
processes, and
j and if
wrong
PSYCHOLOGY.
28
in
do the work
[CH. n.
instruments,
lilting
place,with, fitting
without
hurry or interruption,guarding against any
influence
which
is foreign to the matter
in hand, and
which
might conceivablyalter our observation,we may be
of obtaining pure
follow
sure
results,results which
from the conditions
laid down
directly
by us, and are not
due
to the
or
operation of any unforeseen
unregulated
of observation,
causes.
Experiment thus secures
accuracy
we
'
'
and
the connection
while it enables
of every
observers
result with
its
own
conditions
to work
'
the
'
'
reactor, that
on
the
of
occurrence
certain
sensory
the
execution
of the
measured.
"be
or
formed
responsivemovement
of the
becoming aware
in
until
An
"fSuch
acting on
' '
sensory.
Outline
as
an
the
In
the
the
of Psychology,p
sound
organ
Op. cit.,
p. 319.
of
of
sense
In
two
"
and
follow
former
the
accurately
it is
effect of the
at
once
stimulus,
have
case,
been
we
compound, reaction.""
forms,
the
muscular
the
muscular,
reactor
and
is
35
falling body.
such
may
the
latter,of
has
to
connections
certain
consciousness.
speak of a simple,in
The
simple reaction
the
in response
movement
restrained
stimulus
sensory
The
the
upon
of the
occurrence
as
the eye
Ibid,p. 320.
sensory
or
the
stimulus
ear.
is a stimulus
" 5.
directed
to
hold
AND
METHODS.
his
attention
from
which
movement
stimulus."*
is
In the
his attention
and
DATA
sensor
from
to withhold
the
stimulus."!One
the
muscular
than
reactor
waits
outset
of these
in
occurs
When
sensory.
is fixed in preparationfor
he
upon
to
response
the
sensory
stimulus,
sensed
experiments is that
distinctlyshorter
the
a
the
is directed to hold
until he has
movement
the
until
the
upon
result
outset
in
the reactor
"
reaction
the
made
y,
the reaction
that
time
be
to
29
attention
of
the
coming sensation,he
is
of the presence
of the
aware
distinctly
before
sensation
reacting. On the other hand, in the
muscular
reaction, the reactor, being pre-occupiedwith
making ready for his own
reaction,need not wait tillhe is
of the presence
of the sensation.
Hence
he
fullyaware
becomes
with
practiceable to react before he has any
distinct consciousness
of it. The
it
as
stimulus, as soon
begins to operate, produces simultaneouslysensation and
The
reaction.
time taken
by the simple reaction varies
sensorial
The
of the stimulus.
according to the nature
reaction to light lasts about
270-thousandths
of a second.
letter
of a second is symbolisedby the Greek
A thousandth
The
muscular
The
reaction
to light lasts 180"r.
a.
sensorial
1200-.
reaction
The
sensorial
the muscular
sound
lasts 225
reaction
to
a,
and
pressure
the
muscular
lasts 210"r
and
llOo-.
Accuracy of
An
to
measurement
electric clock
is secured
apparatus.
by special
it is called,marks
chronoscope,as
thousandths
of a second.
The
productionof the stimulus
sets this clock going. The
finger of the reactor all the
he makes
time rests lightlyon the button.
The movement
by way of reaction consists in a slightpressure on this
button, which immediately stops the clock.
*
or
Op. cit.,
p. 325,
f Ibid.,
p. 323,
PSYCHOLOGY.
30
In
the
The
between
them.
the black
of the
white
either white
when
white
as
he has
; but
he
of
one
either
cognised
does
not
two
black
or
be further
may
although he
only. "Thus
is
looked
that he has
which
react
for.
on
knowledge
when
of the
him,
to
them,
and
that he is to react
measurement
of
one
one
light
has cognisedthis
colour ;
particular
he
particularbrightnessor
is said."f
nothing more
explicit
The
conditions
submitted
as
The
definite
no
be
to
are
expected to
he may
stimulus,and
stimulus
is to be
varied,so
alternatives
the
but
to
brightnessqualitiesto expect in
particular
experiment."* In this case, he knows that
each
of
the
or
nate
discrimi-
to
on
he will be shown
that he is to react
black
which
called
be told "that
he may
as
be
may
complicationsare
sensations,reacting only
white, and
or
know
reactor
two
Thus
black
reaction,various
compound
introduced.
[CH. ir.
of psychicalstates
intensity
is
attended
of the
of
sound
be
can
direct
be broken
cannot
marked
off from
comparison
quarter, or
sounds
which
be
with
can
between
of
be
inches
difference
them.
In
between
long,is
between
*
that
loud
so
as
as
one
is
half,
the other.
to
make
The
the
or
two
fainter
quantity. The
quantities is itself
ten
as
superposed
extensive
difference
sounds
two
third, or twice
cannot
coincide
two
respect intensive
difference
an
lines,one
itself
Op, cit.,
p.
328.
two
from
sive
exten-
quantity. The
foot long and the other
the
inches long. But
extensive
a
line two
the loudness
between
differs
of two
sounds
f Ibid.,p.
329.
is not
itself
DATA
$ 5.]
sound
having
each,
from
differs from
the
as
one
desperateas it
intensive quantityas
but
we
interval
take
in loudness
difference
a
we
of measurement
between
in loudness
of others ;
the difference
able
A
to
and
between
and
/3. Thus, if
we
increasinggradationsof intensity,
pointof departure any given intensityin
our
We
then
can
arrange
or
are
Suppose that we
sounds, two pairs of sounds.
and 11,the other by
and /3.
judge whether the difference
B
is or is not equal to the
scale of
as
take
cannot
intensities.
two
are
Clearlywe
magnitude
unit
as
between
find that
horses
two
intensive
measure
appears.
instead of two
considering,
Symbolise the one pair by
We
between
horse."*
so
may
"The
quantities,in fact,differs
difference
Nevertheless,the attempt to
is not
31
assignable loudness.
intensive
two
much
as
METHODS.
certain
between
difference
AND
other
intensities
have
we
take
may
the scale.
in relation
this,
to
to be
us
aware
that
there
is
difference
class
perceptibledifferences in the same
are
regarded as equal to each other,because
equal when compared.
Instead of measuring psychicalprocess, we
least
its external
to the
Ti.,p.
conditions,and
of intensities
they
may
we
measurement
Russell
334.
"On
of variations
the Relations
of Number
in the
and
appear
measure
also
may
an
*B.
or
All
all.
the
measure
As
manifestations
at
circulation
of it.
refer
of the
Quantity,"Mind,
N. S.
PSYCHOLOGY.
32
[CH. n.
of the
lungs,under varyingphases
and pleasantor painfulfeeling. The
of emotion
ment
measureit can
be
of the presentedobject is of value when
brought into definite relation with varying conditions of
presentation.The best example is supplied by recent
certain geometricalillusions of visual
attempts to measure
perception. The following is a good illustration. Two
each intersected
lines in realityparallelare
by slanting
cross-lines,the cross-lines of the one
being opposed
The
in direction to the cross-lines of the other.
parallel
but as diverging
then not perceived
lines are
as
parallel,
blood, and
in
if
in the
direction
the
action
in
X
X
XX
X
X
XXX
XXX
the
cross-lines
converging in
produced, and
XXXX
which
the
X X XXXX
\ \
X X X
XX
X X
X
XX
XX
meet
oppositedirection.
X
X
XXX
XX
would
XXX
rig. i.
Now,
the
of
have
we
illusion,
only
substitute for parallellines lines reallyconvergent
to
in such
and
a
manner
degree that they appear parallel
under
the same
conditions.
The
degree of convergence
the
of
amount
required for this purpose
measures
the illusion. By this means
it is possibleto trace the
to
measure
variations which
take
amount
placein
the
amount
of the illusion
DATA
" 5.]
with
variations
in
AND
the
fainter
METHODS.
conditions.
and
33
It
is
obliquityof
degree when
the
found
the
to
vary
cross-lines.
cross-lines
merely
when
the parallelswithout
meet
or
intersecting,
they
definite
approach them without meeting. By establishing
values for these varying cases
valuable data
quantitative
sion
the process on which
the illuare
suppliedfor discovering
depends. Actual experiments of this kind of course
be
contrived apparatus. The lines may
requirea specially
be readily
threads, which can
representedby moveable
adjustedat will so as to be parallelor to deviate from
in varying degrees,the deviation being accurately
parallelism
measured
by a scale. In this particular
case, the
solution of the problem has not been
reached,
definitely
has far
method
but there is no doubt that the quantitative
a
Psych.
of
success.
III.
CHAPTEE
1.
"
It
is
"
mind,
the
without
see
without
But
satisfactory
no
reference
the
to
they
reference
the
to
objects.
determining
the
mind
when
we
psychological
of
of
best
make
This
have
is not
this
point
of
easy
this
on
and
chapter
returning
to
on
student
the
first
having
34
side
as
arise
re.ad. the
but
book
the
For
a
all
relation
cations
modifi-
produce
only
recommended
reading,
in
and
only
volitions
is
to
body
produce
ear
or
act
we
motion.
difficulties
The
it after
eye
without
difficulty
regarded
conscious
Serious
subject.
be
must
Impressions
an
and
the
relations
no
bodily
sensation
of
contractions.
the
on
or
between
relation
without
which
spatial
our
practically
the
view
in
consciousness,
understand
to
of
agencies,
can
and
sense
by
the
We
life
of
move
motion
mental
movement
is
cannot
and
organs
change
There
purposes
interaction.
muscular
and
nature
the
external
of
cannot
impossible.
the
of
from
instruments
peripheral
of
account
world
surrounding
be
We
we
This
regards
as
motion.
sensation
would
receive
far
so
ears
without
mechanism
external
and
of
organ
it woiks.
true
without
construction
impressions
the
hear
consciousness
of
give
on
or
eyes,
evidently
sensation
of
organs
muscles.
process
is
Mental
of
is the
body
which
through
matter
peripheral
Consequents
the
that
saying
instrument
the
of
account
the
the
"
old
an
and
Antecedents
Physiological
Process.
HIND.*
AND
BODY
to
should
when
do
his
certainly
through.
BODY
" 1.]
\we
push
"of
nervous
.traction follows
"
MIND.
is excited
of
disturbance
conscious
to
the
of
matter
grey
transmitted
to
the
system,may
Consciousness
either
which
the
is
which
occurrences
are
brain.
take
the
from
Tegarded, like
impulse
which
nervous
and
in consciousness
inversely. The
mediating function
the
The
process.
as
senses,
relation
change
nervous
produces change
which
the intervention
immediately,without
This
occurrences.
conscious
in the
of
one
in the
"
Viewed
nuclei
sheet
broadly,the
of grey
matter
mainly, if
is found
cortex, which
is the
brain
of any
nervous
is
one-fifth of
in
a
tions.
sensa-
those
and
in
exclusively,
of white
deeply imbedded
sense,
neural
highestpart of
mass
set up
other material
of
not
action.
inter-
consciousness
with
connexion
unmediated
occurrences
the cerebral
connected
are
be
may
organs
is
sequences
con-
mediate
inter-
constitute
and
processes
of
directly
and
or
volition
is
mechanism,
change in the nervous
in the first instance by impressionson the organs of
produces changes experiencedin consciousness as
for
different
is essentially
the case
But
:mechanism,
is
parts
some
that
change
They thus
change
the muscles
Conscious
produce
sense
consciousness,or
with
fulfil this
."service of mental
of
this process
consciousness.
which
system.
nervous
an
up
nervous
peripheral organs,
mechanisms
the
organs
In
directlyconnected
stages between
in
con-
antecedent
with
Muscular
be
not
ensuing
connected
the relation
the
change in consciousness
only when
by an impulse which has its originin a
nervous
examine
process.
.Similarly,
impressions on the
sensations
only when
they set
are
35
our
process
muscle
AND
the brain.
matter, with
it,and
square
with
meter
in
PSYCHOLOGY.
36
between
and
area
folds,fissures,and
overlyingsheet
and
two
For
of
present
our
far
so
they
as
Before
cortex.
are
convenient
give
to
causes
or
conscious
lie beneath
of nuclei
called
of
nuclei
The
matter.
the
of grey
of
sub-cortical
nerve-fibres,serving to
and
cortex
cortical
the
conduct
sub-cortical
the relation
it will
which
f
Mechanism.
"
lies below
cranium.
the
This
imbedded
tion
por-
in white
constitute
white
be
parts of the
Nervous
what
are
consists
matter
impulses between
centres, and
themselves.
centres
The
centres.
in the
processes
those
matter
matter
grey
only
the cortex.
consciousness
process,
of
serious
parts
questionof
account
which
structure
nervous
and
cess.
pro-
other
effects of
to the vital
some
without
may
with
of the
conscious
taking place in
connected
This
cortex
or
with
we
as
cortical process
between
connexion
purposes,
coming
its surface."*
is the rind
processes
system
nervous
of
matter
grey
thick,coveringthe
mm.
convolutions
three
is in immediate
brain, and
[CH. in.
between
Running through
the
the subthe
trunk
of the
"
end
upper
receives
it enters
separate name,
simply, the
or
and
the
strands
bulb.
surface
Dr.
f The
of
of nerve-fibre
the sub-cortical
*
the
Waller,
should
in
and
and
this
portion
Nerve-fibres
connect
of it
oblongata,
the
muscles
the
centres.
Human
student
cranium,
Physiology,
p.
make
518.
point
of
on
the
nervous
system
Davis's
some
XI.
and
in
Huxley's
Ch.
IX.
in
AND
BODY
$ 2.]
MIND.
37
These
the
Without
stimulus.
stimulus
they
do
not
operates they
they are interfered
on
seen
in
the
interference
when
excluded, which
be
the
external
whenever
invariably,
by the simultaneous
tions
operastimulus,or by processes going
typicalcharacteristics are best
on
may
external
with
Their
cortex.
of the
inevitably and
occur
external
of another
presence
and
occur,
stimulus
unless
actual
effected
cortex
by simply removing
is
the
"We
hemispheres from the brain of an animal.
perhaps broadly describe the behaviour of a frog,from
may
which
the cerebral
hemispheres only have been removed,
by saying that such an animal, though exhibiting no
of appropriate
spontaneous movements, can, by the application
stimuli,be induced to perform all or nearly all the
entire frog is capable of executing.
which
movements
an
Left to
to crawl.
It can
be made
to swim, to leap, and
be called the natural posture of
what may
it assumes
itself,
the fore limbs erect,and the hind limbs flexed,
a frog,with
cerebral
an
angle
body makes
it is resting. When
surface on which
placed on
it immediately regainsthis natural posture. When
so
will
that
put
the
him
in
line
of
the
possessionof
the
most
essential facts.
more
Parts
"
III. and
IY.
of Dr.
M.
Foster's
What
have
only serve,
at
said
For
most,
in
as
its
the
back,
placed
wishes
to go
Physiology(Longmans,
Human
Text-Book
If he
with
the
advanced
student,
of Physiology(Macmillan
is the roughest
the text
a
reminder.
PSYCHOLOGY.
38
on
board, it does
[en. in.
fall from
not
the board
displacethe animal's
up the board until it gains a new
of gravity is restored to its
is tilted up
it crawls
its centre
so
movements
exactly those
are
they need
to
as
the latter
of
gravity;
positionin which
place. Its
proper
entire frog,except that
call them
forth.
They
an
stimulus
external
an
of
when
to
centre
impassiveand
for
thrown
in the
about
swim
quiet
which
it
to
placedon
the water
with
wood,
the
begins
creature
there
exhausted, if
come
can
indefinite time.
If
rest.
swim
will continue
nothing present
small piece of wood
it,and
upon
to
once
When
be
frog will,when
the
crawl
at
and
regular manner,
most
until it is
almost
an
it
so
on
be
in contact
comes
come
to
to
rest.
If
by being placed on
its back, it immediately strugglesto regain that posture ;
only by the applicationof continued force can it be kept
Such
a
frog, if its flanks be gently
lying on its back.
stroked,will croak ; and the croaks follow so regularlyand
disturbed
from
its natural
surely upon
the
strokes
played upon
like
posture, as
that
the
musical, or
movements
if it be
have
not
of the animal
urged to
move
at least
an
may
almost
acoustic
be
ment.
instru-
and their
opticnerves
the
been injuredby the operation,
to be influenced by light;
appear
animal
in any
the
it seems
direction,
particular
BODY
" 2.]
in its progress
to
strong shadow
sometimes
careful
AND
avoid
obstacle.
cast
as
left
right or
In
fact, even
between
such
a
or
to
frog and
frog,which was
slightand
appear
would
the
least such,
to the
course
differences
observer, the
entire
an
its
the
over
39
obstacles,at
; it turns
leaps
MIND.
animal
without
its
stimulus, and
every
movement,
to
result,will
The
that
stimulus
with
whereas
evokes
an
appropriate
possible
entire animal, it is im-
the
characteristic
Foster
Professor
going
emphasises is its lack of spontaneity its thoroughdependence on the actual present operation of a
stimulus
external
to the
nervous
Experiments
system.
of the kind he describes have been performedon birds and
well as
rabbits
on
as
frogs. The results are, broadly,
here
"
similar, except
of
appearance
time
to
that
in
the
spontaneitywhen
from
recover
the shock
in
the
of the
degree and
general
to
function
characteristic
the
same
way
the results of
sort
of
in., "The
conclusion
sufficient
this
in its
that
working by
the
selves
them-
of reflex
without
being
past actions.
modified
Whether
accordance
in
it is
with
accompanied by
at least affirm
that it
process of learningby
Text-Boole
some
operation.But
too ambiguous
when
is
wholly reflex.
spontaneity there
of
there
has had
the animal
nature,
is almost
birds
of
case
Sixth
Edition.
Part
PSYCHOLOGY.
40
[CH. in.
of
in the widest
consciousness
of
power
the absence
of the word.
sense
learning
of
It would
all
be
which
from
the
affirm
rash, therefore,to
accompany
may
the
consciousness
cortex.
But
which
the
accompanies
the
which
consciousness
action
of
accompanies
cortical process.
with
intelligentaction is associated
Now
intelligentconsciousness, capable of learning by
in all but
the lowest
grades of
experience,constitutes,
animal
of consciousness.
stream
Thus,
life,the main
though the independent action of the sub-cortical centres
it
be wholly unconscious,whatever
consciousness
not
may
involves
life in
does
and
man
sub-cortical
form
not
the
centres
higher animals.
ceases
to be
Only
and
form
part
This
is borne
injuryto
lower
of the conscious
the
and
out
by
when
separate and
manner
brings into play in a marked
cortex, is it accompanied by conscious
of mental
current
spinalcord, the
higher parts of
experience.
functional
the
cord
in
independent,
process
as
In
connection
may
be
which
a
whole.
cases
of
between
destroyed.
BODY
"2.]
If
are
under
conditions
will
tickled,they
himself
he
these
is in
no
be
aware
might
AND
the
be
41
soles of
jerked
of
aware
way
MIND.
patient'sfeet
but
away;
what
of the movement
the
the
man
takes
of
place,except as
foreignbody. Quite
apart from
are
involve in any
conditions of
pathological
constantly
going on, which do not
way
the
The
pupil of
and
similar
consciousness
of the
individual
as
able
apprecia
whole.
the eye is
On
and
can
the
individual
the
other
do
is
hand,
go
on
while
the
pre-occupiedwith
there
are
certain
sciousness
con-
other
reflex
effect ;
by
but
so
far
as
consciousness, it
it is
tends
conspicuouslyaccompanied
to
attract
attention
and
to
PSYCHOLOGY.
42
[CH. in.
The
produce intelligentadaptation to circumstances.
man
pulls out his handkerchief,or the like. When
the main
of consciousness
stream
is very
intentlypreoccupied,
external
excite
cortical
reflex
action
Thus,
when
stimulants
fail to
process,
which
of
the
which
do
would
and
so
otherwise
merely produce
individual
is
unconscious.
much
some
pre-occupied with
without being
absorbing object,we may cough or yawn
the facts we
of it. From
have stated,
aware
clude
conwe
may
that the cortex
is pre-eminently,
if not exclusively,
the seat of those processes which are immediatelycorrelated
with
individual
Besides
cortical
which
consciousness.
being
cortex
mechanism
complex
The
centres.
mechanism
constitute
centres
the
The
of
are
we
is
complex
playingupon
simple constituent
and
action,the
by
apparatus
an
subof
means
of the organism.
produces movements
for the
relativelysimple constituents
activities
cortex
reflex
of
contained
activities
the lower
co-ordination
of movements
Simultaneous
co-ordination
It
are
in
which
a
sub-cortical
produced by
the
evoke
the
to
as
taneous
order, simul-
certain
is, above
of
the
centres, so
movements
successive.
in
all, the
is due
complex
to
successive
the
cortex.
is involved
kind
cortex
Reflex
which
has
in many
From
way
on
the
the life of
of uniform
external
in
an
a
animal
uniform
conditions.
But
fluctuatingadaptation to fluctuatingconditions is
inadequate, and often
required,reflex action becomes
Action must
be varied in correspondence
actuallyharmful.
not be
with the results of previousaction,so that it may
where
BODY
" 3.]
circumstances
repeated in
For
with
Bhuns
fire,and
the moth
so
3.
and
In
"
the
between
nervous
brought
face
cortex
least
at
fact,and
to
at all certain
The
be
can
of
as
process
cortex
are
life.
To
that there
connected
with
It
also
removal
loss
than
any
other.
of mental
when
before
as
definite
mass
of
other
direct relation
this is
extent
question
there
But
be
cannot
he has
that
tion
general correla-
whole
as
and
cortical
specialparts
of
mental
among
function,"
specialmental
result
Just
as
was
a
man
not
involve
process
the
rather
general impairment
still breathes
as
theory of
the
of
dischargedeach
that injurydone to
substance,did
only
power.
only
whole, so
it
so
efficiently,
manner
might in the same
the
Nervous
and
of any
The
less
On
action is reflex,
this "localisation
of part of its
impairment
or
candle-name,
specialconstituents of the
the prevailingdoctrine
held
was
it,or
have
some
process
but
whole,
it is called.
the
Conscious
we
is not
generation ago
was
opposed to
physiologists
as
; but
by specialevidence.
in which we
speculation,
conscious
a
burns
conclusions.
our
facts show
between
future
settled
field for
wide
child
so
process and conscious process, and are
the question of the ultimate
face with
of their connexion.
nature
burnt
moth's
of
jurious.
in-
The
.againinto
Correlation
proved
organization
nervous
required.
Immediate
Process.
is also
the
it has
itself from
saves
again
43
which
it is
that of the
of
are
intelligence
will dash
though
"
nnder
and
this,intelligence,
correlated
the
MIND.
AND
localisation.
and
psychological
But
their
doctrine
crudities.
physiological
whole.
a
very
was
They
PSYCHOLOGY.
4*
[en.m.
varying
of
Thus
the
who
man
alphabet for
obvious
enter
processes
constitution
assume
piecesfor
every
word.
every
same
different
game
Besides
of
board
chess,or
this
in
of the different
should
different set of
the
into the
combination
faculties.
and
processes,
there
that
and
separate
is
very
anatomical
brain.
But
the
most
supplied by
about
the
localised.
what
modes
So
far
good evidence, it
among
crushing
has
been
in which
as
the
is found
different parts
refutation
of
ascertained
cerebral
cortex
that
has
the
not
corresponds,
phrenology
in
recent
is
years
functions
been
actuallyare
mapped out on
division
to
of
function
complex faculties,
One
bodilyorgans of sensation and movement.
portionof the cortex, anatomicallyconnected with the eye,
correlated with visual consciousness,
in the way
is specially
mental
of sensation
or
imagery. Another, anatomically
connected
with the ear, has a similar relation to auditory
touchconnected
with
is specially
experience. Another
The
of
the
limbs.
with
movements
sensations, and
based
is partly
these conclusions
which
evidence
are
on
gathered from experiments on animals, and partly from
is most
The
pathologicalevidence
pathologicaldata.
but
to the
BODY
" 3.]
important
and
AND
MIND.
45
Diseases
unambiguous.
ideas by means
munication
affectingcomof
of language have
been
the general name
aphasia are
especiallyuseful. Under
defects of varying kinds.
embraced
The patientmay
many
to articulate words, although he
be simply unable
can
understand
he
when
them
hears
them.
This
is motor
connected
with lesion of
aphasia,and it has been definitely
volution.*
a
specialpart of the brain called the third frontal conand yet
Again, a man
maybe able to articulate,
words
such when
he hears
lack the power
to distinguish
as
them.
hears
He
sound,
but
they
indeed
them
not
are
as
for him
confused
words.
of
stream
is sensory,
This
perceptualaphasia,and it is connected
accurately,
with lesion of a special
portionof the auditoryarea of the
to
cortex.
recognise written words
Similarly,inability
with lesion of a special
for what
they are is connected
or,
more
portion of
visual
the
indications
These
area.
serve
may
by localisation!of cerebral
functions, and the methods
by which it is determined.
that our
But
be remembered
it must
ignorance is still
incomparably greater than our knowledge. The student
also be warned
must
againstsupposing that localisation is
various activities
"The
definite and precisein its nature.
making up the business of the brain do not take placeall
show
to
what
its
over
the
are
Of
of
country without
industry go
different
the
left
hemisphere
hemisphere in left-handed
t In localisation what
brain
and
the material
conscious
its connexion
process
with
the
in
in
on
activities
spots, as if in walled
certain
*
meant
in
surface,as
all kinds
where
nor
is
towns
and
villages,
every
hut
or
tent
absolutely restricted
brain
The
towns.
right-handed
persons,
the
to
is
cortex
of
and
right
persons.
is
locallymarked
off is
certain
place in it.
is not, strictlyspeaking, localised.
localised
brain-processremains to
processes
which
take
portionof
The
the
ing
correspondThe
nature
be discussed.
of
PSYCHOLOGY.
46
[cir.irr.
its
comparable with either of these extreme
cases;
Avith
be recognised as
possessing towns
territorymust
with
lapping
stragglingand overspecialindustries,but towns
not
and
suburbs,
predominant
each
of
industries
all other
other
that
in
centre,
industries
other
described
kind
of the
that
given centre,
in which
centres
Data
in
industries
indeed,
are,
but
exclusive
not
excluded
nor
from
predominate."*
efficient help
us
no
afford
how
cortical process
is
precisely
related to the correspondingconscious process.
There
are,
in the main, three alternative
interaction,
possibilities,
On the interaction
one-sided
action, and simple concomitance.
hypothesis,a cerebral process may produce a state of
produce a
consciousness,just as a nervous
may
process
muscular
or
as
contraction,
change in one part of the cortex
produce change in another part; and, inversely,a
may
when
we
to consider
come
"
conscious
process,
the cortex
justas
such
acts
volition,
may
as
on
the cortex,
centres, and
sub-cortical
on
act
these
on
the muscles.
The
main
interaction
kind
with
of
the
such
to
us
connexion
of
explain is
and
one
ideal
*
how
words,
to exhibit
is the
between
understand
or, in other
parts
This
of
the
the
same
as
cause
continuous
the
effect
effect follows
resultant
science,and
Waller's
and
exhibit
must
we
fact
cause
Physiology,
pp.
it is
never
534-535.
will
as
from
and
process.
the
effect
To
of its factors.
completely
BODY
I 3.]
But
attained.
is felt to be
Now
we
of
and
process
total
and
the
nothing
of
and
be
of
connexion
the
on
molecules
the
have
processes
The
and
space,
laws
which
of their
ponent
com-
evidently have
between
No
occurrence.
assigned why
find
we
entirelyoutside
the one
on
hand,
bodies
relation
conscious
lies
other.
in
between
process,
two
physicalnature
positionof
with
a
conscious
continuity.The
Their
and
do
to
occurrence
knowledge
process
change
atoms
world
of
knowledge
of conscious
govern
47
unattained,our
correlated
factor.
common
our
it is
as
to
come
complete solution
no
far
so
MIND.
incomplete.
when
nervous
in
AND
material
in the
reason
the
can
may
puttingthe objectionfrom
the intervention
would
This
is not
is
law
this
of conscious
contradict
the
process
law
expresslyfor
factor is introduced
which
favourite
point of view, is to
of
in
conservation
is not
material
of
way
say
that
physiological
cess
proof energy.
the conservation
strictly
true, because
framed
system
of energy
; when
material,though
the law
PSYCHOLOGY.
48
be
not
may
it
applicable,
conditions
interfering
is not
violated
when
[CH. in.
is not
violated.
Apart
from
stones
I lift a stone
in my
hand.
Similarly
no
change in the material world, as such, produces loss or
ferred
gain'of power to do work; the power being merely transfrom one
portionof matter to another.
Nevertheless,
it is quite conceivable
that loss or gain of energy
might
from the operationof a factor w^hich does not belong
ensue
world at all. But, though no contradiction
to the material
is involved in such a supposition,
it is clear that the fresh
creation of material
would
by conscious
energy
process
introduce
incalculable
and disturbingfactor,seriously
an
scientific discovery and
of
interferingwith the work
explanation. Nor is this objectionlimited to the law of
conservation
of energy ; it applies to all the ultimate
which
our
on
principles
knowledge of the physicalworld is
based.
So far as the conservation
of energy
is concerned,
it might be supposed that there is a transfer of energy
material
from
to conscious
Physical
process
process.
into intensity
and complexity
might be transformed
energy
and vice versa.
of consciousness,
But there is no
sufficient
evidence
of this,and
all that we
know
trary
pointsin the condirection.
calculable
in
Intensive
such
quantity is
to make
not
measurable
and
it
comparable with
of energy.
other forms
The hypothesisof interaction,
it
is clear,labours under very serious difficulties,
and though
be pronounced impossible,
it cannot
yet it will be well to
avoid it,if we
find some
alternative which
is on
the
can
whole
more
To
the
matter
on
way
as
tolerable.
second
mind,
one-sided
alternative,
or
of mind
on
action, either
matter, the
of
theoretical
have
been
objectionswhich
brought against interaction
apply with equal force. It also involves the additional
BODY
" 3.]
that
difficulty
Yet
MIND.
49
is interaction.
to
AND
One-sided
action
would
general experienceof
our
we
are
acquainted,
therefore
the
order
be
trary
con-
of nature.
the
hypothesisthat matter
sciousness,
causallydetermines conwithout being itselfdetermined
by consciousness,
is one
which has so much
that it requiresspecial
currency
criticism.
This
doctrine of materialism,as
it is called,
seems
incapable of any precise statement; whatever
it possesses, arises from the use, or rather from
plausibility
the misuse, of the word function. Digestionis a function
of the alimentarycanal ; breathing is a function
of the
lungs ; why cannot we simply affirm that consciousness is
of the brain?
The objectionis,that we
do not
a function
make
two
word
to
things the same
by applying the same
in their own
nature
them, when
they are radicallyand
different.
When
we
essentially
say that digestionis a
function
of the stomach, we
that digestionis the
mean
stomach
that
we
engaged in digesting. When
say
that
mean
breathing is a function of the lungs, we
In describing
the process
breathingis the lungs at work.
of digestion,
itself as
ipsofacto,describe the stomach
we,
engaged in the process. In describingthe process of
breathing,we, ipso facto, describe the lungs as filling
themselves
and expelling
with air by a certain movement,
if we
describe the
it by an
alternate
But
movement.
consciousness at
brain at work, there is no need to mention
all ; and
in naming and
describingconscious processes,
there
the
is
need
no
brain
as
the contraction
to
mention
the
physiological
organ
of muscles
in
process
of consciousness
Psych,
is to
function
The
cannot
to
mention
of
the
move
have
describingit we
system, includingthe cortex, as
and
brain.
body ;
impulses;
the
engaged in it.
be analysedor
nervous
But
the
resolved
4
PSYCHOLOGY.
50
[CH. m.
physicalchanges in
is supposed to be produced by
nerve-cells.
If consciousness
the nervous
process, the productionis simplycreation out of
nothing. An objectionof an equallyserious kind is that
of agency
the materialistic theorydestroysall possibility
on
the part of conscious beings. According to it,the appearance
into
such, processes
connexion
of causal
itself is
of
illusion ;
an
reasoning;
sole
in
cause
view,
lifted
consequence
of emotion.
interfere
only
makes
that
man
that
but
by
with
We
from
now
the
as
is called
what
to
do
This
of
train
The
motives.
can,
No
of the
this
on
ever
man
No
so.
tears
were
questionis
materialism
times
some-
would
free-will;in truth, it
of
operationof consciousness
is not only
whatever.
The
logicalconsequence
does anything freely,
conscious being never
as
a
does anything at all.
no
man
ever
to the third hypothesis. This differs both
come
much
theory of interaction and from materialism,inasit
separates the
real
The
formula
which
it
uses
of
consciousness
emerge
conscious
creates
which
psycho-physical
parallelism,
modifications
theoretical
of facts from
statement
to
modification
action.
to
due
process
suppositionthat
the
impossible any
kind
any
due
Similarlyconscious
external
of consciousness
ever
certain
he willed
confused
was
ever
fingerbecause
the
ever
was
was
determine
never
the process
judgment
no
case
every
and
within
volition
no
system.
nervous
chemical
as
the
is that
of
nervous
corresponding modifications
process.
The
nervous
changes are
supposed to be
parts of
the total continuous
of the physicaluniverse, so
process
conditions to
but material
that science will require none
with
" 4.]
the
other
the
moving
process
concomitant
muscles
in
When
the external
what
and
volition
with
the
the
movement.
regarded as
which
appropriatemuscles
of the
account
; but
us
it is not
an
do not
matter
contain
of the
their
own
conscious
it is simply a
principle,
sets
in motion
facts
with
if it were
cause
of the cortical
Similarly, the
of the
cause
the
ment,
move-
cortical process
This
in contraction.
facts
they are
formulating these
merely a way of
explanatorytheory. On
of cortical and
which
the
covers
it is
formulation
true
if it were
it is correlated
as
the
the
the sensation.
cause
sensation.
volition may
be
inasmuch
to
sets
produces
so
with
correlated
sets
such.
which
impressionmaybe regarded as
it.is a cause
as
sensation,inasmuch
process
nexion
con-
as
itself,
external
of the
is causal
"which is concomitant
The
the
with
contraction
external
an
there
hand,
finger,follows
51
runs
itself material.
is not
MIND.
of consciousness
process
psychicalcausation
This
but
AND
On
explain tliem.
within
BODY
as
known
facts ;
the contrary, if it is
it is evident
that these
facts
the muscles
That
moving
the
fingershould
to
be
"
the
reason
of the connexion
between
conscious
process
and
52
PSYCHOLOGY.
the
correlated
and
nervous
be
nervous
the
and
it is within
of their
reason
the individual
in
Both
the
must
comprehensive system
more
this
connexion
found
be
to
themselves.
processes
regarded as belonging to
;
is not
process
conscious
of conditions
[en. in.
system
is to
be
consciousness,as
as
whole
that
In
cular,
parti-
sought.
know
we
be
it,must
consciousness
immaterial
system.
immaterial
system
world
in
related
its
to
world
individual
in
with
correlated
total
sphere of
process
acts
have
as
the
is
of
cortex
within
this
interaction
and
is
the
system
virtually
material
which
to
system
this relation
within
yet
whole
be
in the cortex.
occurrences
nervous
its own
system
consciousness
process
immaterial
this
the
We
conscious
that
consciousness
phenomena
a
the
individual
this
an
the material
to
taking place in
But
part of
assume
related
immaterial
on.
manner
further
determining factor
between
for
is
in like
is
totality
the
the
is acted
interaction
its
processes
Within
and
be
must
totalityas
consciousness
it acts
We
in
nervous
the brain.
to
When
own
sphere of
to consider
to
the
relation
the material
regarded
influence.
of the immaterial
system
of
as
whole.
If
parallelismor
far from being
so
concomitance,the fundamental
difficulty,
removed, is aggravated. To obtain lighton this ultimate
point of departure.
question,we must take an entirelynew
consider the problem of the ultimate
of
nature
must
We
as
one
mere
BODY
" 4.]
but
wo
do
To
matter.
The
53
length,is of course
impossible;
explanationof psycho-physical
lelism
paralon
an
idealistic view
of material
sensible
exist only
qualitiesof matter
which, have certain experiencesin the way
of
The extension,configuration,
and other qualities
for minds
sensation.
of material
bodies
of conscious
constituents
scientific theories
mind.
MIXD.
at
ultimatelybased
phenomena.
modes
here
may
is
so
AXD
In
are
abstract
that
consciousness
Matter, as perceivedand
constructions
makes
of the
which
presupposes
cognisanceof it.
takes
conceived
science, is essentiallya
simply
or
appearance
human
material
matter
by common
phenomenon ; and
means
of certain
the ultimate
experience. In like manner,
of matter
as
they are recognised by
general,all
some
the existence
all pre-suppose
sense
and
phenomenon
presentation.There
can
be
appearance
or
is known
to
us
as
matter
make
does
not
matter.
is
dependent
it follows that, so far as it exists independHence
us.
on
ently
of its presentationto a cognitivesubject,it cannot
have
material
properties,such as extension, hardness,
which
It is an
colour, weight, and the like.
agency
is an essential condition of material
phenomena, but is not
led by a quite
Thus
itself a material phenomenon.
we
are
conclusion
which
different line of investigation
to the same
was
suggested by the relation of conscious process to
The
world
of material
nervous
phenomena presupposes
process.
a
system of immaterial
system
the
individual
agency.
consciousness
In
terial
this imma-
originates.To
PSYCHOLOGY.
54
the sensational
it,in
some
form
the basis of
is
it the
on
way,
changes in
the
of
individual
as
of the material
consciousness
the material
matter, in
world.
as
produces
is possiblebecause
of immaterial
Some
agency.
what
we
exists
independently
perceiving subject.
matter
possible presentation to a
theory has been purposely stated in
are
varying views as to the nature
There
It
it
is identical with
its
This
which
world.
when
acts
All this
agency
far
so
due
experiencesare
knowledge
our
system of immaterial
know
[CH. in.
say that it is
vague
the
of
form.
system
will,others that
and
similar distinctions
thing seems
speaking of
clear,
"
it
and
that
relations
we
are
its
in
parts.
One
truth
the
nearer
consciousness,than
as
of
speaking
of it
in
as
matter.
" 5.
the
Conclusion.
immediate
Of
process.
"
We
have
connexion
these,what
discussed
between
we
have
three
conscious
described
theories
and
as
of
nervous
materialism
and
other
two, interaction
rejected. The
advocates
the
best psyeach
have
parallelism,
chologist
among
and metaphysicians of the present day. The
to avoid hastilydeciding between
student is recommended
The
them.
hypothesisof parallelismis that to which we
the known
inclined.
It certainlycovers
ourselves
are
convenient
working hypothesis.
facts,and forms the most
attach to the theory of
the difficulties which
It escapes
that it does so only
be admitted
But it must
interaction.
bold speculation.
by somewhat
of psychothe doctrine
For
psychologicalpurposes
good
is,as we have said,a sufficiently
physicalparallelism
must
be
BODY
hypothesis,
working
in
validity
the
student
forward
in
Hence
writers.
is
facts
one
other
or
it
take
note
general
profoundly
is
to
be
these
of
we
indication
important
theories.
be
to
necessary
that
interpreted
do
not
of
as
pretend
the
topic.
main
to
lines
in
put
popular
thought
for
of
favour
stood
misundershould
reader
given
of
place,
formula
the
have
of
are
being
But
explicit.
rest
by
give
avoid
To
rule,
and
decision
the
second
fashion
to
attempt
in
concomitance
air
dogmatic
mere
as
the
the
to
the
interest
simple
in
upon
because
cannot,
In
are
less
or
apt
the
processes.
more
of
subject
the
on
and
mind,
passed
advisable
first,
keen
planation
ex-
entered
thought
:
feels
statement
mental
and
theories
the
the
been
its
have
and
reasons
and
body
with
nervous
two
always
between
satisfied
has
of
theoretical
we
proper,
mode
assume
the
indicating
It
for
course
as
accordingly
psychology
of
merely
parallelism
speculation.
intelligent
relation
In
55
it
shall
psycho-physical
this
adopt
We
limits
ontological
MIND.
take
we
work.
this
of
beyond
if
facts.
formulating"
AND
than
more
on
this
BOOK
I,
GENERAL
ANALYSIS.
CHAPTEE
ULTIMATE
"
1.
Introductory.
with
and
thinking
about
which
towards
way
more
fully
say
that
They
time
"
very
are
2.
not
they
are
in
distinct
of
sense.
or
knowing,
total
same
states
which
word
The
It
cognisant
state
of
an
object.
56
of
and
we
being
conative
probability
consciousness.
each
here
in
other
whole.
concrete
used
degrees
word
it
striving;
the
all
succeed
The
in
Thus,
and
in
and
feel
we
bringing
by
and
is
We
tendency
modes
one
in
emotionally
feeling,
of
or
(1)
(2)
reverse.
cognition
all modes
covers
of
object
either
normally
are
ways
object.
feeling attitude,
are
three
are
ultimate
cerned
con-
something
its
the
or
partial constituents
"
life, we
otherwise
or
it,
three
the
the
waking
experience
we
are
three
Cognition.
wide
it,
(3)
object:
an
united
always
aware
there
These
attitude.
the
transform
or
cognitive attitude,
the
of
consciousness,
into
of
conscious
it ;
alter
to
some
to
with
normally
there
related
cognisance
is
perceiving
Now
is
displeased
or
affected
may
of
In
always,
something.
kind
some
CONSCIOUS.
other.
or
perhaps
BEING
consciousness
Human
"
consciousness
our
pleased
OF
object
some
usually,
have
MODES
I.
of
in
being
object must
MODES
" 2.]
be taken
not
we
can
to
in any
before
see
mean
way
me
on
to
me,
I think
whenever
CONSCIOUS.
57
perceiveit.
objectto me whenever
as
BEING
OF
word
the
use
of it.
Nothing
nothing
whatever
The
book
inasmuch
is also
is
and
an
an
object
attach
To
meaning to it ; so is a Centaur when I imagine one.
perceiveor think at all is to perceiveor think of something,
it is perceived
and this something,justbecause
or
thought
of, is an objectpresentedto consciousness.
The use
of the words
presentedand presentationrequires
to be
we
perceiveor think of an
explained. Whenever
the objectmust
have its specific
nature
by which it
object,
the specific
is distinguishable
from
other objects. Now
nature
of the object as
perceived or thought of presupposes
of the
a
correspondinglyspecificmodification
individual
consciousness
which
perceivesor thinks of it.
of consciousness
As the stream
successivelytakes cognisance
itself pass
of various
through
objects,it must
correspondinglyvarying states. The distinctive nature of
the object is apprehended only in so far as the object is
of consciousness
qualifiedby the specificmodifications
which
exist in the moment
of cognition. This leads up to
the
definition
of
word
the
presentation. Whatever
stituents
con-
directly
experienceat any moment
determine
the nature
of the object as
it is perceivedor
thought of at that moment, belong to the cognitiveside of
of
our
total
our
nature, and
called
are
The
the sensible
red
as
presentations.
perceive at
I could
sensation
Here
given
is therefore
a
moment
is
will
difficulty
having
sensible quality
presentationof
Without
red.
perceivethe
not
of red
quality.
colour
the
no
doubt
occur
PSYCHOLOGY.
58
r.
the
distinguishbetween
not say
and
the sensible quality? "Why do we
sensation
is itself the
is one
sensation
that the
object? There
which
makes
consideration
obvious
plain the need for this
distinction.
I can
perceivethe sensible qualityagain and
again on different occasions,and identifyit as the same.
student.
the
to
do
"Why
separate occasion
But
on
each
The
sensations
are
so
we
I have
separate sensation.
distinct events
many
or
occurrences
"
ceased
to think
of
it,are
not
themselves
eternityor
eternal.
I may
think of non-existence
Similarly,
actually
; this is an
modes
of consciousness
existingthought ; and the specific
which
nature
must
give it its specific
actuallyexist. They
therefore be identified writh the objectof the thought,
cannot
is non-existence.*
The
be
which
object itself can never
identified with
It may
and
twice.
purposes
the
nevertheless
present modifications
be
true
presented object we
they form
Doubtless
the
distinction
must
are
an
that
in
of the
individual
distinguishing between
tion
presentain a sense
counting the same
thing over
inseparableunity ; but for psychological
be made.
If we
are
counting the same
MODES
" 2.]
consciousness
when
even
by
we
are
consciousness.
think
of another
partiallydistinct
think.
we
OF
which
BEING
it is
CONSCIOUS.
cognised.
thinking about
The
"Whenever
This
modifications
holds
true
of
own
our
conscious
conscious
from
59
the
we
we
experience in which
experience is always at least
conscious
experienceof which
try
to
think
of
an
immediate
do so
as
such, we can
experience of our
only by
own,
investingit with attributes and relations which are not
themselves
For
immediately experiencedat the moment.
in consciousness
example, I may think of a momentary
appearance
in my
mental
as
an
occurrence
history,an
incident in my
experience. But neither my experience,as
a
whole, nor the positionsand relations of any part within
that whole
be given as a transient phase of individual
can
consciousness.
The
consciousness
is only one
momentary
link in the series which
constitutes my
experience."*
and its objectare
not to
Though cognitiveconsciousness
be identified,
the less intimatelycorrelated.
they are none
Differences
in the nature
of the object as presented presuppose
modifications
of
correspondingly differentiated
consciousness.
These special
modes
of subjective
experience
the direction of thought or perwhich define and determine
ception
to this or that specialobject
are
presentations. We
choose, that the object itself is presented,
say, if we
may
but we
must
not
say that it is a presentation
; and when
we
say that it is presented,it is better to say that it is
presented to consciousness,than that it is presentedin
consciousness.
In the perceptionof a tree the reference
"
vol. i.,
Analytic Psychology,
p.
44.
PSYCHOLOGY.
60
objectis
circumscribed
I., en.
[BE:.
and
1.
directed
by a plexus of
visual and other presentations.The
objectthought of is
It is a material thing and not
thereby made determinate.
to
an
mental
occurrence,
tree
and
not
oak
stone, an
and
not
elm."*4
an
an
satisfied
partiallythe
one
or
and
dissatisfied
with
partiallythe
it, and
other.
sometimes
This
feeling-
not
cognition. We canhave no
we
a thingwhen
cognisanceof it. Even when we have no cognisanceof it,
it may
produce an agreeableor disagreeablefeelingin us ;
but this causal relation is quitedifferent from that between
subjectand object.We may feel displeasedwith a glaring
our
displeasureis caused by vibrations
light. Doubtless
know
in the luminiferous
ether; but if we
nothing of
the objectof
cannot
these vibrations,
we
say that they are
in the psychological
our
meaning of the word
displeasuref,
object.Therefore,from a psychologicalpointof view, we
feel displeased
with them.
cannot
say that we
total consciousness
be entirely
at any moment
Can
our
?
This is a question
of pleasure and
devoid
displeasure
be
first sight tempted to answer
at
which
we
may
I may,
it would
decidedly in the affirmative.
seem,
perceive a stone, or a clod of earth, or a geometrical
diagram, without feelingeither agreeablyor disagreeably
the
towards
these
affected
objects. But
apparent
look
of
this answer
we
disappears when
plausibility
do we
notice these
more
closelyinto the case.
Why
the existence
attitude pre-supposes
with
feel pleasedor displeased
of
In
The
this
term
" 3.]
MODES
OF
BEING
CONSCIOUS.
61
Thus
our
total consciousness
may
involve
pleasantor painfulinterest,
although this small portionof
it does not
contribute
in any
appreciabledegree to its
pleasantnessor unpleasantness. Again, our minds may be
comparativelydisengaged,so that they are free to attend
to surrounding things but it is the characteristic
of these
;
idle moods
bored by
that we
less amused
or
are
more
or
PSYCHOLOGY.
C2
I.
the trivial
apt to
treat
we
are
not
notice that
cold
hot
are
state.
In like manner,
cold,unless
or
we
feel
do
we
hot
more
or
usual.
is shown
when
we
to appear
ceases
fact,sound
of
to
us
sort
some
what
from
pass
complete absence
stillmore
then
neutral
than
absolute
This
we
as
of sound.
as
is
call silence to
The
previous state
of silence. As
one
never
we
wholly absent
probabilitythe
matter
from
of
our
is in all
with
case
experience. The same
pleasure or displeasure. One or the other or both, are
always in some
degree present, although we by no means
always
notice their
When
belongs
wish
we
this
to
presence.
to
or
say
that
that
mental
pleasure
process,
displeasure
or
we
say
that
is
Feelingpleasantlyor unpleasantlytoned.
is a generic word
for pleasure and
tone
pain. It is
less
not
only
ambiguous than
feeling alone, which
other
has
applicationsin ordinary language, but
many
in psychology is to some
extent
even
required for other
shall
Hence, as a technical expression,we
purposes.
henceforward
the reference
is
when
speak of feeling-tone
the process
to
pleasure-pain.
Are
there
other
kinds
of
feeling-attitudebesides
?
displeasure
and
pleasure
It is difficult to
are.
would
It
that
such
as
there
anger
and
and
love
as
63
seem
bring emotions,
sentiments, such
fear, and
CONSCIOUS.
BEING
OF
MODES
$4.]
hate, completely
emotion, like anger,
head.
an
Certainly,
be said that
kind of cognition
involves some
; but it cannot
the
the specific
qualifies
experienceof being angry directly
ob ject ; in other words, this experience
of the presented
nature
is not a presentation.So, too, anger has feeling-tone,
mostly
But its specific
of an
qualitycannot be
unpleasant kind.
resolved
into pleasureor displeasure.Again, it involves
under
other
any
active tendencies
certain characteristic
peculiarand unanalysablemode
be
cannot
resolved
these.
into
; but
is in it
there
of
being conscious,which
We
clude
must, therefore,con-
the
The
reverse.
" 4.
emotions.
designatedby
craving,longing,yearning,endeavour, effort,
as
desire,wish, and
In all of them
be
may
Attitude.
Conative
The
words
such
same
will,have
there
is
"
characteristic
one
inherent
an
states
in
common.
pass beyond
This tendency
tendency to
something different.
mode
is not only a fact but an experience; and the peculiar
constitutes the experience,is
of being conscious, which
and
themselves
called
conation.
become
The
process
is
of consciousness
process
of incessant
of
to
other
and
The
process
phases.
its
in relation
The
stream
is determined
course
but
is in
by
its
to the
own
of consciousness
not
drift at
merely by
any
has
current
external
ditions,
con-
Considered
moment.
presentedobject,conation
is
tendency
PSYCHOLOGY.
64
to alter
make
it,or
consciousness,or
before
difference
some
to
[BK. I.,
bring
it
more
en.
i.
in
consciousness.
the
result.
volitional
What
satisfies
is
process
the
and
me
terminates
so
that
"belief
my
property
the
wrill
to recall
cannot
much
or
realise itself.
as
if it could
consciousness,it
to blow
undo
out
Conation
is
the
But
This
past.
none
is
the less
realise itself.
tendency which
it is a tendency as
a
Considered
as
mode
of
MODES
"4.]
without
BEING
OF
CONSCIOUS.
6.3
conation
in
far
so
as
it finds
satisfaction
in
tho
fuller
observation
mere
sufficient.
If it is necessary
to
of
climbing will be merely a means
just as in the previouscase
making observation possible,
of making climbingpossible.
observation
is merely a means
climb
the
Sometimes
rock,
the
it would
appear
as
if attention
were
not
directed
fuller
Psych,
AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,pp.
126-7.
66
PSYCHOLOGY.
the
fuller
presentationof
pleasuregiving capacityof
makes
be
difference
presented
consciousness
We
the
the
It
not.
or
is
i.
whether
it continues
to
when
is satiated.
repeatedlyused
tendency of a state
itself into
en.
to consciousness
have
intrinsic
[BK. i.,
different
realised,it ceases
to
the word
Conation
end.
of consciousness
Just in
state.
far
so
in other
exist,or
is the
beyond
tendency is
to pass
as
the
words,
which
it is
is,when
strives,
consciousness
of the
striving. This
to refer later.
is
It is obscured
are
some
attained,the
tion
termina-
ends, such
as
the
moral
have
The
ideal,
second
The
is,
completely attained.
that while we
are
actuallystrivingafter the end, we think
about its own
logical
positivenature, and not about the psychowould
result which
follow its complete achievement.
We
do not consciously
strive after the cessation of our
own
in
we
activity,except when
try to go to sleep or when
which
any
other
means
directed
we
way
less,it remains
end
be
never
can
the
towards
endeavour
after
repose.
None
the
of any
complete achievement
complete cessation of the specialactivity
fact that the
that
specialend.
has two phases,pleasureand displeasure,
As feeling-tone
and the second negative,so conation has a
the first positive
and
a
negative phase, aversion.
positivephase, appetition,
and
It is either directed
to maintain
further develop a
MODES
" 4.]
OF
the
presented object,or
Hobbes,
it is either
BEING-
CONSCIOUS.
To
reverse.
endeavour
an
67
use
towards
or
an
phrase
of
endeavour
cannot
wo
pleasant,if
him
we
of
throw
can
downstairs.
because
rid
get
It
him
him
out
made
disposesof
to identify
conation
have
finallyto
after
an
but
certain
it may
of the
while
is worth
it
to
bo
window,
note
attempts which
very
or
this
have
kick
point,
been
with
feeling-tone.
deal with
Wo
the question whether
conation in some
form or degree is invariablya constituent
of consciousness.
The
problem is beset with the same
difficulties as
and
in the case
similar
of feeling-tone,
remarks
that
are
apply here also. We
apt to assume
consciousness
is absolutelyinactive,when
it is only comparatively
Wo
so.
only notice that we are endeavouring
end,
when
endeavour
our
pitchof intensity.Thus
consciousness
object and
Xone
the
this
case,
The
is active
attend
to
less,conation
as
best mode
well
of
as
rises above
certain
in the
do not
most
intense
mental
effort.
PSYCHOLOGY.
68
[UK. i.,
cu.
i.
"Take,
endeavour
whole
to decide
of my
course
decision.
Of
between
future
these,(7)is
two
life
mental
of
courses
action,
"
being dependent
state
on
the
the
characterized
by a
(2),(3),
intense
more
" 5.
Sentience
considered
or
Sub- Consciousness.
consciousness
if
objects. But
*
we
only
analyse
"
"We
in its relation
our
total
AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,
pp.
have
so
far
presented
experienceat any
160-1.
to
MODES
"5.]
moment,
the
OF
'BEING
CONSCIOUS.
we
69
material
which
is not
at
the
contributingto
of
cognitive function
without
consciousness, and is to that extent
objective
reference.
It is the specialfunction
of presentationto
of consciousness
present objects; but those modifications
this function may
which
exist even
are
capable of fulfilling
of cognisingobjects. They
when
they are not the means
for discriminative
exist as possiblematerial
thinking
may
without
being actuallyutilised to the full extent in which
I am
they are capable of being utilised. At this moment
thinking about psychological
topics. I receive at the same
multitude
time
of diversified
rounding
sura
impressions from
total
into
things which
certainly enter
my
experience. But if I refer them to an object at all,I do
in a very
indeterminate
so
My thought-discrimination
way.
is very far from keeping pace with the differentiation
of the sensory data as immediately experienced. To quote
the
Tucker
Abraham
"We may
leaves fallingfrom
see
:
trees, birds flyingin the air,or cattle grazing upon the
ground, without affirming,or denying, or thinking,anything
being
concerningthem ; and yet, perhaps,
upon
moment
"
'
....
asked
had
seen.
window
it
minute
were
exhibited
afterwards
man
hundred
square
times
single sweep
of the
of
But
which
beheld
without
every
to
time
takes
eye
make
for thought
significant
successive
remember
in
looked
an
each
would
acts of attention.
he
field
what
from
we
his
observing whether
yet the figure was
ever
pentangular, and
to his view
details.
have
may
or
could
wTe
indefinite
these
of
require
Of course,
upon
long
.A
it '
...
multitude
severally
series
of
impression
in
as
significant,
begin to observe
the total
constitute may
be
they collectively
first glance at a landscape before we
our
its component parts. The essential point is the antithesis
PSYCHOLOGY
70
between
perhaps
even
arising
from
constantly
perhaps
of
trains
in
the
tired,'
most
our
'I
or
we
point,
judgment
are
'I
feel
not
Analytic
as
do
well,'
that
so,
the
created
Psychology,
rule
'I
'I
or
we
are
it,
vol.
"
dull.'
which
48-49,
prior
all.
at
for
of
if
determino
to
'I
or
But
aware,
are
our
ill,'
always
i., pp.
life
if
note
but
to
enter
definite
sensations
by
waking
feel
feel
any
is
appear
way,
or
and
sensations
they
vaguest
take
not
of
the
bright,'
do
we
the
in
feel
When
on
only
say
part
condition.
reflect
we
But
the
These
state.
i.
presentation
by
moment
every
sleep.
thought
Occasionally
feel
in
present
even
bodily
general
our
CH.
discriminative
of
illustrated
strikingly
more
I.,
presentation
of
independence
relative
The
thinking.
of
indeterniinateness
comparative
the
be
dcterminateness
detailed
the
[BE.
it."*
our
we
CHAPTER
PRIMARY
1.
"
LAWS
Relativity. "By
H.
OF
PROCESS.
HEXTAL
successive
or
the
factors
psychoses,determined
and
it stands
by
factors and
to other
psychoses
entire mental
Or
in the
life.
stated positively every
is what
it is
individual element,or state,or form of mental life
only as relative to other elements,states,and forms of the same
mental life"f More
brieflywe may say : Mental development
"
"
depends on
modes
of consciousness
What
"psychological relations."
relations through which
psychological
enabled
are
to
interact ?
To
is the
modes
understand
of
nature
the
of consciousness
this
we
must
sider
con-
This topic
unity and continuityof consciousness.
under
two
heads, (1) general unity and continuity,
(2) the specialunity and continuity constituted by
the
falls
and
conation.
*
Psychosis
total
state
of consciousness
and
f Ladd, Psychology,Descriptive
as
existing at
Explanatory, pp.
7i
any
6G1-2.
one
moment.
PSYCHOLOGY.
72
"
General
2.
of
Unity
disjoinedfrom
"
life are,
Dr.
as
n.
tuents
partialconsti-
Continuity. The
and
conscious
our
Ward
puts it,not
one
another
one
with
the
of
commencement
"At
another.
'
then
such
as
but
is
modification
B,
is itself
of consciousness.
this passage
The
transition
an
itself constitutes
from
between
they may
be.
givenby
Dr. Ward
in another
the scent
from
"the
case
Article
part
relation
unlike
however
into B ; and
more
of A
of
bee."J
of
so
to the
rose
Professor
abrupt
"Psychology,"
Take
in
the
context
of
well
transition
"
the
gong
an
tration
illus-
"passing
a
or
sting
remarks,
in the
states,
that
content
in
and
xx., p. 45.
Ibid.
two
instance
for
sound
Ladd
the
\ Op. cit.,
p.
50.
MENTAL
"3.]
feeling-toneof
the
would
rose
the sound
be
not
The
illustrated.
successive
two
relativitywould
PROCESS.
mental
states, the
violated, but
of
amount
influence
of the gong,
73
and
redistribution
of
amply
more
absorptionin
our
the
the
law
the scent
of
of attention
to
the
to
even
the
pain which
sounds
would
be
enhanced
or
smarting gave
by the
results of
preceding pleasure; the control of the motor
sensation
would
bo
[movements prompted by] the new
determined
the sensation
by the perceptions,
etc.,into which
abruptlybroke ; and so on, and so on."*
Thus there are relations arising
out of the unity of a single
the
of
degree
state
are
of consciousness
also
relations
to
another.
state
contiguityin
existence
kind
in
it exists at any
as
These
time
psychicalconnexion
time, and arisingout
consciousness
" 3. Conative
playing chess
critical
between
and
that
between
has
been
of
of the
flow of
am
to
suddenly
meet
called
visitor
consciousness
interruptsit.
disparate and
that
on
immediate
discussed.
about
there is another
phases
the
move
If,
on
which
on
But
matter
of
relation
interrupted
relation
exists
disconnected
processes,
contiguityin time which
the
of
the
at
chess,or
contrary,
process
and
Psychology,Descriptive
this
is
at
away
as
such, constitutes
interruption,
state
successive
But
is characteristic
game
otherwise
depends
mind
whist, I
or
which
and
the
Unity and
The
the
simultaneous
of
way
immediate
general.
stage of the
business.
the
one
that which
in
in
there
from
involve
succession.
of
continuitythan
transition
relations
either
of continuous
or
of the
arisingout
and
moment,
of
we
of
consider
making
settlingthe
Explanatory,p.
663.
up
the
matter
PSYCHOLOGY.
74
of
find
business,we
[BK. i..
and
different
called conative
be
continuity,which
may
or
continuity of interest. From
continuity,
view, my state of mind when I have finished
with
my
state
returned
and
visitor
the
with
when
of mind
to
was
my
kind
intimate
more
game
cir.
n.
of
appetitive
this point of
or
business
my
is continuous
rather
interrupted,
than
the
meant
natural
state
of consciousness
termination
"
in which
the termination
the process
finds its
it by its
prescribedto
conditions.
Each
phase
is incomplete,and
of the process before the end is reached
inherent
constitution to pass beyond itself.
tends by its own
is displacedby a disparateand disconnected
If the activity
process before it has attained its goal,it tends spontaneously
itself out, starting
and work
after the interruption
to recur
short.
it was
cut
the stage at which
from
If, while it
its progress
is in any way
to occupy
continues
consciousness,
checked
pleasantness
or
arrested,an experienceof dissatisfaction or unSo long and so far as its progress
is
arises.
unchecked, but not yet completed,consciousness is unsatisfied,
and
ceteris paribus the experienceis
but not dissatisfied,
pleasant.
Conative
unity depends upon conative continuity. If we
take any momentary
phase in the flow of conative process,
own
we
nature, and
find
not
total state
are
by
extraneous
of consciousness
irrelevant
to
the
main
in
which
direction
some
of
stituents
con-
thought,
MENTAL
" 3.]
and
others
in
Thus
PliOCESS.
75
essentiallyconcerned
are
playing
due
of
game
chess
in
the
its
progress.
modifications
of
surrounding objects
irrelevant to the main
of consciousness.
current
are
Only
the experiencesconnected
with the position
of the pieceson
the board
are
relevant, and only these experiencesare
embraced
This
in the conative
unity of consciousness.
distinction correspondsbroadly to that between
thought
consciousness
and
of
impressionsfrom
sentience.*
mere
The
to
total process
succession
of consciousness
of processes,
is,in general,composed
each
has
of which
certain
appetitive
continuity.Some of these may be very transient
and involve only a slightand evanescent
But in
interest.
far as they involve interest or attention at all they are
so
rambles
conative.
from
Even
when
the mind
essentially
objectto objectin a desultoryway, its slightand transient
degree of
occupation with each in turn involves some
attention
without
conative
and
interest.
conative
another.
one
In
process
the
itself constitutes
old process
is
and
the
as
sort
new.
an
part of it,an
But
of
transitions
which
are
transitions
from
one
these
even
in
are
sense
of
interruption
the interruption
of interruption,
the
conative
continuitybetween
as
occurs
moment
a
experienced
constituent
the
continuity are
to another.
process
conative,if
Thus
Just in
so
marked
far
interruptionof
incident
as
the
the
new
process
old, it
is
in its progress.
Discussed
in
"
5 of last
chapter.
PSYCHOLOGY.
76
connexions
elements
arise
which
as
constituent
from
combination
parts of the
of
conative
same
mental
process.
in some
form
" 4. Retentiveness. Hetentiveness
indispensablecondition of development or progress
is
"
kind.
Advance
would
n.
an
of any
be
processes,
these.
In this
different
others.
to fade
of mental
or
respect there is
individuals.
But
away
even
:
processes
"so
Some
in the most
that if
a
are
great
more
retentive
they be
not
connected
difference
between
retentive
minds,
sometimes
with
traces
than
tend
renewed
"
MENTAL
PROCESS.
at last there
remains
5.]
out, and
wears
Thus
the
experiences,"as
often
die
before
tombs
to
the
which
brass
effaced
in
marble
the
least,
at
be
remarks,
sand."
than
difference
in
represent
seen."
youth,
our
to
those
us
differences
others
to be
children,of
as
minds
our
retentive
minds
some
marble,"
better
the
explainedon
nothing
fast
are
by time, and
cannot
"like
we
and
differences
part
; and
us
well
77
of
power
individuals
are,
in
in
retain
"like
The
the
characters
drawn
freestone,"and
ultimate
originalendowment
others
them
on
"little
explanation of this
take a physiological
must
form.
movement
of consciousness
towards
an
end
is determined
left behind
qualified
disposition
by the cumulative
by
time this cumulative
position
dispreceding stages. At the same
is itself subjectto modification
mode
by each new
Dr. Ward
of consciousness
it emerges.
has given an
as
illustrates this point.
example which partially
of a few minutes
take
we
"Suppose that in the course
half a dozen glancesat a strange and curious flower.
We
have
which
not
as
we
complex presentations
might
many
symbolise as F^ J?^ F3. But rather, at first,only the
general outline is noted, next the dispositionof petals,
and
Human
Understanding, ii.x., 5.
PSYCHOLOGY.
78
r.,
[r.i:.
and
persistthat
and
an
addition
It is because
on
so
to
of tho
the
later
are
n.
of
anthers, form
advance
an
en.
them
upon
them."*
part
example
of the
simultaneous
same
whole
with
the
The
later.
the
"earlier
by which
apprehensions" were
formed
is not itself repeated,inasmuch
the
as
originally
left behind
by previousexperience
preparatory dispositions
render
it unnecessary.
for further
Hence, there is room
advance, for growing distinction and definition within the
total presentation. But with the new
distinctions the old
combined
in the same
This is
also are
complex whole.
of the ways
in which
one
preformed dispositionsmay
the only way.
The
operate. But it is by no means
sistent
perof
traces
modify present
past experience may
of
experienceand be modified by it,without reappearance
of the past experiencein the actual moment
the content
of
process
"
present consciousness.
The effect of rhythmic repetition
of the
because the external
instructive,
peculiarly
same
is
stimulus
occasion
of each
successive
fications
impressionis throughout the same, so that modiof consciousness
of the
arising in the course
be due to the working of retentiveness,
process must
the cumulative
to
dispositionleft behind
by previous
impressions.The sequence of physicalstimuli is a, a, a,
"
the
fact
sequence
that
the
as
repetition,
of mental
second
states
a
another
*
Article
comes
of
"
the
is a^
a.^ a3,
before
same
The
Psychology,"p.
47.
mere
consciousness
kind,
constitutes
as
a
an
MENTAL
"5.]
importantdifference
be
PROCESS.
it and
between
79
the first a.
But, besides
may
at
once.
It is found
that,after hearingas
many
as
regular intervals of
from 0-2 to 0- 3 seconds,the subjectcan
or
distinguish
identify
whole
another
from
this series as
a
equal or unequal
to it. Counting is not admitted, and the successive sounds
at
all simultaneouslydiscriminated
of
not
course
are
fifteen
the
sixteen
or
the
of
close
sounds
successive
series.
at
"
sensation-mass
"
alone
distinctly
perceived. This is evidentlya cumulative
effect. Apart from
specialexperimentsin the laboratory,
successive
that
can
easilyverify the statement
anyone
close be
at their
series of a
can
rhythmic character
without
mentally reproducing
apprehended as a whole
of
and
apprehension
discriminatingin the moment
is
the
in
several
walking,
we
mentally
may
and
when
another
even
series ends
one
know
the
within
walking
and
number
of
divide
aware
We
of paces
our
without
begins.
steps which
single series.
certain number
be
them.
compose
We
Thus,
successive
counting
need
not
nected
mentally consimply begin by
may
without
countingthem,
are
the
the pointsat which
proceed mark
initial series has repeateditself.
We
have so far considered
only the regular sequence of
identical impressions.
But the most
important
physically
and
then
as
we
PSYCHOLOGY.
80
of
cases
of
rhythm
uniform
in which
of
long
syllables,
may
line from
hearing a
have
moment
than
Yet
and
Milton
more
in
diversity
depends on a
and
short
serve
as
or
one
is
That
from
heaven,
of
true
music.
ruin
Yet
ear.
in the
we
it
to
and
In
any
sciousness.
con-
present
acquiresin
it,
unpremeditatedart."
"unpremeditated,"
in place of another.
more
of
are
word
at
aware
consciousness
melody
as
the
the
part of
On
the
the
What
is
case
of
often is the
it strikes
moment
is in
and
ness
is for conscious-
rhythmic structure.
obviously true in
melody may be and
in it the entire
before
comes
whole
last note
the
near
of the wrong
of the
of which
of
word
one
is still
The
or
for
occurrence
only note
It
thy
profusestrains
merely
verse
at
less
full heart
"unstudied"
contrary, the
the
or
this
Pourest
In
result is not
more
Substitute
respects.
illustration.
an
"
other
of accented
or
ir.
in the whole.
has
en.
similarityin
recurrent
with
which
verse,
recurrence
unaccented
whole
those
are
respectsis combined
certain
The
rhythm
[BE. i.,
present.
quite specific
sense
a
a
its place in
character
from
specific
The cumulative
that whole.
generated by the
disposition
of previous notes
ordered
cooperates with the
sequence
stimulus to the organ of hearing,and the ensuing state
new
is the jointproductof both factors mutually
of consciousness
modifying each other. If a wrong note be struck,the whole
The same
happens if a note is
melody is at once marred.
unduly prolonged. Throughout the process the part is
whole
and
derives
MENTAL
" 6.]
determined
reading a
final
the
by
whole, and
sentence
the
word,
TliOCESS.
or
81
the whole
paragraph,when
of the sentence
meaning
by
we
the
part.
In
to the
come
paragraph as a
consciousness.
whole is present to our
But it is only as a
cumulative
effect of previousprocess. What
is directly
given
datum
is the last word itself and its meaning.
as
a
special
In a similar way, the cumulative
effect of one
paragraph or
and determines
the meaning of
chapterof a book qualifies
another.
set by the side of this highly complex
We
may
Pronounce
the words
case
a very
simpleone.
successively
terminate
identify,
fructify,
mystify,
simplify
; all these words
sound.
in the same
When
we
are
just finishingor have
item of
of each word, the special
justfinished the utterance
sensation before consciousness
is the final sound they have
in common.
The
preceding sounds in which they differ
have
"case
vanished
we
are
This
only be
the
when
by
the
have
said
one
and
fructify
not
we
said
have
we
can
is modified
consciousness;nevertheless,in
that
aware
another,that
on.
from
or
in each
because
final
sound
cumulative
word
each
and
not
mystify,and
instance
so
sciousness,
con-
our
is
being pronounced,
effect of the
preceding
sounds.
This
cumulative
precedingphases of a
conative process on the succeeding,
be called primary
may
in order to distinguish
it from the retentiveretentiveness,
which
is involved
in reproductionand association,
ness
effect of
the
"
with
sum
up
what
call primary
may
the result of the last section
all processes
we
or
having appetitive
meaning.
as
conative
is
lated
corre-
We
may
(1) In
and
continuity,
follows
cumulative
of a series of distinct steps, a
consisting
is gradually formed
is the productof
which
disposition
Psych.
PSYCHOLOGY.
82
antecedent
mental
change,
change.
[BK. i.,
and
en.
cooperativefactor
n.
in
dm-A.
Now
does
what
stand
for ?
What
change or
does it represent?
modification
of consciousness
Clearly,
items 5, c, d, to the
it representsthe relation of the specific
of which
whole
they are part, a peculiarcharacter which
belongs to them in virtue of their being part of this whole.
the only generalword
which
is at all appropriatefor
Now
is the word
meaning
expressingthis kind of consciousness
or
significance
m, then, stands for meaning or significance.
The meaning which
is essentially
involved
in all conative
be designatedprimary meaning, to distinguish
continuitymay
it from
that which
depends on association and
m
"
reproduction.
" 7. Association
am
told that
and
it has
Reproduction.
"
certain
name,
On
seeinga flower,I
Afterwards, I hear
MENTAL
" 7.]
this
pictureof
It
is
it may
again :
name
the
clear
PROCESS.
then
flower,though
that
if I
S3
call up to my mind
a mental
flower is actually
no
present.
had
never
the
seen
flower,the
mental
flitted
the surface
over
surface
of
result.
The
without
stream,
mind
of my
would
like
shadow
producing
have
left
no
it had
the
over
permanent
as
justthe same
if I had never
the flower.
The
seen
mere
hearing of the
would
be inoperativeunless there were
name
something
for it to act on,
an
appropriatetrace of past experience
for future experience.
a preparatory disposition
constituting
13ut primary retentiveness
is not in this case
sufficient.
More
is implied than
the mere
effect of the
cumulative
previous phases of a continuous
determining
process
in this instance
works
succeedingphases. Retentiveness
The
of reproduction and
association.
by way
specific
nature
call the perof the originalexperience which
we
ception
case
then
any
Now
been
"
of the
image
of the flower.
mental
image. It
perceptionof
actual
continuous
in the
reinstated
flower,is partially
The
as
name,
this
does
we
through
reproducesthe
association.
as
part of
the
The
same
the
conscious
say,
mental
the
process
In
senses.
certain modification
constitutes
the
so
as
far
as
of consciousness
mere
has
already occurred
general possibilityof
retentiveness takes
the form
of recurrence
possibility
of
fact that
the
its
recurrence,
reproduction.The general
part actualised
in
PSYCHOLOGY.
84
n.
The
by association.
dispositionleft
specialcase
be re-excited
behind
if
by the previous experiencemust
the experienceitself is to be reproduced. The
ment
re-exciteis mostly, though not always, effected by a presentation
similar to some
presentationwhich has formed part
total process
with
the
of the
same
experience which
is to be reproduced. This is expressedby saying that the
takes place by the previous association of
re-instatement
the reproduced and
reproducing presentation. In the
example given,the association is between the perceptionof
its name.
The
the flower and
repetitionof the name
revives the mental
image of the absent flower.
" 8. Acquirement of Meaning. Reproduction has a great
modes
and
degrees, according as the original
many
less fully and
instated.
or
experience is more
independently reThe least that can
happen, in order to make the
word
reproductionapplicableat all,is found in a process
of fundamental
ment
importance which we may call the acquiremust
of meaning. We
distinguishbetween
meaning
which
is primary and meaning which is acquired. Primary
of any
series
meaning accompanies the first occurrence
panies
having continuityof interest. Secondary meaning accomits recurrence,
and
depends on the fact that it
each,
"
occurred
has
on
its first
cumulative
whole
is
In
the
has
occurrence
dispositionleft
that
suppose
now
before.
on
the
behind
future
am3.
lmlt
the
dm3,
cm*,
meaning due
by a, b, c.
occasion
the
to
Now,
process
as
Its
of the whole
previousoccurrence
The
of the series
starting-point
but
a,
repeated.
excites
series
In other
words,
has
us
series a,
is therefore
bm^
cmZl
dm-6.
longer a,
acquiredmeaning through
consider
the
no
example
of
MENTAL
" 8.]
value
significance,a
"
with
connexion
has
85
On
tune.
PROCESS.
the
for consciousness
whole.
Now
have
notes
derived
suppose
each
from
that
their
the
tune
Twice
"
say,
for
go
further.
table
knows
what
to
me
is two, twice
one
two"
hearer
there
"
knows
who
follows
is
as
whole
beginning of the
repetition. The
equivalentto the whole, and it is just because
whole
that
it is unnecessary
to
plication
multi-
the
detailed
the
need
no
without
series
it
is
means
in
detail.
take
which
now
us
conative
process,
case
has
which
the
of
at
is not.
This
it has
to
Now
learn
the
what
the
chicken
is edible
cessation
does
and
by experience.
not,
what
It
will
and
pillars
caterpeck at and seize all worms
indiscriminately.There is a particularkind of
this is
called the cinnabar
caterpillar.When
caterpillar
it is pecked at and seized
first presentedto the chicken
it is fairly
similar
like other
as
objects. But as soon
the chicken
next
seized it is dropped in disgust. When
and refrains
it looks at it suspiciously
the caterpillar,
sees
the
at
This
outset
example
is taken
from
Lloyd Morgan's
Habit
and
Instinct,
p.
41.
[BE. i.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
86
en.
n.
the
to them
When
thing means
one
or
another.
instead
it functions
in reference
If
along with
means
it
or
to
another, it
certain
b, this
about
of them.
does
with
can,
end, be substituted
not
it.
imply
We
that
for
carries b
might as
always have
well
five
five-pound note must
wrapped up in it. The note will pass
sovereignsliterally
the
instead of five sovereigns,
and in like manner
current
of the cinnabar
will,
caterpillar
peculiarvisual appearance
in some
degree,pass current instead 'ofthe peculiarsensation
has previouslyfollowed
it. It re-excites
of disgustwhich
left behind
the whole disposition
by the previous process,
and it re-excites this disposition
ithas been modified in the
as
of previousprocess.
course
Consequently,this process will
stand
But to undernot take placeagain as it took placebefore.
the special
kind of transformation
which it undergoes,
take into account
must
the essential nature
of appetitive
we
This lies in its being directed to an end, in the
process.
of the chicken,the satisfaction of the appetite
for food.
case
This tendency towards
end is manifested
in one
an
general
character of all appetitive
Lines of action,
if and
process.
suppose
that
"
MENTAL
" 8.]
so
far
as
varied
they are
; and
In this way,
unsuccessful,tend
those which
for
PROCESS.
S;
to
be
discontinued
to
successful,
prove
instance,accuracy
in the
be maintained.
act
of
attained
the
unsuccessful
an
pecking is
tries again
When
it misses, it
by the chicken.
again with slightvariations until it succeeds,and
successful adjustments which
tend to persist,
and
and
which
end, whether
ipsofacto an
holds
causes
the
end
endeavour
Everything in
success,
eliminated.
are
the way
be
to
The
endeavour
consciouslyforeseen
avoid
of check
dissatisfaction
and
failure
or
or
and
impediment
it is
the
towards
or
not, is
obstruction.
or
altered behaviour.
want
of
This
PSYCHOLOGY.
88
[BE. i.,
CH.
n.
What
tlie total
must
follow
the other
Each
of the
two
sensations,the
one
secondary,independentlyprompt to
kind of action,and the result can
a certain
only be a sort
of mechanical
not intelligent
interference,
guidance. The
visual experience prompts to picking and
seizing. The
revived
distaste prompts to the act of ejectingor dropping
The tendencyto ejection
from the beak.
ought to interfere
with the act of pecking only in so far as the two
ments
moveare
mechanicallyincompatible. One would expect
alternation
blend of the two movements,
or
an
a nondescript
be a product
them.
behaviour
cannot
between
Intelligent
of such conditions.
Two
motor
impulses of a quasi-reflex
and
character
are
brought together in a mechanical
way,
resultant.
nothing can ensue
except a sort of mechanical
It is true that if it be granted that the sightof the cinnabar
the first,
a
has, from
meaning, this
specific
caterpillar
meaning may be rendered more
explicit
by re-instatement
of disgust. But the mere
re-instatement
of the sensation
primary, and
MENTAL
" 8.]
of
the
of
sensation
for the
account
PROCESS.
80
disgust taken
result,whereas
the
existence
phases
their
process
of
of
must
deduced
effect,the
tend
form
to
concur
renewal
to re-excite
of
reproduction
to primary
its nature
primary retentiveness.
process
cumulative
mode
priori from
If the
total
of
successive
as
disposition
part
of
the
disposition.Just as in
the specific
items of previous
succeeding experience,but
this
"
derives
We
from
have
its relation
to
the
consider
whole.
modes
of
reproductionmore
in their nature
of a
than the general re- excitement
specific
These more
total disposition.
modes
of reproduction
specific
manifold
and
forms
assume
gradations,which are to be
regarded as stages in the evolution of meaning towards
definiteness and
explicitness.Meaning unfolds into them
the seed unfolds into the plant.
as
now
to
Cf.end
of
"
9.
PSYCHOLOGY.
90
"
9.
[BK. i.,
en.
ir.
plication.
of Specific
Reproduction. (#) Com-
is
association,*
^4,
found
has
which
relation
psychological
consist
association
consciousness,as
conative
relations which
in
parts
The
process.
of another
occurrence
main, the
In the
of
in the
the
or
union
the
of
phases of
readiness
operateas
the
with
same
which
two
tion,
presentakind
of
is reproduced.
conditions
modes
of
continuous
associations
on
the
number
of
times
associated
has
presentations
Specificreproduction may
forms and degrees. Let us
A,
and
the
connexion
been
repeated.
assume
it has
the
great variety of
call the
between
reproducing presentation,
been
associated,B
the
This
is
by
no
means
always the
case.
MENTAL
I 9.]
of view
PROCESS.
91
intimatelyconnected.
are
second
and
clearness
the
is
be
may
distinct
has
of
either
an
individuality,
vanished.
In
free
reproduction:
b is an
when
pendent
integralpart of A and incapable of indethe process is called complication,
because
existence,
the result is merely a change in the constitution of A, and
for the most
part an increase in its complexity. The facility
case,
colour
as
intimate
is the
characters
is hard
We
which
of
union
be
can
form.
of
In
with
take
more
whether
as
or
not
general,
the
partialand
reproductionof B, so
to decide
may
is from
A, the
is the
one
and sepadistinguished
rately
attended
admits of many
to in the wThole complex A
gradations. It may be as intimatelyinterfused with the
whole as the red and blue which
each other
interpenetrate
t"e as easilydisenin purple. On the other hand
it may
gaged
modified
with
process
other
the
that
there
typicalexample
of quality which
more
constituent
profoundly
more
in
the
some
cases
it
is any
of
reproduction.
complicationthe
attach
sounds
to
peculiar differences
accordingto the various modes in which they are produced.
We
distinguish clapping, crashing, clashing,hissing,
ling
bursting,splitting,
rending,grinding,rushing, and whistnoises.
Now
these
sounds
doubtless
have
distinctive
considered
qualities,
But it
merely as auditorysensations.
clear that they also have acquired modalities
due to
seems
association.
In producingthem we have in each case
certain
distinctive experiencesof movement
and in
and resistance,
seeingthem produced similar experiencesare excited in a
the sounds
When
are
partialand inchoate way.
merely
heard
their
modified
qualityis partlyconstituted by
reproduction of these sensations.
element
is not
partialand
The
duced
repro-
without
usuallydistinguished
an
PSYCHOLOGY.
92
n.
act of
But
it is none
the less
analyticattention.
present as a peculiarmodality of the auditoryexperience.
ing
Perhaps this will be most clearlybrought out by considerthe imitative words
by which the nature of such sounds
word
is commonly expressed. The
"clap" resembles the
"hiss"
the sound
of hissing,
sound
of clapping,the word
the sound of tearing. But on examination
tear
and the word
that the resemblance
it soon
by no means
appears
considered
lies wThollyin the sounds
tions.
merely as ear-sensathe movements
of articulation.
It depends also on
In saying clap,"the lipsare clappedtogether; in saying
hiss,"the breath is driven through a narrowed
aperture ;
from
the
in saying "tear," the tongue is pulled away
express
"
"
"
"
similar
instances
do
and
not
we
palate. In these
the motor
and the purely
distinguishbetween
ordinarily
So in the originalexperienceswhich
auditory imitation.
imitated
are
the
two
factors
distinction,
constitutinga complex
escapes
analysisuntil the
is brought to bear
sound
the
associated
such
as
motor
reflective
it.
upon
is the dominant
element
combined
are
appears
without
qualitywhich
logist
scrutinyof the psychoIn this complex quality
constituent,and the
sensory
as
modification
of the
sound.
cation
(1) to the qualifiand
of sight by touch
resistance,and (2) to the
of touch and resistance by sight.
qualification
"The
sightof a suit of polishedarmour," says Dr. "Ward,
all that we
instantlyreinstates and steadilymaintains
For
further
illustration
we
may
refer
11
retain of former
coldness*."
and
But this
*
Article
57.
sensations
The
armour
peculiar
appearance
of its hardness
looks
to the
and
smoothness
xs.,
MENTAL
" 9.]
involve
distinct
any
of
sensation
They
hardness, smoothness,
separate
itself.
The
modification
and
other
reproduction
manifests
of
the
visual
we
have
felt it to be cold.
visual
looks
been
the
duced
repro-
experience
rather
addition
an
"
If it had
not
The
consciousness.
itself
experience
ice
unanalysed complexity. Similarly,
separate
or
coldness.
or
distinct modes
and
from
of the
idea
experiencesare
discriminated
not
are
93
representationor
correspondingtactile
as
PROCESS.
cold
as
to
distinct
its
because
always warm
Yet
its cold
to
look
temperature-
presented as if
included
in the visual appearance
an
as
integralpart of it.
Any attempt to separate it destroysboth its own
specific
character and that of the visual experience.
If (2)we
turn to the converse
now
case, the qualification
of actual touch experienceby revived visual experience,
we
find the union of the constituents of the complex much
looser.
This does not mean
that they are
more
easily separable;
human
for the association in normal
experienceis almost,
if not quite,indissoluble.
the tactual experience
But when
is primary,the reinstated
visual experienceis much
more
prominent, more
readily distinguishableand separately
when
than
is the reproduced tactual element
appreciable,
of
have here a case
the visual experienceis primary. We
complicationwhich approaches most closelyto free reproduction.
close our
When
we
we
eyes and touch an object,
distinct picture of the surface
need
indeed
have
not
a
touched.
But the slightest
reflective scrutinyis enough to
that the total impression is complex, containinga
show
visual
cases,
tactual
as
that
or
well
the
even
as
tactual
visual
more
constituent,and
constituent
so.
is
is
as
also, in
prominent as
most
the
PSYCHOLOGY.
94
[BK
i., cii.
n.
Free
(Z")
"
the
apart from,
its
of
follow
has
which
in
Dr.
says
sightof
suit of
sensations
former
all the
actual
discussed
how
to observe
the
perceptionsare
at
later
stage.
tion,
complicais bound
difference,'
the
retain
we
of
and
sightgradually
same
of
now
crusades,and
The
of romance."*4
distinction
of their
nature
the
smoothness
and
changing imagery
and
far
first how
all that
of tournaments,
example, instantly
for
this
fore
there-
when
this
observe
to
its hardness
characteristics of ideas
from
only
polishedarmour,
of
coldness,and then
calls up
ideas, now
through
need
dividual
in-
an
can
In
of
realise
"To
it
supply by
existence
steadily maintains
and
reinstates
so
of A.
"we
Ward,
the
hand,
the existence
with
up
other
the
on
ideas
has
exist
to
important illustration.
and
familiar
of
Trains
and
A,
time, continuing
disappeared.
most
distinct from
own
it.
reinstates
topics which
wrill be
fully
here
It is sufficient to notice
any
event, and
or
(3)
that
not
just
crude
mere
because
an
idea
faint;
sensation,however
from
differs
actual
an
perception,ideal
modified
and
called up
as
in every
Is free revival
take
other
forms
ever
re-instated ?
In
Can
sensational character
*
Ibid.
case
ideal
revival,or
are
particular,
they
without
f Reproduction
be
which
sensations,as
in their
recalled
recurrence
takes
does
of the
the
form
it also
such,
original
appropriate
of
an
idea.
MEXTAL
" 9.]
stimulus
external
This
Broadly speaking, we
of
abnormal
of
may
sensations, as
event.
But
of
certain
sensations
PKOCESS.
the
there
is
important question.
an
affirm
that
such,*
is
95
an
class may
is
the
direct
duction
repro-
exceptionalaii.l
indirect process by which
be re-excited,
although
an
conditions
the
a
muscles, circulation
disturbance
nervous
by
But
external
an
it may
be
of the
may,
blood, secretion,etc.
in the
impression such
afterwards
first
as
instance,bo
wound
or
Such
set up
blow.
less
reproduced by
association without the external impression,
and it may
then
internally
generate organic sensations bearing a marked
to those which
rence.
similarity
accompanied its originaloccurThese
sensations
without
improprietybo said
may
The
to be
reproduced,though in a circuitous manner.
is indirectly
it
re-instated,and
physiologicalstimulus
directlyproduces the sensation.
Tickling is not merely
skin- sensation.
The
skin-sensation
sets
a
changes
up
the
in
central
more
or
system which
nervous
determine
diffused
and
such,
as
By sensation,
liveliness which
acting on
is meant
it possesses
sense-organ.
sensation
when
with
the
produced by
an
peculiarintensify
external stimulus
PSYCHOLOGY.
90
is most
in
specific
the
similar
effect may
be
[BE. I.,
tickled.
experienceof being
induced
actual
without
en.
n.
But
By
contact.
mental
one
reinstates
process
actual re-instatement,we
mental
one
into
process
have
may
favour
may
But
another.
of the
entrance
other
actuallyintroducing it
consciousness,without
of
facilitation.The
mere
the
instead
into
consciousness.
Facilitation
under
assume
may
diverse
many
characteristic
concentrated
conditions.
of attention.
the
on
whatever
sign or
accordingly. Her
forms
many
sick
The
is
it
movement
mind
It
and
in
to
general
place
essential
an
attention
is
notice
pre-disposedto
makes,
is set
is
whose
nurse
child
take
and
take
action
attitude
of
to her from
this
impressions come
This
to a certain
source.
general attitude of response
kind of stimulus may
persisteven when conscious attention
The
who
has itself ceased.
nurse
goes to sleepwith her
concentrated
be
attention
child
is likely to
the
on
awakened
by the slightestcry from it, though more
response
sounds
intense
Under
bring
paper
to whatever
the
a
on
fact
' '
fail to disturb
head
her
repose.
of facilitation due
noticed
by
Forgetfulness.
Mr.
Verdon
'
* '
*Mwd,
'*
to
in
attention
a
Individuals
449.
Q,S. ii.,
very
we
may
interesting
often remember
MENTAL
" 10.]
PROCESS.
97
anatomy
of
general direction
the
ribs instead."
In
other
words,
the
experiences. It makes
more
readily excitable.
depend on direct attention
the
corresponding dispositions
This
seems
only partiallyto
to
to the specialsubject-matter
be remembered.
barrister who
The
keeps in mind for a
week
"the
mysteries of making cog-wheels" does so
through generalinterest in the case which he has in hand,
and not by constantlythinking of cog-wheels. In other
tained
mainare
words, the corresponding mental
dispositions
in an
excitable condition,not so much
by attending
thing
directlyto the subject matter, as by attending to someSo
it.
connected
with
long as the need for
of having something
remembering remains, there is a sense
When
the need
the mind.
no
on
longer exists,
of
a
feeling of relief is experienced, and the power
remembering disappears.
of verse,
If we
learn something by heart, e.g., a page
afterwards so far forgetit as to be unable to recall
we
may
the words
in their proper
learningit anew.
very
The
much
less
But
on
time
originallearningby
Psych.
order.
We
the second
to
do
heart
so
has
may
then
occasion
than
on
set about
take
it may
first.
the
the second.
facilitated
7
PSYCHOLOGY.
98
The
[BK. i.f
of facilitation is well
nature
carried
illustrated
by Professor
words
Printed
variously mis-spelt were
for a period of about
exposed on a screen
The
second.
subject of the experiment was
of
experiments
read
and
often without
most
here
have
We
nothing to
What
mistakes.
of the
word
was
made.
be
The
number
in the
few
very
most
noted
the
before
observed
were
does
interest
latter
was
to
on
rectly,
part incor-
spelling.
frequency
and
seen,
quiteas frequentlyas
between
printedword was
helped the entrance
after the
confirm
us
called out
relation
the
cases,
association
called
wrong
the nature
of
word
cases
shown
In
be
to
noticingthe
do with
one-fifth
so
series
association with
having some
shown
immediately before the exposure
result of this was
always a great increase
overlooked.
of mis-spellings
"In
only a
by callingout
the
did
n.
Pillsbury.*
successively
out
He
words.
off these
in
CH.
In
seen.
the
at other
such
word
times.
was
cases,
the
It seemed
to
impression,and
the
prints
mis-
words
two
of the word.
visual
that
the
then
to
to
give a
the
word
feeling of
confidence
intended."
themselves
Arrest
be
may
one
direction
process
as
"
of her
tends to hinder
it does
Study
in
not
negative side
the
interest.
the
In
occurrence
facilitate their
Apperception,"American
the
on
The
child,is apt
connected
not
certain
of others.
occurrence
are
of facilitation.
of
occurrence
concentrated
impressions which
of another.
than
the
as
facilitates
attention
with
overlook
fir
rather
nurse,
main
word
regarded
Whatever
mental
was
words
of
perception
the
seen
with
to
the
occurrence.
Journal
of Psychology,viii. 3.
MENTAL
"11.]
"11. Habit
attention
they
^Automatism.
and
In
such
automatic,to
go
on
in
engages
crowded
street
that
probably
in
of
itself.
music,
while
absorbed
is
clearest
more
and
or
the
less
What
there
details
is
the
diversion
be
said
of
The
he is
of
examples
those
are
a
person
the
samo
through
be
It should
of attention
musician,
is
for
playing a piece
is not
utterly
walker
he is in
be
to
crowded
street
and
in
is that in such
confidently
and discriminatingattention to
persistent
This
distinction helps us
action.
the
to
can
no
that
aware
absent-minded
motion.
understand
requiring
his way
thought.
absolutelycomplete.
the
action
threads
in
instances
oblivious
cases
"The
conversation,or
such
never
instance,is
of
instances,the
knits,or
noted
at first
action
in which
Actions
"
conditions.
time
99
be
to
come
are
habitual
PROCESS.
another
asserted
of
group
habitual
actions
which
do
not
good
afford
train
instance
to
of
allow
in
himself
thought
contrary, the
point.
while
keenest
The
to
most
be
he is
expert fencer
absorbed
engaged
watchfulness
in
in
is
an
duel.
cannot
irrelevant
On
required.
the
The
is that
PSYCHOLOGY.
100
for
demanded
the
combination
proper
series
of
severallyautomatic,a combination
has to be adjusted to constantlyfluctuatingconditions.
union
of attentive adaptation to relatively
The
with
automatic
stances
circumstances
adaptationto circummore
uniformlyrepeated is found in all ordinary
which,
movements
which
novel
are
volition
volition
in their
are
When
we
will,"we
of
or
the
We
attention.
into
blow
of
out
walking
bodily actions.
to
of will.
have
speak
do not
seen
of
of
that
which
There
candle
towards
"habit
that
of
the
are
thought
course,
that
processes
mean
processes
total process
Of
nature
very
specialtrains
fencing, "automatic
parts
and
thought
attention.
habit
confined
is not
of
habits
to
is automatic."*
blowing
Habit
"
of
n.
also
and
involve
thought" or
specialacts
of
may
a
as
whole
as
component
is very
far from
"
260-261.
f Ibid,p. 262.
MENTAL
" 11.]
make
simply because
puns
Of course
doing1so.
but the general trend
of
than
in other
The
PROCESS.
each
formation
of
is
habit
distinct conditions.
of attention
directions
The
if and
walk.
Let
This
cease,
take
us
at the
the
as
involves
outset
series of contractions
proportionsand
the
aimed
end
in
two
second
which
their
as
the child
end
is
learningto
full attention.
At
"
of intention
of certain
the
only
muscles, in
proper
proper
at, with
far
so
example
an
; the
conation,accordingto
operationof
first is retentiveness
conative
rather
of habit.
involves
of
attained.
in this direction
matter
101
the
maximum
of
rapidityand
of obstruction
and
failure,
certainty,and the minimum
At the outset of the process of
and correspondingeffort.
muscles
contracted which
are
are
superfluous,
acquisition,
and
which
therefore
disturbing conditions.
operate as
Others
and in the
not contracted
at the rightmoment,
are
the effort
that action is deranged. Now
so
rightmeasure,
to attain
the
obstruction
end
is,eo ipso,an
; hence
will
there
effort to
be
avoid
failure
and
tendency
constant
to
alter muscular
ful.
adjustmentsin so far as they are unsuccessHence
arise gradual approximationsto success, and
it is these which
are
permanently retained,while all that
belongs to the process of trial,as such, disappears. In
this
way
fixed
and
organised, which
effort, without
"
It will be
seen
of facilitation.
conation
can
series
uniform
go
trial and
on
of
facilitate
movements
itself without
of habit is
left behind
dispositions
subsequent conation in the
*
is
conscious
failure.*
of
Op. cit.,
pp.
267-268.
example
by previous
an
attainment
of
end.
its
point
the
at
"When
12.
becomes
them
we
are
conscious
When,
be
taken
view
there
from
the
the
is
in
into
with
of
nervous
physiological
and
hand,
other
physiological
place.
it
both
is
Ibid,
p.
in
of
also
view.
as
are
23.
sidering
con-
When
of
trace
of
desire
the
in
are
psychological
psychical
appropriate
psycho-physical disposition."*
*
purely
we
side,
WTien
account,
operation
merely
it
They
Their
pre-condition
call
may
of
point
disposition
regarded
facts.
advantages
many
so
structure.
by
us
conscious
be
may
mode
as
process,
physiological
to
words
as
nervous
as
and
are
we
process,
on
necessary,
such
But
dispositions
consciousness,
exclusively
disposition
of
considering
previous
"
and
revealed
But
evidence.
n.
maintained
view.
correlated
modifications
instance
first
hitherto
of
inter-connexion,
existence,
the
is
point
persistent
en.
reaches
longer
no
using
"
have
we
point
traces
another
from
traces,
general
In
Dispositions.
psychological
psychological
is
I.,
automatic.
and
in
process
facilitation
of
process
endeavour
Physiological
dispositions
strictly
this
conscious
which
action
"
are
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
102
further
disposition.
to
consider
physiological
term
simultaneously
to
speak
to
of
CHAPTER
1.
"
PSYCHOLOGY"
"FACULTY
THE
Introductory. There
of them
obsolete
"
and
the
other
these
pre-suppose
theories
the ways
said
to
two
"
"
But
2.
ASSOCIATIONISM.
general theories of
development of great historical importance. One
the "Faculty Psychology
be pronounced
may
obsolescent.
"
AND
are
"
mental
account
HI.
so
of
obtained
they
as
is
"
least
at
have
far
natural, that
so
Associationism
"
hold
on
the
false,they represent
are
it is worth
such
while
to
give a
critical
of them.
The
be
statingthe
"An
"Faculty Psychology"
"
individual
its cause,
that
law
of which
its
laws
of causation
fact is
is, by
production
Thus
is an instance.
is explained,when
a conflagration
it is proved to have
arisen from
a
spark fallinginto the
in a similar manner,
And
midst of a heap of combustibles.
law
is said to be explained
a
or
uniformity in nature
when
law or laws are pointed out, of which
that
another
law
or
itself is but
deduced."*
Now
two
terms,
own,
product.
by which
Where
"
this
cause
from
of causation
and
effect,antecedent
can
condition
*
and
law
Each
it
case,
of these
be
must
states
process
have
103
and
character
fulfilled there
be
relation between
conceived
definitely
is not
it could
which
540.
and
is
ing
resultof its
described.
no
causal
PSYCHOLOGY.
104
law,
and
explanation
be its
own
cause,
is
and
[BE. I.,
impossible.
An
en.
effect
nr.
not
canown
it is a
fallacy of not infrequent
explanation. But
what
turns
tion
examinato assignas a cause
out on
occurrence
to be
only the effect itself,expressed in different
of the fallacy called
language. This is a specialcase
and it usually consists in adducing
argument in a circle,"
the cause
of a specialfact the generalconceptionunder
as
which
The
classical instance of this
it is comprehended.
confusion
is the replyof Moliere's physicianto the question,
11
Why does opium produce sleep?
Opium," lie answers,
"produces sleepbecause it has a soporific
tendency." It
is to be noted that the fallacydoes not lie in reducing the
assumed
to the general,for this is the form
particular
by
all explanation. The
generalisedeffect (soporific
virtue)
is adduced
the cause
of the specialeffect (the producas
tion
of sleep by opium). But
to explain,we
in order
be
the fact
to
require a generalised relation between
other fact
which
determines
it
some
explained and
Thus, we may
explainwhy a person goes to sleep by his
having taken opium, but not by his possessionof a power
"
"
"
of somnolescence.
In
or
as
real
condition
of the
states
or
processes,
is
it is
evidentlyto explain in a circle,or in other words
failure to explain at all. Thus, it is futile to
mere
a
is due
to Will
say that a particularvoluntary decision
as a faculty. It is equallyfutile to say that extraordinary
PSYCHOLOGY.
FACULTY
" 2.]
105
Reason,
have
that
the
one
certain
statements
a
in
have
man
that certain
or
their
true
processes
in
source
the
their
other
in the
source
processes
Faculty
in lower
of Instinct.
Faculty
animals
It may
be
conscience
scrupleor
twinge
of conscience.*
"
FacultyPsychology
A
take either a positiveor a merely negative form.
may
regarded as an agency or real
facultymay be explicitly
condition, producing its own
specialmanifestation, and
faculties
as
similarlyconceived
interactingwith other
But
such
a
position has
agencies or real conditions.
without
disguiseor equivocation.
rarelybeen maintained
The
What
fallacyof
we
reference
what
has been
find is rather
of this
or
called
tendency
that state
or
* '
to
rest
process
to
satisfied with
a
corresponding
inquiryfurther so as to raise
to
the
a
explanation. Reference
question of causal
faculty,
though it is futile from the point of view of causal
the less have
a
none
good and useful
explanation,may
meaning from another pointof view, that of classification.
kind
of classification is a primary necessityfor
Now
some
faculty without
pushing
the
"
PSYCHOLOGY.
106
that
each
receive
[BK. I.,
arrange
in
CH.
the various
distinct and
in.
and
orderly
appropriatename,
small
achievement.
this is in itself no
Many of the
absorbed
in inquiries
of this
earlier psychologists
were
so
for discussingquestions
that they ignored the need
nature
that
of origin and
development. They tacitlyassumed
of classification. .If they had
the whole
one
problem was
there
held and
expressed this view with full distinctness,
with
would
have
been
a
no
ground for charging them
fallacyof confusion, and the Faculty Psychology could
of reproach. But they were
not be justlyused as a term
by
no
means
completelyclear as to their own
position. They
and
did not fullyrealize that they were
only classifying
not explaining. They would
probablyhave repudiatedthe
charge that they treated faculties as real agencies if the
formulated.
But none
the less,
charge had been distinctly
implied causal
language which
they frequently used
both
between
relation
faculty and special process and
manner,
so
between
different
may
an
"
faculties.
expressionhad a disastrous
of explanationwithout
effect. It created
an
appearance
and in this way
the reality,
seriouslyretarded the progress
the word
of knowledge. For this reason
"faculty" has
almost
psychology. But the
passed out of use in modern
fallacydoes not necessarilydisappear with the word in
often found
which
it has so
are
by no
expression. We
in the present day. It is,
secure
means
againstit even
student
the
to warn
therefore, necessary
against this
peculiarmode of explanationin a circle,and to insist on
the necessity of real explanationby definite conditions,
giving rise to definite results,accordingto a fixed order.
Faculty Psychology is valuable,
" 3. Associationism.
Indulgence in
such
modes
"
of
FACULTY
"3.]
if
at
all, only
ultimate
aim
becomes
what
as
of
PSYCHOLOGY.
scheme
science
of
107
classification.
But
the
is to
James
TIerbart
"Associationism."
is called
in
and
England,
Germany, may
in
be
in
taken
assumption which
mental
can
if and
conditions
so
far
state
parts and
by
of
writers
different
very
of Associationism
to
way
types of it.
as
mental
as
The
is that
product,
as
From
a
Such
consciousness
show
how
As
association.
is to
they
all
its constituent
enumerate
with
to cohere
came
words
are
each
other
together out
put
of
letters of the
In
consciousness
ordinary human
in
occur
rarely if ever
have
all acquired associations,so
embedded
cluster
of
revived
these
elementary
their
that
They
purity.
they
residua
now
sations
sen-
appear
of
previous
experiences. Thus, when an orange is perceived,what is
be only
immediately given in the way of sensation may
yellow colour. According to the theory we are considering,
the perceptionof the orange
or
wholly consists in the more
of past sensations
less complete re-instatement
by the
in
present
sensation.
nucleus
of
cluster
The
present
of revivals.
sensation
The
forms
immediate
the
ocular
PSYCHOLOGY.
108
[KK. i.,
en.
nr.
of the orange
experiencereproducestlie visual appearance
It reproducesthe smell, and
from
other points of view.
of the
the taste, and
the character
as
pulpy contents
touch.
presentedto sightand
It is admitted
only be ascertained by
psychicalcomplex can
ness
laborious investigation
; that the ordinarystates of consciouswhich common
sense
regards as ultimate are reallynot
an
ultimate, but have
origin and development due to
The essential point is that these
psychologicalconditions.
conditions
held to operate only in one
are
specialmanner
;
is the effect which
they
they combine, and their combination
produce. On this theory,causation and compositioncoincide.
" 4. d.ssociationism criticised. "Mental Chemistry" In all
of such
"
psychicaldevelopment
is involved.
tionism.
kind
some
So much
of association
be conceded
may
making
and
the whole
duction
repro-
to associa-
process
merely
of psychical
of other modes
to the exclusion
reproductive,
and not merely reproduced
interaction,
giving rise to new
of nature
causation and comresults. In the generalcourse
position
Conditions
by no
by no means
always coincide.
in their productas its component parts.
means
always persist
form part of
the sculptor's
chisel nor
its movements
Neither
tegral
inThe
fire does not remain
the completed statue.
an
as
part of a burnt house,or a knife as an integralpart of a
The
reduce
all mental
wound.
theory which would
duction
proselfto reproduction,
a
is,therefore,by no means
Its claims to acceptance rest entirely
evident truth.
the
on
it may
verification which
receive from
experience. What
kind
of verification
and
attainable
It would
at
first
is necessary
FACULTY
" 4.]
product.
because
In material
about
compounds
the components
to be
cease
PSYCHOLOGY.
discernible
bo
may
by
109
this may
so
But
senses.
our
be
possible,
intermingledthat they
not
it is the
tinctive
dis-
of the combinations
which
are
peculiarity
brought
by mental association and reproduction,that both
the
It
components and their union exist in consciousness.
would
therefore,that it ought to be as easy to detect
seem,
the
components
of such
compound
as
to
spella
To
exist
word
on
phoneticprinciples.
But
this
conclusion
is
identified
one
is too
thing.
hasty.
To
be
in
discriminated
sciousness
con-
and
is quite another
object of consciousness
thing.
Spoken language is composed of a limited number
of elementary sounds.
But
spoken long
language was
and
before
discovered
these
were
elementary sounds
the sound
representedby an alphabet. So in articulating
of each
letter combined
of the throat, lips,
movements
involved.
The
corresponding
palate are
tongue, and
the
utters
sensations
who
are
experienced by everyone
But
sounds.
they are only discernible by an express
effort of analyticattention.
Most
of us never
notice them
of a musical
is due to its
note
at all. Again, the timbre
fundamental
united
with
are
a
complexity. Overtones
cernible
disrule separately
tone.
These
not
overtones
are
as
a
learn to
But he may
by an unpractisedobserver.
If
discriminate
them
by adopting an appropriatemethod.
is produced by itself and then compared with
a simple tone
of which
it is an
the complex note
overtone, and if this
sufficient frequency,it becomes
is repeated with
process
the overtone
as a separate component
possibleto distinguish
of the complex to which
it belongs.
It is illegitimate
that the constituents of a
to demand
complex mode of consciousness shall be immediatelyobvious
PSYCHOLOGY.
110
[KK. T.,
cu.
ill.
to
not
several
ideas, but
one
; in
prismatic colours
rapid succession,the sensation
the
But
seven
as
in this last
case
the
same
manner
as, when
presented to the
produced is that of
are
it is correct
to
say
that
the
eye
in
white.
seven
another, generate
they rapidly follow one
white, but not that they actuallyare white ; so it appears
that the Complex Idea, formed
to me
by the blending
together of several simpler ones, should, when it really
colours, when
FACULTY
"4.]
PSYCHOLOGY.
Ill
ideas
ascertained
had
from
that
discover
those
shown
visual
in
nor,
frame,
in
which
it is well
perceptioncould
idea
our
which
without
senses,
elementaryideas
muscular
our
such
no
existence;
other
of
have
ever
Extension,
can
of resistance,derived
been
it has
we
from
conclusively
We
care.
of the
while
worth
must
inadequacy of
examine
this statement
that it contains
note
of facts from
the stress
to
the Association
one
of its most
reluctant
with
sion
confes-
theory, wrung
devoted
by
adherents.
Mill
shows
ideas of
his
reluctance
certain
smell,etc.,because
colour,a
we
can
by
the
certain
form, a
certain
our
by interrogating
taste and
ness
conscious-
This is very
perceiveall these elements in the idea."
ask ourtrue that when
selves
we
plausible.For it is certainly
ing
what
an
is,we can only answer
by enumeratorange
such characteristics as those assigned. But the real
*
vol. ii.,
Logic,9th edition,
pp.
441-442.
PSYCHOLOGY.
112
questionat
issue
is
in every
whether
characteristics
quite different.
it for
The
in which
moment
know
and
orange
an
catch
we
orange,
real
m.
question is
sight of an
all these
distinctive
be
actuallypresentedto consciousness.
that the necessity
of such a collective
It will be seen
at once
ever
of our
resurrection
previousexperiencesof oranges, whenobvious.
one
happens to catch our eye, is by no means
No
the
doubt
must
visual
in which
moment
appearance
become
we
bed is
all this to
means
aware
of the
in the
us
object.
But
to
say
means
visual
appearance
current
instead
it
has
been
certain
of
of
one
the
the
orange
will
in
manner
conjoined.
It
determine
will
in
certain
ways
pass
which
and
action,thought, and
feeling,
these experienceswill determine
action, thought, and
as
feeling,if they are actuallypresent or actuallyreproduced
to
in the
extent
form
of ideas.
FACULTY
" 4.]
PSYCHOLOGY.
desertingthe association
that he is modifying1and
doctrine.
He
113
is rather
of
opinion
"
"
the
chemical
combination
be
can
dissolved
so
that
the
It is true that
again exist in a separate form.
the compound has propertieswhich
do not belong to the
components taken separately. But the components do not
for the new
to exist in order to make
cease
properties
way
the generatingfactors in mental
as
chemistrycease to exist
in producinga new
product.It may be said that though they
do not cease
to exist,
they disappearjustas the psychological
factors disappear. But this is equivocation.The
factors is equivalentto
disappearanceof the psychological
of chemical
their non-existence
factors
: the disappearance
certain ways
in which
that there are
merely means
they
The
their presence
to us.
to manifest
cease
analogy
components
between
the chemical
process
and
the
mental, as
the mental
plausiblefrom another
and hydrogen may
In order that oxygen
pointof view.
to form
combine
water
they must first be brought together.
Similarly,
accordingto Mill, the generatingfactors of a new
first be brought togetherin a firmly
mental
product must
each other
cluster before they annul
associated
or
group
this
For
and
give place to something radicallynew.
still
to
have
he appears
imagined that he was
reason,
followingthe lines of the association theory. But in so
thinking he evidentlyfell into a "fallacy of confusion."
What
he affirms is that a preliminary
process of association
and reproduction
precedesthe generationof a new and simple
is that
mode
What
he tacitly
of consciousness.
assumes
is conceived
Psych.
by Mill,appears
more
PSYCHOLOGY.
114
[UK. i.,
of
process
association and
generation itself is
reproduction. But
of
Generation
the
"
thought.
which
that
from
process
"
prepares
fallacyhad alreadybeen
Brown's
Thomas
of
Condillac,as
when
he
has
remains
the
it appears
to me,
the
shown
for
way
it.
Mill
"The
consists in
circumstance
confusion
mere
before
criticism of Condillac.
to
altogetherdistinct
an
pointed out
in.
reducible
somehow
this is
CIT.
The
in
wrote
great
error
supposing that
which
from
any
the
essentially
which
with
the circumstance
same
produced it. Certain
sensations have ceased to exist,certain other feelingshave
feelingsare, therefore,the
immediately arisen ; these new
another
others under
shape. Such is the secret, but very
doctrine."*
false logic,
which
to prevade his whole
seems
He
held
that
mutandis
This
to Mill.
applies mutatis
elements
because
certain grouping of mental
a
precedes
all of
each and
the emergence
of a product distinct from
effect results he has
be
have
than
more
Things
and
"melted
metaphor
which
of
"
this result to be
shown
the
veiy
coalesced
elements
into
themselves
one
another."
"melt
and
coalesce
into
one
another"
hydrogen and
which
unite to form water, persist,
accordingto the
oxygen
of the indestructibility
of matter, in the compound.
principle
It is only because
of their
persistencethat they can
properlybe said to be compounded or to have coalesced.
structibil
But
there
is no
principlecorresponding to the indeof matter
applying to modes of consciousness.
They do not persistin their product,and therefore they do
remain
"
not
We
in existence
melt
and
have
*
after their
coalesce
"
union.
in it.
assumed
provisionally
Philosophyof
The
the Human
Mill's
Jfind,Lecture
theory
xxxiii.
that
the
FACULTY
$4-]
"
"
generation
of
conditions
PSYCHOLOGY.
mode
new
115
of consciousness
be
preceded by
generating factors. But,
must
grouping of the
self-evident
assumption is neither
experience. Mill,at this point,merely
by psychological
associative
an
in
this
reality,
nor
justifiedby
the strength
shows
led him to affirm the Association theory,
of the bias which
in the act of denying it. From
another
even
point of view
of "mental
also, his account
chemistry" is, in the main,
condition entirely
fictitious. He holds that the co-operative
This
disappears in giving rise to something new.
may
happen in certain cases : but it is certainlynot the prevailing
rule, and above all it does not apply to the special
he refers
which
to.
class of cases
Spatial perception,
forms
and modifications,
tactual and visual,in its various
is undoubtedly due to a vast
complexity of co-operative
do
which
conditions
not
appear
in the
But
result.
it is
untrue
that
none
of the
The
and
spatial
motor
of
and
datum
not
derivative
a
experiences is indeed
It belongs to them, at least in the
primary sensation.
of human
case
beings, only in virtue of their previous
with other specific
in specific
combination
experiences,
ways
ocular
None
the less, the
tactile,motor, and visual.
and magnitude does not float
form
perceptionof extended
loose in detachment
to
is
its
origin.
played by
become
endowed
all the
from
For
among
these
the
visual
and
with
contributed
factors which
factors
motor
an
essential
part
sensations, which
spatialcharacter
as
the
result
PSYCHOLOGY.
116
the
of
them.
of
has,
profoundly
What
denial,
is
the
the
course
all
them
an
is
true
express
only
so
modified
or
principle
of
is
mental
that
that
not
rather
with
the
CH.
m.
d,
c,
e,
recognition
all
of
one
others,
it
whenever
I,
from
that
I.,
a,
beyond
disparate
quite
interaction
through
in
is
disappear
happens
modification,
peculiar
in
conditions,
What
conditions
happens
behind
leave
and
What
process.
antecedent
the
[BK.
or
any
these
acquired
it
recurs,
recurs
form.
doctrine
the
implied,
of
that
fundamental
development.
of
mental
chemistry
reproduction
importance
by
is
the
association
controlling
BOOK
II,
SENSATION.
CHAPTER
DEFINITION-
"
of
Sensation
1.
what
we
production. It is
stimulus
is always
OF
SENSATION.
Stimulus.
and
agree
I.
"
One
in
is
calling sensation
caused
by what we call a
condition,external
some
mark
characteristic
its mode
of
stimulus.
to the
nervous
case
modes
in
the
within
stimulus
tickling.We
of stimulation
nature,
the
dependence
to the
acting on
and
have
peripheral organs
also to count
some
conceptionof
in
the
the various
among
distribution
brain, leading
on
as
kind
to
117
the
blood-supply
hallucinations.
of external
sensation.
of
condition
Causal
is essential
PSYCHOLOGY.
1 18
It is above
[BE;,n.
CH.
i.
all
the cause
thingsimportant to distinguish
of sensation
from the object of sense-perception.A man
examining a material thing present to his senses
may
successivelyor simultaneouslysee it, feel it,weigh it in
his hand, hear the sound
it makes, smell it,and
taste it.
In so doing he perceivesits sensible qualities,
such
as
He
does so
colour,hardness, weight, odour, and flavour.
by
of the sensations
means
the
varying
object. But
relations
the
sensible
identical with
means
of
the
which
produced in him by
his sensitive
organism to the
qualitiesperceived are by no
cause
particlesof
chemical
so
to
or
of sensation.
The
colour-
vibratorymotion of the
the luminiferous
ether, giving rise to certain
physicalchanges in the organ of vision,and
certain
system.
nervous
are
modification
But
these
to
of
connected
conditions
are
parts
not
what
of
a
the
man
when
he
SEXSATIOX
" 2.]
Thus
the
changes in
by
system,
constitute
" 2.
for
one
case
the
of
sensation
be
If
of
and
the
nervous
I have
grass,
I have
the
is that
The
difference
way
in which
of white
and
can
only be
my
eye
the
tion
sensa-
psychologicalreason
why
in
the
accounted
is affected
the
light. So in all cases
for by
ultimatelyaccounted
by
qualitiesof
reference
to
the stimulus.
actuallysee grass
picturesof them in my
greenness
subsequent
of the sensation.
at
at snow,
I do not
mental
the
affect
If I look
"
the sensation
different kinds
the nature
and
changes
assign no
can
different
must
of sense,
If I look
that of green.
by
119
of green.
of white.
other
these
Sensory Elements.
sensation
in the
the organ
which
processes
DEFINED.
whiteness
are
or
mind's
present
but
summon
up
of
eye, the qualities
snow,
mental
in my
image
these
they are present in actual perception. Now
would
not be present in the mental
image unless
qualities
they had been previouslyproduced by the operationof an
as
external
stimulus.
apply the
term
For
sensation
this reason,
to these
some
waiters
qualitieseven
when
would
they
perception
and in the mental
image they defy psychologicalanalysis,
for only by reference to
and
be ultimately accounted
can
There
external
stimulation.
is,however, an objectionto
sensation
to both
indifferently.
cases
applying the word
both
in the perceptionand in
Though greenness
appears
the mental
image of grass, it appears in a different manner
The
in each
instance.
present operationof the external
stimulus
steadiness,and other
gives it peculiarintensity,
do not belong to it in the
distinctive characters,which
mental
image. It is better to restrict the term sensation to
which
the specialform
of consciousness
accompanies the
of sensation
The qualities
actual operationof the stimulus.
appear
in the
mental
image.
Both
in
actual
PSYCHOLOGY.
120
as
they
appear
elements,but
that
their
in mental
imagery
sensations.
not
[BK. n.,
The
accounted
reference
to
that
existence
an
external
their
stimulus.
existence
psychologically
only be explainedby
The
word
the
pre-supposes
not
follow
from
formulate
it
?
seems
on
this that
cognitivefunction.
separately considered
is based
previous
of
exist without
which
dicates
in-
sensory
"
sensation
indicates
be
correspondingsensations.
In
Sensation.
denning sensation
" 3. Mere
disregarded the cognitivefunction which it may
constituent
element
in the perceptionof
as
a
It does
I.
called sensory
elements
term
cannot
peculiar nature
for, that ultimatelyit can
"
be
may
CH.
as
We
to
the
stimulus
without
this is
may
follows
owe
its
on
Is
to
fact
This
there
such
within
We
thing
Stumpf
question in
that
is
discharge
an
object.
can
actually
questionto be
merits.
own
Professor
settle this
sensation
have
we
may
as
mere
argument
an
the affirmative.
limits
we
can
vary
It
a
be
demonstrated
as
follows.
We
may
vary
musical
DEFINED.
SENSATION
" 3.]
121
were
with
P3, and P3
with
Pn,
with
it would
and
should
difference
P4, and
on, then
so
arise.
The
be identical
must
impossibletha.t
be
ever
Pl
perceptible
any
argument
same
be
may
to
increments.
difference
to
successive
If
these
his
sensation,the
to him
weight would be all the same
produced by an ounce.
merit of Stumpf's argument lies
The
may
be
brought
It is easy
coincidence
which
into
form
out
that
show
to
by
between
"At
the
appeal to common
there is by no
means
the
existence
this moment
the sensation
in the
an
They may
cognitivefunction.
for perceptual consciousness,
utilized.
as
But
it is thrown.
no
produced by
sensation
stone
cogent
made
increments
and
exact
point
experience.
a
complete
same
of sensations
and
their
possiblematerial
without
being actually
logical
am
thinking about psychoexist
as
of
time a multitude
topics. I receive at the same
diversified impressions from
surrounding things which
certainlyenter into my total experience. But if I refer
them
to an
object at all,I do so in a very indeterminate
discrimination
is very far from keeping
My perceptual
way.
pace
with
the
differentiation
of the
sensory
AnalyticPsychology,vol. i.,
p.
48.
is
data
as
well-lighted,
But, with, my
PSYCHOLOGY.
122
[BK. n.,
en.
i.
sound.*
" 4.
Sensation
as
sation
CognitiveState distinguished
from Senledge,
must
CognisedObject. We
distinguishthe knowas
"
which
of
knowledge
which
It
that
is true
knowledge of
know
by means
We
sensations
has
for its
without
them
but
the
are
vehicle, from
object sensations
the
sensations
it is not
of sensations
true
we
themselves.
can
that
have
whatever
knowledge of
what
distinguishbetween
must
the
is
these
a
no
we
sations.
sen-
sense-
It is the
business
*
of the
artist to
attend
to
these
SENSATION
I 4.]
and
other
differences
them
in his
effect
an
of colour
in
visual
123
sensation,and
in this way
pictures. Only
artistic illusion.
and
DEFINED.
He
must
is he
reproduce
enabled
to
reproduce differences
of
attribute
different
As
common
relations
to
into
both.
which
The
difference
it enters
in the
lies in the
two
cases.
"
PSYCHOLOGY.
124
physical
the
thing.
The
alone
illumination
and
like
he,
the
Sensations,
we
they
the
attend
are
process
to
by
them
which
the
in
such,
of
attention
objects,
objects
are
the
only
cognised.
and
not
in
the
them.
objects
way.
I.
logist,
psycho-
psychical
become
CH.
importance,
upon
are
but
n.,
same,
and
primary
introspective
an
for
sensation,
therefore,
as
the
as
But
are
fix
must
states,
themselves
not
in
such,
as
regarded
varying.
variations
artist,
psychical
These
is
these
object,
is
as
interest
whose
physical
colour
[BK.
states.
only
when
Otherwise
constituents
of
CHAPTEE
SEXSATIOX-llEFLEX.
THE
"
1. As
PhysiologicalReflex.
distinguishedfrom
define
may
II.
reflexact"
says
"
Dr. Waller,
"We
the immediate
"as
in
occurs
stimulus
the
the
is
leg
thus
jerked
irritate with
we
is
it
away
in
comes
it
hot
this happens,
plate; when
again. On being again irritated,it
away
and
when
it is
more
once
in
conies
again withdrawn;
is
contact
and
so
or
of
the
mucous
cough
either
*IInman
acetic acid
is
once
with
membrane.
125
jerked back
more
jerked
the hot plate,
may
go
acts, due
reflex
But
294.
with
on
being accompanied
by any conspicuous
unconsciously
Physiology,p.
contact
the process
fatigueare reached.
be performed without
of
the
hemispheres have
By using
jerked away.
be arranged that whenever
it may
apparatus
when
cerebral
whose
leg
whenever
manner
is discontinued
If
operate.
frog
removed,
suitable
the
to
of
inevitable
and
repeated, and
is
ceases
thigh
been
a
invariable
an
stimulus
the
to
response
the
is on
a
or
person
to
may
consciously.
PSYCHOLOGY.
126
the
Perhaps
but
other
of
hand
the
with
is sometimes
membrane
described
as
consciousness
There
is
The
and
for
is violent.
Now
conditions
sensational
the
on
the
irritation
those
reflex
which
described
as
believingthat
the
take
place
sensational.
physiological
other than
those which
primitiveform of mental
is distinctly
recognisable. If,then, we fix the
the physiological
under
which
passes into the
under
reflex,we
thereby fix the conditions
mental
conditions
be
through nerve-fibres
sensation-reflex
life which
which
when
keen,
physiological
; those
may
reason
no
reflex is effected
convey
consciousness
as
very
n.
complete ;
not
case
CF.
be
may
The
nearly so.
very
mucous
actions
is in any
unconsciousness
it is often
[BK. n.,
appear
to
be
in
two-fold.
definite
In
the
form.
first
These
place,the
modifications,the
constriction
and
dilatation
of the
SENSATION-REFLEX.
" 1.]
127
blood-vessels,breathing1,
swallowing,the secretion of saliva,
and
the
like,are
not
appreciablesensations.
because, in all probability,
they
to determine
the
do
in their
contribute
totality
of consciousness
state
as
whole,
whole
be
can
we
of
abdominal
our
of the loss
aware
viscera
as
Foster
removed,
were
change
in
our
commoYi
should
we
general
or
when
combination
specialemergency,
disengage itself from
the
of movements
to
meet
mass
consciousness.
intense
more
stimulus
prompts
is of
special
concomitant
the vague
and
experience may
salient in
of general sentience and become
The
more
specialthe occasion, and the
does the
the stimulation,the more
definitely
sensation-reflex
stand
out
in
its
own
proper
character
as
reflex.
from
the physiological
Coughing is
distinguished
and then, when
act requiredonly now
an
irritatingmatter
Hence
in waking life
happens to be lodged in the throat.
it is
when
usually a sensation-reflex,
much
too
intense
when
pre-occupied,or
enough
to counteract
the mind
even
the
is not
irritation
of
act
is
strong pre-occupation.
wise
other-
routine
of
of
things
separatelyappreciableexperience. But
tickle
if we
touch the back of the tongue with a finger,
or
it with a feather, this is an interruption
of routine requiring
a
specialadjustment adapted to the specialemergency,
accompanied by
which
cannot
*
be made
Text-Book
without
well-marked
of Physiology,book
modification
PSYCHOLOGY.
128
if any
or
difficulty
it at
process,
en,
n,
of consciousness.
but
[BK. n.,
obstruction
becomes
once
;*
in the
occurs
and
accompanied
respiratory
prompted by
painfulsensations.
On
the
second
mind
the
need
not
point we
pre-occupied,we
is much
otherwise
reflex where
As
reflex.
mental
pre-occupationwe
the heat
most
of the battle is
concerns
may
unaware
is the
us
fact
have
refer to the
of
that
logical
physio-
had
soldier
who
being wounded.
at
in
What
levels
lower
the
sational
sen-
effect of
of the
example
extreme
an
Where
have
may
should
we
much.
say
of
follow the
and
existence
mere
of
sensation
as
an
isolated
transient
not prompted
are
experience; the movements
and guided by any meaning which the sensation may
convey.
Where
is determined
movement
by what the recognised
qualityof the sensation pointsto, by what it giveswarning
not
of,the reaction is to that extent perceptualor ideational,
The distinction may
be illustrated by
merely sensational.
the difference between
sneezing and repressinga sneeze.
The
follows
sneeze
is
This
existence
This
sensation
of the
that
-reflex.
feelingof
the
It
irritation.
mucous
arises
On
from
membrane.
the
mere
of
means
sentience
the
in
SENS'ATION-KEFLEX.
" 2.]
repressionof
head
inconvenient
an
similar
aside,or
of
the
turningof the
at least
are
precaution,
sneeze,
measures
129
or
at the moment.
"What
determines
his conduct
is the
possesses, it prompts to a
the repression
of the sneeze.
In this case,
sensational
certain
line of
impulsecomes
action,such
as
into conflictwith
"
we
have
Psych.
apparentlya
"
sensory
reaction
uncontrolled
9
by
PSYCHOLOGY.
130
[BK. n.,
en.
n.
The
perceptual consciousness.
brightness of the flame
in its direction.
produces an immediate
sense-impulseto move
But the light-sensation
is not correlated with other
experiences; it does not acquirea warning significance.
From
the biological
point of view, the action requiredin
response
life and
to
stimulus
is
which
one
well-being of
to maintain
serves
the
the
In
far
so
as
In
response.
so
far
On
the
nature
and
the reaction
so
other
may
give
is
hand,
impress
rise to
as
the
"
attitude
prospective
of
mind,
state
of
expectant attention
SENSATION-REFLEX.
" 3.]
and
131
"
"
toward."
fundamentally
their contrast
or
Appetition and
antithetic
is
striving aspect
directions
contrast
of
which
are
the
of
psychicalactivity;
belongs to the conative
consciousness.
the fundamental
aversion
antithetic
Pleasure
modes
and
of
pleasure
dis-
feelingTheir
tone.
is a contrast
contrast
which
belongs to the
hedonic
In the purely sensory
aspect of consciousness.
impulse,appetitionalways actuallycoincides with pleasure,
are
PSYCHOLOGY.
132
and
aversion
[BK. n.,
always actuallycoincides
"with
en.
pain.
n.
At
between
higher levels of psychicallife,the coincidence
and between
tone of feeling,
positiveconation and positive
negative conation and negative tone of feelingis by no
means
complete. After a fashion,the sensation-reflex may
be described
it has a conative
as
as
an
activityinasmuch
But
the
of appetitionor
aversion.
aspect in the way
involved
is of a rudimentary and primitivekind,
activity
just as the process itself is of a rudimentary and primitive
kind.
The
sensation-reflex
consists in a single simultaneous
with perceptual
act ; in this respectit is contrasted
and usually does, combine
a series of
may,
process, which
distinct and successive acts in the unity of a singleaction
directed towards
a singleend.
Thus, in the case of perceptual
we
activity,
speak of progress towards an end,
may
which
in its
not be interruptedor obstructed
or
may
may
In the
course.
the word
case
of the
on
sensation-reflex,
the contrary,
even
We
in
may
"
we
miss
it.
describe
briefly
sensation-reflex
equilibriumof
the
as
the
physiological
process involved
follows.
stimulus
disturbs
The
the
subsequent process
consists in the recovery of nervous
equilibrium. When
this is accomplishedthe end of the whole activity
is attained,
To put it simply,the excitement
and it ceases.
is allayed.
The tendency to equilibrium is the physiological
correlate
of what on the psychicalside we call conation, the striving
nervous
system.
"
SENSATION-
"4.]
REFLEX.
But
aspect of consciousness.
the
133
system
nervous
may
It may
be that
regain its balance in two oppositeways.
it can
only do so by removal of the stimulation which starts
On the other hand, it may happen that
the whole process.
of the stimulation
for a longer or shorter
the continuance
of the reattainment
of equitime is a positivecondition
librium.
In the first case, we
have
pain and aversion ; in
the second, pleasure and appetition. As a rule,the more
important is the perceptualfunction of a sensation,the less
and the more
it approximates
emphatic is its feeling-tone,
concerned
in merely sensory reaction,
to a mere
sensation
the more
emphatic is its feeling-tone.
same
" 4. Relative Purity of Sensation- Reflex. The
existence
sensation
as
a
by its mere
momentary
may,
experience,issue or tend to issue in a certain movement,
and at the same
time it may
also determine
action by its
mingle with the
significance.Thus the perceptual may
sensational impulse, so that in practiceit may
sometimes
"
be difficult to draw
of consciousness
degrees.*
other.
the
The
In
blend
in
intricate
general,they
lower
we
them.
bear
descend
ways
The
and
inverse
an
in the
modes
two
in
ratio
varying
to
each
scale of animal
life,
more
This
appliesalmost, if
consciousness.
adult
human
The
beings
if it
pain,especially
for it beforehand.
nearest
is the
occurs
not
quite,universallyto
approach
to
the
reaction
which
suddenly
without
pure
the
developed
sensation-reflex
accompanies
the
human
intense
in
bodily
subjectbeing prepared,
CHAPTEE
DIFFERENTIATION
OF
HI.
PSYCHICAL
ITS
SIGNIFICANCE.
and Integration.The
" 1. Differentiation
"
AND
SENSE-EXPERIENCE,
the
life,
lower
we
descend
important is sensation ;
the higher we
mount, the more
important is perception,
in other words, the intrinsic intensityand feeling-toneof
for less; its meaning counts
for more.
sensation
counts
reaction
The
the
which
maintenance
to the
it sets
or
attainment
more
is directed
up
removal
of the
of remoter
not
present
much
so
stimulation
to
as
ends.
This
sensation
is connected
discriminated
produced.
more
With
definite restriction.
sensations
are, the
co-existingsimultaneouslyin
mutual
Dr.
says
that
"
interference
Ward,
except
as
"are
the
regards the
more
delicately
capable they are of
same
consciousness
more
amalgamation.
or
with
The
us
drain
134
so
distinct
upon
out
with-
"Colours,"
from
attention
"
sounds
there
is
SENSE-DIFFERENTIATION.
" 2.]
135
violet;"*
Thus
to be
intimatelyconnected
With
differentiation
of the
and
and
"
increased
with
differentiation
increased
restriction there
seems
'restriction.'
"f
tensity
is loss of the in-
intrinsic
pleasantnessor painfulnessof
itself. The
the sensation
intensityand feeling-toneof
need
the
to
sensation
be
strongly emphasised, where
existence
of the
reaction
depends directlyon the mere
In so far as the reaction depends on
sensation,as such.
the meaning of the sensation,and not on its mere
existence,
the importantpoint is that its special
spond
qualityshould correaccuratelyto the specialquality of the stimulus.
intrinsic intensity
Any direct effect produced by its own
would
interfere with its value as a vehicle
and feeling-tone
indication of something beyond its own
of meaning
as
an
becomes
existence.
Thus, as perceptual consciousness
relativelymore
prominent and important, sensation is
more
more
restricted,
definitely
delicatelydifferentiated,
of pleasure
less intense,and less stronglytoned in the way
"
or
pain.
native
of Sense- Organs. Degree of discrimi" 2. Differentiation
sensibilitycorresponds broadly to the complexity
"
and
differentiation
*
Article
Ibid.
"
of the
organs
of
sense.
If the
Psychology,"Encyclop.Brit.,ninth ed.,part
nerve-
xx., p. 46.
PSYCHOLOGY.
136
[BK. n.,
CH.
in.
fibres
"
and
be the stimulus
at
weak
affection
all,the
examination
that
takes
of the
called
be
can
strong, if consciousness
or
the
on
result
subjective
sensation
form
of
be affected
of
pain; logical
psychodiscloses nothing
touch.
"*
sensations,delicatelydifferentiated
Touch-
or
they are,
neutral in tone, and capable of combining in
and almost
of consciousness
moment
a
one
great varietyof qualitative
can
differences,
only be developed by the help of special
terminal
But cutaneous
and
all
pain-sensations,
organs.
and stronglyorganicsensations which are vague, diffusive,
the help of specially
differentiated
toned, arise without
end-organs. Now, in the ascending scale of animal life,
of the
find a growing complexity and
differentiation
we
pressure-
terminal
of
organs
and
sense
of
their
as
nervous
nexions,
con-
marking a correspondingly
graduated displacement
of sensational by perceptualconsciousness.
In followingthe ascending scale of animal
find a
we
life,
for the reception
structures
gradual evolution of specialised
of external
of specialkinds
stimulation ; beginning with
those which are
from
the general
scarcelydistinguishable
surface of the body, and ending with such elaborate organs
as
the human
from
eye
sight,because
understood
that
or
The
ear.
most
best
is known
illustration
about
it.
is drawn
It must
be
the word
is the
case
with
*
earth-worms
Foster,Text-Book
and
newts.
"It
of Physiology,
p. 1427.
is easy
to
SENSE-DIFFERENTIATION.
" 2.]
whose
are
more
or
in
unpigmented animals
the light
semi-transparent,
though it
system even
"that
less
137
might
act
of the
earth-worm
visual
the
"We
experience
rather
must
generalorganicdiscomfort.
The
most
rudimentary beginning of a specialstructure
consists simply in
for the receptionof light-stimulation
connexion.
of pigmented cells with
a
nervous
groups
The
pigmented material occurring in a semi-transparent
the
limpet
light. The
organism arrests and absorbs
side
the outer
has
eye-spots of this simple kind "on
suppose
it to be
of
tentacles
the
kind
sensation.
called vision."*
of
where
the
eyes
are
situated
in
more
into a
"f The skin is thrown
highly organised species,
pit within which the epithelialcells are elongatedand
pigmented.
The next step is the development of a lens for condensing
of a burning-glass. Some
the lightin the manner
species
others have a concenhave only pigmented cells,
of worms
trating
simple eye-spots, consistingof
apparatus. These
pigmented cells and a vitreous body or condensing lens,
the general surface of
exist in great numbers
over
may
called "Polyin a speciesof worm
the organism. Thus
ophthalmians there is a series of eye-spots "along the
sides
of the
body, in pairs from the seventh to the
eighteenthsegments."J Such rudimentary organs can only
nation,
sensitive to degree of illumithe creature
to render
serve
to the transition from
lightto darkness ; they thus
"
reaction when
possiblea protective
approaching objectfalls on the animal.
make
The
Senses
J Op. cit.,
p.
of Animals,p.
134.
207.
the shadow
fLubbockj
"P-
cit-"
?"
of
139"
an
PSYCHOLOGY.
138
The
[BK.n.,
CH.
in.
mentary
important step is the development of a rudiretina,essentially
consistingin a layerof rod-like
nerve-endings. The eye of the snail is situated on its hinder
horn
next
It consists
tentacle.
or
of
cornea
transparent
or
does
eye
distinguishbetween
be
to
of
aware
little
the
merely render
directions
an
these
its tentacle."*
the animal
the
is
The
the
does
In
all
animals
many
formation
of
an
seem
within
of the retina
rods
in
snail to
not
brought
sensitive
differentially
light.
retinal rods
"It
terminates
optic nerve
of the
enable
lightand dark."
object unless it
quarter-of-an-inchof
in which
than
more
probability
to different
which
in
image
possess
any
way
few
as
individuals
twelve.
as
of the
growing
the
by
Onchidium
minute
warned
out
by
of the
shower
next
*
and
contains
pore ; and
the
shadow
to prey
sea
of spray
The
same
and
so
The
number
differs in different
tinually
species,and the eyes "are conbeing reabsorbed."f The back of
number
of glands,each opening
a
it has been
suggested that when
which
of certain flying-fish
come
them, the little slugs emit a
upon
drive
stage in the
development
of
the
eye
293.
is the
" 2.]
SENSE-D.IFFERENTIATIOX.
formation
of
than
three
or
have
very
often
seen," says
139
retinal
of a lens ; it is
image by means
for this that each diverging pencilof
necessary
rays from
a point in the
objectshall be brought again to a focus in
one
point, and in only one
point, of the retina. The
delicacyand perfectionwith which this is effected depends
the complexityof structure
of the retina,on
on
the nature
of the lens,and on
the power
of adjustingit for different
distances.
Cuttle-fish and their allies have well-developed
apparatus for the formation of images. So have vertebrate
in varying degrees. Many fishes
animals, but of course
do not distinguish
their food (worms) at a greater distance
a
four feet.
On
vision
accurate
Mr.
the other
for
short
"
hand,
of them
some
distances.
"
have
search the
largeWrasse
sand
for shrimps, turning sideways, and
looking with
either eye independently,
like a chameleon.
Its view is so
the
see
a
good that it can
shrimp with certaintywhen
whole
body is buried in grey sand, exceptingthe antennae
and antennae
and amphibians have
plates."* Some reptiles
similar
main
this
leads
which
organ
of vision
accuracy
Besides
Bateson,
at short
line
of
the
to
up
distances.
development
eye
of
of
the
visual
vertebrates,with
its
of a lens
forming a distinct image by means
sensitive retina,there is a branch
and delicately
line which
leads to the compound or facetted eye of insects and of
apparatus
Crustacea
for
such
compound
hexagonal
areas,
stated to have
Beneath
towards
*
each
the
and
lobsters.
is divided
eyes
insects
some
crabs
as
twenty
facet
facet
into
little lens.
thousand
is
and
kind
of these
Animal
turned
of
in
dragon-flyis
hexagonal facets.
crystalline
cone,
its apex
is
surface of these
great number
called a facet,and
up
of which
each
forms
The
of
with
inwards,
its base
where
it
PSYCHOLOGY.
HO
in
ends
is
nerve-rod.
lens
and
by
and
eye-spots,
cells
separate
crystalline
these
But
dispute.
the
taken
office
same
of
rays
affect
cone
as
cones
spot
view,
light
and
with
form
higher
such
must
the
to
All
that
"
eyes
be
is
far
its
from
coming
eye
point
stippled
much
the
by
The
only.
accurate
and
and
vertebrates.
*
Op.
cit., p.
290,
the
that
way
Only
vertebrates.
through
each
in
is
result
the
image
distinct
field
what
vision
which
than
of
Lloyd
of
range
of
minute
single
point
the
strike
Thus,
a
the
crystalline
which
rest
The
image."*
much
different
pigment.
single
which
been
nerve-rod
own
smaller,
less
of
straight
go
absorbed
are
from
calls
Morgan
in
nerve-rod.
the
conveys
of
lens
which
light
obliquely
cones
the
single
in
out
in
the
way
has
fulfil
such
while
form
made
of
pound
com-
of
lenses,
there
collectively
the
at
to
clearly
there
consisting
eye
the
in.
each
number
of
function,
these
arrive
regards
pretty
now
of
en.
round
coalesced
As
n.,
of
form
number
lens
their
is
organs
those
the
it
developed
midst
should
the
rod."
perform
is
we
each
and
the
together
increasing
beneath
in
simple
bringing
cone
eyes
facetted
from
nerve-fibre,
eye
pigment
Starting
cones.
cells
Dark
"
the
of
elongated
great
[BK.
they
in
the
CHAPTEE
IV.
LIGHT-SEXSATIOM".
1.
"
Introductory.Having
given
"
the nature
of
of the
sensation,and
general
sense-reaction,we
to the
of visual
nature
of this
with
At
sensation.
of
part
we
differences
call
In
other
intermediate
"
is
medium
purposes,
the
of the
undulating
diffused
we
end,
and
As
the
of
course
only
may
which
waves
jerked
words,
called
"
of
movement
ment
treat-
to
deal
consciousness.
the
to
deal
colour-
with
the
Physicallyconsidered,light
the particles
of a generally
luminiferous
ether.
along
pass
up
and
the material
form
have
we
neutral
Stimulus.
traverses
wave
spatial
peculiar
greys.
2. Nature
an
of
fications
peculiarmodispecifically
corresponding to
the physicalstimulus
which
we
of
know
we
come
we
with
now
postpone
sensational
from
concerned
nature
shall
we
subject,until
consciousness
in the
light.
only
are
of
the
distinct
perceptual as
present
But
of
account
of movement
rope,
down
the rope,
by
what
of
particles
which
141
hand
at
travels
the rope
at
one
other.
the
along
our
by
movement
it is fixed
when
the
For
it is not
themselves, but
is transmitted
from
one
PSYCHOLOGY.
142
[BK n.,
The hand
to another.
particles
quicklyit moves,
quickly; the more
In the undulating1movement
set of
less
move
may
en.
more
the shorter
are
iv.
or
the
the
particlesof the
and then fall beneath
their position
rope first rise above
the rope is -at rest.
of equilibriumwhen
They rise to a
The
is
length of the wave
crest,and sink into a hollow.
the point at which
this
measured
by the distance between
it terminates.
movement
begins and the point at which
waves.
Longer
shorter
traverse
waves
hence
ones;
repeatedin
the
as
due
to
time
rope
shorter
same
wave
time.
it takes
in
the
same
must
be
Thus
the
time
more
shorter
as
quently
frethe
wave
shorter
the
the
combination
impulses would
of the
to
waves
which
the
separate
severallyproduce.
Thus we
three characteristics of an undulating
can
distinguish
movement:
(1) wave-length, (2) amplitude, (3)
of light,each of
simplicityor complexity. In the case
characters
these
of the physical undulation
is specially
connected
with a correspondingcharacteristic of visual sensation.
Differences
of wave-length
connected
are
specially
LIGHT-
" 2.]
with
differences
143
of
other than
those which
colour-quality
by degrees of paleness or darkness, viz.
constituted
are
SENSATION.
less resemblance
black.
Colourto white
or
or
by more
is called colour-tone.
For
quality in this restricted sense
yellow and green, or
example, the difference between
between
yellow-green and a still yellower green, is a
The
difference between
difference of colour- tone.
yellow
and
yellowish-brownis difference in saturation due to a
the
amplitude of
darkening of the
yellow. The
with
is speciallyconnected
the
wave
intensityof the
sensation.
Any specificcolour-tone, such as green or
red, produced by light of a certain wave-length, may
be
made
brighter or less bright by increasing or
diminishing the intensityof the light,viz. the amplitude
become
ation
It may
of the vibration.
brighter without alterof
colour-tone.
its
If
have
we
series of greys
wave
purity of
seen,
compare
another
the
correspondingcolour.
the
intensityor
brightness:
in
free it is from
It must
we
It
we
grey,
any
pure
also
admixture
we
as
wThite in
it in
grey
The
or
the
of grey,
the
it
more
is,and
it
have
resembles
green
green.
or
respect of
compare
greenish
apparent
saturation
can,
far the
be
apparently a
AVe
can
how
may
degreeof
or
grey
but
ask
can
quality.
greyish green, or
approximates to
saturated
with
green
respect :
grey
is called the
what
more
more
it is.
not
be
supposed
that
colour-tone
is determined
PSYCHOLOGY.
U4
degree of
[BK.
n.,
CH.
iv.
solelyby complexity. It is
only within certain limits that the physical intensity
be
varied
without
of light can
affectingcolour-tone.
in
the
Variation
intensityof the light also affects
makes
the
colour
saturation; increase
whiter, and
makes
it darker.
decrease
mines
Wave-length not only detercolour-tone,but also helps to determine
ness.
brightSome
colour-tones
are
brighter than others,even
and
the
though
saturation
of vibration
is
determining colour-tone.
produced by simple waves
waves
also, though in
White
all
of
grey
or
is
physical stimulus
results
The
same
be
can
less
from
indeed
colours
in
which
are
produced by complex
pure
saturated
or
combination
plexity
Com-
intense.
important factor
very
less
form.
of
lights
various
other
binations.
comwave-lengths,and also from
In
ordinary daylight,all wave-lengths are
combined.
" 3.
camera
Structure
or
dark
that which
part, and
a
a
must
"
chamber
of notable
size exists
curtain
at
whole
it
similar
lens in the
the back
to
fore
When
the
he sees
on
photographerlooks in at the back of his camera,
he wishes
the ground glassplatethe image depictedwhich
delineated
to photograph,placed upside down, but faithfully
in all its colours ; and such an
inverted landscape is
formed
in like
eyeballs. And
his
instrument
screwing it nearer
the focus
of the
of
our
in the
manner
as
the
by
or
eye
back
part
of each
further
from
the screen,
instinctively
accordingto
objectlooked at,not
indeed
so
of
focus
the
we
the
our
of
lens,
adjust
distance
by changingthe position
LIGHT-
" 4.]
SENSATION".
its form
by altering
required."*1
weaker
or
as
sensitive curtain
The
is
there
respects by
retina,and
Near
it,on
the
to make
it stronger
retina; in its
centre
far
the
discriminative
most
part of
the
and
the blind
it alone
spot.
retina
The
is called
as
spot, from
eye,
so
circular
pitand
This
145
essential
is
an
constituents
expansion
are
of
certain
the
Its
opticnerve.
cells
minute
of
two
kinds, called
and
The
rods
cones.
yellow
respectively
closelypacked together. In
spot consists mainly of cones
other parts the rods predominate. The
number
of cones
decreases from the yellow spot to the margin of the retina.
must
of Light-Sensations. We
" 4. Descriptive
^Analysis
neutral
tints and
colours
distinguishbetween
proper.
"
Neutral
tints consist
with
Starting
greys.
of black
pure
and
black,we
white
can
and
intermediate
arrange
the greys
in
series,so
as
to pass
identical.
The
of
about
700 shades
capable of distinguishing
brilliant
the deepest black
to the most
should be noted that though black is not due
eye is
grey, from
white.
It
*
Psych.
10
PSYCHOLOGY.
146
[BK. n.,
CH.
iv.
to
does
involve
not
Differences
excitation
of
of retinal elements
colour-tone, apart
from
at all.
differences
of
in the order in
best studied
are
intensity,
in the spectrum. The spectrum is formed
which
they occur
by passing ordinarywhite lightthrough a prism, and so
and projecting
breaking it up into its component simplelights,
The simple components of the white
these on a screen.
lengths.
lightare then arranged in a series in the order of their waveAt one
end are the longestwave-lengths,giving
the sensation
of red, at the other the shortest,giving the
tween
sensation
of violet,viz. a blue
tinged with red. Bethe red end and the violet end are interposedall the
various
colour-tones,*with the exceptionof the purples.
The
purples can be formed
by intermixing red and violet
lightsin varying proportions. In what follows we shall
of these
the spectrum completed by the addition
suppose
purple tints,so as to form a closed figure.
saturation
We
which
and
have
they
occur
in the
are
best studied
unfortunatelythe
respects for the analytic
spectrum.
in
spectrum is unsuitable
comparisonof colour-tones.
other
in the order in
But
in what
arranged
*
in
Not
follows
the
of course
order
all
In
shall suppose
we
of
the
spectrum,
degrees of saturation
and
series of colours
but
uniform
intensity.
in
LIGHT-SENSATION.
" 4.]
147
or
white
whole
paper
series of
underneath
them.
colour-tones,
beginning with
red
and
of
transitions
the
but
perceptible,
and
of
from
the
transition
from
red
yellow;
to
each
others
two
interposed between
so
closelythat the difference is barely
in being redder,
differs from
the one
series is
it resembles
which
are
it
other
ia
the
in
being yellower.
the
Thus
form
throughout,and
series is uniform
Gre"n
Fig. 2.
"
Circle
serial order
illustrating
occurs
of colour-tones.
black
what
and
white.
may
be
But
best
PSYCHOLOGY.
148
described
continuous
change
as
it
of direction.
The
transition
iv.
en.
is still
place between
yellow and
We
begin with, greenishyellows,and pass by the
green.
smallest perceptible
transitions to yellowishgreens, and so
After passinggreen there is another change
to pure green.
have
of direction ; we
a
now
green-blueseries. There is
still another
turning-pointafter passing blue ; the series
which
follows is blue-red,passing from blue through violet
and purple to red.
The change of colour in the spectrum
that it is not possibleto fix
is throughout so continuous
the
these
exact
point at which
changes of direction
be
said is that they begin somewhere
begin. All that can
in the
region of red, yellow, green, and blue,
it
respectively. Since the change of direction occurs,
At
somewhere.
the
must
occur
precise point of its
there
be
must
a
simple colour-tone, such
occurrence,
For
as
red, pure yellow,pure green, or pure blue.
pure
instance,pure yellow is the point of transition between
red is
the red-yellowsand
the green-yellows,and pure
the purples and the redthe point of transition between
yellows.
It may
be well to note here a question of some
logical
psychointerest which
has been much
discussed.
Is it right
of blue and green,
to say that a blue-greenis a combination
of red and yellow?
It has
or
a red-yellowa combination
become
; but
[BK. IT.,
the fashion
now
takes
of late to say
that
such
and
green,
blue-greenmerely resembles
blue
contain
elements.
them
as
constituent
colour
but
does
colour
The
as
not
itself,
it is
less of green
writer
that
any
in it.
It does
not
cogent arguments
appear
have
to
the
been
present
brought
LIGHT-SENSATION.
" 4.]
to show
forward
that
this
149
point of
is untenable.
view
modification
This
way.
is
element
new
which
may
bination
experience of the comis a
of blue
and
simple experience,
green
the experienceof
and
to be identical in kind with
seems
other such pairs.
of yellow and red, and
the combination
But the components abstractly
regarded are not the less*
of blue and green.
discernible as partaking of the nature
is something new
and
Because
there
simple in the
experience,we have no right to infer that there is no
that
complexity in it. It must, however, be admitted
the balance
of
the question is not
an
one
easy
; and
I
to be
am
against the view which
authority seems
be
regarded
inclined
combination
to
of
speak
believe
of blue
hand
one
such
and
that
interpretthe
may
in
blue
of
The
But
favour.
to
to
inclined
simple.
as
colour
the
green
it resembles
case
it is most
as
blue-green
If
green.
the
student
venient
conas
is not
colour
statement
and
any
as
actuallyis complex he
that blue-green is a combination
merely meaning that on the
blue, and
the
on
other
resembles
green.
*
Of
course
they
are
but they
separable,
not
The respect
distinguishable.
to
resemble
green
and
to
me
each
other
when
compared
blue-green resemble
sufficient
reason
for
in which
each
are
blue
is different
other
when
under
and
from
ditions
appropriate conblue-green are seen
the
respect in
which
This
compared.
appears
inferringcomplexity in the blue-green,
PSYCHOLOGY.
150
far
So
have
we
but
difference
these
respects so
of them
be
made
If the
increased
or
less
diminished
the
result
great, the
too
may
is
that
in either
or
all the
of
Each
admixture
an
the illumination
the
increase
iv.
colour-
series.
pale by
while
CH.
saturation
vary
continuous
a
or
if
in
intensityand
general intensityof
and
being examined,
form
more
light.
in
difference
spectrum
to
as
be
may
of white
not
considered
only
[BZ. n.,
spectrum is
diminution
colours
is
in the
it darker
makes
the
increase
are
it to be mixed
causes
"
decrease
or
is made
with
black.
When
sufficiently
great,
the
whiteness
ness,
blackor
disappear in mere
and
respectively.
They may be mixed with white light,
that both changes
lowered
increased in intensity,
so
or
All the colour-differences
combined.
recognised in
colour-tones
also
in
vary
tend
ordinary life
to
be
may
reds ;
diminished
differences
saturation.
is
intensityas
is
dark
for in these
to
green.
in
Pink
dark
be
various
primary
and
ways.
colour tone,
rose-colour
red, i.e.,a
red
are
so
green
that
or
blue
by
maroon
in
Olive
black.
accounted
series
they are
common
element,but
LIGHT-SENSATION.
"$ 5, 6.]
must
maintain
the
must
maintain
that
blue-black
for the
same
black
in which
detects
pure
151
only the
element
series.
has
in
They
artist's eye
with
common
barely appreciable
tingeof green.
In the
Intensityis by no means
independent of colour.
spectrum, the physicallightis most intense in the region
of red.
But for our
the
experiencethe yellow is distinctly
colour.
The blue is less bright than the red,but
brightest
the difference
by no
of the
intensity
in the
It
not
is
should
be
the difference
proportionto
illumination.
noted
that
the
red
of the
is
spectrum
red, but, as
pure
in
means
yellow.
"
5.
absence
which
Retina's
This
of colour.
are
own
"
is due
continuallybeing
to
the
fact that
stimulated
of heat.
This
internal
external
stimulation.
objectswhich
and
stimulation
internal
cesses
pro-
the re-distribution
sensation
in the
It arises when
stimulate
elements
The
der Retina}.
light(Eigenlicht
in its purest form
not obtained
such
by
as
retinal
of
black
complete absence
the
eye
passes
own
is
of
from
some
"
introduce
view
from
view,
the
an
one
unknown
side.
objectwill
coloured
On
objectinto
appear
white, grey,
the
field of
black.
Its
PSYCHOLOGY.
152
colour
will
only become
centre
of the
[BE. n.,
recognisableas
it
en.
iv.
approaches the
field.
when
the
dim
light is made
enough.
When
we
ordinarydaylight into a dark room,
pass from
not at first able to discern objects: but after a time
we
are
the eye adapts itself to the faint illumination.
It then
becomes
able to discern objectsbut not their colour-tones.
It sees
It has
been
everything in black and white.
experimentallyascertained that this twilightvision depends
the portionsof the retina which
surround
the yellow
on
adapted to
spot. The yellow spot itself does not become
If a small patch of colour is seen
the faint illumination.
of the yellow spot, decreasing illumination
only by means
does not
the colour to disappear altogether,but
causes
been
Cases
have
transform
it into
a
patch of grey.
showed
of persons
and recorded
who
carefullyexamined
of sensibility
entire want
to colour-tones, not
an
only
under
all
conditions.
faint
under
illumination, but
In
most
everything in black and white.
They saw
of these
pathological cases, though not in all, there
of lightis an alteration in the distribution of the intensity
For the normal
sensation in the spectrum.
eye the region
of greatest brightness is that of yellow light; for the
totallycolour-blind,it lies in the green rather than in the
pass
grey
yellowportionof
spectrum,
shows
the
can
same
seen
under
change
It is
notable
faint
sufficiently
in the
distribution
illumination,
of the
ness
bright-
most
as
the spectrum.
parts.
The
LIGHT-SENSATION.
" 7.]
153
full
dition
light. This indicates that their ordinary conis analogous to that of a normal
whose
person
blindness
Colourhave
been
adapted to twilight vision.
eyes
is common
to both
cases.
Probably a special
visual apparatus is brought into play in twilight
vision,and
exists in the
this is the only apparatus which
in most
cases
research seems
to
colour-blind.
Recent
eyes of the totally
show that this special
apparatus is constituted by the rods
of the retina as distinguished
from the cones.
the outer margin
Between
" 7. Partial Colour-Blindness.
of the retina and the yellow spot,there is a region which
colour-blind.
It is sensitive to blue and yellow,
is partially
be tested by an
but not
and
to red
This
may
green.
experiment similar to that described in the previoussection.
by
"
When
the
that
they
colours
spectrum
are
sideways, so
seen
partiallycolour-blind
blue-green region appears
grey.
fall
retina, the
divides
of the
the
on
the whole
spectrum into
two
parts.
of
zone
This
The
the
grey
part
taining
con-
and
It is well
whole
known
green
other.
to red
there
are
whose
persons
many
consisting
by a partialcolour-blindness,
and
red
inabilityto distinguishbetween
tinguish
considered, this inabilityto disabstractly
an
Now,
between
ways.
that
retina is affected
in
green.
discernible.
not
are
green
and
who
person
could
But
red
not
of
the
same
not
to
and
green
insensitive
was
both
to
distinguishthem
course
might
green,
may
or
hold
to
true
green
of
and
red
sensitive
person
to
red.
If
of
the
we
green
lightrespectively,
persons
insensitive
each
from
not
to
and
light
red
and
would
PSYCHOLOGY.
154
all
[BK. n.,
advocated.
On
the
whole,
those
insensitive
Both
have
it
seems
modes
been,
most
of
and
to
en.
iv.
green
ing
explainstill are,
probable that
equallyincapable
the retina is
partiallycolour-blind
either of red or
of giving rise to sensations
green.
evidence
But
the question is full of difficulty.The
shows
distinct
two
clearly that there are
types of
and it has been
maintained
that
partialcolour-blindness,
in the
in the
one
only
one
being normal.
green.
has
eye
But
been
in the other
have
occurred
colour-blind,the
other
in
eye
sensations
have
both
of red
and
green,
we
find
of the
instances
instances
and
These
red is absent
some
faint
produce only
in
sensitive
intense
of
the
yellowwith
the
intensityof
about
four
kind than
some
times
reddish
rays
in
type i.
retina
end
type
i.
for
as
is
the
of
produce more
In comparing
free from red,
yellow almost
yellow light must
for
great
as
red
the
at
rays
general, reddish
in
certain reddish
type ii.,the
to
way
sensation
155
In
sensations.
some
and
spectrum;
a
SENSATION.
LIGHT-
" 7.]
be
made
type ii.,in
able
resultingsensations may be indistinguishin intensity
and colour-tone.
Clearlythere is a great
difference in sensitiveness to red light in the two
types.
But it by no means
follows that the red lightproduces the
order
the
that
sensation
in
red
ii. and
type
in
not
type i.
The
greater
ii.than
spectrum and
we
can
and
sensation
bring on
can
make
green,
match
the
on
one
certain
the
to
on
of
of the actual
amount
we
eye
yellow.
the
between
same
the
with
Professor
this takes
nesorgane,
The
Gr. E.
place.
Band
Miiller
See
XIV.
sensation
given
to
Heft
3 und
4, p.
distinguished
to
confuse
the
ment
arrange-
time
certain
In this way
derived
from
derived
two
from
of
adjustthe quantities
elaborate
seems
explanation
of the
of
Physiologieder
how
Sin-
182.
from
two
green
same
the mixture
an
the red
spectralred
spectralyellow on the
Zeitschrift
f. Psychologicund
as
are
Physiologists
apt
has
of
sensation
single(yellow)part. We have
red lightand green
light until
of
time, the
same
spectrum.
mixture
and
hand,
the
By
yellow of
the
at
persons
of the
amount
in
i.*
part
most
the
things.
stimulua
is not
mixed.
PSYCHOLOGY.
156
hue
tlie
CH.
iv
and
[BK. n.,
same
"
or
If
find
whitish
select any
we
some
other
will
of
blue.
the
colour
colour
is
spectrum, it is possibleto
which, mingled
neutral
yielda
mixture
of the
present
tint.
in
If
one
with
it in due
of the
portion,
pro-
components
grey, the
is
predominant lightgivesits
The other lightdiminishes
colour to the mixture.
the
own
degreeofsaturation. Thus, if goldenyellow and blue be mixed
in proper
proportions,they yield the sensation of white.
As the proportionof blue is increased,the white becomes
white ; as the proportionof yellow
and more
a bluish
more
and more
is increased,the white becomes
more
a yellowish
Colours
white.
with each other,yield
which, intermixed
white,are called complementary. Yellow is complementary
The red of the spectrum is not complementary to
to blue.
It should
be remembered,
green, but to a bluish green.
however, that the red of the spectrum is not pure red, but
yellowish. As every discernible colour of the spectrum
its complement, either
within
the
spectrum
possesses
in the
or
purple series,the pairs of complementary
colours are
If the simple lights
numerous.
indefinitely
requiredto produce a
Foster, Text-Boole
of Physiology,
part iv.,pp.
1240-1241.
correspondingto
from
SENSATION.
LIGHT-
" 8.]
each
colours
in
other
which,
the
are
157
spectrum
far
too
not
removed
mingled,
are
the
intermediate
corresponding to an
light. The wider the interval separating the mingled
the whiter
is the resultingcolour.
the
When
colours
in proper
interval
becomes
wide, mixture
sufficiently
For instance,by mingling
proportionyieldspure white.
the simplelightswhich
severally
produce blue and green,
obtain
all the blue-greens. A larger proportion
can
we
of the blue lightyieldsa bluer green : a largerproportion
If we
blue.
mix
of the green
light yields a greener
obtain
blue
with
a
mingled
yellowish-green,we
green
is
result
with
the
colour
white
due
the
to
combination
of
blue
and
it may
be
or
relatively
pure
bluish
or
yellowishaccording to the proportion of blue
of
The
combination
or
yellow light in the mixture.
of pure blue w7ith pure yellow yields
white.
If,proceeding
yellow.
This
further,we
contained
green
mix
in the
blue
be
may
with,
red, we
obtain
new
colour
not
"
PSYCHOLOGY.
158
and
red, green,
reason
[BK. n.,
violet,have
been
called
CH.
IT,
primary
colours.
method
best
The
so
to
as
allow
two
same
part
lengths,
mixing lightsof different waveascertain the resultingsensation,is to
different
way
is
the
colours
of
the
by using the
of
parts
retina
of the
spectrum
the
at
colour-wheel
or
be
same
to
time.
fall
on
the
Another
colour-top.Sectors of
disk.
a
placed on
investigatedare
The
be
as
as
pigments used in colouring must
pure
possible; in other words, they must as nearly as possible
reflect simple and not compound lights.* The disk is set
rapidly spinning so that one kind of light is brought to
bear
If
on
the
Thus
to
different
sector
one
if the
colours
modes
superposed.
of the disk is blue, and another
yellow,and
the rapidly
are
present in due proportion,
are
The
so.
with
the
blue
of the shadow
is due to contrast
appearance
yellow illumination thrown by the lamp on the
The
mixture
them, is by
no
means
of
the
LIGHT-
" 10.]
with
a
its
colour.
complementary
large field
small
SENSATION.
of uniform
159
effect is
The
colour
acts
on
greatestwhen
small
one.
spot of grey
appears
for the
on
colour.
the contrast
its
it will combine
grey,
colour
own
yellowishred
It will appear
with
or
dish
red-
at the
yellow. The effect of contrast is most marked
It is interfered with by
meeting-pointof the two colours.
lines of demarcation
separating them, such as a pencil-
mark
round
drawn
also interfered
coloured
with
surfaces.
clearlywhen
texture
the
conditions
For
are
these
the
on
in the
obtained
it
reasons,
minimum.
blue
field.
in the
The
out
comes
most
differences
of
favourable
most
of coloured
case
It is
of the
texture
obliterated,and
are
to
spot
differences
by
contours
reduced
red
shadows,
or
cover
paper
both
obliterates
The
in
with
contrast
affected
darker
on
direct
it is
conceals
effect is of
the
by
of tissue
and
contours
proportion as
retina
sheet
white.
The
of texture.
general stronger
part of the
of the
thus
tissue
grey
influence
is better
of contrast
to
is
grey will
background, and lighteron a black
black
white
excitation
weaker;
difference
in
course
The
paper.
and
white.
The
same
PSYCHOLOGY.
160
[BK. n.,
CH.
IT.
called
negativeimages.
"When
red
subsequently turned to a
white or to a grey ground, the negativeimage is a greenish
blue; that is to say, the colour of the negative image is
complementary to that of the object. Thus also orange
produces a blue, green a pink, yellow an
indigo-blue,
The
conditions
for the
negative image, and so on."*
favourable,
productionof the negativeimage are the more
intense and persistent
the more
is the primary stimulation.
is very transient,it may
When
the primary stimulation
give rise in the first instance to a positiveimage, as we
shall see later.
Negative images arise also when the eye
well as
is simply closed after the primary stimulation
as
it is turned to a different background.
when
of
for the occurrence
It is not
absolutelynecessary
should
be
negative images that the primary stimulus
The
result may
be brought about
removed.
same
by
diminishingits intensity.If we steadfastly
gaze at a red
spot on a yellow ground, and then diminish the intensity
the light or otherwise,
of the illumination
by turning down
blue
a
a
ground will appear
spot upon
green
instead of the red spot on a yellow ground.
patch is
The
looked
same
at, and
process
the
eye
is manifested
in
different way
while
eye
is
book
Foster,Text-Boole of Physiology,
part iv.,
iii.,
chap, iii.,
p.
12GG.
LIGHT-
$11.]
may
gather these
of the
facts under
mode
same
SENSATION".
161
formula.
one
of stimulation
The
tends to
also
This
when
that
on
portionwhich
effect takes
contrast
the
the
the
primary stimulation
weakened.
When
maintain
the
stimulus
form
of
produce a
the
trast
con-
retina,but
directlyexcites.
negativeimage
or
sufficiently
is withdrawn
stimulus
ance
continu-
is continued
so
to
as
its
contrast
effect under
ditions.
ordinary con-
The
after the
disk
with
the
As
grey.
successive
stimulus
a
has
white
whole
the
been
removed.
sector, and
disk
white
portions of
the
the
retina,but
round,
by
black
rapid
as
eye
is whirled
sector
take
we
set it in very
to
appears
If
no
tion,
rota-
uniform
it affects
means
so
would
be
produced 12
11
tlio
PSYCHOLOGY.
162
white
lightfrom
the whole
the
surface
were
some
time
are
most
been
favourable
withdrawn
when
from
the
an
eye
over
sistence
per-
as
of
the
briefly
it. The
which
influence
iv,
has ceased
to what is known
givesrise,under certain conditions,
positiveafter-image.To obtain this,the eye must
instead of steadfastly
glanceat an object,
gazing at
conditions
CH,
equally distributed
rotatingdisk at rest. The
sector
of the
[BK. n.,
has
for
light is
Thus
momentarily exposed to a somewhat
strong stimulus.
if immediately on waking from
sleep in the morning the
for an instant and then closed,
eye be directed to a window
and darker
with its bright panes
an
image of the window
colour as the
sashes, the various parts being of the same
object,will remain for an appreciabletime."*
Theories
of Light-Sensation.
Very
" 12. Physiological
is known
and experilittle indeed
by direct observation
ment
about the physiological
either in the retina
processes
The
in nervous
matter
or
correspondingto light-sensation.
theories on the subject
are
hypotheticalconstructions based
on
physicaland psychologicaldata. The two which are
''
"
best
known
are
those
connected
with
the
names
of
of these is
Neither
Hering respectively.
more
on
a
plete
comsatisfactory
; but that of Hering is based
safely
survey of facts ; and if it is not right,it may
It has recentlybeen
be said to be on rightlines.
greatly
but his views
modified and improved by Prof. Or.E. Miiller,
too complex and too recent for us to deal with
at once
are
them here.
"We shall therefore refer to Bering's theory
Helmholtz
and of
Foster,op. cit.,
p. 1265.
LIGHT-
" 12.]
SENSATION.
163
colour by many
different combinations
productionof the same
of physicallight. Helmholtz
believed that this could
be done
by assuming three, and only three, ultimate
Each
of these
takes
physiological
processes.
processes
placein the first instance in the retina and is conveyed by
its own
it produces a
to the brain,where
specialnerves
excitation.
The
corresponding specificnervous
cesses
proseverally
correspondto the sensations of red, green,
and blue.
in equal proportionsyields
Their combination
the sensation of white or grey.
tion
Every kind and combinaof lightexcites all three processes.
Hence
colour
no
under
is ever
ordinary conditions of stimulation
quite
saturated.
certain intermixture
It always contains
of
a
white.
By combining in various proportionsthe red and
the
green
the
blue, all
processes,
the
the colours
green
of the
and
the
blue, the
red
spectrum, togetherwith
and
the
purple,may be obtained.
This theory seems
of the
account
a
highly satisfactory
results of combining lightsof different wave-lengths,so
long as we do not test it by psychologicalanalysisof the
But
when
do this, a difficulty
we
resultingsensations.
in the case
of white and yellow. By mixing green
occurs
lightwith blue light,we obtain a blue-green. This, says
Ilelmholtz,is due to a compounding of the physiological
corresponding to blue and green respectively.
processes
His account
of the matter
is borne out by a scrutinyof the
sensation itself. A blue-greenpartakesof the nature
both
of blue
and
resembles
green
it resembles
both
of them
at
once.
It
each in
of
partakes
the nature
both
of green
and
blue,
No
PSYCHOLOGY.
164
analyticscrutinyof
a
reddish
sensation
The
green.
is
does
compound
not
partake at
and
blue.
white.
of
iv.
as
White,
ultimate
fact,the
of the three
once
CH.
colour
of all three
matter
as
such
of
is true
But,
physiological
processes.
discover
can
same
accordingto Helmholtz,
of white
[BK. n.,
tion
sensa-
colour-
processes
absent,
and
yet
sensation
of
white
we
theory of Helmholtz
must
elementary processes are really
say that the three
present,but that they are on all occasions excited in equal
able
by all kinds of light. This is a rather improbproportions
increased
assumption,but the improbabilitybecomes
when
consider
that the
of impossibility,
to the verge
we
be applied to a number
of other
same
hypothesis must
colour- sensibility
is absent, and
in which
cases
sensibility
is preserved. All lights of whatever
to white and black
wave-length,produce only neutral sensations,when they
remains
act
on
the
unimpaired.
spectrum
The
the
when
the
short time.
grey
They
illumination
outer
extreme
very
into
pass
diminished.
sufficiently
white
On
the
margin
when
pass
is
of the
All
the
the
colours
illumination
of
is
almost
completelyinto
intensified.
sufficiently
retina
Under
is sensitive
all these
to
varying
we
must,
the
SENSATION.
LIGHT-
" 12.]
only reason
why
the
is that
colours are
corresponding
are
always excited
processes
the
proportions.
ATI equallyserious objectionarises
It is evident
colour-blindness.
absence
the
of
one
white, which
more
or
involve
must
processes
135
of
to their combination
is due
in
ceived
per-
equal
of
partial
is right,
that,if Helmholtz
of the elementary colour-
absence
the
from
not
cases
the
sensation
of
in
equal proportions.
is green-blind ought, upon
this
"A
who
person
in white
tuents,
to see
only its red and blue constisupposition,
hence
and
white ought to look to him
as
purple
As long as his defect made
him incapableof
looks to us.
this might perfectly
well,for
explainingto us what he felt,
But we
know
now
aught we knew, have been the case.
who
is green-blind in one
that a person
eye only sees
white
with his defective eye exactly the same
he sees
as
it with his normal
eye."* A similar argument applies
also to yellow. The
partiallycolour-blind usually retain
the sensations of yellow and blue,although they are without
the
sensations
marginal zone
and
of red
or
of the retina
and
green
at which
or
the
both.
There
to
sensibility
is
red
that to
green
combination
of
colour-combination,its
sensation
lightcontrast
*
effects
failure to
is still more
between
C. L. Franklin, "On
vol. ii. (1893),
p. 479.
adjoiningcolours
Theories
of
as
errors
of
Mind, N.S.,
Light-Sensation,"
PSYCHOLOGY.
166
judgment.
shown
such
that
respects like
en.
of these phenomena
investigation
hypothesisis quite untenable.
fuller
an
by
colour-produced
[BK. n.,
contrast
appears
and
in
behaves
iv.
has
The
all
colour
the
few
seconds.
Hence
we
should
expect
very
spicuous
con-
effect of
the
difficulties which
beset
that
of
Helmholtz.
givenby psychological
analysisof lightsix ultimate
ing
sensations,he assumes
processes, correspondof white, black, red, green, yellow,
to the sensations
These
he arranges
in antithetic pairs; white
and blue.
red and green, blue
and black go together,and similarly
and yellow. To each
pair there corresponds a separate
Following the
retinal
nervous
clue
substance,
matter.
and
The
distinct
modification
red-greensubstance
is
of
central
of
susceptible
Bed
in their nature.
antagonistic
processes, chemical
lightexcites the one, and green the other. "When red and
neither process
in equal portions,
green lightare combined
Hence
is producedbecause of their mutual
incompatibility.
two
LIGHT-SENSATION.
" 12.]
there
is
such, colour
no
green act on
produce the sensation
their
occur,
of
excitement
of white.
red and
green
though
the two
black-white
red
stimulations
each
neutralise
black-white
black
as
combine
white
and
much
be
must
far
as
to act
sensation
as
the
on
of white.
gous.
yellow processes are analoare
supposed by
processes
white
and
of fact there
matter
and
in
antagonistic
to be
Hering
this
to
other
of the blue
black
tions
sensa-
substance.
effect is
The
to
as
green
due
the
Hence, when
in equalproportions,
simultaneously
lightact
relations
or
mainly
their colour
The
both
substance, so
When
intensity is
the
But
green.
black-white
the
red and
reddish
as
167
the
same
essential
an
to form
; but
way
difference
intermediate
as
here,
greys,
so
than
incompatibleany more
the blue and green, or the yellow and red processes are.*
Hering is no doubt rightin assuming that the processes
correspondingto black,white,red,green, blue, and yellow,
separate and
are
them
be
can
But
resolved
substances.
black
"
clench
Really,black
grey
Total
process.
to
seem
process
is connected
There
this
and
out
of
there.
sensation
with
are
of
of
none
the
But
do
the
in
that
others.
the
cancel
of
state
is
But
each
cortical
there
there
exclusivelywith
conclusion.
grey."
Professor
other
which
before
the
(owing
to
the eye
facts
there is
optic nerve
changes
or
follow
not
in the retina
is
white-
allied
it does
commotion
stimulus
the
and
cells with
'intrinsic'
doubt
no
colour-blindness
white
always
whether
temperature, etc.),
this commotion
gives us
p. 42.
is
connected
specialapparatus
the
combinations
that
separate
no
into
so
he
his
not
are
processes
not
of
; and
'subjective'sight-sensation,
Titchener, Primer
of Psychology,
due
or
to Gr. E.
who
Miiller,
works
it
PSYCHOLOGY.
168
that
white-black
the
those
processes
retinal elements
When
cannot
subserve
which
take
the colour
iv.
place in
processes.
and
the
intermixture
of
colour
when
we
are
asked
is hard
This
is introduced
''Hopelessconfusion
of
white.
to
into all
believe
believe.
to
conceptions
our
that
the
entire
"
"
it without
fuller
in its favour.
is almost
evidence
If
Hering
entirelydue
*
than
is
has
yet been
right in holding
to the
effect which
Franklin,op. cit.,p.
480.
adduced
that
it
brightness
produces
white-black
his
on
169
LIGHT-SENSATION.
$ 12.]
tinguishabl
indis-
are
lightswhich
the yellow spot, ought also to
fall on
produce them
the
be
produce
lights which
indistinguishablewhen
fall on
the
them
totally colour-blind margin of the
of fact, this
As a matter
as
retina,and are seen
greys.
On the other hand,
to be
approximately true.
appears
in
intensityand
when
tone
the
two
The
red and
green
of the
spectrum in combination
duce
pro-
the
white
of
Hence
rise
*
Viz.,a
of the
material
the
to
process
white
the
distinct
processes
black
retinal
for
has
for
the
black
process
process,
will
both
its
product the
process,
and
positivelytend
in
the
lation
accumu-
vice versd.
to
portion of
give
the
PSYCHOLOGY.
170*
be
may
are
being
accordance
with
theories
in
all, interesting
that
note
those
In
hopeful
and
New
modified
and,
It
attempts
the
on
above
is,
most
are
cessful
suc-
data
psychological
respect, the
this
method
comparison
of
method
physical
predominantly
the
light-
made.
made.
being
psychological
predominantly
the
of
theories
old
accurately
most
process.
in
discoveries,
is
psychological analysis.
and
and
ultimate
theory
being
fresh
progress
follow
which
of
to
the
to
constantly discovered,
propounded,
satisfactory
whole,
the
complementary
measurements
these
due
are
of
iv.
clear
seems
difficulties, is
being
are
each
that
with
quantitative
exact
its
say
beset
facts
New
condition.
of
part
may
although
sensation,
more
we
it
process,
CH.
n.,
Whatever
part.
after-images
produce
to
conclusion,
In
the
and
the
on
processes
adjoining
of
effects
contrast
positive tendency
retinal
the
details
special
the
both
that
in
and
affected
retina
[BK.
with
Hering
is
Helmholtz
of
instructive.*
*
The
general
from
Leipzig,
1897,
Book
p.
In
work.
ff.
320
of Physiology,
also
See
excellent.
the
English
fifth
Mind,
developments
mainly
pages
where
of
are
the
the
important.
of
treatment
book
edition,
C.
Mrs.
Light-Sensation,"
who
student
to
vol.
be
ii.
found
Zeitscliriftfur Psychologie
contributions
of
Konig,
von
(1893),
in
und
iii., pp.
"On
article
pp.
German
and
G.
consult
Foster's
E.
is
of
Theories
The
especially
der
Text-
1222-1247,
473-489.
and
Physiologie
Kries,
chapter
Halbband,
should
in
Light-Sensation
iii.,chap,
this
Erster
German
read
Franklin's
L.
N.S.
can
in
detail
the
Psychologie,
der
Grundzilge
The
of
much
and
exposition
Ebbinghaus.
is taken
this
of
plan
latest
in
the
Sinnesorgane,
Miiller
are
most
CHAPTER
V.
SOUND-SENSATION.
"
1. Nature
Stimulus.
of the
of sound
sensations
occasions
The
"
which,
physicalstimulus
consists
of the
of vibrations
tinguish
disof light,we
can
particlesof the air. As in the case
wave-length or rapidityof vibration,amplitude,
and complexity. Wave-length determines
pitch; amplitude
loudness, and complexity timbre.
details we
must
" 2. Organ of Hearing. For anatomical
"
again refer
is thrown
ear
This
text-books.
physiological
into
its
basilar
impact
3. Noises
sound
are
marked
*
impulse
an
sound-waves.
vibrations
to
Musical
"The
Sounds.
characterised
for
is
the
by
most
marked
"
membrane
called
of this membrane
Noises
confusion
part by
by unity
vibrations
which
and
these
fluid,which
as
the
are
in
excitingcertain hair-cells,
terminate.
auditorynerve
and
experiences are
complexity, and
character.
of
of the
stimulus
sound
The
membrane.
musical
give
drum
into vibration
throws
The
by impact
in certain
in their turn
the immediate
"
vibration
produces movements
movements
by
to
which
immediate
and
indefinite
irregularity.A
uniformity
constitute
of
musical
Foster, Text-Boole
of Physiology,book
171
chap, iv.,p.
iii.,
1361.
[BK. u.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
172
en.
v.
consecutive
vibrations
stages. Much
series of sounds
called
are
alike,there
of
regularrepetition
easilyrecognised."*
Pitch.
"4.
vibrations which
the time
the
of each
pitchof
one
greater the
"The
"
mediate
inter-
numerous
irregularity
present itself in a
may
of the roughest
music, and in some
noises the
be
are
fall upon
the
ear
or
vibrations may
more
number
in
of
consecutive
second, the
shorter
sound
is determined
by
the
lengthof
the wave,
low
note
Ibid.
Op. cit.,
p.
1362.
SOUND-
"5.]
SENSATION.
173
different
"
16,000 vibrations
persons
second,
distinguishtones of 40,000.
In music, only a comparatively small
portion of these
tones
are
used, beginning with about thirtyand ending-
though
some
with about
can
persons
3,600 vibrations
second.
difference
of pitch is very
distinguishing
In tones
rising
highly developed within a certain range.
observers
from 100 to 1000 vibrations in a second,practised
The
under
power
of
favourable
conditions
can
differences
discriminate
of
of thousands
even
of vibrations
second
not
may
be
recognisable.
"
5. Harmonic
Intervals.
"
When,
of two
notes
ously
simultane-
as
two.
The
sensation,peculiarly
agreeableto
the
is
ear.
richer and
There
fuller
is also
when
tendency to confuse the two sensations even
they do
musician
not occur
even
a practised
simultaneously.When
is called upon to imitate on the piano a tone whistled by the
to
mouth, he frequentlyproducesthe tone which corresponds
"See
Sensations
(English trans.),
pp. 127, 128.
PSYCHOLOGY.
174
half
double
or
other
the number
words, the
upper
he has to imitate.
What
tendency to
hear
to
confuse
them
as
lower
or
with
they are
in
not
depend on similarity
pitch are easilyand clearly
in
nearer
has
musical
when
said
been
of the
double
the
intervals,
holds
octave
the twelfth.
musical
When
of Musical
Combination
" 6.
attention
sounds
of
intensity
more
of the
one
so
when
notes
the
is, as
"
as
seen,
The
it
have
we
one
compared
as
it is to discern
easy
It
of the other.
the twelfth
fifth,or
do
sources.
from different
discriminate
to
Sounds
occur
difficult to
peculiarly
the
sound
single musical
the
and
in memory,
its octave
simultaneouslyproduced,does
also of other
octave
is that
interesting
peculiarly
is
v.
en.
per second, or in
of the note which
of vibrations
note
[BE. n.,
with
separate
the
others,
It is
tone.
in proportion
to its relative faintness.
distinguish
which
of tones yieldsa specific
The combination
experience,
of the
be regarded as merely the sum
cannot
separate
harder
to
experiencesof
tones
the
are
integralparts of a whole.
its own
characteristic pitch and
Its pitch is approximatelythat
as
tones,
The
the
intensityof
of
sum
the
this
when
even
the
of
intensities
approximatelyequal to
the
the
lowest
the
is not
experience is
total
has
characteristic
of
its
its
the
own
intensity.
of
its
not
stituent
con-
intense.
most
equal
It
constituents.
of
intensity
stituent
con-
still apprehended
whole
This
the
when
Even
separate notes.
discriminated,they are
loudest
to
is
among
them.
" 7.
Seats
sounded
that the
Dissonance.
and
"
together
periodof
are
not
"
of the
vibration
of
"If
same
the
tuning-forks"
pitch,but so related
two
one
is not
an
exact
SOUND-SENSATION.
" 7.]
multiple of that of
experiencehas certain
is the
which
formed
in
effect
intensity.As
and
then
other,
marked
on
of the two
out
louder
the
175
the
We
; but
waves
fainter
the
of
ear
our
to grow
which
features.
hear
is not
or
is heard
wave
uniform
to grow
now
die
to
even
we
sound
compound
the sound
we
sensation
away,
but
thus rising
to fall away,
again,and once more
the rhythmic change being
fallingat regularintervals,
to revive
soon
and
to actual
sound
either from
silence
from
or
louder
sound
intensityare due to
the vibratory
the fact that,owing to the difference of pitch,
impulses of the two sounds do not exactlycorrespond in
time.
Since the vibration period,the time during which
a
is making an
excursion,moving a certain distance
particle
in one
direction and then returning,is shorter in one
sound
than in the other,it is obvious that the vibrations belonging
sound will,so to speak,get ahead of those belonging
to one
to
to
fainter
the
other
impulse of
Such
one.
variations
hence
sound
is
time
of
will
when,
come
while
the
lessened,and
giving rise
are
sound
with
or
the sensation
has
the
more
or
its vibrations
crest
with
to which
be
less
other,the
less coincided
sound.
will
of sound
the
of the
wave
trough
of
of the
one
wave
sound
has
of the
more
other
[BK. n.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
173
en.
v.
the one
condition
will pass
augmented. And
gradually into the other. The repetitionsof increased
intensitythus brought about are spoken of as beats."*
discernible when
the difference between
Beats are separately
is very
the vibration
tones
frequency of the concurrent
will be
As
small.
rapidly,and
give rise to
more
then
somewhere
ceases
second.
becomes
the difference
But
clearlydiscernible.
a
rattling or whirring effect.
between
thirtyand sixty beats
not
are
then
even
certain
there
are
beats
occur
hundreds
with
of
the
beats
of their harsh
beats
in
This
in
still manifest
the
second.
their
them
When
the
this
are
effect,
The
number
between
when
other
of beats
in
the
sufficient
Before
ceases.
They
so
presence
occur
of vibrations
per
second
ence
differ-
of each.
at sixty-four
tuning-forks
vibratingrespectively
or
seventy-two a second, will give eight beats a second,"f
overtakes
the longer eight times,
the shorter wave
because
to give to the vibratingparticles
as
so
oppositeimpulses,
"Thus
two...
which
neutralise
interval
the
between
each
other.
the
combined
become
beats
We
that
they
greater or
it is somewhat
octave, etc.
second
give
less than
greater
Two
four
*
or
tones
beats;
the
four
increased,
longer
are
no
the
interval
is
the
interval
is
again,when
twelfth,the double
the
and
beats
Op. cit.,
pp. 1367,1368.
the
as
octave, and
less than
of 200
that
seen
becomes
tones
rapid
so
have
396
are
vibrations
also
t Ibid.
in
produced by
SOUND-SENSATION.
" 9.]
and
of 200
tones
of beats
is
number
of
of the lower
vibration number
and
200
This
of the
explainswhy
higher
interval
for which
great distinctness,
the compass
of these.
One
is called the
the
to
difference
higher tone
the
these
and
between
twice
the
tones
tones
of the
the
octave
or
sounded
are
octave, there
same
vibration
number
number
vibration
has
produced
are
determined.
the
4.
effect.
it
But
and
not
function
of
The
yet
that
seems
the
of the
of the
596
to the difference
corresponds
vibration numbers
of the primary tones, and
The
other corresponds
firstdifference-tone.
mainly two
the
200
notes
with
heard, occasionally
is no assignable
physical
there
Within
if the
from
two
"
stimulus.
is 3
dissonant
produces a
to the
nearest
Thus
deviation
Tones.
When
" 8. Differencetogether,certain other tones are
between
number
The
comes
tone.
of beats
small
which
tone
the number
596
other musical
are
second.
the vibration
equal to the difference between
tion
the higher tone and that multipleof the vibra-
number
are
in
vibrations
404
177
lower
mode
been
they
in
factorily
satis-
are
due
of
hearing,
Their
and not to physicalconditions.
explanationforms
an
important test for any general physiological
theory of
to
structure
organ
sound-sensations.
" 9.
Timbre.
"
The
note
same
pitchis identified
are
called differences
of the
as
power
very
same.
of timbre.
sensation.
when
tones.
the
sounded
piano, a
varyingcharacter,though
a
Differences
Timbre
of this kind
is due
to the
plexity
com-
discern
number
of discrimination
on
of distinct
varies
with
pitchof
partial
musical
the whole
12
178
PSYCHOLOGY,
is
complex
This
is called the
at the
fundamental
The
outset.
separatedfrom
The
with
the
affinity
octave.
Thus, though
difficult.
more
musical
natural
Thus
the
them,
be
may
discernible
relative
tried
their harmonic
sufficient
as
this way;
practice,a
constituent
makes
of
person
artificialhelps.
separatelyon
in attendingto
in
tones
them
and
overtones
it
of discriminating
power
of
some
the
as
relation
kept in mind
analysed. Several
in
fied
identi-
course
intensitymakes
then
is to be
tone.
tones, such
The
partialtone
key of a piano,and
which
is of
aptitudeacquiresgreat
the
the note
are
their
With
overtones.
lowest
the
v.
fundamental
most
it
en.
overtones,as
of them
easier to discriminate
and
tone
the fundamental
intense
most
[BK.n.,
sion
succes-
be
may
others
not.
Sometimes
and
arises from
harshness
The
combination
produced from
of notes
the
tones
somewhat
great
combination
summation
in
in
specific
of the
the
intensitybetween
the overtones.
is
between
The
character.
high overtones.
of partialtones
in a complex note
is analogous to the combination
singlesource
from
different sources, except as regards
difference
and
beats
harsh
The
its
whole
the
fundamental
to the
experiencedue
character,and
severallydue
experiences
is not
to the
partial
mere
SOUND-SENSATION.
" 10.]
is true
170
aro
partial tones
discriminated.
They are still apprehended as constituents
of a whole having an unique character.
Analyticattention
in
to create
them
does not appear
in discoveringovertones
is already
to find what
of discovery,but
the moment
pre-existing.Thus the compositionof an ordinarymusical
which
excellent example of sensations
are
note affords an
This
tones.
when
even
the
of their
distinctive
discrimination
merely felt without
qualities. So long and so far as the experience is
sensations
are
present, qua
unanalysed, the constituent
sensations,
though their presence is not cognised. There
without
is a sense-differentiation
perceptualdistinction.
Anatomical
" 10. General Theory of Sound- Sensation.
"
research
to
to
the
in
way
physical and
side, wre
have
the
separatelygive
that
the
auditory
basilar
the
which
the
immediate
stimulus
is constituted
nerve
membrane.
this membrane
The
acts
main
is found
the
On
physical
psychologicaldata.
fact that impulses which
broad
would
rise
before
to
distinct
waves
of
sound,
blend
into a single
they reach the ear
resultant
effect.
They produce a single wave, the form
is mathematically accounted
of which
for by their combination.
This is true whether
the several impulses come
from, separate material
objectsor from the same
object.
Thus
the vibrations
which
produce ordinary sounds are
of origin. The
forms
which
complex in their mode
they
be mathematicallyresolved into
can
consequently assume
combination
of the forms
of certain constituent
a
simple
These
called pendular, because
waves.
are
simple waves
their form
is like that
described
of a
by the sweep
pendulum. Though one, not many waves, is produced by
the impulseswhich
simultaneouslyset the air in vibration,
their
effects
show
of
of
vibrations
the
clue
in
terminations
the
by
to
seems
PSYCHOLOGY.
180
yet
each
of
[BK. n.,
these
the
CH.
y.
organ
because
the several
to be
so
hearing. This is known
sensations
distinguishablein
corresponding to each are
We
consciousness.
can
analyse a single note into its
of notes
partialtones, and we can distinguisha number
This
is
sounded
simultaneouslyfrom different sources.
the
starting-pointfor the theory of sound- sensations.
be so constructed
to respond
of hearing must
as
The organ
produce the
separatelyto the several impulses which
of
complex
The
wave.
simple
most
obvious, if
and
the
not
only,
way
of
is that
of the ear
accounting for this analyticpower
commonly, though
propounded by Helmholtz, and now
not universally,
accepted. It proceeds on the analogy of
If a tuning-fork,which
certain
physical phenomena.
contain
which
unaffected
by
is struck in
those
contain
as
overtone.
an
It is
will
notes.
vibrate
adjustedto
specially
which
note
own
other
the
wires
its
this
the
as
in
tone,
same
an
it, which
are
to any
of the
notes
the
second
to
response
overtone.
or
In
case
length,but in
The
wire
which
corresponds to the lower
segments.
the tuning-forkrespondsby
of the tone sounded
octave
on
of which the wave-length is half the length of
ii vibration
they
do
not
vibrate
along
their
whole
SOUND-SENSATION.
" 10.]
the
Now,
wire.
the
consists
membrane
basilar
theory
of
181
of
a
Helmholtz
series of
is that
the
strands,each
of
which,
support
it.
of
wires
There
are
in which
cases
the
mechanism
for
we
suppose
in the
ear
system
each
be
of
separateelements,
in
normal
of which
function
may
while
manner.
In this
entitled Tonpsychologie.
vols.,
CHAPTEE
OTHER
"
1. Taste and
which
are
"If
the
odours.
Smell*
VI.
SENSATIONS.
"
The
greater number
usually ascribed
be held
nose
and
to
of
taste
the eyes
the
in
are
sations
sen-
reality
shut, it is
very
difficultto
and
but
between
in eating,
an
distinguish,
apple,an onion,
be recognisedby their texture,
a potato ; the three may
Cinnamon
not by their taste."
applied to the tongue
under
the
like
appears
but
appreciatea slightsweetness,
may
undoubted
four
are
conditions
same
bitter.
There
are
taste-sensations
two
others
"
"
flour ;
that
the
is all.
taste
There
sweet, salt,acid,and
the alkaline
"
which
are
stinging sensation
pitchof intensityas
a
but
in the
this does
case
*In
not
of acids.
reach
The
the
same
sensation
of
OTHER
" 1.]
and
softness
SENSATIONS.
smoothness
the
appreciablewhen
quantitiesso small that
As
of
sensation
the
be
and
are
is
present in
such.
as
intensified,the
obscured
is further
sweetness;
discerned
becomes
sweetness
the sweetness
again as
emerges
it cannot
with
substance
sweet
is dominated
touch-sensation
associated
is
tliis is
183
it.
by
But
it
increased.
Very
accompanied
sometimes
bitingsensation.
sensitive to sweetness,
The tip of the tongue is especially
and the base to bitterness.
The
the edges to acidity,
tip
and edges are
equally sensitive to salts,the base less so.
by
has
the mouth
When
substance,such
as
been
washed
the
persons
the
to
cases
accordingto
respond by
sensation
same
sensation
except
sweetness
at
appear
the
the
The
effect
on
would
is
of
solutions
be too weak
of bitter.
to
feel
acidityat
the
of colours.
to be
In
whatever
Others
of sweet
tongue appears
taste
no
sensation
relations
of
There
somewhat
Salt,by
substances
feel
edges.
sweet.
some
part of
applied. Others
taste-sensations
contrast
of the
is aroused
base.
tipsand
base
sensation
water
the
the
distilled water
contrast, makes
same
at
to exist among
analogous to
neutral
some
distilled water, is
out, and
It has
which
of
sort
the
in themselves
an
effect on solutions
to
intensifying
be appreciable.It operatesin this way both when
the same
first by a salt,
stimulated,
part of the tongue is successively
then by a neutral or sweet
the salt
fluid,and also when
and
the sweet
simultaneouslyapplied to homologous
parts of the tongue, e.g., to correspondingpoints on the
right and left edges of the tongue. Sweet has a much
effect on salt,
weaker
than salt on sweet.
contrast
In both
are
PSYCHOLOGY.
184
forms
vi.
en.
water
other
Similar
and
[BK. n.,
relations
between
have
been
and
sweet
observed
acid ; but
between
in the
case
salt and
acid,
of sweet
and
stimuli arc
the two
they are manifested
only when
to the same
appliedsuccessively
part of the tongue, not
when
they are appliedsimultaneouslyto homologous parts.
Bitter appears
effects nor
to be
neither to produce contrast
affected by them.
The
be stimulated
of taste
sense
can
only by fluids.
acid
Solid
substances
appropriatestimulus
other
the
hand,
consists
membrane
smell
dissolved
in
mouth
the
before
affect it.
they can
The
be
must
have
in
been
not
of
touch
The
medium.
and
there
They
smell,on
the
particlesconveyed
adequatelyclassified
primary constituents
great variety of them.
with
of
sense
odoriferous
gaseous
their
mixture
for the
analysedinto
or
to
often
be
very
modified
The
taste-sensations.
of
sensations
appears
are
to
by
pungency
of smell at all,
sensation
a
strictly
but a peculiarkind of tactual experience. Odours
proper
do
to
not
produce sneezing : this is due to
appear
sensations
Odorous
irritation affecting
the sense
of touch.
take
time
to
some
develop after the contact of the
stimulus
with the olfactory
membrane, and may last very
the stimulus
is repeated the sensation
long. When
very
terminal
dies
out : the
speedily
soon
organs
sensory
of
odour
an
is not
"
become
exhausted.
olfactory membrane
sensation
large
area
; animals
of
larger,apparently,the surface of
the
intense
employed, the more
The
with
acute
scent
olfactory membrane.
have
proportionately
The
greater the
" 1.]
OTHER
quantityof
the
odoriferous
intense
more
SENSATIONS.
material
the
185
to the
membrane,
certain
limit ; and
brought
sensation
to
up
an
rise
to
for
distinct
sensation.
is
sensation, however,
reached,
soon
of
limit
The
increase
minute
of
quantity
of smell
sense
life of animals.
the
hearing are
it by means
to
of scent.
the
warns
pursuer
is
It
The
us.
On
the
other
The
of
ants
specieswho
another
to their
own
that
odours
this
belonging
The
unfamiliar
nest
has
and
nest
is due
to
odour
of the
the scent
been
to
different
of
There
are
an
the
them
attack
ants
clearlyshown
peculiar and
nests
ant
of another
among
conditions
It has
nests.
those
intrude
may
normal
under
they never
odour.
attack
nest
one
follows
escape.
its
some
own
men
this
possess
hand
distinguishhuman
animals
other
and
and
prey
every individual
characteristic and distinctive
can
animal
Probably
who
plays an
and
nest
or
of
; whereas
belonging
by experiment
distinctive
their inhabitants.
coming
from
strange
1389-1390.
PSYCHOLOGY.
186
of
tenants
the
nest,
it may
widely
incorrect
that
to say
notice
no
differ
[BK, n.,
in
is taken
other
recognise
own
family:
ants
vi.
of it however
from
appearance
CH.
these.
It
is
belonging
depends on the
of strangers.*
ants
as
all
belonging to their
odour
irritatingeffect of the unfamiliar
The comparativelysmall part played by smell in the mental
for by the fact
life of human
beings may be accounted
that trains of ideas constitute
so
large a part of human
experience. Smells are not adapted to ideal revival in
serial succession as sounds
and sightsare.
of three
" 2. Cutaneous Sensations. These are principally
not
or
"
kinds
temperature, and
pressure,
"
their nature
to
prominent
are
character
called
are
sensation
"The
The
the
even
with
caused
organicsensations
by
pressure
is at
in
general.
its maximum
its
sensation
sensation.
when
surrounding areas
the
at
pressure
into
the
surface
in contact
not
skin
be
wholly
drawn
See
of
with
covered
up
Albrecht
and
Bethe's
Qualitdten zuschreiben
Bethe
also
shows
of smell.
that
In
the
Thus
are
if the
with
the
than
will be felt
den
Diirfen wir
(Archiv fur
moving they
die
their
leave
an
caused
und
odorous
is
finger
will be
that
Bienen
psychische
Bd.
Physiologie.
70).
gesammte
to
which
if the
and
Ameisen
way
skin
more
mercury;
the sensation
find
subject to
fingerbe dipped
not
adjoining the
the mercury,
ants
spot is increased
of the mercury
fluid
down,
in any
skin
of
time.
same
the pressure
mercury
the
means
This
pains.
rise to any
allied in
diminishes.
beginning, and thenceforward
more
suddenly the pressure is increased,the greater
sensation ; and if the increase be sufficiently
gradual,
be applied without
giving
may
very great pressure
after
soon
at
others
which
the most
organic sensations,among
their peculiarly
those which
from
able
disagree-
in connexion
considered
certain
and
from
track
their nests
behind
them.
by
OTHER
$ 2.]
of
that
marked
in every
body
be detected
conditions
present
are
soon
as
the
uniform
stimulus
within
the
and
body itself,
with
the
clothes
when
differences.
The
ordinarilyescape
attend
we
of the skin
areas
of
that
as
which
varying degrees.
surface
Such
them.
to
blood, etc.,furnish
contact
different
can
of the
produces sensations
are
quitediscernible
The
the
circulation
constantlypresent
such
of
their presence
attention
turn
fact,pressure-
general surface
lives,and
our
we
as
of
matter
the
over
of
moment
as
As
attention.
to attract
sensations
the
187
in
SENSATIONS.
the
The
tips of
forehead,
sole of the
we
wear
notice,but
to them.
are
sensitive
the
the lips,and
fingers,
discriminate
foot,the
to pressure
the
and
arm,
smallest
the
back,
have
various
textures.
Thus
contact
with
smooth
surface
and
different
rough surface yield specifically
experiences. Similarly,we
distinguish sharpness and
and
and
softness,wetness
bluntness,hardness
dryness.
All these peculiarqualities
of sensation are due to varying
contact
with
combinations
of
pressure,
to
variations
in
the
relative
of surface
touched.
*
These
Foster,op. cit.,
p.
various
1413.
are
qualities
PSYCHOLOGY.
188
[BK. n.,
en.
yi.
tions
presented to consciousness,not merely as varying combinaof pressure,
but
as
having a specificcharacter of
their own,
which
does not appear
to be capable of further
here
confronted
with
the same
fact
are
analysis. We
which
has met
in other departments of sensation.
Just
us
the partialtones combined
in a musical
note
as
produce by
their union a specific
experiencedistinct from the quality
taken
of any of them
separately,or of all of them taken
ence
together,so the combination of pressures which we experiwhen
velvet comes
in contact with the skin,produces
of consciousness
call
those peculiarmodifications
which we
and
softness
smoothness.
of
are
Temperature-sensations
hot.
the
that
from
that
to
The
of
of
of
necessary
be too
is not
the
certain
temperature
what
we
to
the
skin,
is raised
rise in
skin has
that
certain
previously
it is also a
call
and
the
temperatures
may
differ
heat
is
of
skin
at the
time
will have
does
temperature
hand
more
so
the
enter
may
forehead
or
As
less
sudden
the stimulus
Op. dt.,p.
1416.
the
same
give
not
another, though
widely."*
of the skin ;
*
should
temperature
temperature
temperature
and
has
temperature
regionsof the
skin at a given
conscious,for instance,that
directly
sensations
which
sensation
may
from
to
of
black
of
marked
sufficiently
take place when
the
in all
given spot
distinct
the
Our
"
same
that
time
time.
to
only
seems
gradual.
heat
cold and
the
"
distinct
specifically
as
sensation
of
varies from
which
sensation
condition
is
the
as
region of
fairlyconstant,
been
and
attention
temperature
not
warmth,
white.
attract
of cold
sensation
classes
two
not
has
the
stimulus
rise in
for sensations
rise
into
be
one
two
for
the
of
cold is
skin.
This
more
loss sudden
or
discernible whenever
cold
is
sensations
The
are
respectively
"If
to
blunt
exert
189
attract
to
SENSATIONS.
OTHER
" 2.]
and
produced
pointed but
and
cold
of
otherwise
of
pressure
points of
the
fine needle
be
different
at
explorationwill
little
pressure,
are
it.
heat
of
we
skin.
used
ascertain
that
of pressure
can
readily be
points the amount
at other
while
of touch
is acute
recognised the sense
the
be quite near
others, the
points, and these may
of pressure cannot
be recognised,and indeed
amount
no
is excessive
/sensation is experienced until the pressure
at
some
"
"
and
then
but
of
felt is not
sensation
pain. Similarly,if
of
means
will
the
be
metal
found
tube
rod
or
cold
or
touch
be
narrowed
to
proper
applied by
a
point, it
also
with
those
does
not
to
the
some
sensitive
are
sensitive
that
that
heat
of
one
heat
pressure
cold,and
or
points sensitive
sensitive
seem
to
to
and
cold.
to
be
so
to
are
those
vice versa"*
heat
The
complete
are
which
It appears
not
separationin
as
pressure-spots. Some
that
are
identical
this
between
case
perature-sp
tem-
pointspeculiarly
sensitive to cold seem
also in a less degree to be sensitive
to heat, though this result of experiment may
be illusory.
It is possiblydue
to spreading of the
stimulation
over
is
neighbouring parts of the skin. Further investigation
*
Op. cit.,
p. 1428, 1429.
PSYCHOLOGY.
190
of
seat
of
sense
" 3.
and
distinct
three
cold,and
see
the
senses,
If
of the
accuratelyaware
close
we
body, we
own
our
"
the
"
the
of
sense
CH.
skin
vr.
is the
the
heat,
of pressure.
sense
Sensations.
Motor
cannot
generalresult,so far,is:
the
needed, but
[BK. n.,
our
none
are
positionof
eyes so
the less
our
that
wo
distinctly
limbs.
If
wo
the finger,we
aro
or
example the arm
and direction
of the amount
and accurately
aware
distinctly
of the change and of the new
positionwhich it produces.
Similarly,if instead of merely moving a limb we push
of the kind
againsta wall, or lift a weight, we are aware
and degree of tension produced by the resistance opposed
movements
efforts.
to our
initiating
If,instead of actively
ourselves,we allow the positionof our limbs to be shifted
in various ways
by another person while we remain passive,
stillalmost equallycapable of appreciating
position
we
are
contracted
muscles
and change of position. If our
are
by
the
applicationof an electric current, the experiences
mark
which
positionand change of positionas well as
move
limb,
kind
and
amount
for
of
continue
resistance,
to be
present.
?
In any movement
experiencesoriginate
tissues.
a
changes take place in a great many
great many
the skin is in various ways
In moving the arm,
crumpled
do these
How
There
are
pressed at every stage of the process.
varying degrees and kinds of tension in the tendons : the
one
another; the muscles pass through
jointsslide over
and
various
be
stages of contraction.
suppliedwith
each
that
and
of
matter
in
some
important.
Our
these
tissues appear
to
possible
; it is therefore
sensory nerves
the
all of them
contribute
to determine
experienceswhich
As
All
mark
fact,it
degree.
discrimination
skin
of
appears
to
be
the least
movement,
position,
etc.,
OTHER
"3.]
is not
"
notably
the skin ;
for
in
our
while
SENSATIONS.
diminished
by temporary
if,for instance,the
anaesthetic,we
power
of
191
skin of the
do not
or
be
arm
find any
judging1 weights
anaesthesia
marked
of
rendered
change
resistance,or
in
movement,
*
and
tension.
vol. ii.,
t James, Principles
of Psychology,
Op. clt.,
p. 1436.
pp.
An
Outline of Psychology,
Titchener,
p. 61.
192-193.
PSYCHOLOGY.
192
distinction
The
between
is
and
position-sensations
important. The former are due
of
particularform
quiescent,the latter
The
sensations
nervous
moved
into
change
to
of
tension
have
we
the
vi.
ment-sensations
move-
to the
when
organs
in this form.
far considered
another
by
contraction
sensations
when
such
been
to the
actual
due
muscles, joints,tendons,
and
thrown
electric
besides
these
changes
skin, there
to be
the
as
that
and
be
to
means
maintained
state
limbs
our
muscles
our
artificial
it has
are
allow
we
or
person,
by
But
current.
so
volition,and
own
our
the
en.
peripheral
origin. They are produced by impressionsproceeding
from
outlying portions of the body to the
system. They are equallypresent when we move
in their
by
[BK- IT.,
of state
is also
of
tional
sensa-
Bain,
is
direct
independent of
produce.
may
This
At
tension
well
as
can
them
we
other
hand, when
move
the
when
when
the
called
forth
put
forth
putting
by
the
sense
present
time
our
The
own
in consequence
denial
which
of
of
energy
sensory
or
of effort,
it is the
is
the
fashion
mainly founded
and
movement,
appreciateposition,
the limbs
are
as
passivelymoved
existence.
we
of energy
peculiar modification
been
innervation-seme.
on
results
any
has
consciousness
sense
is
volition ; and
of
nervous
that,on
the
diseases
the
the nature
us
of the actual
OTHER
" 3.]
effects of the
are
have
SEXSATIOXS.
It
impulse.
motor
limb
has
all the
another
limb
knows
Hence
his eyes
with
has
time
only tell us
can
anaesthetic
193
will
shut ; and
held
we
actuallydoing
are
to
move
or
an
he may
suppose
place,although the
actuallytaken
been
what
in its
originalpositionby
The
the
patientdoes not know whether
has changed its positionor not ; but he none
the less
that he has made
an
attempt to change its position.
the argument
does
not
positivelydisprove tho
person.
existence
of
an
that
maintain
innervation-
it throws
the
But
sense.
it must
probandi
onus
this
peculiarmode of sentience.
that the patientwould
in such a case
be aware
made
an
attempt ; but this only shows that
of his volitions.
But volition is by no
means
innervationthan
more
conation.
person
must
But
sense
a
it is not, in
belief is
It is true
in
some
fact,a
sensation
that
way
in order
be
able
to
to
those
on
We
mitted
adwho
have
said
that he had
he is conscious
the
sensation
; it is
be
at
same
all,any
peculiarmode
will
think
as
movement
of this
of
a
ment.
move-
is enough : the
representation
ideal representation
involve
ideal reproductionof
may
it may
motor
sensations
or
mainly consist of a
proper,
visual image.
In neither case
it be regarded as a
can
peculiarsensation immediately accompanying the motor
discharge.
There is certainly
the experience
a vital difference between
of having a limb passively
moved, and that of moving it
initiative. But
it is very far from
clear that
by our own
the active movement
involves a peculiarsensation which is
absent in the passive movement,
sensation comparable
a
In
with
those
which
arise from
joints and tendons.
passingfrom a state of doubt to a state of belief there is a
Psych.
J3
PSYCHOLOGY.
194
[BK. n.,
CH.
vr.
as
those
There
the
of redness
however,
are,
assumption of
an
or
of heat
greenness,
certain
facts which
or
lend
inriervation-sense.
The
cold.
support
to
patientwho
that he
not only knows
a paralysed limb
attempts to move
is making the attempt, but is also aware
of differences
of effort which
in the amount
he
forth.
puts
This
be
may
of the
If the
which
is
muscle
eye
which
the
moves
that an
so
paralysed,
longer possible,the
no
are
eye
outward
effort to
harder
to
right is
the
to
pletely
com-
of the eye
movement
produces
it
move
deal with.
an
The muscle
of the object looked
at.
apparent movement
be only partially
disabled,so that it is still capable of
may
In
twenty degrees and of no more.
this case, the patient,
although he has moved his eye only
through the angle of twenty degrees, refers the objects
to the same
seen
positionwhich they would occupy if they
a
lateral rotation
were
an
seen
outward
measures
by
of
the
normal
direction.
the
amount
eye
This
turned
seems
to
of movement
as
far
that
show
by
as
the
possiblein
the patient
amount
of his
the
other
eye
for when
or
both
eyes
are
either
the
Double,and
the
open,
see
SENSATIONS.
OTHER
" 4.]
illusion is confined
illusion is
The
eye.
to
195
diseased
the
the
image presented to
constantlypresent when
normal
the
eye is closed.
It
be
is
that
seems
the
for innervation-sensations
case
cannot
for
further
very
one
evidence.
In
conclusion, we
must
of the
forms
two
the
note
one
theory,
advocated
other
by
Wundt.
is
According to Bain, the innervation-experience
primarilyoccasioned by the motor dischargeitself : it is a
tion
unique kind of sensation correlated with the active initiaof movement.
According to Wundt, on the contrary,
its specific
qualityis ultimatelyderived from a peripheral
The
source.
of
area
impulses
are
character
rather
the
from
cortex
which
the
motor
in which
motor
discharged is also the area
sensations in general are localised.
Hence, the excitement
of this area
in the process of motor
dischargeinvolves a
less similar to those
or
reproductionof experiencesmore
which
arise from peripheralsources
in the actual execution
of the movement
the
the reproduction assumes
; but
There
be
can
theory of
in the
form
4.
no
actual
an
doubt
that,
in which
Bain
derive
if
at
we
than
are
all,we
of
to
has
accept the
accept
propounded by AVundt,
given it.
"
The
sensations
we
idea.*
an
must
it is
OrganicSensations.
considered
sensation
innervation-sensations
in that which
"
of
and
have
so
their main
it
not
far
On
this
pointWundt's
own
statements
are
somewhat
vague.
PSYCHOLOGY.
196
do
sensations
[BK. n.,
arise from
CH.
vi.
external
impressions:
they originatewithin the organism itself. But they none
the less play a most
important part in the perceptionof
external
things. It is through them that we appreciate
there
is
weight, resistance,and space-relations.But
which
another
class of sensations
states of
mainly mark
the organism itself,
and not the nature
of external objects.
motor
These
called
are
extreme
cold
heat
cold at
and
no
not
organic
is the
is heat
In
from
they are
cold.
a
produced by
of such
whether
same
like
bruise,a blow,
characteristic
heat
and
experience,which
or
Extreme
sensations.
very
the
manner,
cut,may
or
the external
various
sensations
agency
sensations
be
ing
result-
similar,though
external
that
agencies. It is
they persistoften for
of
the
external
organic sensations
our
experience.
dependson
them.
world.
In
every
constitute
The
On
general
them,
most
tone
moment
of
our
lives
important element in
of our
bodily feeling
depends the
difference
between
SENSATIONS.
OTHER
$ 4.]
107
is called the
coenaesthesis. When,
or
sensibility
common
of
general mass
the
detaches
organic sensation
a
sensibility,
single
common
itself and
becomes
salient
in
consciousness, it is
and
usually intrusive
engrossing.
Such
sensations
are
specially characterised
by their
diffusiveness.
They do not, like sensations of sight or
depend merely on the localised affection of a
pressure,
circumscribed
portion of the organism ; they also involve
less widespread organic disturbance.
For
more
a
or
instance,the pain-sensation produced by a cut or a blow
is a complex experience partly depending on
the
turbance
disof
the
whole
respiration,circulation, and
The
the
intense
motor
more
apparatus of the body.
sensation,the more
conspicuous and widespread is this
generalorganicdisturbance.
This brings us to another
aspect of organic sensation.
It may
arise, and usually does arise in part, from a
disturbance
of the nervous
system, which excites changes
throughout the organism, these changes in their turn
In
all the
intense
more
giving rise to sensations.
emotions, there is an accompaniment of organicsensation
This
is so
originatingin this manner.
important an
element
in
the
total state
that
it has
been
have
seen*
that
the
organic sensations
are
under
normal
*
Book
held
to
stitute
con-
experience.
of central initiation
possibility
tions
reproducibleas no other sensa-
conditions.
Whatever
I.,chap, ii.,
" 9, ad fin.
reinstates
PSYCHOLOGY.
198
similar
vi.
disturbance,will indirectlyproduce
similar
organic sensations.
Tickling,for instance, is a
will
anticipation
very diffusive experience; and the mere
because
it
produce the correspondingorganic sensations,
produces the general disturbance of nervous
equilibrium
which they depend. The uncomfortable
on
feelingswhich
arise in paying a visit to a dentist,even
before he begins
have the same
source.
operations,
We
shall have something to say about
pain-sensations
in general in a subsequent chapter. "We
need
here
portance
only refer to two
organic experiences of specialimhunger and thirst. Thirst is usually produced
of the water
"by the diminution
present in the body
either through restriction of the intake, or through excess
a
nervous
"
of
the
output in the
secretions,such
as
that
of
sweat,
"
Foster,op. cit.,
p.
1423.
f Op. cit.,
p.
1424.
CHAPTEE
VII.
LAW.
WEBER-FECHNER
THE
can
"
disparatein kind, we
are
they
unlike.
are
brightnessof
we
a
the
sound,
we
any
instance, we
cannot
is
the
equal
to
if
hand,
we
of
objects
that
than
more
say
two
any
If the
comparing
the
the soul.
If
of
immortality of
the
can
fix
with
sun
to
only result
is the
brightnessof
the
compare
cannot
This
unlike.
unable
are
compare
we
between
them.
For
of the
sound
brightness of
the
compare
the
light.
On
the
other
of the
quantitative variations
same
definite
results.
louder
much
we
We
B
than
select two
can
proceed to
We
of
find
then
may
third
compare
extremes, A
and
D,
unlike
as
sounds
of the
B
can
say
that
is louder
sound, C,
one
than
of different
and
C,
so
in loudness
199
as
to
to A
In
as
this way
loudness, and
exactlyintermediate
the intermediate
A.
is
between
then
them.
with each
sound, .Z?,
A
interposebetween
in the same
degree in
PSYCHOLOGY.
200
which,
it is unlike
in
and
"
between
degree
an
loudness
unlike
it is unlike
in which
possibleto
form
unlikeness
from
scale
a
a
[BK.
B
in loudness
in loudness
and
to
to B
to
C.
CH.
vn.
interpose
in the
same
It is thus
very
to
n.,
sound
to
very
loud
one.
degrees of unlikeness in
pitch,in the brightnessof light,in weight as appreciated
Now
the fundamental
etc.
by pressure on the skin or by lifting,
underlies
law
is that equal
Weber's
fact which
in sensation
do not
correspond to
degrees of unlikeness
equal increase or decrease in the absolute intensityof the
tion
stimulus.
If a series of increasingintensities of stimulabe denoted
by R^ Jlz,^3, ^4, and the corresponding
between
sensations by r1? r2, r3, r4, the degree of unlikeness
between
degree of unlikeness
r2 is equal to the
rv and
Similar
scales
be
can
formed
7?
rs and
r4, when
"
7?
-1=
-"a
respects more
some
for
"
?,or
to
use
an
equivalentformula, in
-^4
convenient,when
in psychology were
Long before quantitativemethods
had occasion
the stars
to classify
thought of, astronomers
different
according to their relative brightness. The
classes are
arranged in a scale. At the top of the scale
the brightest
in average
comes
brightness
; the unlikeness
this and the second class is equal to the unlikeness
between
in average
brightnessbetween the second and third class,
The
and so on.
correspondingintensities of the physical
lightshave since been determined; and it is found that
they approximately form the geometricalseries,^, ", ",
Here
each stimulus
is the half of the preceding
i1^,etc.
stimulus.
an(i
Obviously ":":!":",
In
WEI3E11-FECHNER
" 1.]
stimulus
limits,the
Within
law
same
whatever
by
fraction
also.
fraction
in the sensation
is different
for
be,
of its
be
kinds
term
there
is
no
difference
passed,but
discernment
brightness of
when
increased
placetwo
white
than
white
the
is
candles
stimulus
respects
to
in
us
before
of
of the
as
surface,the
throw
in the
threshold
difference.
shadow
shadows
caused
by
of
each
For
cernible
disto
words,
originalstimulus.
two
that
threshold
unlikeness
speak
leading
mis-
saying
the
of the
T^"th
the
to
perceptible
; or
is
difference-threshold
threshold
In
skin,
light,unlikeness
only becomes
ratio of the originalstimulus
is 100
so
the
increased
discernible
no
of the
stimulus
the increment
is
constant
is
in the'"sensation
that there
The
on
warrant
not
It is better therefore
sensation.
on
facts do
the
before
of sensation.
passed.
of
unlikeness
an
technical
use
is
before
increased
amount,
own
be
must
is discernible.
different
sponding
corre-
any
becoming perceptible.*
The
original stimulus,
intensitymay
constant
unlikeness
any
here
its absolute
certain
holds
201
without
vary
may
in the sensation
unlikeness
The
LAW.
some
"
the
when
If
we
object
lightwill
be
by
the other
See book
chap,i.,"
ii.,
3.
PSYCHOLOGY.
202
UK.
ci.
v;i.
.,
lamps, moving
to be
ceases
moved
visible,Ave
just as
difference
which
lamp
one
far
between
the
until
the
the
as
away
candle
the
; that
illumination
shadow
lamp
is to
of
the
sav,
it casts
has
to be
the least
bright lamps
in the case
of the
as
appreciateis the same
dimmer
candles.
Many similar examples might be given
showing a similar result,in fact,it is found by careful
observation
that,within tolerablywide limits,the smallest
difference of lightwhich
sations
we
can
appreciateby visual senis a constant
fraction (about T^oth) of the total
luminosityemployed."*
we
can
It should
degree
be
added
that
stimulus
must
reach
certain
of
intensitybefore it can
produce any discernible
sensation at all. Physicallightor physicalsound
be
may
too faint to be distinguishable.The
point at which it is
that the least increase
would
so
just indistinguishable,
make
it distinguishable,
is called the stimulus-threshold.
scribed
" 2. Interpretation.The explanation of the facts dehas been much
discussed.
One hypothesisis that
increase in the intensity
of the stimulus fails to produce an
increase in the intensity
of the sensation until the increment
is a certain fraction of the originalstimulus.
On this hypothesis
the sensation ought to vary by leaps and bounds
at
certain fixed points. The reason
why no unlikeness in the
reached
sensation is discernible before these points are
is
"
that
no
unlikeness
in the sensation
be
exists.
This
may
points-of
sensation
the original
relative increment
is required to make
be, the same
may
unlikeness
discernible.
In
gradually increasing the
intensityof the stimulus,it is not found that there are
certain
points at which
change in sensation becomes
definitely
rejected. There are no
transition. Whatever
the intensity
of
.Foster,
op. cit.,
p.
such
1211.
fixed
view
WEBEK-FECHNER
" 2.]
LAW.
203
conditions
should
have
effect
great an
so
the actual
on
sensation
of
intensity
but
with
of
the
sensation
estimatingweight by
an
that
the
variations
variations
In
absolute, so
ounce,
unlikeness
we
is discernible
add
of
; if
arithmetical
third of
we
an
begin
if
begin
before
ounce
with
we
series.
pound,
any
we
is
pound before any unlikeness
discernible.
In
both
the
according to Fechner
cases,
is not
increase in the intensity
of the pressure-sensations
but absolutelythe same.
There
the same
are
relatively
If we
the
compare
very serious objectionsto this view.
with
no
weight of an ounce
weight at all,according to
the
two
between
Fechner, the degree of unlikeness
must
third
an
stimulus
corresponding
of pressure,
means
add
must
form
the
of
PSYCHOLOGY.
204
[BK. TT.,
CTT.
vil.
to the differstrictly
proportional
between
the intensity
of sensation
once
produced by one
and
the complete absence
of pressure
sensation.
ounce,
In other words, it ought to be proportional
to the absolute
But
as
a
ounce.
intensityof pressure produced by one
to be
experiencesought
of
matter
sensation
fact,the
unlikeness
and
finite value
any
between
the
value
zero
is infinite.
Hence,
of
for this
breaks down.
There
limitingcase, Fechner's interpretation
in testingit in other cases, because
of the
is a difficulty
magnipeculiarnature of intensive magnitude. Intensive tude
is indivisible.
from
louder
loudness
in
such
the
so
to be
as
able to
point to
of unlikeness
their
proportionalto
which
the other.
But
law
Hence
left if
be
there
is
simply
to
the
be subtracted
could
of the
cases
that
application
in which
contention
"
other
are
of
cannot
we
difference,
one
sound
degree
sensations
two
mathematical
would
certain
Fechner's
between
fainter
remainder.
immediately test
cases
remainder
subtract
cannot
the mathematical
as
degree
from
We
unlikeness
between
line
to be
ought
the
mathematical
physicalpoint of
presented to the
view.
in which
be
an
inch
eye
the
the
For
under
if
is the
retina
mode
well
suppose
similar
with the
same
"
as
the
In both
one
from
in which
one
inch.
the
lines to be
conditions,the
in the
inch
unlikeness
of
inch line.
seven
we
the three
degree
psychologicalas
affects the
identical
virtually
line and
difference
the
is true
with
line and
from
This
inch
two
identical
between
cases
the
this
case
mode
may
it affects the
WEBER-FECHNER
" 2.]
other
I AAV.
The
inches
205
only equal
measured
as
by a rule ; they also appear equal as they are
We
therefore
are
dealing
presented to consciousness.
and not merely with physical,
with psychical,
magnitudes.
that
2
in
But
1, and
spite of the fact that 3
6 also
7
1, there is a greater degree of unlikeness
inches taken
the line of two
between
a
as
whole, and
in the
retina
case.
not
are
"
"
of
that
between
line
the
taken
inches
three
of
six
as
and
than
whole,
that
of
there
inches.
seven
is
The
perceptibledegrees of unlikeness.
If we
have to increase the length of a line of six inches by
be just
in order that the unlikeness
certain amount
a
may
the length of a line of two
increase
must
we
discernible,
but in the same
amount,
inches, not by the same
portion,
probe justdiscernible.
in order that the unlikeness
may
holds
same
Number
lay a
for
least
well
as
of three
group
two, and if we
of
the
then
group
is between
there
lay a
that
of
there
in both
cases
one
counter
; and
of
is
eight and
If
of three
and
the
group
than
seven
of two.
the group
be
to
we
group
resemblance
of
group
difference
appear
eight beside
greater
the
the mathematical
it may
illustration.
on
group
the group
Yet
affords
counters
it is clear
of seven,
between
extension
as
is the
same
same
as
"
sented
pre-
The
like
consciousness.
billion
than
eleven
dealings of life,if
amounting to hundreds
not
by
matter
no
means
is under
We
may
about
odd
we
is like ten.
have
of
then
conclude
the
that
but
sum
ordinary
receive
feel that
we
penny
to be
degree of
in the
or
pay
pounds,
pence
negligibleif
shilling.
to
So
more
paid
it does
or
or
unlikeness
sums
less is
received
between
PSYCHOLOGY.
200
the visible
quantitiesis
difference
neither
[UK.
identical
n.,
cir.
vn.
matical
with their mathe-
proportionedto it.
In the case
of intensive magnitudes, such as the loudness
of a sound, or the brightnessof a light,
there is,properly
cannot
we
speaking,no mathematical
difference,because
divide such magnitudes into parts, so as to find a numerical
equivalentfor each, and subtract the one from the other.
in intensive
None
the less, there
be
magnitude
may
difference.
something analogous to the mathematical
The
tude
velocityof a moving body is an intensive magniit is a magnitude which
be represented
can
; but
which
is a function
of the space traversed
by a number
and
the
time
thus
be
treated
capable of
reason
why
conceived
nor
which
as
addition
the
in
the
it takes
if it
were
and
way.
an
extensive
sensation
At
it.
traverse
subtraction.
intensityof
same
to
any
It
may
magnitude
is
There
should
not
rate, the
no
be
mere
that
the
stimulus
AVe
we
cannot
degrees of
are
by dividingthe
Further
discern
to
the
into
of units
sum
represents velocity.
of space
" 3.
of lime
of units
sum
207
LAW.
FECI-IXETI
WEBER-
$ ?,.]
questions.It
Now
small.
is very
the unlikeness
more
less effort
or
is greatestwhen
difficulty
.The
unlikeness.
an
cost
may
"
it has
maintained
been
ourselves
we
reallyestimate when
suppose
to be estimatingdegrees of unlikeness, is the degree of
at all;
find in perceivingunlikeness
which
we
difficulty
A
the less the unlikeness.
the greater the difficulty,
The
this is untrue.
shows
that
simple consideration
tinguish
lower
are
speciallydifficult to disgrades of unlikeness
the unlikeness
is increased in degree,it
; and, as
But this holds only up to a
discernible.
becomes
more
easily
is sufficiently
the unlikeness
certain point. When
great
without
and
after
it is discernible
appreciabledifficulty,
does not make
it appreciablyeasier
increase
this further
therefore
conclude
must
that
to
our
perceive. We
judgment of unlikeness depends primarily on the actual
of detecting
or
unlikeness,and not on the ease
difficulty
it. At the same
of detecting
or
time, the ease
difficulty
less affect our
unlikeness
or
more
an
judgment of its
may
that what
we
amount.
It may
be
of
source
and
error,
deviations
explain apparent
extent
some
thus
from
to
may
Weber's
law.
Here
assumed
degrees
question
of
without
discussion
of unlikeness
are
qualities
equal.
It is indeed
which
not
they
follow
that
between
Now
this is
self-evident
are
that
is to say,
that
they
are
with
themselves
no
It is often
least
perceptible
kinds
same
by
discernible
all discernible
all
the
just discernible,are
are
that
if
importance arises.
some
of sensible
self-evident.
means
degrees
of
unlikeness
therefore
with
cernible
equally disEven
equal ease.
equal
equal.
ease,
The
it does
not
appeal
in
PSYCHOLOGY.
203
the
last
be
en.
vn.
comparison. A
valid reason
for assuming them
to be equal is that they
is that they occur
under the
equal. Another reason
appear
conditions
holds
in general for
of Weber's
law, which
equal degrees of unlikeness.
A
stimulus
reach
must
certain degree of intensity
a
before
it can
produce any discernible sensation at all.
The
it produces any
sensation
question arises whether
before it produces a discernible
sensation.
Proceeding on
the general analogy of the results we
have
in
reached
law we
that in all probamust
assume
discussingWeber's
bility
it does.
W'e have here a special
of the general
case
relation
instance
[r,x.::.,
of
must
stimulus
sensation
varies
variation
becoming
actual
sensation.
to
the
as
to
stimulus
Within
is
limits, the
increased,without
perceptible.It
is most
natural
the
to
is not
of a stimulus, which
bring the case
yet intense
enough to produce a discernible sensation at all,under the
same
principle. It is stillmore
improbable that sensations
attention is otherwise
which
our
escape notice merely because
occupied have no existence as psychicalfacts. Thus,
from
reinforce
the
can
our
present point of view, we
argument
" 4.
of Bk.
II.,ch. i.,"
Limitations
Weber's
law
all sensations
being the
discovered
as
of
2.
TPeber's
Law.
"
We
have
if it held
good exactlyand
but
matter
as
of
spoken of
uniformly for
fact this
is far from
case.
In view
high or very low intensities of sensation.
the complexityof the operativeconditions this is not in
least surprising. Our
of discriminatingmay
power
influenced by many
factors besides the actual nature
of
very
sensations
between
which
we
intensityof
have
to
stimulus
compare.
and
absolute
The
of
the
be
the
relation
of
intensity
sensation
other
LAW.
WEBER-FECHNEft
" 4.]
We
may
unlikeness
that
it states
as
depends
and
may,
conditions
itself.
209
their relative
upon
between
without
difference,
sensations
supposing
onlyby difference
of the
The
specialstructure
probably an important factor.
stimulation.
external
different
To
sense-organs
speak
of
is
nothing else,the
of their
own
due
eye
to internal
and
the
ear
have
which,
stimulation,
sations
sen-
it is
The
Ueber
treatment
die
of
Bedeutung des
Psych.
Weber's
law
Weberschen
in
this
Chapter
etc.
Gesetzes,
follows
Meinong,
VIIL
CHAPTER
THE
"
Sensibility.The
1. Common
pleasure
"
organic sensations
importance in our
all-pervading
with,
these
sensations
fused
are
SENSATION.
OF
FEELING-TO:NTE
in
of
are
pain
fundamental
mental
total
and
life.
of
mass
nected
con-
and
Normally,
experience,
ponents
partiallyanalysed into its comwhich
line
by attentive scrutiny. The membranes
internal organs
are
generally supplied by sensory
our
which, from all parts of the body, are perpetually
nerves,
conductinga multitude of impressionsto the central nervous
system. On the resultant effect of these impulsesit depends
which
whether
be
only
can
at
any
very
moment
feel well
we
or
ill,cross
or
placent.
com-
fact
which
to
are
the
need
nature
extended
agreeableto
unpleasantto
of
our
illustration.
the
the invalid.
Smells
and
tastes
may
be
highly
meal,
food
healthy person
After
210
full
which
delicious
previously
was
OF
FEELING-TONE
$ 1.]
SENSATION.
almost
become
may
211
even
nauseous;
the
idea
be
of it may
for
repugnances
articles
organicsensations
system.*
nervous
of
influence
The
food.
It
the whole
neural
thus
state
processes
that
appears
central
of the
connected
with
receiving sensory
system
nervous
and
is also
in
impressions
from
the
directly affected
the
character
internal
organs,
by general organic
the
ditions,
con-
amount
particular by
to determine
supply which flows to it. This factor must also contribute
of experience as
the general nature
pleasant or unpleasant. Its relative
with
the
indirect effect of sensory
more
importance as compared
sions
impres-
upon
the inteinal
organs
and
is difficult to estimate.
of
the
blood-
PSYCHOLOGY.
212
[BK. n..
en.
vm.
are
appliesto
more
often
them
in
restricted
A bitter taste
and
distinctive
discord
the
sense
be
disagreeable,
but it is not usuallycalled a pain. On the other hand, we
currentlyspeak of the pains of hunger, of scaldingor
is that the main
The
reason
burning, or of toothache.
experiences lies in their intrinsic
importance of such
feeling-tone. They have comparativelylittle value for
They contribute
comparatively
cognitive consciousness.
of the qualitiesof external
little to the discrimination
less vague
information
bodies ; and theyyieldonly more
or
word
pains.
about
the
received
condition
in
of
must
the
mere
exist
in
some
character
the
and
the
be
word, pains,
those
have
its
own.
accompanying
different
It
is
sensation
kinds
other
unpleasantness.
abstract
purity: it
sensation
having a
of
help us
not
that
at
The
is
"When
have
we
it to find out
mode
proper
itself does
noted
look
to
their
of
have
may
bodies.
own
our
we
wound,
precisecharacter
The pain-sensation
It
of
or
of
its
treating it.
much.
sensations
which
distinctive
application
characteristics
are
besides
feeling-tonedoes not
always the feeling-tone
more
or
through
that
we
less
determinate
the
character
are
able
to
of
tinguish
dis-
" 1.]
FEELING-TONE
OF
SENSATION.
213
the
pain-sensationsin other
respects than
intensityof their painfulness. The points of agreement
and
difference
in the
to a large extent
to be found
are
temporal and local distribution of the constituents of a
distribution
is marked
by
complex experience.Local
such terms
and
as
pricking,
shooting.Temporal sequence
by such terms as throlling,
rhythmic alternation are marked
the
These
like.
differentiating
beating,and
qualities
which
in
we
use
describing the varieties of painsensation
have
of any
usually little cognitive value
is conother
kind.
So far as
cerned,
cognitive consciousness
their main
function
is fulfilled in enabling us to
detect and express the difference between
kind of pain
one
and another.
natural that in naming them
It is therefore
should apply to all indifferently
the common
word pain.
we
But it is better to speak of pain-sensations
than of pain, in
order to indicate that something besides mere
ness
unpleasantis involved.
Markedly analogousexperiencesmay also
without any intenselydisagreeablefeeling-tone.A
occur
slightburn may retain much of the peculiarprickly,
pungent,
qualityof the originalsensation when the painfulnesshas
almost or quitedisappeared. So it is possibleoccasionally
to detect the peculiarthrob
characteristic of a toothache,
and the tenderness
when
of the gum,
the acutelydisagreeable
phase of the experiencehas passed away or has not
times
Hunger is usually unpleasant, but someyet arrived.
the beginning of it does not appear
to be so.
So far we
have referred only to those distinctive features
which
in describing
the difference between
serve
us
one
But there are
pain-sensation and another.
undoubtedly
other
differences
which
seem
incapable of analysisand
of
description.This follows from the diffusive nature
which
we
organic sensations. The particularsensation
compare
PYSCHOLOGY.
2U
regard
wound
as
in
condition
The
have
painful may
a
particularpart of
of
the
membrane
the
tends
and
to
the
origin in
the skin, or
of
the
burn
in
stomach
or
vin.
or
diseased
bowels.
involve
to
its
en.
of the
nature
specific
part determined
by
But
[BK. JL,
overflow
more
the
less the
or
whole
whole
organism.
system,
nervous
The
diffused
effect
be marked
by some
peculiarity
in the experience. Certainly,
the impressionswhich
arise
from
the changed conditions
of the organism as a whole
must
modify the total experiencein an important degree.
But
these elements
not
are
easilyexpressed in definite
language.
They can, as people say, be felt but not
on
system, may
nervous
described.
or
excessive
of the
arise
may
body.
stimulation
The
through
in almost
disintegrationof
any
questionarises,how
part of the
far
are
they
FEELING-TONE
I 1.]
due
tlie existence
to
SENSATION.
OF
of
of
nerves
215
sensibility
common
has
found
that
point peculiarlysensitive
rise to
those
new
of
several
sensation
pressure
taps.
This
which
series
continued
to
from
different in kind
distinctly
had
previouslyaccompanied the
sensation,due
new
on
suddenly give
may
pressure
of taps
cumulative
to the
medium
of the sensation
of this other
thrust
sensation.
into
the
of pressure
Again,
skin;
is felt,which
may
pressure
It is only after the lapse of
at
be
let
were
more
suppose
us
first
only
or
less
point
needle-
sensation
of
disagreeable.
appreciableinterval of time
that the pain-sensationof pricking occurs.
The
timeinterval points to the possibility
that the pain-sensation
subserved
and the pressure-sensation,
are
respectively,
by
different nerves.
This view
to be reinforced
by
appears
certain
There
are
cases
pathological phenomena.
when
intact
This
other
some
sensitiveness
to
an
temperature
and
pressure
remains
while
no
pain-sensations are
longer producible.
sometimes
or
happens to patientsunder chloroform
anaesthetics.
It also occurs
in lead-poisoning
and in
cases
of
nervous
disease.
The
inverse
also may
take
to pain-sensation
be retained,
place. Susceptibility
may
though pressure- and temperature-sensationsare no longer
PSYCHOLOGY.
216
[BK.IT., CH.
sliow
to
seem
the
of
nerve"
state
conveyed.
of the
It has
those
that
vrn.
central
been
of
found
it is
to which
matter
nervous
that removal
or
disablement
of the
matter
accumulators
of
explain the
sudden
nervous
In
energy.
emergence
series of successive
of
new
this way
sensation
we
may
as
the
pressure-point.
Each
feeble nervous
impulse,
tap gives rise to a relatively
which by itself is insufficient to produce a dischargeof the
cells of the cord.
But
the series of taps by its
grey
effect ultimately succeeds
cumulative
in producing an
sensation
explosionof the grey matter, and with it a new
of the
the grey matter
of an
organic character. WTien
spinalcord is removed, the nervous
impulses from the
result
of
taps
on
OF
FEELING-TONE
" 2.]
skin,
because
in the absence
217
their
"whatever
sensations
SENSATION.
of
an
apparatus
for accumulation
of
nervous
energy.
nerves
kinds
is
subserve
which
also subserve
two
there
of
no
reason
temperature- and
pressure-,
pain-sensations,the difference
experience depending upon
between
more
may
the
central
conditions.
turn
to consider
" 2. The Special Sensations. We now
the specialsensations
of sight,sound, smell,taste,touch,
and
temperature. The feeling-toneof these sensations
their
varies,first,with
intensity,secondly, with their
with their quality.
duration,and thirdly,
(1) Many of them in a low grade of intensityappear to
be virtuallyneutral.
All of them, acquire appreciable
their intensity
is increased.
Some
of them
as
feeling-tone
All of them
when
are
they are weak.
unpleasant even
intensified
become
unpleasant when
beyond a certain
point. Before reaching this pointthey nearly all have an
agreeablephase ; after reaching this point they continue
and more
to be more
increases.
disagreeableas intensity
It is a matter
of dispute whether
there is any sensation
is constantlydisagreeablein whatever
which
phase of
It is always possibleto
it appears.
that
intensity
urge
it might be
though a sensation is generallydisagreeable,
agreeableif it could be made weak enough. As an example
of a pleasant
phase of an experiencewhich everybodywould
"
PSYCHOLOGY.
218
[BK. n.,
CH.
viir.
'
certain
minimum
of
intensityin
order
to
have
an
ciable
appre-
of sensation
Further
rise in intensity
tone.
feelingof feeling-tone.If
is accompanied by a rise in intensity
is initially
the
sensation
unpleasant, its unpleasantness
continues
to increase
as
the
sensation
is intensified.
If it
pleasantness increases to a
it remains
at which
certain maximum,
roughly constant
is increased
until the intensityof the sensation
beyond
When
this limit is passed, the pleasantcertain limit.
a
ness
decreases, and finally
f
passes into unpleasantness.
of the transition from
The
nature
pleasantness
pleasantnessto unAn unpleasant
requiresfurther elucidation.
while
to enter
into the experience even
element
appears
to be in itself agreeable.
the originalsensation continues
traceable
to other
This is sometimes
definitely
distinctly
assignablesensations,which are superadded to the primary
warmth
one.
Thus, at a certain pitch of intensity,
may
still agreeable in itself,although it is
be
to
continue
disagreeablesensation of a
accompanied by a distinctly
probably due to stimulation
pricklyor pungent character,
is
initiallypleasant, the
menschlichen
Gefuhlslebens,
p. 181.
FEELING-TONE
" 2.]
OF
SEXSATION.
219
So a
in the part of the skin affected.
pressure-points
bright light may continue to give pleasure when it is so
of
intense
that
unpleasant.
the
effort to
accommodate
But
there
other
are
cases
the
eye
in which
to
it is
it is much
of the
assign definitelythe source
collateral
intense
sweetness
unpleasantness. However
in its own
intrinsic
to become
be, it scarcelyseems
may
excite
nature
disagreeable. At the same
time, it may
with accomto be connected
seems
panying
strong disgust,which
organic sensations not easy to analyseor describe.
(2) The dependence of feeling-toneon duration varies
tained
in nature
accordingas the sensation is continuouslymainor
repeatedintermittently.
There
to be no
appreciable interval of time
appears
between
the emergence
of a sensation
of given intensity
and the correspondingfeeling-tone.Apparent exceptions
be explained away.
If we
touch
can
a
disagreeablyhot
object,the heat is felt before the unpleasantness;but this
the stimulus
is because
requiresa certain time before it
take full effect. On its first application
the sensation
can
is not intense enough to be disagreeable.
The followingis the general formula
for variations
of
with the continuous
tion
feeling-tone
persistenceof the sensaincreases in intensity
in time.
The
to a
feeling-tone
is pleasant,it continues
maximum.
If the sensation
for
and then graduallybecomes
time at this maximum,
some
less agreeable,and in the end distinctly
disagreeable. If
the sensation is initially
unpleasant,the maximum
persists
for a much
longer period than in the case of agreeable
After
sensations.
become
this, the unpleasantness may
into pleasantness,
and
it is
fainter,but it never
passes
intense
at intervals in more
always liable to reappear
more
difficult
phases.
to
PSYCHOLOGY.
220
The
same
remarks
which
we
[BK. n.,
made
about
the
en.
vni.
transition
from
organs,
while
the
sweetness
itself
remains
sufficiently
agreeableto tempt him to go on eating. But
such
even
definitelyassignable collateral
apart from
be
surfeit of sweetness,
a
accompaniments, there may
in itself an
remains
agreeable taste.
though sweetness
Doubtless
this is due
to
some
general organic effect
hard
the
to define
analysis. Sometimes
by introspective
disagreeablenessis simply due to tedium ; if we gaze at
of the
a
bright colour too long we feel bored because
tinues
suspension of other activities,
although the colour conto be pleasing.
mittently
The
in which
the
is repeated intersensation
case
is in many
analogous to that in which it
ways
persistscontinuously. If the repetitionis too frequent,
less pleasant,and
a
pleasant sensation tends to become
often
becomes
by
unpleasant. Unpleasant sensations
often,but by no means
frequentrepetition
always,become
less unpleasant. They may
neutral
become
even
virtually
even
or
actuallypleasant. Perhaps the best instance of
sensation becoming agreeable by repetition
a disagreeable
for olives.
is the
acquiredtaste
When
a pleasant sensation
by repetitiondoes not lose
"
"
FEELTNG-TOXE
$ 2.]
OF
SENSATION.
221
an
disgusting,and when
pleasantness and become
less
more
or
initially
unpleasant sensation has become
its absence
from
consciousness
will
pleasantby repetition,
at certain moments
give rise to a craving for it. Tlie
for tobacco, of the olive-eater for
craving of the smoker
in
olives,or of the drinker for his bitter beer, are cases
marked
the effect is most
when originally
point. Certainly,
pleasantby repetition.
unpleasantsensations have become
The
nervous
system has adapted itself to certain modes
of excitation
returning at certain intervals, and their
its
absence
equilibrium.If
of using tobacco
is in the habit
a
only at fixed
person
times in the day, the craving is apt to arise exclusively
these
times.
The
omission
of
at
a
customary early
ing,
morning pipe may trouble the smoker in the early mornbut the craving may
and not recur
during
pass away
the day.
have
that there are
seen
sations
sen(3) We
probably some
which
are
disagreeablein all phases of intensity.
Others become
disagreeableat a very low intensity.In
the case
of others,such as sweetness, it is not quite certain
that they ever
become
when
even
intrinsically
disagreeable,
It follows that qualityof sensation
they are most intense.
is a most
important factor in determining feeling-tone.
do little to explain why one
We
can
qualityis predominantly
agreeableand another predominantly disagreeable.
The
nearest
approach to an explanationis found in the
of complex sound-sensations.
The disagreeablecase
special
ness
produces
of dissonance
the
interrupt
the
organ
of
disturbance
is due
uniform
to
course
hearing.
The
of neural
the
presence
of the
of beats
which
periodicstimulation
central
nervous
matter
of
has
PSYCHOLOGY.
222
vni.
of
assign why certain combinations
odours
and tastes
are
agreeable,and others disagreeable.
It is clear that the agreeable
" 3. Surplus Excitation.
with
the
or
disagreeablefeeling arising in connexion
of a sensation
be wholly due to the
not
occurrence
may
is
quality or intensityof the sensation itself. "If one
to a series of sounds, or
looking intentlyat some
listening
object,the feelingof distraction caused by being spoken
to in a whisper,or
lightlytouched," is comparable with
sharp physicalpain.* The whisper or the light touch
be in no
disagreeablein themselves ; they may
way
may
be virtuallyneutral ; but they set up a general nervous
and bodily disturbance,correlated with a general mental
A
of an
disturbance
intenselyunpleasant character.
similar shock is experiencedwhen, in the process of going
startled by some
sudden
to sleep,we
are
sound, which
similar
to
reasons
"
'
need
not
diffused
be
especiallyloud.
excitement
of the
There
nervous
is in
such
cases
system, produced by
sensation,and
have
more
less diffusive
or
between
character.
In
this
respect,
the difference
Ladd's
the
Psychology,
Descriptive
p.
199.
between
line of demarcation
painsharply
When
sensation and the disagreeablenessof specialsensation.
unpleasant
arises.
become
prominent, pain-sensation
organic accompaniments
t
Hence
there
is
no
marked
FEELIXG-TONE
" 3.]
OF
SENSATION.
223
is sufficiently
intense,we can detect a diffused
feeling-tone
change in
bodily and mental excitement, and concomitant
An intensely
bitter taste may
our
organic sensations.
give
of a railway
rise to a cold shiver ; the piercing scream
whistle disturbs
thought and perception,and is felt over
the whole
organism. A delicious taste may not only tickle
set the whole
the palate,but
man
a-gog"; the strong
produced by stroking,
pleasure or displeasuresometimes
or
rubbing, is not immediately due to the quality
tickling,
of the tactile sensations themselves,but to the
and intensity
previously
surplusexcitement they produce. "We mentioned
that sensations in themselves
agreeablemay in their general
found
that the collateral
effect be unpleasing, and
we
for by the
unpleasantnesscan only in part be accounted
of definitelyassignable and
describable
concomitance
surplus excitation,with
experiences. But
consequent
of common
modification
sensibility,
adequately explains
"
these
the
subtle
same
and
way
we
evasive
are
affections
able
to
of consciousness.
account
for the
In
qualitative
diversityof
the
"
PSYCHOLOGY.
224
or
and
equally painful,tastes
odours
[BK.
described
IT.,
Some
smells.
CTI.
TUT.
agreeable
as
having
'
are
as
'
"
'
'
'
'
' '
"
"
"
the sensible
between
qualitieswhich
said to be
which
are
refer
them
to
pleasant or
more
or
system with
its
resultingmodifications
of
nervous
We
have
asserted
that
occupy
unpleasant.
less diffused
organic
"all sensations
evidence
*
sufficient to
Op. cit
p. 184.
But
must
excitement
of the
and
the
sensibility.
common
"||
We
consequences,
appreciablefeeling-tone,
appear
less diffusive character.
attention,and
we
have
which
to
not
justifythis positionin
185.
Op. cit.,p.
Ibid.
have
have
so
tinctly
dis-
more
or
far adduced
\\" 3, p.
222.
FEELING-TONE
" 3.]
OF
SENSATION.
225
variations,also
of the
beat
pulse.
analysisof
careful
increase
at
increase
that
as
surface
of the
height of
increased
be
The
respirationis deepened,
the
of
who
person
of the limbs due
by
in the
part due
variations
general results
these
experiments
may
under
in
the
shorter
The
in the volume
blood-vessels
an
and
such
sensations,
Pleasant
a
smaller
to
deduced
are
in
as
sweet
to the
from
follows.
taste
or
of
enjoys it,produce
to dilatation
of the
contraction
and
are
due
of the heart.
contracted.
The
unpleasantsensations is more
complicated.
of the unpleasant stimulus,the
On the first introduction
of the limb is distinctly
volume
striction
diminished,owing to conof the blood-vessels
at the surface of the body.
constriction at the surface of the body is probably
The
accompanied by a dilatation of the blood-vessels of the
internal
The
amplitude of the pulse-beatsis
organs.
diminished.
At the same
time, there is a deepening of
when
the stimulus
is strong,there is a
respiration
; and
conspicuouscontraction of the voluntarymuscles in general.
Later phases of the process present different phenomena.
case
Psych.
of
15
226
PSYCHOLOGY.
After
increase,and
to
[BK. n.,
increase
is not
of the limb
increasingfor
continues
supposed
be
to
arisingfrom
decreased
their
it at
previous constriction
later
voluntary
stage.
muscles
is
begins
This
due
of
to
venous
But
activityof the heart.
followingby way of reaction
is supposed to contribute to
vnr.
time.
some
en.
The
increased
also
followed
innervation
by
of
the
corresponding
relaxation.
These
(2) The
thus
appear
to determine
diffused
to
be
three
which
factors
:
(1) The
feeling-tone
of the
excitement
may
sensation
tribute
con-
itself ;
system which
nervous
the
exclusion
of
the
others
but
some
writers
show
Ladd
For
lays
tendency to do so.
instance, Professor
of the nervous
stress exclusively
the diffused excitement
on
of the sensaoccasioned
tion.
system directly
by the occurrence
He
seems
and
feeling-tone,
to the
to
he
regard
seems
organic sensations
the sensation
to attach
which
it
itself
little or
no
as
devoid
of
importance
produces. But
indirectly
shows
that a sensation may
be in itself agreeintrospection
able
or disagreeable
apart from its effects. Thus, sweetness
FEELING-TONE
" 3.]
in
its
OF
intrinsic
SENSATION.
227
be
agreeable,though
the whole
it awakens
on
view, which
disgust. Another
favoured
seems
by Professor James, is that feeling-tone
belongs exclusively,or almost
exclusively,to organic
He is not very clear on
sensation.
the point,but it seems
to form
part of his celebrated theory of emotion that,apart
from
mental
would
consist
states
organic sensation, our
almost wholly in cold intellectual perception
without feelingAt any rate, it is important to discuss the point,if
tone.
because
other reason,
of its bearing on
for no
a
theory
shall have to examine
which
we
later, the theory which
reduces
emotion, and the pleasantnessand unpleasantness
and their feeling-tone.
of emotion, to organic sensations
On
the
psychological side, the distinction between
pleasantnessand unpleasantness is simple and ultimate.
should
If it is duo to a difference in organic conditions,we
do not
we
expect this difference to be equallysimple. Now
between
the organicprocesses is corfind that the contrast
respondingly
those organic
simple. On the contrary, even
which can be detected by expericoncomitants
of feeling-tone
ment
of unpleasant
are
very complicated.Thus, in the case
experiences,initial constriction of the blood-vessels at the
surface of the body is accompanied by dilatation of the bloodvessels
may
own
nature
"
of
the
is in
rurface
followed
by
of the volume
accumulated
the
we
internal
subsequent phase
dilatation
of the
venous
voluntary muscles
cannot
singleout
as
organs.
the universal
The
of
at the surface.
limb
So
is followed
and
the
process
The
initial diminution
by
by
probably
increase
increased
general form
uniform
of
the
is followed
blood.
any
constriction
contraction
relaxation.
of
condition
due
organic
of
to
of
Hence
lation
stimu-
unpleasant
advantage
PSYCHOLOGY.
228
The
[BK. IT.,
CH.
vm.
be almost
may
neutral
in
tone,
it may
or
have
both
able
agree-
and
or
disagreeablephases accordingto its intensity,
accordingto the general mental condition at the moment.
in their internal nature, as analysed by introspecNeither
tion,
in their mode
of origin,do organic sensations
nor
justifyus
present any peculiarcharacteristics which would
and
in making so vast
important a distinction between
them
and the sensations of the special
senses, as is involved
in affirmingthat they alone can
be pleasant or
painful,
while the sensations of the specialsenses
neutral.
It
are
is true that organic sensations
have
a
peculiarlydiffusive
character,but
even
distinction
between
and
the
bitterness,which
disagreeable
interval of time by
appreciable
is
a
followed
cold
only
shiver
due
after
to
an
striction
con-
of the blood-vessels.
We
conclude
therefore
that
it
is
unjustifiableand
5 4.]
OF
FEELIXG-TOXE
SENSATION.
229
has
sweet
taste,which
is
pleasingat
the moment
this
230
PSYCHOLOGY.
pleasingtaste may in
although the substance
itself bo
into
the
bitter
blood,
drug
beneficial
due
favourable
occasions
to vital
it,when
en.
YIII.
activity,
introduced
acts
which
which
[BK. IT.,
as
is
medicinal
The
effect.
beneficial
effect
is not
disagreeablebitterness,but to subsequent
with the originalexperience.
effects entirely
disconnected
The case
of intoxication
by alcohol is different. Here the
is correlated with pleasureinvolves
a
very process which
to
the
of the central
disablement
of the intoxicated
person,
this
impaired. But
explainedaway.
co-ordination
general he
these
The
methodical
accurate
kind, he
finds them
of
he
does
from
a
preciseand
view
to
strenuous
make
attempt
flow
of ideas
But
in
to fulfil
efforts of the
serious
which
from
delicate
end.
an
disagreeable. On
very
varied
or
is disabled
person
with
serious
If
functions.
thinking,and
no
efficiency
for
intoxicated
of movement
makes
both
kind
The
system.
nervous
the other
hand,
accompanies the
free and
more
pleasingphases of intoxication,is much
all
expansive than in a state of perfectsobriety. We
know
that champagne
having a
promotes conversation
all know
that the
kind
of brilliancy
certain
we
; and
opinionsexpressedand the arguments used are not likely
to bear
is
no
examination
varied
flow
the
reiterating
is connected
in sober
of
same
with
when
ideas, even
thing over
the
fact
Even
moments.
and
that
over
the
when
there
persistsin
again,his pleasure
point he is urging
a
man
him
with
FEELING-TONE
" 4.]
directions
is
OF
On
suspended.
SENSATION.
tlie otlier
231
the
hand,
kind
of
impaired,
but intensified,
and he consequentlyfeels pleasure.
referred
In this last example, we
have
especiallyto
system. It is in this only
process in the central nervous
essential
interest.
have
an
that, as psychologists,we
Pleasure
and
sciousness
pain are states of consciousness,and conis immediately correlated with neural
process.
is whether
us
Hence, the question which reallyconcerns
with
are
essentiallyconnected
disagreeable processes
activitywhich
conscious
obstruction
continues
disablement
or
to go
of
is not
on
and
conscious
and agreeableprocesses
activity,
flow of such activity.If we
unobstructed
nervous
in
this
form
affirmative.
it
seems
that
the
state
the
Disagreeable sensations, in
intensity,obstruct and
activities which,
motor
disturb
their
the
with
must
answer
for
question
be distinctly
proportion to
mental
their
correlated
and
process
effective
discharge,
how
cult
diffiguidance. Everybody knows
it is to think or act efficiently
with
toothache
or
a
a
headache, even
though the desire to do so is strong. It is
not
merely that the painful sensations divert attention ;
this is true of pleasantsensations also,of similar intensity
;
the point is that the disagreeablesensations
positively
enfeeble
disorder
and
the
thought and
action, when
require
conscious
endeavour
is made
to
think
arisingfrom
disagreeableness
is
faint,and
if the
total state
or
this
of
or
that
course,
if the
specialsensation
consciousness
presence
to mental
is,on
the
of this
or
activity
it seems
appreciable. But in principle
a safe
generalisationthat agreeableexperience is favourable,and
disagreeableexperienceis unfavourable,to the effective
dischargeof mental functions.
may
not
be
Of
act.
PSYCHOLOGY.
232
[BK. II.,
en.
vm.
is
reached,
and reached
it has
been
satisfied
its termination.
Until
it has worked
itself out
is reached, there
satiety
If the
always a tendency for the process to go on.
is discontinued
obstructed
or
pleasing sensory
process
before
satietyis reached, the conation continues and is
is
FEELING-TONE
" 5.]
SENSATION.
OF
233
and
satisfaction
always
which
It
is added
not
and
thwarts
to the
dissatisfaction.
never
connected
essentially
should be carefully
noted
continuance
the conative
appeases
is
Their
with
tendency,
their existence.
that
distinguishbetween
ultimate
satisfaction and the process of becoming satisfied.
Ultimate
satisfaction
is attained
only when
satietyis
the subject has had
reached, only when
enough of the
still maintained, it
pleasant experience,so that, if it were
Pleasure
is found
in the
would
to
cease
please him.
in its completion. Its
not
of becoming satisfied,
process
nation
completion is its termination, and therefore the termiof its feeling-tone.
said that every agreeable or disagreeablesensation
We
has a conative
or
quasi-conative aspect. The words "or
added
to meet
a
quasi-conative were
possibledifficulty.
Some
psychologistshold that certain pleasing sensations
can
analyse
purely passive,so far as introspection
appear
them.
They do not appear to involve any experience of
endeavour,
or
striving. I do not agree with these
the
It
one.
question is a subtle
psychologists
; but
best to evade
the difficulty
therefore
seems
by pointing
we
"
"
out
that
for
tendency
will not
is
be
our
it is not
purpose
experienced or
denied
that
not,
there
so
is at
essential
long
least
as
an
whether
the
it exists.
unconscious
It
PSYCHOLOGY.
234
[BK. IT.,
CH.
vin.
" 6.
General
end,
are
Whatever
in the attainment
conditions
Whatever
"
conation
favour
its
Theory.
sources
obstruct
of
conditions
further
and
conation
in the attainment
displeasure. This
is the
of
widest
which
can
we
frame, from a purely psychological
generalisation
point of view, as regards the conditions of pleasure
to the feelingand displeasure
respectively.Its application
in the last section.
of sensation is already contained
tone
A pleasingsense-experience
operates as a positivefactor
tendency
satisfyingthe conative tendency or quasi-conative
connected
with it. On the contrary,
which is essentially
an
unpleasing sense-experienceoperates as a positive
factor thwarting the conative
tendency or quasi-conative
connected
tendency essentially
with
it.
This
is at the best
pleasure-pain. It can
explanationof sense
only be regarded as being an explanationat all on one
pleasureexists,
assumption. If it is supposed that,first,
only
vague
FEELING-TONE
" 6.]
and
SENSATION.
OF
its
that, subsequently to
of
matter
fact,there
to
seems
the
occurrence,
235
it is
to the
be
no
conative
logicalcircle
conation.
But,
whatever
reason
to
as
for
and conation
are
separated in
supposing that feeling-tone
time.
From
the very beginning they appear
to coincide.
From
the very beginning a pleasing process is a process
which
tends
We
to maintain
hope
may
the ultimate
itself.
attain
to
conditions
which
more
definite
determine
the
insightinto
of
feeling-tone
that side
side.
But from
physiological
have not at present any direct knowledge of the nervous
we
involved.
We
can
only frame hypotheses to
processes
data.
the psychological
cover
If we
language
attempt to translate into physiological
the generalrelations of pleasureand displeasure
respectively
to
conative
can
tendencies, perhaps the best result we
in general appears
obtain is the following. Conation
to
of nervous
equilibrium,and
correspond to a disturbance
of equilibrium.
its completed satisfaction to a restoration
The
conditions
of displeasurenot
only disturb nervous
equilibrium,but also, so long as they continue, obstruct
the processes
On
the
by which it tends to be restored.
of pleasure
other hand, the continuance
of the conditions
is a factor positively
operativein the restoration of equilibrium.
sensation
from
the
It is evident
that
if this view
even
of the
case
be
The
most
favoured
theories
with
opposite feeling-tones
in the
nervous
principleassume
of
the
kind
the relations
of
connect
wear
system. Explanationsbased
many
different
forms
our
on
and
these
repair
this general
ignorance of
PSYCHOLOGY.
23C,
the exact
in
of the
nature
and
assimilation
connexion
with
[BK. n.,
complex
chemical
dissimilation
of
processes
tissue,and
en.
vm.
involved
of
their
functional
be
said
said
in favour
it with
of this
great clearness
view,
and
and
Marshall
Mr.
force.
Fatigue
has
is in
of
of
source
general a
disagreeable,and freshness
agreeable,experience. Of course, the fatigue or the
be that of the specialtissues engaged in
freshness
must
the functional
activity. After the quiet of the nightthe bird-song,as we
than
hours
awake, is more
usually
rested
beauty in all colours.
pleasurable
; the
eye sees
The rubbing, at our
morning bath, of the skin,which has
friction of our
not
during the night felt the normal
specialfood to which we
clothing; the flavour of some
has not
have
been
accustomed, but which
lately been
tasted, all are
pleasurable."* A pleasant sensation,
' '
"
fain,Pleasure,and Aesthetics,
p. 200.
FEELING-
" G.]
TONE
OF
SENSATION.
237
unpleasant,because
is a surplusrelatively
the stored
to one
intensity of stimulation, will not be a surplus
by gradually
relativelyto a higher intensity
; hence
from
increasingthe intensityof a stimulus, we
pass
pleasantto unpleasantphases of an experience.But along
culties,
with
these
advantages the theory presents grave diffiif we
attempt to base on it the whole explanation
in my
of sensation ; and
of the feeling-tone
opinion it
by
presents insuperabledifficulties if we attempt to cover
all the pleasuresand pains of perceptualand
its means
are
ideational activity.At present we
only concerned
when
with
too
sensation.
dependence of
as
on
quantity of sensation.
feeling-tone
sensations be unpleasant at a very low
Why should some
and
be pleasing even
others
at
a
high
intensity,
very
?
Why should a comparatively small degree of
intensity
be disagreeable,
while a comparatively
bitterness or acidity
is agreeable? Mr.
Marshall
high degree of sweetness
repliesthat there is a great variation in storage capacity,
of different sensation-processes.
This explanain the case
tion
is probableenough in some
Where
cases.
a function
and without
with great frequency and regularity,
recurs
much
variation of intensity,
as
does, we should
respiration
On
the other
not expect any
large storage of energy.
and with great variations
irregularly,
hand, where stimuli occur
the organism can
of intensity,
only provide against
them
But there are a
by storingup a surplusin advance.
in which
of instances
such explanation
no
large number
dislike
applicable. Why should the same
appears
person
of vanilla,and keenly enjoy cloves or
the smallest trace
cinnamon?
Why should the same
enjoy beef and
person
One
obvious
objectionarises
quality as well
from
the
PSYCHOLOGY.
238
liate mutton
? To
[BK. ir.,
for suck
account
differences
by
cir.
vrn.
variation
forced.
capacityseems
A more
is connected
with tlie conception
important difficulty
to fix what
of a surplus. How
are
we
is,and what
is not, surplus energy ? Mr. Marshall
says that there is a
the energy
involved in
pleasure-givingsurplus "whenever
in storage
the reaction
to
stimulus
is greater than
the energy
which
the
stimulus
' '
to its organ
stimulus
in
is less
this statement.
its
with
effect
The
he
Mr.
There
is
a
Marshall
kind
same
reaction
energy
produced by
the
mean
in the
the
forth."*
intensity;when
stimulus," does
than
amount
habituallycalls
stimulus
involved
to the
which
the
ambiguity
stimulus
speaks
of
of stimulus
in
varies
"the
in the
the same
kind of stimulus
or
degree of intensity,
to include
in varying degrees of intensity
?
If he means
his case
varying degrees of intensity,
obviously breaks
down
stimulus is unusuallyintense,
a
altogether
; for when
it is often unpleasant,although the effect which it produces
same
is greater, and
On
to.
the
group
The
the other
degree
same
of
facts
instances
less,than
not
hand,
of
that which
if he
the
means
in which
the
for
same
are
same
accustomed
stimulus
in
comparativelysmall
verifying his hypothesis.
intensity,only
is available
we
kind
and
intensity of
yieldsalternately
pleasure and pain to the same
best
are
relativelyinfrequent. The
example,
person
perhaps,is the gradual decrease of pleasurewhen a pleasingstimulus is prolonged. Here
not
merely the feeling-tone,
but the experienceitself,
fainter ; but
to become
appears
clear that it continues to remain
fainter
it is by no means
so
stimulus
Op. clt.,
pp.
204-205.
FEELING-TONE
" 6.]
when
OF
239
SENSATION.
periences
disagreeable. Unpleasant expositively
maybe continued for a very long time indeed before
of unpleasantness
appreciablediminution
;
any
they continue,it cannot be said that the effect of
it becomes
they show
and
while
the
stimulus
is smaller
than
its habitual
effect.
When
of
of all kinds
actuallyfind
We
form
have
to be
very
much
fainter
than
we
it to be.
discussed
Mr.
favourable
Marshall's
example
views
of
the
because
they
theory which
and
traces
pleasure-pain to wear
repair of nervous
conclude
tissue.
In general,AVO may
that a large part of
the explanation,
at least for sense
pleasureand pain, may
be found
But
these lines.
these
no
on
on
theory framed
lines has been so formulated
to cover
the whole
as
ground
for sensation,and they are
all beset by
even
successfully
specialdifficulties. After all,it is not, a priori,likelythat
merely quantitativeconditions will be found adequate to
for the facts.
account
Considering the great complexity
in organic tissues in interaction
of the chemical
processes
be all kinds of qualitative
with the blood- supply,there may
For
well
as
as
instance, the
quantitativevariations.
be
accumulation
of waste-productsin the blood
a
may
takes
what
It is possible that
important factor.
very
a
very
in
place
building
tend
to
of
tissues.
if
to
insecure,
this
this
in
kind
point
the
are.
know
that
are
long
they
in
present
up
activity
We
degeneration
are
order
state
to
of
show
our
CH.
n.,
of
the
considerations
of
tissue
rather
tissues
disused.
how
knowledge,
vin.
is
organs
than
products
building
functional
repose.
freshness
waste
There
the
that
during
functional
refer
these
of
show
the
restores
removal
up
mainly
of
and
repose
the
rather
or
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
240
actual
which
takes
place
during
than
suffer
atrophy
We
merely
speculative
hypotheses
and
DIVISION
PERCEPTION.
III.
BOOK
PROCESS
I. PERCEPTUAL
CHAPTER
DISTINCTIVE
CHARACTERISTICS
IN
GENERAL.
I.
OF
THE
PERCEPTUAL
CONSCIOUSNESS.
"
specialmode
which
immediately depends on
of an objectto the senses.
It may
the actual presence
the cognitivefunction of sensation.
in fact be denned
as
of cognitionwhich
takes
It is contrasted
with that mode
pendent
place through ideal images. Such images are not deof an objectto the senses.
the actual presence
on
of absent
objectswhich have
They are representations
already been perceived. Thus the existence of perception
of the existence of ideal images.
is a pre-condition
Direct cognisanceof present objectsmust
precede ideal
of absent objects.
representation
it is that
Psych.
241
16
PSYCHOLOGY.
242
[BK.
i., CH.
in.,
i.
In the direct
ciation
cognitionof present objects,assoand
reproduction play a very important part.
in perception,taken
in the strictest sense
of the
But
word, only those forms of association and reproduction
which
have called complication and
enter
we
ment
acquireof meaning, together with that peculiarmode of
Even
and
which
reproductionby
free
excitement
mental
sensations
are
of
general states
and
their
nervous
concomitant
organic
revived.*
to
seem
be
necessary
to
This
seems
rudimentary form.
of the
constitution
Perceptionis
rather
in
and
the
depend
to
do
most
on
herited
in-
system.
nervous
merely cognition. It
When
tone.
a feeling-
never
character
conative
its existence
to
has
we
also
speak
"
do
not
occur
in this
isolated
manner
but
into
enter
constituent
as
prolonged trains of mental activity
moments
or
phases. These more
prolonged trajns may
be mainly trains of ideas : but they may
also be mainly
composed of a sequence of perceptions.A man
climbing
cliff may
have his attention fullyoccupied
a precipitous
more
His
gaining and retainingfoothold and handhold.
activities mainly consist in muscular
movement
guided
by sense-perception.Such an act as threading a needle
in
See
chapter
bk.
i.,ch. ii.,""
in mind
at the
8-9.
The
present
student
point.
should
keep
the
whole
of
this
CHARACTERISTICS
" 2.]
243
PERCEPTION.
OF
not
from
of
train
ideas
inasniuch
depend
not
of
sequence
on
as
the
sequence
direct mental
its parts
depends
duction.
repro-
upon
the
of external
sequence
of
of
external
upon
subject,it
control.
It is in these
of
many
ways,
They
are
complex
animals
in definite forms
study is
in the
animal
instinctive
of their
no
pre-adapted by the
nervous
systems. They
period in the
opportunityfor
arise at
ideas ;
of the
in those
best be studied.
pre-disposedand
constitution
the
can
the best
animals, viz.
are
it has had
perceptualprocess
found
of
forms
so
that there
the
can
no
doubt
life.
tivities
ac-
the
herited
in-
quently
fre-
at which
acquisitionof
be
In
sponding
corre-
ing
concern-
predominantly or
process.
in
For
hunting a livingprey
is shown
in the
play of
244
PSYCHOLOGY.
watching or
out
actuallyhunted, and often withitation.
opportunityfor learningthem by im-
kitten
in
seizes it with
prey,
it lets
finally
; it will then
teeth
in the
the
place it
the quasiworries
it;
next
on
claws,
to
of
its plaything,
pounces
and
attitude
steal up
forms
manner;
spring,and
the
assume
objectwhich
snake-like
first
wait
other
or
noiseless
will
lying in
ball of thread
i.
i., CH,
it has
[BK. in.,
and
the
the
objectgo again,and re-commences
The
several
of lying in wait, stealthy
acts
process.
approach, crouching for a spring,pouncing on the prey,
are
phasesin the development of the same
activity.The
is true of the hunting of an actual prey.
same
All such
are
sions;
guided by external impresprocesses
but each
impression,as it occurs, only supplies
the occasion
for the further development of an
activity
of
which
is alreadyin existence.
If the series were
one
pendently
purelyreflex actions,each separate stimulus would indeproduce an isolated reaction,so that the process
have no
internal
would
continuity. But it is just
the internal continuity
which
is distinctive of perceptual
activity.The successive phases of perceptualprocess
directed to one
are
end, and this end is not merely
nature's
end;
it is what
after,or,
striving
*
the
time
have
We
cognitive
no
attitude
into
calls
play
continuity
which
recognises
the
But
the
mental
than
but
fulfil an
to
there
data
if
we
may
which
would
of
a
marks
attitude
anything
is
analogous
animal
an
train
object,
the animal
use
is
else.
preparation
function.
There
us
to
the
pre-supposes
more
is
We
no
sense
some
what
expression,
characterise
object
movements
process.
recognition
probably
an
towards
perceptual
for
such
enable
of instinctive
itself is in
precisely
for
which
having
cannot
the
say
previous
the
first
internal
the
animal
experience.
by congenital
endowment,
which
seems
to
CHARACTERISTICS
" 2.]
it is
This
drivingat."
"
the animal
be effected.
It
or
endeavour,
with
means
in the
advertisement
till he
happy
the
result,the
itself out.
of
the
does
not
the
train
which
is not
be
PERCEPTION.
end
conation
of movements
the
soap,
With
starts,
Like
is reached.
of Pears'
gets it."
the
animal
"
baby
won't
it has
because
ceases,
failure
Interruption,delay,or
is
245
that
mean
necessarily
itself a mental
image of the result
that the felt tendency,conation,
to
presents
to
OF
at
of
worked
any
stage
continuous
thwarting of the one
conation ; it is felt as displeasureand aversion, and is
of proaccompanied by a tendency to vary the mode
cedure.
process
The
successful
stage felt
every
in the
same
as
pleasure and
neural
by
from
for
the
equilibrium of
stimulation
within.
It
the
action
tinue
tendency to confrom
the physiological
as
follows.
co-ordination
this
either from
is in
happens is
arrangement
acts, the
as
Stated
course.
of
progress
of
arrangement
without
the
Given
sive
succes-
turbed
is dis-
organism
its own
balance
only recover
and
become
so
quiescent by a series of successive
leading to a certain result. By these its
processes
initial excitement
is allayed. The
psychicalactivity
develops itself,and so brings
whereby a conation
about
its own
end
or
termination,is the counterpart
of the
activitywhereby the neural system regains
equilibrium.
This unity and continuityof perceptual process
is its
The
most
istics
general feature.
followingspecialcharacterbe regarded as bringing out in detail from
may
various
points of view what is involved in this general
or
account.
can
PSYCHOLOGY.
246
Attention.
" 3.
itself
by
in., i.}
en.
i.
can
Perceptual activity
only fulfil
tions
co-operationof a series of external condi-
the
"
supply in
which
turn
if these
Now,
utilised in
[BK.
occasions
occasions
external
effective manner,
an
animal
the
to
are
cannot
velopme
debe
main
re-
On the contrary,
purelypassivein regard to them.
them
it must
meet
half-wayby watching for them, and
by keeping itself in readiness to act in an appropriate
Thus
when
is essentially
perceptualactivity
they occur.
way
characterised by attention.*
is conAttention
stantly
directed
are
relevant
them.
guided by
Just
the
as
of
are
the
mind
one
of the
activityis a train of
correspondingtrain
successive
movements
continuous
parts of
in
external
the
the progress
to
The
towards
attitude
action
so
distinct
of
as
to
which
utilise
movements
distinct
express
conation, so
continuous
conditions
the
percepts.
ment
develop-
distinct cepts
pertrain in which each sets
the
of
See
bk.
an
i.,ch. i.,p.
65.
t See
note, p. 249.
CHARACTERISTICS
" 3.]
of
it within
the
Attention
is
for
our
mutual
total co-ordination.
same
in
always
prospective. So
far
as
of
"
already know
we
appetency
ficientl
suf-
is already
thought, whether
with
the direction
;
its end
towards
thing
or
of
aversion
or
of attention
work
the
purpose,
pressing forward
is nothing
which
expectant
manner
some
247
purposefulmanner.
moment
PERCEPTION.
OF
of
is always
conation
; hence
tion,
atten-
defining itself in
of cognition,
cognition,and so guiding itself by means
forward
also constantly be directed
must
beyond the
To attend
ignorant present,"to meet what is to come.
When
is always to watch, to await, to be on the alert.
but
conation
"
we
take
place,we
not
where
our
future
we
if
that
attention
out
its
is
care
path.
to
the
use
is the
Only
external
out
whither
we
already arrived.
have
steps, not
Now
we
make
it to
path through
steps
a
bold
lightused
we
must
are
It is to
dark
going,
guide
already taken.
metaphor, we
may
say
by conation to make
we
have
remember
illumination,but
is
that
tion
atten-
cal
simply identiin its cognitiveaspect.
considered
with conation
of perceptual activity
Trains
marked
are
throughout
their course
ternal
prospectiveness. Its exby this mental
to
sign is the pre-adaptationof the sense-organs
and the pre-adjustmentof the body
receive impressions,
the opportunitypresents itself.
in readiness to act when
for the mouse
The
ficient
bird is a sufcat lying in wait
or
example. The sightand smell of the mouse-hole,
we
Eye and ear are admay suppose, set it in action.
no
PSYCHOLOGY.
248
justed so
catch
to
as
of the
mouse
or
[BK.
in., i.,
the
coming impressions,
sound
any
it makes
CH.
i.
ance
appear-
; the muscles
of prey,
appearance
the
is
prey
swiftlyup
enough,
near
seizes it.
and
kind, to
If the flat-fish
where
poor
can
behaviour
say
crab
the
It
had
chance
to
of
When
darts
animal
scarcelybe maintained
is acquired by association
learn
come
its motions.
observant
nothing of
its instruction
would
have
or
follows
the eye
association
to
look
from
out
of ideas.
for prey,
It would
The
survival.
tainly
cer-
attentive
ance
frequentlyfound in the very first performof an instinctive activity.
That
tive
systematicwatching and searching and attenin general are
behaviour
possiblewithout mental
beings,and
images, may be shown in the case of human
One
in certain pathologicalcases.
curiously
especially
interestingcase has been recentlypublished.* A man
called Voit was
quite unable to name
objects or their
attitude
is
Ueber
krankhafte
Dissoziation
Wolff,
der
u.
Psych,
Phys.
Sinnesorgane,
Zeitschriftf.
*
Gustav
"
der
Bd.
Vorstellungen."
xv.,
Heft
1, 2.
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
" 3.]
properties,unless
if he
Thus
senses.
?"
meadow
has
language
unless
he
far
as.
so
could
the
saw
Yet
horse.
do
to
did
not
tell how
not
able
be
to
if he
answer,
tablet,and
green
of trees
the leaves
are
when
?
he
he
what
"
he
asked,
was
could
green
tablet,but
When
the
questionerpointed to
asked,
"
the leaves
Are
legsa
told,
was
his
inability
of
number
these
among
What
colour
answer
the
tablet,and
green
of trees
the
see
understood
he
"
ing
by pointtotallyhelpless.
not
remained
the
to
is
many
his
to
colour
asked, "What
not
he
Similarly,
249
actuallypresent
were
were
could
he
meadow.
horse
they
PERCEPTION.
Voit
could
the same
answer
only reply,"Perhaps," and he made
when
the question referred
red
to the blue, yellow, or
held good of sightextended
tablets.
also to the
What
other
in
senses
an
unable
to
assignany
named
to
him.
object as
the
could
He
not
quite
of objects
qualities
was
so
consciousness
its visible,
audible,
sensible characters.
other
Now
his
of the sensible
bring to
to
or
tangible,
even
The
as
stated
an
idea
distinct
object,
should,
student
in bk.
have
must
in
link
such
as
a
a
the
The
image
of
faint."
which
meaning
may
sufficient
train
mind
the
be
of
an
idea
image
a
character
which
All
the
merely
essential
9:
sensation, however
and
in
bear
ii.,"
i.,ch.
ideas
has
mentally
or
have
two
acquired
revived
and
event,
not
be
mere
constituents,
in
word.
previous
an
called
a
an
crude
image
experience.
PSYCHOLOGY.
250
far
so
he
as
it.
named
and
such
refrained
it,he
he
made
to
the
On
legs
to
see
was
the
and
watch
remarked
that
the street,he
was
until
useless
at
attempt
to
the time
do
colour
"No,
no,
He
asked
was
no
look
for
to
snow
tent
quite con-
was
passing.As
one
!"
Perhaps
mental
"Red."
black.
many
the
to
the most
Note
in
next
as
he
claimed,
ex-
curious
is the following.
condition
the colour
soon
passer-by,he
of blood
he
was,
of
what
when
some
passed. When
walking about naked
is.
After
looked
a
helplessly
pustule which
blood
that
He
came.
he
could
not,
sible
merely seeing an object,name
any other of its senthan those immediatelypresentedto sight.
qualities
shown
it and
he were
a piece of sugar, he could
name
say it
he
of
horse
window
clothes
If
colour
Thus,
the
he
was
to
so.
but
snow,
people were
quite content
on
when
object inquiredabout
for
but
then
But
saw
objects
green
recognised their
he
what
look
he
as
window
one
it
summer
attempt
no
the
from
in
asked
was
to
soon
assistance to him.
no
When
that
As
tree.
Merely
themselves,
it.
nature
of
was
leaves
the
saw
for
"
kind
of any
looked
and
said, Green."
tree, he
i.
i., CH.
in.,
scribe
actuallyperceived,he could accuratelydeOn being asked the colour of leaves,he went
the window
to
[BK.
was
could
white
not
soughtto get
; but
tell how
hold
even
with
it tasted
of the sugar
the
sugar
in full
view,
He
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
"4.]
Only
when
he
succeeded
in
PERCEPTION.
doing this
251
could
he
find the
word, "Sweet."
make
to
it,covered
saw
of it.
use
proper
He
sat
his hat
with
his head
on
chair
when
when
he
he
it,
saw
and drank
when
he saw
the
glassto his mouth
had meaning for him as
glasswith liquorin it. Words
signalsincitingto trains of action,though they
practical
carried
did not
call up
Persistency
" 4.
the
trains of ideas.
earliest
viz. those
with
Varied
performance
activities for
pre-adaptedby
the
of
its
which
inherited
Effort.
"
instinctive
it is
Even
in
activities,
pre-disposedand
constitution
of its
nervous
displaypersistencywith varied
it does not succeed
effort. It keeps on trying when
at
first,
varying its procedure so far as it is unsuccessful.
Professor Lloyd Morgan givesa good example, communicated
Mr. Batchelder
had taken
by Mr. Batchelder.
squirrelsfrom their nest when
they were
very young ;
unable
take
solid food, and
to
at first
had
to
they were
mixture
of cream
be fed through a quillon
and hot
a
Afterwards
water.
cuits,
they took to bread and milk, bisan
animal
may
and
bread
crusts.
system,
them
Mr.
Batchelder
then
gave
the nuts
hickory-nuts. They examined
evidently looking upon them as unusually
attentively,
and at last the more
novelties,
interesting
enterprising
some
"
PSYCHOLOGY.
252
of the two
set
work
to
on
[BK. in.,
nut,
as
if he
wished
i.
i., CH.
to
find
With
hitherto unexampled
prizeit might contain.
patiencehe laboured over it,until at last,after
than half an
hour's diligent
more
gnawing, he gained
With
few days'practicethey
to the kernel.
a
access
these hard-shelled
acquiredskill and speed in extracting
delicacies ; and after that they lost all interest in such
the princiand hickory-nutsformed
pal
thingsas biscuits,
item on their bill of fare." *
Persistencywith varied
out
what
itself in
shows
effort also
indefinite
more
ways.
"I
noted
at, stuffed
into
this
"
and
corner
into
that, and
The
Habit
and
process
Instinct,
would
p. 122.
not
be
process
Op. cit.,p.
towards
154.
CHARACTERISTICS
" 5.]
end,
an
if it could
PERCEPTION.
OF
253
in
variation
persistwithout
an
successful
un-
course.
" 5.
Free
Adaptation
have
Varying Conditions.
perceptual process exhibits
to
"
that
just seen
adaptive variation,according as activityis
unsuccessful.
find
or
But, besides this,we
We
adaptivevariation
conditions.
We
successful
in it also
varying external
mentary
quote first a simple and rudiI took
a
Lloyd Morgan.
in accordance
may
with
example from
in
time
some
pheasant,which had been hatched
young
in
the night,from
the incubator
drawer
at nine o'clock
the morning.
He
was
unsteady on his legs,so I
very
held him in my
hands, and tried to induce him to peck
"
at
piece
did
not
do
so;
yolk
but
of the
movement
inches
of egg
he
pair of forceps. He
followed, with his head, every
object in
of
his
in
held
narrow
circle about
two
in
similar
The
same
front
beak.
instances.
kind
of
*
38-39.
254
PSYCHOLOGY.
found
often
[BK.
m.,
i.,
i.
CH.
in human
crag
to
crag
be
his life.
save
crossed,and
His
his muscles
the distance
measures
eye
ingly
adjustedaccordin a certain spot.
If he stopped
to land him
so
as
to mentally picturehimself
moving through the air over
in all probability
a certain
perish. He
space, he would
to
trust
must
Perhaps
to
are
his eye.
the
strikinginstances of adaptation
determined
to varying conditions
purelyby congenital
endowment, independent of prior experience,are to be
found
most
in the behaviour
of ants,
their
main
which
ants
outline
have
as
of ants.*
well
as
taken
of bees
instinctive.
been
All
They
and
are
their nest
from
are
wasps,
in
displayedby
immediately
nest.
being hatched, and set apart to form a new
of
Independently of prior experience, the processes
the rearing of the young,
the capture of
nest-building,
after
the
so-called
and
the
situation
weather
the
These
causes
and
maintenance
of
domestic
mals,
ani-
cumstanc
adaptation to varying cirThe
mode
of building the nest varies with
and
accessible
material.
Change in the
them
to make
corresponding changes in
like,vary
adaptations
in the
fixed
slaves,the
preceding
are
not
in
free
paragraph.
specificcircumstances.
in
They
the
are
same
degree
relative
to
as
those
scribed
de-
comparatively
CHARACTERISTICS
" 6.]
When
their
nest.
holes
in it
the
is too
nest
it looks
that
so
PERCEPTION.
OF
like
255
sponge.
tates
facili-
chambers
and
highest.
When
the
more
the
and
half -grown
the
larvae
mature
from
evidence
The
the
is cold
weather
the
in those
above,
pupae,
and
in
the
rainy,they
higher into
the
to
seems
show
that
similar
learnt
not
are
chambers.
lower
these
nest
fully-grown,together with
the
carry
the
of congenitalendowment.*
plasticity
In contrast
the
to
" 60 Learning by Experience.
sensation-reflex,
perceptualactivity
by the results
profits
do so without
of past experience. It can
any distinct
items of sensation,
revival of the special
as theyoriginally
The
occurred.
unity and continuityof impulse which
of distinct acts into a singleaction has
binds a sequence
"
its counterpart
of
the
on
cumulative
disposition. On
the traces
of the process
in and
side of retentiveness
contribute
to
left
determine
in the formation
der
See
Studien
Vergleichende
hohern
Thiere.
lagshandlung,
1897.
Von
Pp.
E.
122.
uber
Wasmann
das
Seelenleben
S.J.
Freiburg:
der
Ameisen
Herdersche
und
Ver-
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
iJ56
This
course.
is the process
which
we
m.,
i., CH.
described
have
i.
as
be
this there can
acquirement of meaning * Without
tellige
kind; and inno
learningby experienceof an intelligent
learningby experiencemay be due to it alone.
of reproductionare
further processes
Where
present,
they co-operate with the acquirement of meaning, and
make
definite ; but the acquirement of meaning
it more
tion
condition of the variaprimary and indispensable
of future activity,
in intelligent
correspondence with
shall have hereafter to
the results of past activity.We
discuss at what
pointlearningby experienceleaves the
merely perceptual level and involves ideas. We now
Let
us
give instances of typicallyperceptual cases.
"A
refer once
to Mr.
more
Lloyd Morgan's chickens.
had
learnt to pick out
chick two
days old
young
I cut little
piecesof yolk from others of white of egg.
size as the pieces
bits of orange-peelof about the same
of these was
of yolk,and
one
soon
seized,but at once
chick
the
Seizing
shaking his head.
relinquished,
is the
....
another, he
held
it for
moment
in the
bill,but
then
That
dropped it and scratched at the base of his beak.
was
enough ; he could not again be induced to seize a
pieceof orange-peel. The obnoxious material was now
but they
removed, and piecesof yolk of egg substituted,
for orangeleft untouched, being probably taken
were
tion,
peel. Subsequently,he looked at the yolk with hesitabut
but presentlypecked doubtfully,not
seizing,
merely touching. Then he pecked again,seized, and
swallowed."
| This illustration well bringsout the in-
See
section
of
the
i.,ch. ii.,""
bk.
will
serve
earlier
to
8-9.
The
examples
give definiteness
chapter.
to the
which
follow
somewhat
t Op. cit,,pp.
40-41.
in
vague
present
exposition
the
257
PERCEPTION.
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
" 6.]
telligentnature
Take
illustration from
another
of the animal
creation.
about
grope
the
in all directions
their
with
arms
very
crab
octopus seize
young
hermit-crab.
covers
these
recoiled
it was
observed
and
to
prawns,
or
or
chinks
hermitwith
its abode
diately
imme-
the octopus
the
observed
The
it takes up
stingingzoophytes. Stung by
on
Subsequently
Older
animals
same
future
action,inasmuch
are
alone
the
quote from
Recently collected
Development of Animal
1898.
Price, $2.00.
Psych.
and
successful
Dr.
part iii. of a
Intelligence.
in
book
New
modes
Mills' valuable
of
entitled:
York:
of procedure
modes
Wesley
"PsychicalDevelopment
pany,
unsuccessful
graduallyeliminated
survive.
papers* on
as
The
Young
The
Nature
?.iacmillan
Ani-
and
Ccui-
258
[BK. in.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
"
mals
method
of young
entries
kitten.
to
goes
day
lower
it.
day
On
hold
is put
It
get
5
The
the
entrance
kitten
pushes
a
upon
in
box
last she
and
sucks
30th
day
near
and
claws.
after
few
givesit up,
mother,
It makes
it is found
sleepingon
moments
and
more
and
strong desire
day
again.
.
by
and
determined
It
on
her
to
then
barred
was
to
About
up.
to
31st
the
barricade
It is taken
finds
ing
curtain,hold-
the
to
the
again,
attack.
settles down
box,
after falls
soon
attempts
books.
barricade,but, not
near
got into
returns
returns
many
behind
some
perseveres.
box
and
box
last succeeds.
at
back
among
the
this
After
way
"
leapsfrom
"
the
her
:
on
box
book-shelf
the
to
the
28th
from
"
desists,and
At
starts
towards
show
to
with
on
continues
book-shelves.
the
to
P.M.
The
kitten
mother
its box.
taken
was
The
the kitten
the
it.
completely
not
into
and
shelves,
book-
some
are
things.
of box
gettingout
lowing
fol-
its box
leaves
are
back
The
his observations
there
other
littlerun
"
of which
kitten
The
kitten
where
room
but
their birth.
registerof
The
ones
books,
from
in the
occur
part of the
filled with
27th
animals
26th
the
follows
i.
The
very good illustration of this process.
of Mills was
careful diary of the
to keep a very
behaviour
of
i., CH.
asleep.
shelf,
get into the book-
day
of the
In the
ning
eve-
book-shelf
its
getting out
but
difficult,
82nd
grooms
itself well.
attempt
on
the
Later
it makes
barricade,
and
with
250
It has
success.
in
PERCEPTION.
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
" 6.]
again and
S8rd
hour.
.
day
morning before
in
advance
the barricade
this
its
certain
behind
Found
the kitten
evades
by
me
den.
rocking-chairwhere it is partlyhidclosed by a
were
Though the book-shelves
curtain tacked
on
them, the kitten managed to get in,
how.
35th
It
though I do not know
day :
into
scrambles
the book-shelf
and
at
by a new
way
much
greater height."
drama
I have
at length
reproduced this book-shelf
it is a typicalinstance
of how
animals
because
learn by
the gradual nature
note
experience.We must especially
of the process.
Having succeeded
once, the kitten does
running
.
under
not
therefore
succeed
next
...
time
without
failure.
the
end
can
The
clever
What
attained
be
tricks
directlywithout
of
animals, which
to
behaviour
their resemblance
let
latch.
But
in
successive
steps have
found
the
that
the
surpriseby
few
been
is
door
instances
in
has
been
conducted
success
corroborated
by
Mr.
by
Thorndike
time.
next
series
of
of
of
animals
by
which
examined, it has
the
seem
sad lack
which
last the
at
human,
distinctly
There
acquiredin the same
way.
systematicobservation of the process by
do
such
to
come
things as opening a
of
amount
hindrance.
or
excite
to be
further
after
ing
liftthe
been
cessive
suc-
tentative
means
This
tailed
en-
view
experiments
Columbia
Univer-
260
PSYCHOLOGY.
sity,on
[BK.
chicks.
"
The
in.,
i.,
method
i.
en.
to
was
kept
of
also in every
but
times
the
enclosure,
to
that
minutes
some
struggles hit
while
enough
in
escape
is
cat
record
accurate
the
upon
trials it will
successive
the
put into
the
such
an
before
its
movement,
proper
make
was
ment
right move-
The
immediately upon being put into the box.
in curves] show
records
exactly
[plotteddown
time
and
the method
to
an
generally elapse
instinctive
after
case
taken
first time
The
trials.
when
the
latter
the
of
rate
condition
of
from
progress
What
affairs.
.
in all these
cases
so
food
is this
confronted
with
The
with
such
have
a
in the
on
forth
course
situation.
being put
situation
the
former
happens
animal
outside,'bursts
activities which
connected
the
into
'
the
of nature
It tries to
into
ment
confinetive
instincbeen
squeeze
fining
through any openings,claws and bites at the walls conside,
it,puts its paws through and claws at things outrush
It may
around,
trying to pull itself out.
and
sistence.
perdoing all this with extraordinary vehemence
If these
impulsive activities fail to include
in opening the door, the
succeeds
which
any movement
and
remains
animal
quietlyin the
finallystops them
does
the animal
If in their course
box.
accidentally
mechanism
the
work
and
in
stance)
in-
act, and
the
for
round,
button
and
freedom
win
thus
the
(claw
261
PERCEPTION.
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
" 6.]
again put
when
in
This
likelyto do it sooner.
continues ; all the squeezings and bitingsand clawings
do not hit the vital point of the mechanism, and
which
do not result in any pleasure,get stamped out, while
so
ing
the particular
impulse, which made the successful clawor
biting,gets stamped in, until finallyit alone is
of the box's
terior,
inconnected
with the sense-impression
animal
the
the box
it is done
and
.
to
of
of
certain
Moreover,
from
to
doors
which
of the
it
For
theorisers
have
accident
by mere
is,therefore,unnecessary
for these
and
and
evidence
in
similar
the
which
has
therefore
tain
cer-
to
invoke
with
besides
on
take
credit
the
reason
(e.g.opening
turningbuttons)
acts
incapable of
be
so
mechanical
them
for
It
account
ances,
contriv-
falls
the
formance
per-
done.
reasoningto
destroyingthe
offered
powers,
to
who
certainlycan
based
been
them
seem
and
declared
successes
argument
Moreover,
ground.
reason
that
by depressingthumb-latches
these
to
possession
generalisation.
or
in.
of the
sign
any
experiments
was
is shut
to
gave
beneath
animals.
it was
inference, comparison
of
animal
importance
boxes, and
use
animals
the
the
when
once
of the utmost
was
would
they
powers
ground
at
of the various
out
that
none
it
Although
get
will be
value
to
the
of the
presence
of
that the
reason.
For
Surely if
that it would
cat
subjectsof these
the
slopes of the
made
open
the
the
movement
dence
give us positiveeviexperiments could not
curves
are
from
an
gradual.
inference
again put
PSYCHOLOGY.
262
make
in,to
due
was
should
the movement
take
to
rudiment
slightest
of
power
the
of
of
ten
make
the
from
be
time.
regular minimum
The
gradual.*
Finally,experiments made
any
if no
trials to
and
in
realise
forth
thencea
sudden
real
time
decision, not
i.
first
were
some
getting out,
means
movement
least
at
CH.
the
if there
successful
twenty
times
long, irregular
the
trials after
And
ought
cat
button
There
impulse.
i.,
even
reasoning faculty,
or
turningthat
from
time.
inference,the
course
that
inference, all
an
m.,
immediately.
minimum
[BK.
mere
change
to
impulsive activity
change
in another
is
as
fact very
connexion
show
the
perform even
simplestacts by seeing another do them or by being put
thus
through them by the experimenter. They were
unable
another
to infer that since
by pulling a string
obtained fish,they might, or that since fish were
gained
it would
with their paws
be
I pushed round
when
a bar
t
gained if they pushed it round themselves.
The best examples in adult human
beings of this gradual
of the rightway,
and gradual disappearance
emergence
of wrong
of doing a thing,are
presented by
ways
the process of acquiringbodilyor other dexterity
merely
sauce
a
through practice. The cook who can concoct
that
animals
these
could
learn
not
to
"
"Thus
happen
The
to
"
animals
do
the
Review,
six
and
vol.
vol.
of the
original
Review.
or
by
taken
the
cat
one
of
case
times,
seven
but
after
forever
v., No.
series,
Psychological
in
then
new
t Science,
an
would,
thing
scrabbling,
abstract
times
in
certain
box
were
160, 30, 90, 60, 15, 28, 20, 30, 22, 11, 15, 20, 12, 10, 14, 8, 8, 5, 10, 8, 6,
(in seconds)
6, 7."
successive
the
difficult
some
after
would
associations,
of
long periods
fail to
do
it."
miscuous
pro-
chological
(Psy-
5, p. 552.)
vii., No.
paper
in
181
Monograph
Supplement,
No.
8, of the
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
" 7.]
PERCEPTION.
263
"
due
successes
formed
by
trial and
to
imitation
one's
by
or
and
error,
able
not
are
being put
be
to
through
them."
^Reproduction,
" 7.
in
the
purelyperceptualprocess,
are
(1) Acquirement
and
(3) The
and
excitement
only forms
In
"
of
reproduction
of meaning r, (2) Complication,
of general states of nervous
revival
their
Process.
Perceptual
concomitant
organic
sensations.
(1) Acquirement
essential.
and
process
whole
leaves
it is
in
process,
it
behind
far
it is
as
cumulative
repeated,it
so
is modified
as
whole
Psychological
by
draws
more
from
the
his
system.
nervous
Review,
coincidence
experiments,
general grounds.
and
continuous,
disposition. Hence,
one
the
that
5, pp.
the
for which
in the
552-553.
I had
which
outset.
there
are
stitution
originalcon-
It consists
conclusion
which
from
when
in modifi-
am
Mr.
previously
greatly
pressed
im-
Thorndike
formed
on
264
PSYCHOLOGY.
[BK.
m.,
i.,
I.
CH.
of the
cation
their
concomitant
especialimportance in
has
which
whipped
been
of fear and
connexion
distress
is of
sensations
organic
emotion.
with
will whine
dog
displaysigns
and
at the
inal
sight of the lash. The origment,
excitepain-sensations
produced a diffused nervous
of or"
rise to a general disturbance
which
gave
The
sight
ganic functions,and to organic sensations.
and bodily
analogous nervous
and with it analogous experiences,,
excitement
" 8. Ideas
Perceptual Process.
accompanying
of perception and
treated
have
So far we
perceptual
in its pure
We
have
form.
distinguishedit
process
of
the
whip
revives
an
"
sharply from
life of
mental
that
but
ideational
we
do
rather
not
what
but
absolutely,
some
may
of
extent
the
man
we
only
the
process
The
animals
without
The
essentially
perceptualnature.
a function
essentially
analogous to
and
requiresthe
not
any
presence
actual
another,
so
perceptualprocesses,
perceptual processes not
potiori.
higher
one
the
pure
call
may
into
run
usually find
accompany
two
in
But
process.
function
of ideas.
same
also.
is true
ideas
Free
interferingwith
free ideas
may
that fulfilled
which
This
to
by
its
fulfil
ception,
per-
CHARACTERISTICS
" 8.]
PERCEPTION.
OF
265
imagery is to prompt
only office discharged by mental
of an action,and not to lay out
or
guide the execution
in the form of a train
the plan of an action beforehand
of thought. Mr. Batchelder's
squirrelsgnawed at the
and by reaching their contents
satisfied their connuts
genital
cravingwithout any mental image of the kernel
inside.
Suppose that on a future occasion they start
with this mental
image, the character of the process is
altered.
The
not
essentially
image of the kernel inside
now
only contributes to prompt and guide the action,
perception of the nut prompted and
just as the mere
Free images may
useful
be especially
guided it before.
and
in this way,
when
the activity
is
even
necessary
nite
comparativelycomplicated,and undetermined
by deficongenitalimpulses. Take for instance the case of
a monkey
imitatinga train of actions which it has seen
those concerned
in shaving,for
performed by a man,
instance.
Possiblypercepts would alone suffice in such
The
a case.
might prompt the act of
sightof the razor
sharpening it,and the act of sharpeningit might next
But
prompt the lathering,and so on.
certainlyit is
"
easier
understand
to
different
the
phases
and
monkey,
exist*
They
not
each
*
There
is
in
not
think
in
the
animal
perhaps
for
room
that
there
mind,
of
rule
a
give
of
difference
except
elephants.
ideas,so
mind
of
of
the
to
so
Their
opinion
case
for
far
they
speak, sporadic.
rise to further
evidence
in the
the
image
him.
and,
train.
is much
in
in
that
suppose
mental
some
in animals
isolated
other
do
and
as
we
arises
man
that
seem
all, are
at
do
the
helps to guide
It would
if
of its progress
of
behaviour
action
the
ideas following
function
this
on
the
of the
is rather
point.
presence
more
as
to
Personally,
of ideal
images
intelligent monkeys
PSYCHOLOGY.
266
[BK.
in.,
i.,
en.
T.
impulse as percepts
guide the development of a motor
guide it. As Mr. Thorndike
says, the impulse and not
the idea is the essential thing.
In
our
life,free
mental
own
ideas
almost
are
stantly
con-
that
so
kind.
The
interval
vast
far
so
animal
from
which
they depend
as
achievements,
animal
is
intelligence,
between
perceptual
activities
are
they
an
hand,
man
them
action
"
of
distinction
the
Animal
process.
He
can
Impulsive
execution.*
in his
action
is thus
He
in advance.
" 9.
with
ideational
in its actual
constructs
out.
as
ideas, schemes
of
far
so
intelligence,
they depend on
either
involve
guide
human
on
connected
and
ments,
achieve-
separates human
head," by
before
capable of
cross
On
Character
of trains
means
he
begins to carry
overcoming difficulties
bridgebefore
the other
he
of Perceptual
to it.
comes
Process.
"
do
not
unite
implied in
is
*
There
broadly
may
true.
be
the
to
form
continuous
conception
exceptions
to
this
of
rule, but
system, such
person.
the
general
We
as
must
statement
is
OF
CHARACTERISTICS
" 9.]
PERCEPTION.
267
in the main
They are
deny personalityto animals.
word
of impulse. The
creatures
impulse is properly
applied to any conative tendency, so far as it operates
its
by
a
isolated
own
of
general system
or
deliberation.
of
relation
into
action
the
to
follow.
the
He
reflexion
instead
man,
of
for
deliberation,regret
When
the momentary
conflict
with
come
into
which
the
of
system
appeals
from
without
is
remorse
impulse
has
general
his life
consistencyto
likely
ceased
more
Self
strength
action
or
his
the
If the
determine
consciousness,the idea
dominate
total
impulse
momentary
giving time
with
future.
and
life,past
to
from
is
mental
of
impulse
on
results
deliberation
In
its relation to
the
followingout
of the
Action
motives.
action which
with
contrasted
thus
from
intensity,
apart
to
may
tendencies
as
whole.
is impossible on
of this kind
the
Regret or remorse
the peron
purely perceptual plane; simply because
ceptual
plane there is no unified system of tendencies
the isolated impulse could
with which
collide;there is
whole
no
personal Self including in one
past, present
and future experience. It is nonsense
to punish a dog
for
an
which
action
did
he
impulses.
does
attainment
having
not
The
constitute
of further
ends.
own
internal
with
each
its
with
each
end
the
of
relatively
attained in one
perceptual
for the
a
starting-point
several
unity and
much
We
Thus
ago.
is compact
The
other
other.
week
do
processes,
continuity,are
as
not
games
assume
are
each
connecte
dis-
nected
discon-
the result
268
of
one
of
the
holds
the
the
of
analogy
and
as
the
the
be
even
and
the
complete.
begun.
continuous
coherent
lower
On
the
is
races
the
of
purely
the
this
also
makes
phases,
perceptual
and
things
in
gradually
ideal
tion
construc-
mentary
rudi-
comparatively
mankind,
tinuous
con-
world.
of
up
say
may
future
system
The
that
single
no
and
built
world
we
up,
single
past
pletely
com-
and
is
development.
of
but
there
constructions,
human
Self
present,
single
ideal
of
course
in
not
as
are
of
can
uniting
world
processes,
with
contrasted
starting-
true
activity,
Summing
plane
is
practice,
by
perfect.
whole
It
T.
CH.
i.,
starts
game
perceptual
perceptual
Self
Self
of
trains
more
the
on
increased
m.,
the
as
Each
account.
own
is
player
whist
at
game.
its
on
good
that
rubber
or
succeeding
afresh
of
chess
at
game
point
skill
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
and
it
plane
never
it
has
II.
CHAPTER
IMITATION.
" 1. Introductory.
great
both
importance for
is
Imitation
the
animals.
and
men
"
its
very
life in
of mental
development
In
of
process
complex forms,
more
it
pre-supposes
it is present and
the
of
case
form
animals, imitation
of social tradition.
In
the
be
may
of human
case
beings,
in language,
distinctively
the
which
generation,that
this
tradition pre-supposes
human
so
in
environment
mould
the
environment
of
new
it must
the
old
to
trains
of
of ideas.
animals
depend
consists
in imitation by
essentially
None
largely
of their parents, or
the
on
less,the
of other
269
This
tradition.
the
intelligent
more
young
members
tradition
of the
of the
tions
ac-
com-
[BK. in.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
270
in
munity
imitative
which
they are
though it
process,
the whole
importantpart
very
is very
en.
IT.
directly
far from
forming
beings,forms a
The
born.
i.,
same
of it.
We
must
Impulse.
distinguish
We
between
to imitate and impulse to imitate.
ability
be alreadyfullyable to perform an action,and the
may
sightof it as performed by another may merely prompt
act performed
to reproduce it. But the sight of an
us
by another may also have an educational influence; it
" 2. The
could
we
follow.
When
to
us
do
what
not
the
do
without
cough
of
we
having
one
an
us
to
example
sets
man
already
are
also enable
without
able to do
what
"
only stimulate
not
may
Imitative
do
to
another
have
then
of the imitative
impulse
"
So
far
"practice."
as
this
is capable
of
being
taught,
and
does
not
depend
on
and
271
IMITATION.
" 2.]
far
so
it excites interest
as
with
connected
interest
must
certain
kind.
what
least
at
excite interest.
does
of such
be
is
or
Further, the
it is
that
intimately
fully
or
by partially
gratified
wholly repeatingthe interesting
imitation
is a specialdevelopment of atThus
action.
tention.
Attention
is always striving
after a more
vivid,
more
definite,and more
complete apprehension of its
in which
this endeavour
object. Imitation is a way
gratifyitself when the interest in the objectis of a
may
all
nature
It is obvious
of
manner
actions
that
do
we
without
more
not
tate
imi-
to
try
distinction,
merely
is
What
our
they take place under
eyes.
familiar and commonplace or what
for any other reason
is unexciting and insipid,
fails to stir us to re-enact
it.
It is otherwise
in any
novel
with what
is strikingly
or
attention
that our
dwells
it with
so
on
impressive,
way
because
relish
whatever
is
fascination.
or
when
where
case
it is in fact
so
fixes attention
act
only the
interest
is
sake
own
it is not
centres
but
in
something
acts, but
often
is
there
also
that
with
than
the
the
like
act
which
the
on
for
This
the
activity
sake
ulterior
of its
motives.
in itself should
this act
be
the
cases
act
is
terest
in-
imitated,
is
so
mately
inti-
gestures and
of attention.
important class of
directlyin the external
else
This
helps attention,where
most
not
connected
Thus
and
necessary
interesting
; in
rather
that
true
imitation.
to
directlyconcentrated
possibleconsequences
But
prompts
imitation
not
course
specialdevelopment
It is of
modes
of
Men
speech
are
of those
apt
who
to
imitate
excite
the
their
PSYCHOLOGY.
272
admiration
affection
or
their
imitate
Children
Even
playground.
[UK.
parents,
the mannerisms
n.
in
their leaders
or
CH.
T.,
personal interest.
other
some
or
m.,
tricks of
and
the
speech
unconsciouslycopied by those
who
regardhim as a hero. In such instances the primary
interest is in the whole
personalityof the model ; but
this is more
sciousness
brought before convividlyand distinctly
by reproducinghis external peculiarities.*
of
great
Our
man
are
result
then
imitation
to
in
interest is of
by
is that interest in
proportion to
kind
imitative
often
which
interest
The
intensity,
provided the
sustained
be gratified
or
here
make
must
we
either
be
may
prompts
its
will
activity. But
action
an
primary
tinction.
dis-
or
quired
ac-
imitative
through previous experience. The
tent
impulse in young animals and children is to a large exindependent of previousexperience. It depends
duck brought up by
A young
on
congenitaltendencies.
a
hen
chickens
among
imitates
its social
environment
there is an instinctive
only in a limited degree. Where
tendency towards a certain form of action,the action is
tive
when
another
interesting
performs it,so that the imitainto play.
impulse comes
As a rule,this instinctive imitation
not
only prompts
less its special
the action,but also determines
more
or
The child has a congenitaltendency to utter
character.
of the
articulate sounds ; but
the
special character
sounds it utters is largelydetermined
by the sounds it
hears
of
true
Hence
from
Of
the
course
the
the
persons
of
song
the
society
tendency
associating
to
with
surround
who
birds.
in which
acquire
people
who
live
is
provincial
have
it.
The
sometimes
But
we
it.
always
accent
imitation
interesting
when
is
same
we
are
to
us.
stantly
con-
" 3.]
273
IMITATION.
occasional
onlyto supply an
seems
the
create
appreciablymodify
or
in which
the
its character.
of
presence
an
ample
ex-
lates
simply stimu-
model
As
will
heard
not
elicit it from
it before.
hear
it is instinctive.
cry,
the
cease
chick
in
the
on
has
birds who
same
uttered
by
to
whole
and
to
may be communicated
It is mainly in this manner
that birds
group.
animals
other
learn
to
avoid
inhabitants
; but
in
uttered
state
disturbed
the alarm-note
of
alarm,
and
dangers which
with
sight of a man
evoke
may
after
connected
general will
actuallybeen
a
also
which
parent-birdutters the
is
yet in the egg will suddenly
become
to pierce the shell and
justthe
of the alarm-note
When
which
Tn
chicken
young
Its effect
its endeavour
motionless.
or
few
with
become
shy.
wounded
; this has
they
thrown
also
utter
these,when
no
at
a
alarm
first
gun
in its
experiencesof
man
so
armed,
Those
by
the
who
have
gun
have
yet others
the
into
alarm-note;
alarm-note,
Psych.
18
274
PSYCHOLOGY.
in and
a
by the
general rule
[BK.
of imitation
process
is obvious
which
when
out.
It is
him
that hath
shall be
itself.
in.,
Here
general rule
Our
given."
of
power
u.
there
it is
once
en.
i.,
is
pointed
that
"
to
imitating
is
proportioned to our
strictly
of performing the same
general kind
pre-existing
power
is devoid
of action independently.* For instance,one
who
of imitating
of musical
no
facultyhas practically
power
Imitation
the violin playing of Joachim.
may
develop and improve a power which alreadyexists,but
it. Consider
the child beginning for
it cannot
create
tation
the first time to write in a copybook. He learns by imimentary
rudihe has alreadysome
; but it is only because
abilityto make such simple figuresas pothooks
activityof
the
another
can
process
pothooks
are
very
get
unlike
model
the
the
At
start.
set
set,
out-
before
pendent
Graduallyhe improves ; increased power of indeproductiongives step by step increased
power
imitation,until he approaches too closelythe limits
him.
of
his
of
capacity
of
progress
But
an
in
this
direction
to
make
any
further
appreciablekind.
this is an
of the matter.
The
incompleteaccount
of learning by imitation
is part of the general
power
of learning by experience; it involves
mental
power
plasticity.An animal which starts life with congenital
tendencies and aptitudesof a fixed and stereotyped
kind,
in the course
that they admit of but little modification
so
of individual
development, has correspondingly little
of learning by imitation.
animals, monAmong
power
*
to
Mr.
imitate
buttons,
been
Thorndike's
actions
etc.
different.
The
animals,
so
strange
result
with
referred
and
an
to
in the
unfamiliar
to
previous
them
intelligentmonkey
as
would
chapter,
the
failed
pressure
probably
of
have
IMITATION.
" 3.]
the
have
keys
kinds
of
of ways,
They
and
they
in
are
of
of
the
use
the
more
human
knives,
of
sphere
of
failure
of
their
the
imitative
of
distinctly
an
The
action
wide
of
without
is, as
of
their
which
range
interest.
general,
more
They
the
are
all
in
success
of
or
their
They
tivity
ac-
attend
any
form
before
bringing
rapidly by
range
this
learn
and
animals.
the
to
things, experimenting
impulse
of
development
wider
all
capable
In
etc.
other
learning
things
in
spontaneously
have
than
do
to
wide
of
all kinds
way
plates,
attempts.
involves
and
forks,
cups,
active
admitted
will
and
ways,
when
Thus,
tude
apti-
greatest
high degree
very
beings, they
activity
incessantly trying
sorts
intelligent monkeys
varied
the
incessantly
are
learning by experience.
company
to
plasticity and
greatest
imitation.
for
275
have
we
seen,
attention.
The
consciousness
interests
them,
special
readiest
vividly
is to
and
re-enact
it themselves.
Of
at
course
imitative
impulse
activity
in
activity organised
imitate
the
not
action
desirable
so
is
far
less
general
in
much
of
levels
higher
unified
as
with
and
system.*
of
immediate
view
to
results.
*
See
last
development
conspicuous
is checked
because
imitated
mental
chapter,
"
9.
the
because
the
pulsive
im-
overruled
Civilised
interest
attainment
by
men
in
of
III.
CHAPTER
PLEASURE-PAIN.
of perceptone
Introductory. The hedonic
tion
We
is determined
by varying conditions.
may
is
which
distinguish
broadly the pleasure or displeasure
directlydue in the first instance to the perceptual process
" 1.
at
from
"
the
time
of its occurrence,
and
that
which
arises
pre-formed associations.
Whatever
disables
perceptual process
is disagreeable
at the time of its occurrence
; whatever
favours or furthers it is agreeable. Here it is important
functions
of perception: (1) the
to
distinguishtwo
attention ; (2) the
apprehension of objects,or mere
are
performance of actions which
guided by attention,
but do not merely consist in the process of attending.
The
conditions
"2. Feeling -Tone
of Attention.
of pleasure-painin the process
of attending,as
such,
well stated by Dr. Ward
have been
There is pleasure
:
in proportionas a maximum
of attention is effectively
tention
exercised,and pain in proportion as such effective atis frustrated by distractions,shocks, or incomplete
and faultyadaptations,
fails of exercise owing
or
obstructs
or
"
"
the
to
narrowness
and
slowness
Article
xx.,
on
of the
smallness
"Psychology"
field of consciousness
of its
in
276
the
ninth
tion,
edi-
changes."*
Encyclopaedia
p. 71.
and
Britannica,
PLEASURE-PAIN.
" 2.]
The
continuance
monotonous
of
kind
same
involves
similar
in
similarlysituated.
variety is
for
necessary
this
Where
activitywhich may be
along a road where
travelling
all
character,and the villages
in
is uniform
and
certain
free
the
On
the
other
hand,
too
attention.
will strive
is
fail
and
of
amount
of
play
lacking,the mind
exercise its activity
upon,
objects to
the
of mental
highlydisagreeable,as
the scenery
repetition of
or
presentationafter
restriction
277
find
to
ably.
disagree-
succession
rapid
of
varying external impressionsmay be equally unpleasing. The mind, while pre-occupiedwith one object,is
of another, and
other,
interruptedby the obtrusion
yet anthat attention
is being perpetuallywarped.
so
This
gives rise to the pain of distraction,which may
also occur
when
disconnected
objects simultaneously
claim
be efficiently
attention,so that it cannot
cised
exerof them.
In attendingto the same
by any one
complex object,pleasure or displeasuremay arise from
the
of
relation
adapted
to
Where
the
facilitates
its
parts, which
Kant
what
calls
"
our
parts
of
has
the
the
the
whole,
the
other
meets
hand,
is
where
prepared
with
and
another
the
activityis
apprehension
apprehension
pleasant,if it
stage of
one
certain
for which
is unpleasant.
activity
prehens
ap-
facilitates the
at
for
where
and
facilitates the
total
varied
sufficiently
the mind
and
and
prepares
be
facultyof knowing."
part prepares
one
not
may
of
or
may
As
kind
the
On
process
of continuation
it is not
examples
pre-adjusted,
we
may
refer
278
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
"
to
sounds
outlines, of
sound,
of
movements,
or
and
i.,
en.
in.
of
rhythmic succession
symmetricalforms and curved
pleasurableness of
the
m.,
gentle crescendos
of gradual variations
and
diminuendos
of shade
in
in
colour,and
accommodated,
and
is,so
"
say,
result
the
whenever
to
is
balked, wasted."*
economicallymeted out;
prised,
painful,attention is surunderstand
To
this, we
of
prospective nature
essentially
It is always a pre-adjustment
the attentive process.
the pre-adjustment varies in
for what is coming, and
If what
its specific
nature
accordingto circumstances.
is that for which
a
specific
pre-adjustment
actuallyoccurs
has
been
made, the mental
activityproceeds
of energy.
without
waste
smoothly and
successfully
If on
the other hand
does not fit
what
actuallyoccurs
in with the pre-adjustment,
of disapthere is a shock
pointmen
remember
must
and
The
movement
the
of energy.
waste
depends
on
the
same
conditions
the
of
feeling-tone
discussingimitation,we
intrinsic
interest
attract
as
those
motor
which
mine
deter-
activities.
our
own
saw
attention,produce
by
In
their
in the observer
This tendency
tendency to repeat them himself.
is always present, even
it does not issue in overt
when
imitation.
occasions
The
sightof external movement
the revival of correspondingmotor
experiencesin the
revival
subjectwho is attending to it. This motor
a
Op. cit.tp.
69.
PLEASURE-PAIN.
" 2.]
forms
integralpart
of the
distinct idea.
The
an
course
279
perceptualcomplex, not of
conditions
of pleasure and
in general,
displeasurewhich apply to motor
process
in
involved
apply also to the reproduced motor
process
it takes
attending to a moving object. When
place
with
and
and
fineness of adjustspecial ease
facility
ment,
call the
we
But
"graceful."
an
it is not
that involves
movement
the
external
that
movement
the
merely
slender
column
apparentlydisproportionate
weight
effect
the spectator.
on
It is
he
to which
supporting a burden
mere
thought of Atlas bearing up
shoulders
makes
has
if he
as
is not
the
uncomfortable.
it
of
perception
excites
on
activity
supporting
a
able
disagree-
himself
were
equal.
heavens
on
The
his
The
pleasingor
unpleasingeffect of geometrical forms is also to a large
due to the motor
in perceiving
extent
involved
activity
them.
In part, this motor
activityconsists in actual
such as those of the eye followingan
line
outmovements,
; but
in
apprehending
themselves
"
one
great
measure
lines
and
active.
into the
We
air ; of
it arises from
surfaces
our
mode
of
if
in
they were
self
speak of a column
raisingitpath winding ; and so on.
as
"
"
"
feature of
Language of this kind marks a fundamental
The
direction of lines and surfaces
perceptualprocess.
is apprehended as if it were
which the lines
a direction
and
surfaces
themselves
activelytake and maintain.
there
is a sympathetic
Hence, in apprehending them
in us, which
revival of motor
activity
may be pleasing
the geometrical outline is so iror
unpleasing.* When
*This
Baumasthetik
view
is
und
developed
in
full
detail
geometrisch-optische
in
Dr.
Lipps'
Tduschungen.
recent
work
280
PSYCHOLOGY.
regular
in
its
[BK.
m.,
i.,
CH.
in.
defeat
pre-adjustmentson
our
abrupt changes for which we
part, and to demand
are
unprepared, it is disagreeable. On the other hand,
is agreeable. Of course,
if the
a
gently flowing curve
figureis too simple,it will be almost neutral in feelingit is at once
complex and graceful,it
tone, but when
pleasure
displeasure. Marked
give rise to considerable
may
when
sufficient regularity
is present to
occurs
other
appoint.
disconditions
create
a
pre-adjustment which
The
ing
experienceis also unpleasant when, owmonotonous
to the simplicity
or
repetitionof the
occupied. In this
object,attention is not sufficiently
active tendency is thwarted
because
it does not
case
an
find adequate material
for its exercise.
Of course
what
is too simple or too complex for one
not be
person
may
too simple or too
complex for another.
and
" 3. Success
Defeat as Determining Pleasure
and
Pain.
very
extensive
that
it
"
and
an
endeavour
that
of the
class
knows
the
of
seems
that
by
of
head
second
cases
it is
is
familiar
so
necessary
to
unpleasant
adverse
external
which
facilitate
circumstances
end
to
as
Under
scarcely
Everybody
in
course
included
and
obvious
mention
be
to
them.
defeated
circumstances,
the
attainment
pleasing.
activityare for that reason
The
the mouse
cat is displeasedwhen
it; the
escapes
stead
he digs up the turf ingolf-playeris displeasedwhen
of hitting his ball ; the sportsman
is displeased
is
he misses his bird.
An
when
analysisof such cases
We
need
only insist on their importance
unnecessary.
for the general theory of pleasure-pain. The
very fact
them
familiar
makes
obvious
and
that they are
tant.
imporIf
we
an
can
reduce
other
instances
in which
the
281
PLEASURE-PAIN.
" 3.]
less obvious
to the
tone
are
feelingwe
same
fairlyclaim to have
general principle,
may
iologica
given an explanation.It should be noted that the phystions
theory which refers all pleasure-painto relatissue can
and
of wear
scarcely
repairin nervous
We
be made
to apply here.
are
pleasedwhen we hit
miss it;
nail on
the head
and displeasedwhen
we
a
for supposing
whatever
there
to be
no
reason
seems
is being used
that in the one
case
surplus-stored
energy
of
conditions
up,
and
whatever
These
in
the
the
other
surplus existed
remarks
apply to
failure which
arise from
is another
There
One
not.
would
be
of
that
suppose
both.
to
common
of
conditions
those
or
success
circumstances.
external
group
would
in which
cases
tions
condi-
the
ternal
or
are
found, not in exefficiency
inefficiency
circumstances, but in the activityitself as a
The
simultaneous
and
successive
subjectiveprocess.
of
co-ordination
of
delicate
involves
impulses.
adjustment
of
Each
these
duration, and
and
succeed
general, failure
directed
movements
each
in
of
have
must
in
motor
certain
they
end
one
innumerable
and
rapidity,
other
towards
must
certain
tensity
in-
pany
accom-
order.
In
adjustment,disturbingthe activity
whole
and
is unpleasant.
as
a
rendering it inefficient,
The
is a
peculiarexperience of losing one's balance
treme
good illustration. Part of the unpleasantness of exvulsive
fatigue lies in the muscular
tremblings and conjerks to which it gives rise. On the other hand,
and
ease
plex
certaintyof adjustment in performing comis a source
of pleasurewhen
the movemovements
ments
habitual
have not become
to lose feelingso
as
free
and
A
tone.
easy flow of delicatelyadjusted
PSYCHOLOGY.
282
is
movements
play
to
same
its
such.
as
.pleasurable,
in children
kind.
[UK.
and
The
animals
young
in.,
cu.
i.,
in.
pleasures of
largelyof this
dog in its struggle
are
companions,
There
the like.
certain
are
and
general
conditions
which
bute
contri-
effective motor
adjustment. Among
these perhaps the most
important is rhythm. In rhythmic
the same
movements
adjustment is repeated at
regular intervals,so that it is possibleto prepare for it
to
easy
beforehand.
and
the
this way
In
maximum
of
is
efficiency
of
energy
is
attained.
avoided,
All workmen
have
waste
to
repeat
movement
"
"
...
Thus
Rhythmic
kind
which
the
rhythm
activity
also
intensifies
of
verse
produces
the
effect
intensifies
diffused
of other
the
effect
of
excitement
pleasure-giving
of
poetic
ideas
an
able
agree-
conditions.
and
ments.
senti-
PLEASUKE-PAIK.
" 4.]
become
particularly agreeable
is
heard
and
than
of
in such
that
the
abstract
; the
is determined
feeling-tone of
itself
in
its
feeling-tone of
and
its
disposition
experience, and
the
Probably
this
to
a
is the
unpleasant
vividly experience
may
*
be
the
to
Sully, The
give
may
of
tant
imporing-tone,
feel-
the
because
this
the
aspect
experience.
of
rooks
is the
It
re-excites
its
pleasantness.
this instance.
The
lemon
Human
sight
actual
makes
In
other
of
food
I.
mere
vol.
ii.,p.
gusting
dis-
highly
sight
some
78.
stances
in-
The
nausea.
in James
The
also
of
people
highly disagreeable.
Mind,
previous perceptual
corresponding organic
them
taste
organic sensations
produced
sucking
pler
sim-
conative
of
produce
joyment
en-
painfulness which
or
cawing
disturbance.
organic
person
in
duces
pro-
of
merely
and
source
of
may
sword
pleasant perception
by
prominent.
taste
drawn
the
behind
re-excitement
the
It is
eye.
acquired meaning.
important part
which
fruit
developed by
left
it is very
another
the
cognitive
acquired feeling-toneof
modified
take
To
the
pleasantness
The
of
it is not
cases
been
sight
which
.
previous experiences
to
been
having
currents
many
planation
ex-
pleasure,
delicious
has
plays an
perception
total
the
of its appearance
note
is revived
of
sight
because
more
because
to
of
these."
accompanied
instance, the
pleasure
of
re-excitation
which
surroundings
among
accompaniment
faint
The
one.
particular sound,
again
marked
this
that
again
have
283
tions
sensa-
IV.
CHAPTER
EMOTIONS.
General
" 1.
is
What
to
common
Characteristics.
an
emotion
is
sense
"
in
states
have
same
name,
Emotion,
the
that
which
common
all of
to
ask
leads
them,
inconsistent
what
find
we
fear,
"
When
character
to
us
tion,
quesoccurs
emotions,
specific
jealousy,and the like.
hope, suspense,
push the inquiry further, and
these
ask
we
list of
anger,
we
If
apply the
gists
psycholoing
Accord-
answers.
kind of sensation,
a
essentially
due
to
According to
general organic disturbance.
revival by association of past
others, it is the massive
pleasures and pains. According to others, it is a
and
be
in a particular
must
tendency to behave
way,
The
consciousness.
of conative
regarded as a mode
for us to pursue
of this disagreebest course
in view
ment,
is to take certain typicalemotions, and to attempt
to
emotion
some,
is
to fix
characteristics
them
(1)
is
confronts
which
The
There
distinctive
prominent
one
us
at
specifickind
same
various
levels
appears
to
be
of
an
the
outset
of emotion
mental
affair of
and
of them
fact
;
"
about
its wide
may
development.
mere
284
sensation.
to
common
occur
emotion
range.
at
Sometimes
"The
very
it
signs"
285
EMOTIONS.
" 1.]
umay
be
wounded
lion
bites
at
wounds.
The
cat
will
with
its kittens.
its
away
understand
his
his book.
Paul
from
was
saint
giving too
forms.
specific
direction
Bain,
he
when
knowingly
being,and
inflicted."
with
arouse
that
must
limited
instance,seems
not
of ideational
such
cover
the foolish
different
be
definition
to
of
an
its
in this
err
contains
"
very
impulse
is
it.
*Ladd,
t Mental
the
varied
Any
kind
Psychology,
and
Moral
consciousness
cases
as
; and
St. Paul's
even
righteous
Galatians.
over
that anger
says
It follows
emotion
we
St.
another
sentient
sufferingupon
in the fact of suffering
a positive
gratification
This
would
|
only apply to a somewhat
it would
anger
for
fail to
inflict
to
developed stage
then
of
take
saint,as
Galatians.
development,
avoid
if you
qua
angry
foolish
the
distribution
wide
to
be
interfere
if you
angry
angry
own
unfavourably criticise
if you
also
its
at
if you
angry
become
or
may
with
stages of mental
careful
will
argument
angry
this
become
man
and
stones
A
A
toy.
sticks and
with
nature
of
the wide
of
the
thwarting
Descriptive
Science,
and
p. 261.
or
distribution
conditions
oi
that
opposition may
Explanatory,
p. 538.
PSYCHOLOGY.
286
[BK.
m.,
T.,
en.
iv.
excite fear.
Any kind of danger may
You
produce anger in a dog by disturbingit while
may
eating,or by interferingwith its young, or by pulling
of situation,not a
its tail. It is a certain general kind
excite
anger.
specificclass
of
objects,which
excites
certain
kind
of
emotion.
The
behaviour
in which
emotion
finds
expression is
It is not an
correspondinglygeneral in its character.
of this or that specific
nature
adaptation to the specific
object,but a general mode of action adapted to a certain
kind of situation.
of the angry
behaviour
The
dog is
is excited.
It
the anger
genericallythe same, however
adopts the same
bodily attitude,shows its teeth,growls,
attempts
to
bite,and
the like.
which
of emotional
states
(3) There are two sources
arise in
it is important to distinguish.Emotions
may
connexion
with definite perceptionsor ideas,as when
excites joy ; on the other hand, they may
be
good news
primarily due to organic changes, such as those which
of alcohol
follow
other
the use
or
drugs. A man's
The
organic
temper varies with the state of his health.
both
of two
or
changes may
operate in one
ways.
They may directlychange the condition of the nervous
of nutrition
amount
or
system by alteringthe nature
it is supplied,or in other ways.
with which
They may
also, by alteringthe general state of the body, alter the
of the impulses received
nature
by the central nervous
Owing to the diffusive
system from the internal organs.
of organic sensations,this occasions
nature
a
general
change in the state of the nervous
system, which on the
mood.
side is experienced as an emotional
psychological
mood
is not
emotional
An
quite the same
thing as an
287
EMOTIONS.
" 1.]
called.
properly so
emotion
called
be
emotion
An
felt in relation
properly
so
definite
object;
be angry
about
must
to be angry
we
something. But
the generalstate of irritation due, let us say, to a sleepless
night,has not, as such, any definite object. As we
under
shall see
(4),it tends to find objectsfor itself,
it may
and
one
objectto another, givingrise
pass from
of the same
In general,
kind.
to a series of emotions
the
must
of
occurrence
it
definite
emotional
mood
to
some
emotion
of
tends
leave
to
hind
be-
correspondingnature.
mood, whatever
(4) An emotional
may be its primary
it is aroused, and to
once
origin,tends to persistwhen
fasten upon
any objectwhich presents itself. Ill-temper
in the first
or
gloomy depressionor hilarity
originate
may
instance
in the use
of drugs ; but when
these moods
are
in existence
A
once
they create objectsfor themselves.
who
man
gets up in the morning in a bad temper, due
of sleep or similar causes,
is apt to be irritated
to want
by almost everythingthat occurs;
though in another
mood
an
the
incidents
same
The
of the
the
ears
the
sightof
on
their
he
is fixed.
in
the
scullion ;
absence
seen
in
received
her
of
only objecton
excitement
of
on
the
dogs, when
will box
their
vent
the
reason
which
find
fury
being
their attention
an
outlet ;
definite channel
injured animal.
three
placency.
com-
cattle,enraged by
must
other
any
with
mistress
will
distress,
companion
is the
Their
be
herd
in
comrade
would
angered by
unfortunate
simply that
and
cook
or
four
or
"
for
It is
five
are
met
PSYCHOLOGY.
288
and
each
attack
the males
time, when
their
direction
whatever
(5)
of many
angry
emotion
rivalry. An
or
other."
of
way
it is
So
speciesof
passionsare
involves
in.,
i.,
dangerous
animals
in
iv.
CH.
to
proach
ap-
breeding
aroused
by sexual
general trend
certain
which
itself
activity,
particularises
it can, according to circumstances.
fifth feature
The
[BK.
of
emotion
is what
we
in
may
its
So far as emotions
character.
are
parasitical
excited
not
by general situations, and
merely by
general organic changes, they are usuallysecondary
of more
the
existence
phenomena, and pre-suppose
This
tendencies.
is true of all but the simplest
specific
and
The
most
primitiveemotional states.
anger
duced
proin a dog by taking away
its bone
pre-supposes
the specific
appetitefor food. The anger produced in it
the specific
with
its young
by interfering
pre-supposes
tendency to guard and tend its offspring. So the presence
of a rival who
interferes with its wooing causes
pulse.
imbecause
of the pre-existence
of the sexual
anger
call
been
changes,or
whether
connexion
with
form
an
of consciousness.
total state
emotion
phases of emotion,
important constituent of the
intense
more
which
This
is true
primarily introduced
it has
the
whether
by organic
arisen in
This
perceptions or ideas.
ing
basis of a general theory,accord-
definite
made
the
the essential
nature
of the
emotional
sciousness
con-
arisingfrom change in
body, includingboth viscera
consists in sensations
the internal
organs
of the
muscles.
and
*
Hudson,
The
Naturalist
in
La
Plata,
ch.
xxii.
(towards
end).
289
EMOTIONS.
" 2.]
" 2. General
Theory.
is most
which
The
"
generaltheoryof
at the
favoured
tion
emo-
It is at least as old as
justreferred.
with
the
Descartes,but is now
speciallyconnected
its claims
of Professor James, who has advocated
name
do better
cannot
with great force and eloquence. We
to
which
than
have
we
quote his
of the
of the main
statement
argument
in favour
that
of which
cold and
would
the emotion
neutral
is
emotion
state
What
.
can
be
constituted,and
of intellectual
kind
of
an
perceptionis
emotion
of fear
be left if the
beats
feelingneither of quickened heartof shallow
nor
breathing,neither of trembling
of
nor
limbs,neither of goose-flesh
lipsnor of weakened
visceral stirrings,
were
present, it is quite impossible
for me
Can
to think.
one
fancy the state of ragf
and pictureno
ebullition in the chest, no
flushingof
the face,no
dilatation of the nostrils,
no
clenchingof
the teeth,no
impulse to vigorous action,but in their
stead limp muscles, calm breathing,
and a placidface ?
The
The
present writer, for one, certainlycannot.
rage is as completely evaporated as the sensation of
its so-called manifestations,and
the only thing that
can
possiblybe supposed to take its place is some
and dispassionate
cold-blooded
fined
judicialsentence, conentirelyto the intellectual realm, to the effect
that
certain
Psych.
person
or
persons
merit
chastisement
for
290
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
sins.
their
The
states, the
closelyI
more
in.,
i.,
CH.
iv.
scrutinise
my
that whatever
persuaded I become
and passionsI have are
in very truth
moods, affections,
constituted by, and made
of, those bodily changes
up
which
more
; and
the
from
drag
out
This
existence
an
to
seems
me
is
passage
stringency.
and
of
quence
conse-
that if I
be
to
were
excluded
tender
alike,
lectual
intel-
merely cognitiveor
form."
eloquent,but
certainly
It does
follow
not
stone
it lacks
A
that because
with
connected
essentially
identical.
are
it
more
expression or
corporeallyanaesthetic,I should
the life of the affections,
harsh and
become
and
their
ordinarilycall
we
is
A
that
.Z?,
fall into
cannot
logical
sarily
neces-
and
without
water
direction
and
fire,but
without
So
it may
not
the
smoke
is
are
be
expressingitself;but it
the expressionconstitutes
Professor
that
James's
is emotion
sensation
does
emotion
it.
exist
to
be
smoke
without
follow
emotion.
the whole
to
no
fire another.
therefore
not
thesis
invert
cannot
we
thing and
one
impossiblefor
is
There
same.
that
ing
Suppos-
true, it is evident
all
Certainlynot
organic
not
are
hunger and stomach-ache
fore
emotional
experiences. To complete the theory thereit is necessary to distinguish
the kinds of organicreaction
which
So far
as
we
point from
connects
many
own
emotion
organs.
*
But
Principles
those
James's
statement, it would
with
all
diffused
view
seem
disturbance
organic disturbances
of Psychology,
which
vol.
do
not.
on
this
that
he
affecting
are
ii.,
pp, 451-453.
diffused
EMOTIONS.
" 2.]
experience of
The
in this way.
after
being shampooed
It is evident
into
by, or
in the
Turkish
Now
excitations.
They
is traceable
its
which
when
nutrition,as
proceed
it from
to
the neural
emotions
which
and
body
the
process
James
by
which
die
but
or
madman
intellectual
impulses
sensory
; and
organs
When
even
such
consider
we
with
of
the
definite perceptions
the
instances
theory
comes
be-
the diffused
that the
emotion
and
me
pistolat
somewhat
perception of
On
me
the
be, as
cold
shall
some
perturbation of
no
consciousness.
stage of
intellectual
neutral
perception that
in
first
arises,cannot
this moment
at
presents
system itself
its
the
this awakens
motor
In
"cold
intellectual
neutral
or
to
It follows
whole.
I have
emotional
ance
primary originin a disturbsystem, which is propagated over
it is,a
says
is due
connexion
in
has
nervous
as
tent
ex-
sensory impulses,
identified with the
be directly
evident.
organicdisturbance
the
the
ideas,the inadequacy
stillmore
of the
for
themselves.
arise
some
of health
nervous
the internal
reason
organic sensations
the
as
disturbance
for that
it cannot
well
the
as
case
must
on
ceded
pre-
nervous
specific
the state
as
we
to
such
far
so
causes
of
effect of
and
such
to
in
so
enter
of disturbance
doubt
no
produce
do
which
present in the
is not
system, which
nervous
use
this
on
occasion, be
specialkind
accompany,
organic sensations.
organic sensations can
the
bath, ought
either
must
state
of all
mood
of
douche, or
sensations
organic
that the
emotional
an
cold
emotional.
be
theory to
291
the
here
madman
other
and
day
ceral
vis-
hand,
too, I have
as
ception."
per-
an
presenting
292
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
the
pistol;but this
organic disturbance.
the two
time
it
Now
is followed
what
intellectual
in.,
is the
i.,
difference
in the two
iv.
by general
perceptionswhich
in their result
CH.
tween
be-
accounts
cases
On
the
state
of the
nature
of
emotion, what
can
it be ?
It is
this agrees
with
what
we
may
call the
normal,
sophisticate
un-
precedes
essentially
is nothing in
its expression. There
and pre-conditions
the perceptionof a bear, as such, to produce symptoms
the
of fear arise only when
The
of fear.
symptoms
view,
that
emotion
293
EMOTIONS.
" 2.]
sight of
bear
startles
either
man,
it is
because
bear, but
man
because
has will he
give for
his life."
The
"
all that
theory of
James
essential constituent
of the
emotional
state.
It is
disturbance
which
directlyaccompanied by a nervous
If the
precedes and conditions the organic reaction.
casioned
ocorganic disturbances accompanying emotion were
in
theory they
nervous
the
would
centres.
mechanical
arise
But
way
from
the
assumed
excitement
organic shock
in
James's
of the
of
lower
emotion
PSYCHOLOGY.
294
arises
[BK.
CH.
in., i.,
iv.
from
himself
the
he
when
interruptionof
emotion
says that
normal
and
arises from
habitual, co-ordinations.
Such
interruptionsare occurrences
the higher centres, and
involve
intense consciousness, not by
"
which
are
cold
essentially
accompanied by
and
neutral
ceptions.
per-
this questioninterminably.
might go on discussing
I shall only draw
and
attention
to
one
point more
of the organic
then leave it. I refer to the variability
the same
and
emotion
symptoms in what is specifically
in different emotions.
This is already
their similarity
recognised as regards motor
expressions. Thus Mr.
Lloyd Morgan, who in general accepts James's theory
is specially
without
criticism,yet denies that what
characteristic of emotion
as
such, takes its originin the
elements.
Take
of a young
the case
motor
frightened
On land he runs
and perhaps crouches
moorhen.
away,
We
"
in
the
rushes
quietly under
activities
common
catches
And
the
involved
different;must
too
in
yet
not
we
emotional
sightof
the
bank
in
he
water
and
dives,
there
and
comes
stays still.
and
diving
the activity-feelings
be very
them
must
surely suppose
element.
a
Again, when
worm
running
and
runs
hard
up
to
secure
The
are
very
different
to have
moorhen
it,the
295
EMOTIONS.
" 2.]
must,
activity-feelings
similar
very
would
one
be
suppose,
experienced when
those
to
such,
as
moorhen
the
And
vigorouslyaway from a goose.
yet in the
in the other
he
he is frightened and
case
one
case
associated
Here
similar activity-feelings
is not.
are
This contenstates." *
with wholly different emotional
tion
to me
to be perfectly
justified.There is
appears
indeed
an
identityin the general trend or direction of
kind
of emotion.
the activitydisplayed in a certain
kind
of identity
be reduced
to any
But this cannot
or
in the actual movements
the joint-,
or
tendon-,
similarity
But
and
muscle-sensations
arisingfrom them.
Lloyd
that visceral sensato suppose
tions
Morgan and others seem
in the same
emotion
at least are
fairlyconstant
runs
on
different
Now
the
is
problem
in
obscure
an
different
circumstances.
; for
one
visceral
difficult to
are
distinct
and
occasions
investigate.But so far
experiencecan be made, it seems
appeal to
as
sations
sen-
any
that
they also
of
women
purposes
that
Zealand
New
enjoy
themselves
stranger would
human
suppose
doleful
for
they meet
by squealing and
traveller
grief. One
night by the most
intense
what
when
them
to
tells how
he
cries,and
crying,so
in
be
was
went
festive
state
roused
out
to
of
at
see
in
creature
was
is "white"
There
*
Habit
and
anger
Instinct, p.
and
201.
"red"
anger.
296
PSYCHOLOGY.
circulation
The
two
of
the
[BK.
blood
different
be
must
in., i.,
CH.
iv.
in
the
cases.
This
criticism leaves
Professor
James
would
which
We
like
be
It would
starts.
admitted.
be
must
untouched
tion
imagine what an emothe organic sensations
cannot
apart from
it includes.
Even
in
this thesis
that
seem
which
transient
faint and
tional
emo-
to be
experiences,the organic element
appears
present. It accompanies a slighttouch of irritation or
a
slighttinge of contempt, as it accompanies intense
disdain
wild fury.* The difference
to be only
or
seems
of
one
is
essential
an
which
sole
factor
call
we
factor.
with
in
But
degree.
emotional,
or
tendencies.
far
the
as
in the
primary
conditions,the
primary disturbance,
organic reaction,cannot
is therefore
an
dent
indepen-
the
It
constitution
of
of the
source
lies in
emotion
for Professor
case
James
there
and
its
nutrition,so
referred
to
sensory
that
the
from
impulses coming
organic
(1)
brain
effect
whole
so
stronger.
seems
two
are
In
emotion.
the
points to be considered.
organic changes may directlyinvolve the
But
turbance
dis-
primary
This
the
factor
with the
equilibrium, connected
of ing
hindrance
in specialways
pre-exist-
of
pre-condition
regarded as its effect.
be
connexion
in
mental
conative
being
arises
involves
states
that it is the
admit
not
emotion
ideas,it
perceptions and
furtherance
do
we
the
of those
constitution
in the
Where
of
The
itself
cannot
the
be
internal
i
*
Of
to the
visible
even
overt
course
in
intense
but
and
external
expressional
observer,
emotions.
internal
respiration.
But
movements,
may
be
what
organic changes,
absent
or
in
other
bodily changes
slight, and
sometimes
is not
this overt
pression,
eximportant
tion
affecting for example the circula-
is
" 2.]
297
EMOTIONS.
Ladd
Professor
allow for what
(2) We must
sides
The
impulses,besurplus excitation."
sensory
producing the specialsensations correspondingto
or
specificcharacter,also tend to produce a more
organs.
calls
"
their
less diffused
excitement
of
kind, which
vague
be
may
in their specialqualities.
differing
ter
This surplusexcitation may
be analogous in its characwith perceptions
arises in connexion
to that which
its
have
James's
both
and
distinctive
that
the
of the
like
said
in
the
neural
the
neural
process
I understand
and
these
before
changes
the
connected
emotion
with
no
appreciable
of
the
initial
of
which
As
Thus
the
is
is
says,
his
on
this
rate
with
with
according
exciting
which
fact.
because
by
turn
way
feeling
"the
phrase,
exciting fact,"
means
view
of
gives
in the
But
the
he
does
other
of
these
the
on
that
of
they
as
follow
follow
an
it sets
to
the
centres
as
fact
indeed
being
vous
ner-
and
has
speak
the
ception
per-
excitement.
organic changes
mental
they occur
directly
body;
system
initial
The
does
up
as
consciousness
to mental
rise
the
nervous
lower
emotion
refer
give
changes
bodily changes
forms
of
organs
the
to an
perception
of backstroke
as
is,whether
which
James
not
in
According
James,
him, the primary nervous
react
rise
that
to
to
excitement
the
follow
consciousness
consciousness
emotion.
backstroke
of
regarded
question
correlated
are
itself; and
be
may
real
in consciousness.
perception
the
itself
direction
admitted
discharge
not
The
changes
a
be
may
disturbances
is
and
expression
Emotion
is in his view
the
begin.
re-impression following expression.
concomitant
in their
he
by
exciting
an
so:
produce
must
neural
and
aspect
one
dispute this,
not
can
the
excitement
fact
first
must
is not
this
It
if it could
complete
the
I do
Velocity
time.
occurrence.
at any
or
of
him,
disturbance
same
disturbance
constituent
essential
primary
the
kind,
emotional
an
and
neural
primary
The
of
exist
not
in
by saying
but
locally separate
part
excitement
by brain
occasioned
and
original
statement
emotion
is a
modified
it in its most
emotion,
the
less
or
more
with
but
brain
The
changes
been
it means.
motion,
logically
could
aspects
of
way.
both
expression
sense
different
the
this
organic
process
of
definitely what
aspects
two
of health.*
is another.
emotion
the
state
James's
correct
pre-condition
to know
be
to
; and
organism
this
is not
annoying
text, I deal
the
viour
beha-
the
recently
would
Some
in
bad
has
In
others.
of which
connected
not
emotion
form.
occurrence
be
may
and
expression
I should
but
of
theory
himself
by
either
in
of irritation may
mood
emotional
the
primary source
a companion, or
of
of
that
ideas,so
or
excitement.
is the
the
that
emotion.
perception
excites
of
them,
PSYCHOLOGY.
298
Relation
"3.
[BK.
Pleasure-
to
in., i.,
and
Pain
en.
iv.
Conation.
"
"
emotion
involves a
essentially
direction
of activity,
mental
characteristic end
or
or
bodily. Anger tends to destroy or disable its object;
tions
fear,to avoid or evade it. The relation of specialemois not so definite as their conative
to pleasure-pain
emotions
are
invariablypleasant and
aspect. Some
agreeable
others
unpleasant; grief for instance is always disand
joy agreeable. So fear is constantly
be either pleadisagreeable. But other emotions
sant
may
A surprise
or
unpleasant,accordingto circumstances.
unwelcome.
be either welcome
or
Anger is
may
it is impotent; but when
it
highly disagreeablewhen
it may
itself on
the enemy,
be intensely
wreak
can
is
agreeable. In general we may say that an emotion
agreeable or disagreeable according as the conative
involved
in it are
thwarted
tendencies
or
gratified.In
of the case
fear and
grief,they are from the nature
fact
the
not
that
in
distinctive
is
resonance
this
it.
deny
this
theory
Just
discharge;
a
factor
grieved
and
at
Sorrow
grieved.
the
grief
pleasure
overbalance
pleasant.
the
only
does
the
over
pain
it,so
which
time
the
to
of
loss
of
tender
grief.
may
His
ness.
consciousdue
primary
emotion
is
wholly
originate
in
to
vous
ner-
due
primary
itself
the
be
beloved
grief
the
grief,"but
luxury.
pleased
object
and
reminiscences,
But
to
to
vous
ner-
rectly
di-
is not
condition.
of
"luxury
he
last
organic
wholly
the
while
the
said
emotion.
him
to
organic
has
the
motor
excitement
antecedent
constitute
the
of
theory
according
tendons,
and
be
would
to
nothing
Bain
preceding
of his
nervous
the
as
not
same
due
an
writer
is
that
emotion.
belonging
with
do
primary
thing
the
joints
there
dispute
formed
as
bodily changes
the
it,but
is such
There
of
by
in
and
would
excitement
is
to
nothing
following
few
counterpart
this
mean
present
counted
muscles,
has
re-impressions
the
be
not
fully
consciousness
from
discharge
in
mental
must
motor
as
and
is
does
Very
factor
to be
seems
he
all.
at
James;
there
also
re-impressions
theory
as
if
If
us.
essential
an
But
resonance,
whole
his
clearly
as
excites
of
in
and
A
to
person
may
this
for
be
may
that
know
be
ence
exist-
mere
he
accompanied
pleasure
itself
is
may
never
is
obstructed; when
In
also.
ceases
the
by
299
EMOTIONS.
"" 4, 5.]
very
the
obstruction
joy, on
the
nature
of
other
conditions
the
emotion
the
ceases,
which
fied
gratision
occa-
it.
" 4.
Ultimate
Emotion
Qualitative Differences.
"
forms
involves
specific
correspondingly
be explained
cannot
specifickinds of feeling which
ments.
resultants
or
as
complicationsof more
simple eleaway
have
emotion
is
said that a specific
When
we
characterised
by a certain trend or direction of activity,
that it is accompanied by certain kinds of organic sensation,
and the like,though
that it is pleasantor painful,
Each
be true, it is not exhaustive.
all this may
specific
kind
of emotion
has also something in it peculiarand
of feeling-attitude
It is a unique kind
undefinable.
observes
James
towards
an
:
object. As Professor
in
"
its various
There
infinite
are
excitements
emotional
are."
of colour
of
of
be
an
feeling,
pleasure or
resolved
It stands
"5.
out
emotion
actual
dispositionis
kind
of
Thus
the
emotion
which
Besides
has
in
tones
are
its
the
distinct
as
no
as
various
tions
sensa-
specificquality
own
doubt
Dispositions.
state
of
"
also
persistenttendency
in
the
presence
emotion
An
consciousness
of
;
to
an
feel
ways
is al-
emotional
a
certain
certain
object.
pulled frequentlyby
a
ever
tendency to feel angry whenthe child approaches it. We
have
pointed out
of emotion
the originalconditions
rather cerare
tain
general kinds of situation than specificpersons
child,has
that
and
feeling-tone
pain. But its peculiarcolouringcannot
into mere
pleasantnessor unpleasantness.
irreducible.
as
a fact unique and
Emotional
an
shades
permanent
300
PSYCHOLOGY.
or
things.
to
be
But
in the
connected
of
anger
the
of
the
emotional
the
occasions.
thing as
child
form
who
of
formed
neither
felt.
Such
the
love, indicate
emotions.
at
to
the
emotion
feel the
emotional
Sentiments
proach
ap-
In
the
this
way
selves
them-
appropriate
the
not
is
same
actual
an
the
with
it
the child
tendency
permanent
whenever
On
ing,
child,mean-
the
sees
child
Fear.
kinds
of
therefore
We
typicalforms,
deal
at
the
Interests*
or
various
to
with
mood
dislikes
cat
of anger
Analysis of
task.
the
life,wnere
all the
come
the
it has
that
neighbourhood.
" 6.
iv.
things,as
on
actuallyfeeling angry
but
moment,
in its
that the
it is
that
not
as
say
CH.
disposition
persists
the emotion
itself is being
nor
hate
and
liking and disliking,
rather than actual
dispositions
emotional
We
The
; but
i.,
manifest
emotion
mood.
mood
words
which
dispositionis
affection of consciousness
when
connected
actual
emotional
or
emotional
An
an
be
to
comes
m.,
experience they
specificpersons
are
dispositions
in
of
course
with
cat
[BK.
emotion
for
select
fear
"
To
"
and
other
with
some
later
stage, when
analyse
endless
an
special treatment
modes
we
be
would
We
anger.
and
describe
come
two
shall have
of
to
emotional
treat
sion
occaperience
ex-
of idea-
distinguishedfrom perceptualactivity.
conative
In fear,as in all painfulfeeling,
tendency is
tional
at
once
be
of
as
excited
and
obstructed.
specialkind.
adjustment more
It
or
See
be
the
conation
must
cal
tendency to practiimperativelydemanded
by
must
less
But
a
which
fear
cause
obtrusive
otherwise
not
must
that
serious
fear
must
their
in
be
avoided
aggressiveor
occasion
The
consciousness
as
with
evaded
or
the
Thus
nature.
character.
before
come
be
can
of
practicalemergency
conditions
of
301
EMOTIONS.
" 6.]
thing
some-
and
ease
certainty.
The
experiencemust invade consciousness in a more
less violent and persistent
or
tively
way so as to call imperafor a practical
adjustmentto the situation. At the
be of a nature
time it must
to destroyefficiency,
same
disable
and
the activity
which
it exto disorganise
cites.
"
It may
that fear is
nothing but
This
from
seem
of
this account
the
inference
it
matter
be
can
existence.
wide
of the
partiallytrue.
mouth."*
open
paralysingeffect
their
Seal-hunters
of
when
But
even
prey.
result
the
motionless
frightin
terror
often make
order
strikes
to
secure
animal
an
is not
always disadvantageous.
likelyto escape notice.
By becoming quiescentit is more
and bodilyperturbation are
mental
Where
not violent
of effective
enough to deprive the animal of all power
hides itself. So far as these
or
action,it takes to flight
of escape
movements
of
fear,they
are
evasion
or
to
be
are
the
explained
when
principlethat psychicalactivity,
in certain
it
can
directions,diverts
find.
*
Hudson,
Thus
an
Naturalist
direct
sion
expres-
the
on
its way
general
is barred
animal
in
La
disabled
Plata,
ch.
by
xv.
fear
nel
chanfrom
PSYCHOLOGY.
302
iv.
positiveand
of adjustment, will
complex modes
the circumstances
have
to flight. Now
recourse
may
is the best course
such that flight
the only
be actually
or
more
that
course
that
animals
of fact when
thing they
dog
that
derives
runs
extent
some
from
a
an
indeed
time
presence
the
run
can
from
advantage.
an
away
do.
But
scared
at
In
fear
point
hide, it is generally
or
this is not
the
always
noise of
so.
cracker,
of mind
readinesa
rushes
so
excitement
The
accelerate
animal
enemy.
may
and
is
flight
away
benefit
no
When
use.
itself in
expresses
the best
of
be
can
of
of
its movements.
is
more
But
same
ness
Watchful-
diminished.
are
wildly into
emotion
at the
less lost.
or
resource
the
Thus
the
danger which
other
danger of
it is
a
strivingto avoid, or into some
yet
old fox may
The game
be but little
moT"e
deadly nature.
in escaping from
the hunters
influenced
by fear when
command
of all kinds
of cunit displaysits wonderful
ning
and keenness
of perception.
its wariness
resources,
Whyte-Melvillesays of such a fox : His heart like his
multum
in parvo,
little body was
tough, tameless, and
as
strong as brandy." As regards the general question
of fear,we
the whole
it
of the utility
say that on
may
of preservation
from
But
is a means
injuryand death.
and
in part defeats itself,
it is rather a clumsy means,
the emotion
is very violent.
As Mosso
when
especially
The
do
the perilbecomes, the more
remarks
:
graver
harmful
mal
to the anithe reactions which
are
positively
in efficacy.
and
We
might
prevailin number
"
"
almost
say
substance
that
which
nature
should
had
be
not
been
excitable
able
to
enough
frame
to
com-
303
EMOTIONS.
" 6.]
and
and
the brain
spinal marrow,
yet which
pose
should not be so excited by exceptional stimulation
as
to
which
of the
are
We
bounds
physiological
those
now
may
which
conditions
the
enumerate
creature."
ate
gener-
fear.
is,when
bodilypain produced by wounds
kind of
intense, accompanied by the same
sufficiently
kind
of disablement
impotent excitement, the same
mental
of bodily and
activitywhich is characteristic
laboured
efforts to escape,
ing,
breathof fright. Wild
expressions of
trembling, etc., are
palpitation,
Now
actual bodilypain as well as of strong fear.
we
find not
the
only analogy but geneticrelation between
When
has previously
states.
two
an
object which
caused
pain is again perceived,the emotional tone is
of fear,unless fear is displacedor overpowered by
one
has
This
suggested to Herbert
Spencer the
anger.
theory that the fear consists in the revival of bygone
painful sensations produced by the object feared.
can
testifythat the psychical
Everyone," he says,
called fear consists of mental
state
representationsof
that
painful results." f Against this view we
urge
the painfulsensations vary greatlyin specific
whereas
of fear which
the emotion
stantial
they generate is subquality,
(a)
Actual
"
"
differs
identical,and
them
from
that the
than
they
emotion
disagreeablethan
is supposed to be
*
La
Paura,
of fear
each
in
other
is sometimes
more
its character
we
urge
violent
also
and
originalexperiences of which it
revival,or mental representation.
the
a
Appendice,
of Psychology,
from
do
more
p.
295; quoted
and
translated
by James,
f Psychology,
" 213.
ciples
Prin-
304
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
What
i.,
CH.
iv.
perience
reallyto happen when a previousexpain gives rise on a subsequent occasion
appears
of
emotion
of
to
the
child,attracted
it and
in.,
is
badly
fear, may
by
the
burnt
in
be
illustrated
brightness of
consequence.
as
follows.
flame, grasps
Subsequently,
" 6.]
305
EMOTIONS.
(b)
this
That
becomes
when
clearer
of
account
we
the
is
matter
consider
that
fear
correct
arises in
than
ways
sufficient to
fear.
cause
loud
noise
for which
we
are
Many
unprepared startles us with momentary alarm.
help being scared by a reverberating
people cannot
peal of thunder, though they know that it is harmless.
Of course
much
or
depends on the nervous
organisation
its state
It is extremely easy to
at a given time.
on
startle a hare or a rabbit.
noise will give
Even
a slight
of alarm
if we
us
a disagreeableshock
are
half-asleep.
In some
pathologicalstates the patientis liable to be
frightenedby almost anything.Fledgelingsshrink down
in the nest when
a
or
object suddenly
strange animal
approaches,though they may show no uneasiness when
their deadliest enemy
as
approaches them unobtrusively
snakes do.
A piece of paper
blown
suddenlyby the
is as great an objectof terror to a young
wind
bird as a
buzzard
with
death
in its talons."*
sweeping down
The
sudden
currence
approach of an object,the abrupt oc"
of
is
there
an
intense
demand
sensation,stimulate
for
action
to
practical adjustment
to
the
obtrusive
suffice
to
cause
Psijcfi.
fear
Hudson,
even
Naturalist
in
in
a
La
violent
Plata,
eh.
form.
The
v.
20
306
[BK. in.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
gorillabrought home
Loango expedition much
young
by
the
disliked
i.,
members
CH.
TV.
of
the
noises.
strange
rain
"Thunder,
the
disorder
and
life and
process of conscious
of effective adjustment. In the
possibility
destroythe
of
the
human
evil
of the
character
utterly abnormal
experience. It lies so wholly outside the circle of
ordinary events, and is so completely opposed to the
of ordinary experience,that it destroysall
conditions
of mind.
It stimulates
intenselyby its
presence
time, owing to this very
strangeness, and at the same
theoretical and practical,
strangeness, all lines of activity,
are
to
as
the
obstructed.
overwhelming
terror
It is instructive
in
ghostly apparitionwith
*
R.
Hartmann,
of Psychology,
Anthropoid
the
the
contrast
this
of a
supposed presence
predominantly agreeable
to
by James,
Principles
" 7.]
307
EMOTIONS.
experienceof reading or
listeningto
The
itself
actual
immediate
fact obtrudes
demands
actual,and
as
practicaladjustment
makes
tale of marvel.
to
yet by its
it,and
adjustmentimpossible. Where
this practical
need is not felt,the free play of imagination
liberated from the trammels
of ordinaryexperience
of delight.
may be a source
Animals
are
capable of analogous experiences.James
gives a good example.* A dog belonging to Professor
was
Brooks, the well-known
frightenedinto a
biologist,
of epileptic
fit by a bone
the
sort
across
being drawn
floor by a thread which
he did not see.
As James
marks,
reheart would
stop beating,if he perceived
any man's
the floor.
his chair slidingunassisted across
The
child manifests
this
" 7. Analysis of Anger.
emotion
at an
Anger initially
earlystage.
expresses
of violent motor
and satisfies itself by a peculiar form
discharge. Even at the outset it takes the form of an
The
resistance
effort to overcome
force.
by main
has acquired no
child who
definite mode
of
young
wreaking its passion,shows it by vague kicking and
which
by movements
antagoniseeach other,
struggling,
in external
resistance
which
and
encounter
objects.
The
development of cognitive consciousness
simply
restrict this diffused mobility within
to
serves
more
very
nature
such
"
"
definite channels.
his
plaything violentlyto
away,
thwarts
adult
child
The
breaks
or
in
it,or
in
the
the
later
ground,
of
case
may
find
some
satisfaction
furniture,and
destroying
*
he
stage throws
or
vol.
Even
the
his irritation in
nearlyalways has
Principles of Psychology,
it
who
person
strikes.
for
pushes
ii.,
p.
420.
strong
308
PSYCHOLOGY.
[BK. in.,
to break, crush,
disposition
Inasmuch
his
as
defined,his
crossed
deny
him
angry
man
thwarted.
But
is very
apt
to
wreak
more
cially
spe-
his desires
conditions
the
when
it is well
this satisfaction,
iv.
something.
enlightenedand
or
CH.
rend
destructive
directed
are
or
become
has
anger
tear,
i.,
known
his anger
that
on
the
sive
inoffen-
dition
approximating to the conof the child.
Though the tendency to overcome
of bodily force
resistance by violent exertion
seems
always to play some
part in anger, yet with the advance
and
of intellectual development it gives place more
ideal satisfaction ; it becomes
to an
more
enough to
to imagine,that the opposing
even
know, or sometimes
forces have
This is of
been
crushed
by our agency.
of the growing importance
course
a direct consequence
of the life of ideas as compared with that of perception.
things or
But
impulse
be
thus
persons,
even
in the
ideal
satisfaction
of
anger
the
down
opposition may
to
extent
some
by wreaking it on other
those
which
ment.
resentimmediately awaken
relief afforded
under
by swearing comes
It is a breaking down
of the ideal barriers
social convention
or
religioussentiment
destroy
to
satisfied
objectsthan
The
this head.
which
or
break
up."*
find that their proneness
to animals,we
Turning now
to anger
sation
depends to a great degree on inherited organiand
general habits of life. Spencer observes:
The
destructive passion is shown
in a general tension
of the muscular
system, in gnashing of teeth and protrusion
in growls :
of claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils,
sets
"
Analytic
Psychology,
vol. ii.,pp.
96-97.
EMOTIONS.
" 7,]
and
these
that
expressionof
only rudiments
course
as
much
deserve
emotion
of
of
that
there
consists
in
implied that
actions
and
tearingand
the
destructive
protrusion of
pany
accom-
two
are
which
developed activities.
more
teeth
Here
It is
expressionof
an
actions
notice.
Actual
untrue.
gnashing
second
of the
killingof prey."*
the
of
forms
weaker
are
309
anger
plication
imthe
are
This
is
rending may
passionas
the
claws.
the
In
is distinctive
be
of
this is not
But
the case.
The
predatory animals.
elephantis not a beast of prey, but can be easilyroused
rather
than
the hunting
to fury. It is the combative
instinct which
is essential.
Many
graminivorous
animals which
are
usuallypeacefulare highlydangerous
the combative
in the breeding season, when
impulse is
in
excited
connexion
with
the
sexual,
and
finds its
field in sexual
emotional
play takes
fury. Any
seizure
the
we
form
call anger.
All
animals
of
whose
mock-fightsmay be roused to
kind
of opposition,
striction
reany thwarting or
of psychical
It is the
cause
activity
may
anger.
the interference
more
likelyto do so the more
distinctly
the appearance
of coming from
wears
some
positive
from
external
and especially
other animal.
some
agency
We
be merely grieved at the loss of a valued
may
*
Principles
of Psychology,
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
310
object if
somebody
are
accidentallymislay it ourselves
something breaks it before our
we
or
apt
more
in., i.,
supposed that
be
to
of anger
emotion
the
It must
angry.
CH.
if
but
eyes
however
not
iv.
we
be
itself exclusively
vents
an
defined.
may
occasion
in another.
anger
conation
thwarts
obstruction
at
once
give
may
in
But
violence.
activityis
occasion
which
conditions
The
stimulated
fear
Any
rise to
outburst
mental
and
oppressionwhich in a timid
save
disorganisesall activities,
may
in
which
of
structiv
de-
bodily
Now
thwarted.
and
paralysesor
flightand concealment,
animal
one
condition
an
fear
and
in
the
creature
those
combative
of
animal
This
counter-aggression.
holds
good of actual bodily pain. The attitude of a
in bearing bodilypain is different accordingas he
man
of a
gives way to it or fightsagainstit. The smart
received in the heat of combat
wound
usuallyinfuriates
rouse
to
the combatant.
All
fierce
animals,
such
as
the lion
or
...
and
individuals
numerous
have
others
while
work
for
most
is
stress
expressive
Many
which
emotions.
the
So
"
one-sided
of
the
the
of
the
in
author,
extreme
opening
the
with
mouth
of all forms
same
and
muscles
in
of
as
similar
*
Naturalist
t James,
the
breath
form
disgust.
those
these
and
vision
unfleshed
smile
in
Nicaragua,
Principles
; the
in
act
of
with
opening
precedes
with
cular
mus-
ejectingan
calls into
ive
express-
play
the
p. 79.
of Psychology,
the
to
goes
manner.
in
ing
rais-
opening
facial gesture
employed
time
listening,and
of the
counted
ac-
movements
which
the
is
the
eyebrows
better
constitutes
morsel
unsavory
the
fainter
from
according
come,
intensest
the
rapid catching of
effort."!
for
tions
ac-
sneer,
Similarlythe
utilityof
eye
or
attention,the
raising of
The
of
attack.
outward
the
of
teeth,
upper
survival
astonishment,
from
cases.
the
in
Habits.
snarl
the
as
the
a
lays
exciting analogous
large canines,
for
now)
eyebrows
mouth
same
the
do
(as dogs
as
had
ancestors
our
them
of
by Darwin
he
subject himself
the
to
slighta symptom
of
which
Associated
situations
uncovering
for
when
useful
in
ancestors
ness.
conscious-
partialsurvivals
are
proved
accompanying
on
Serviceable
movements
have
his
to
or
of
that
great
attempted
emotional
of
principle of explanation
The
his
has
gestures
specific forms
various
the
distinctive
the
in
Emotions,
two,
antennae."
or
in
bitten
seen
Darwin,
"
the
of
be
legs
Gestures.
Expression
account
will
lost their
Emotional
" 8.
to
311
EMOTIONS.
" 8.]
vol.
ii.,p.
479.
SPECIAL
II.
DIVISION
I.
CHAPTER
OF
CATEGORIES
either
in
kind.
It
exhibit
are
the
forms
of
part of
the
categories involved
in
was
external
the
CONSCIOUSNESS.
PERCEPTUAL
cognitive consciousness;
universal principlesor relations pre-supposed
all cognition or in all cognitionof a certain
CATEGORIES
they are
PERCEPTS.
main
world,
such
relations
experience,and
give unity to
in
between
constitute
that
of
Kant
knowledge
our
the
These
etc.
specificcontents
the forms
of
to
of
and
Quantity, extensive
as
intensive, Causality,Substance,
ultimate
work
are
of
the
our
synthesiswhich
experience.
of
synthesis,
of them, appear
the level of perceptual
at
some
or
five which
ment,
are
require specialtreatactivity.There
External
or
Physical Reality, Space, Time,
familiar
word
and what
of a more
for want
Causality,
call Thinghood.
first three of these will
The
must
we
devoted
in chapters especially
to
receive consideration
Of course
them.*
such forms
not
are
distinctly
apprehended
in abstraction
by the perceptual consciousness
Now
these
forms
Thinghood
in the
rudimentary way
"
We
shall deal
with
Causality
and
312
present
chapter.
CH.
i.]
from
the concrete
313
CONSCIOUSNESS.
PERCEPTUAL
matter
of
experienceto
which
they
categories
give order
and
"
men,
until
thousands
of years
after the
invention
and
ents
employment of language ; yet these,the vital constituthere from
the beginning."
of all speech, were
f
*
Institutes
of Metaphysic,
p. 15.
| Ibid., p, 14.
PSYCHOLOGY.
314
[BK.
m.,
n.
that we
the categories
only in this sense
suppose
of perceptualthought to exist for the percipient.They
exist for him as the alphabet existed before its discovery.
in this sense
Now
Causalityis undoubtedly a category
of perceptual consciousness.
Perceptual process is
ends ; and it learns by expedirected
towards
practical
rience
It is
how
to
ineffective
which
are
prove
Consider
effective
the
food
outside.
in Mr.
cat
can
a
and
and
Thorndike's
animal
The
It
maintained
are
button, pulling
wooden
which
gradually discontinued,
dog or
previouslyquoted.*
with
Actions
ends.
attain these
only
loop,
is confined
prove
actions
repeated.
experiment
in
box,
by turning
pressing down
escape
or
It
discontinued
if
less.
they prove fruitdoes accidentally
If in this way
the animal
work
the mechanism, it is likelyto do it sooner
when
again
in repeated experiments "all
Thus
put into the box.
the squeezings and bitingsand
claAvingswhich do not
hit the vital point of the mechanism
get stamped
made
the successful
out, while the particularimpulse which
clawing or biting,
gets stamped in,"until it alone
for the
This gradual adaptation of means
is executed.
the
of ends
involves in a rudimentary way
attainment
tween
category of Causality. It involves the distinction beIt is the starting-point
and inefficiency.
efficiency
of all subsequent developments of
and
pro-supposition
thought which proceed according to this category.
which
in their turn
are
But
we
must
notice
the
*
Seep.
essential
259.0'.
difference
which
CH.
PERCEPTUAL
i.]
315
CONSCIOUSNESS.
that of
perceptual
conceptual thought. The
in
category is always purely and immediately practical
its operation. It is a constitutive form of thought only
and
ideational
it is
because
? has
Why
It does
consciousness.
that
not
certain
and
so
not
as
to
of
and
endeavour
present
different
compare
groups
not
for the
can
merely perceptual
it is
not inquirehow
also
as
cause
It does
reason.
procedure or different
the
to contradistinguish
of
modes
as
follow
ideational
one
and
case
Causalityin
case.
this
consciousness
in which
certain
different
result
only exist
development of
sense
consciousness,and
in
It does
tions
explain, to analyse condi-
to
circumstances, so
tion
ques-
certain effect.
produces a
cause
not
can
existence
no
The
of action.
form
constitutive
can
the
in this direction
is
velopmen
de-
conceptualthinking, of generalisation.
What
corresponds on the perceptual level to Kant's
is a category which
I can
only
category of Substance
of Thinghood.
In
that
describe
as
considering it
selves
themconnect
must
we
lay aside the notions which
of
with
material
and
"
which
persistsand
combinations
without
rather
must
quantity. We
identity,and independence,
life we
in ordinarypractical
which
is a portion of matter
with
itself and
of substance
into
passes
increase
or
as
stuff
various
of
which
characterises
call
is
distinct from
forms
of
diminution
think
that
or
unity
and
what
"thing." A thing
cal
apprehended as identia
its varying
state.
316
PSYCHOLOGY.
distinctness
This
and
[BK.
unity depend
m.,
IT.
distinctness
on
Thus
different sensible qualities
unity of interest.
as
severallypresented to touch, sight,hearing,etc.,are
united in one
thing because they have unityof interest,
and on the perceptuallevel this interest is purely practical.
of the
The
practicalInterest lies in the power
subjectto act on the thing, and of the thing to act on
the
subject. But in all such activitythe different
senses
co-operate so that the experiencesthey yield
and
form
part of
of
which
continuous
one
thing serves
the
lead
to
whole.
a
as
guide
to
of the
visual
appearance
pearance
ap-
ments
movetension
ex-
the
the
visual
and
Tactual
contact.
visual
The
practical
ence.
correspond-
lies in this
practicalrelation between
smells
sounds
or
proceeding from an object, and its
as
By
presented to sight and touch.
space-relations
approaching the object the sounds and smells become
the
Action
intensified.
on
object, though initially
prompted by sound or smell, must by guided by sight
In this way
and
to exist for
touch.
an
object comes
in its diverse
the
same
as
perceptual consciousness
But
to different senses.
this,so to speak,
appearances
for the stuff of which
things are made ;
only accounts
There
is
not
account
it does
into
similar
for
the
separate things. We
division
have
of
this material
therefore
to
inquire
is separated
qualities
its surroundings and treated
from
as
one
thing. For
is mapped out into a
the world
sense
ordinarycommon
Each
of these relatively
independent units.
plurality
why
this
of them
from
the
or
that group
emerges
sea.
from
of sensible
its environment
It is detached
from
its
like
an
island
surroundingsby
CH.
317
CONSCIOUSNESS.
PERCEPTUAL
i.]
of the
the interest
leads
moment
us
to
do
it.
The
tivity
rela-
of the category
of our
application
variability
of Thinghood
depends on this fluctuation of interest.
into sepathe division of the world
In generalhowever
rate
less permanent
or
by more
things is determined
if I
interests of a practical
Thus
and common
nature.
in which
I hapasked what
were
pen
things are in a room
to be lecturingI should
a blackboard,
say there was
I should
the
not begin to enumerate
so
on.
a desk, and
and
dints
and
scratches
the
on
distinct
compartments
thing.
I should
interests
in their nature
are
and
at
more
fluctuating. Hence
for
world
into
the external
once
different
still less
likelyto
count
not
do
of
more
limited
or
of the
and
specialinterest to serve.
In more
primitive stages
human
the
blackboard,
each
blackboard
of these
this unless
as
I had
mental
development,
practical
exclusively
in their range
primitive man
the
and
division
less
of
things is
fixed
more
absolute.
and
in the
is reached
characteristic
thing
unity and
to
There
under
animal
the
of
tion
direc-
is not
to
what
for
so
very
as
appeals
occasion
activity.Thus
mals
Ani-
treat
matter
affords
species are
to
for
their
is
rate
sepa-
another.
The
large extent
termined
de-
which
so
connate
on.
however
are
and
animal
one
cat, and
the
and
and
n.
which
belong
pre-dispositions
other
What
specificcharacters.
possesses
distinctness
is nothing
of interest to an
ant
by
it like
portion
of
for
limit in this
the
its environment
modes
of each
interests
But
perceptual consciousness.
distinguishfrom
separate thing whatever
their peculiarinstincts
to
[BK. m.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
318
also
detach
thing may
become
separate
consciousness.
general
more
its environment
itself from
of interest
centre
it may
Thus
conditions
be
for
source
the
of
in an obtrusive
intense sensations,or it may
move
peculiarly
manner.
Moving objectshave a peculiarpower
of attractingattention.
This
is partly because
the
intense
experiencewhich they produce is more
sensory
than
that produced by things at rest.
But
the chief
in an obtrusive way,
is that a thing which
reason
moves
challengespracticaladjustment. There is need to run
from
it,or at any rate keep a watch on it ; for no
away
knows
one
In
what
it may
general,whatever
as
separate
do.
appears
is
so
to
because
the
sciousness
perceptual con-
it is
centre
of
PERCEPTUAL
i.]
CH.
CONSCIOUSNESS.
319
it is a
cognitiononly because
of action.
And
constitutive
form
just as the perceptual
is incapableof inquiring how
consciousness
or
why a
pable
certain
cause
produces a certain effect,so it is incaof inquiringhow
or
why a thing possesses its
of
unity and independence and its peculiar modes
uality
individbehaviour.
the perceptualconsciousness
For
is unanalysed and
unexplained, unanalysable
and
unexplainable. In this respect the perceptual
a
form
constitutive
consciousness
science
stands
the
at
till it
It would
; it seeks
sense
common
material
its
the
in
succeeds
of
or
to
behaviour
which
finding are
abstract
character
science
units
and
it could.
as
by
it seeks
them
It obliterate
common
units
of
or
the whole
distinct units
and
reaction.
for and
vehicles
more
of the
laws, without
own.
plains
ex-
modes
mere
have
of action
their
explain
to
embracing
indeed
universal
quality of
exhibit
them
merely
science
drawn
process
centres
modern
self-subsistent
the
exhibits
It must
as
serve
ultimate
dissolve
and
world.
almost
demarcation
continuous
one
to
own
of
to
sense,
phases of
Modern
altogetherif
so
and
extreme,
one
appears
do
lines
the
the
at
opposite extreme.
things
away.
of
It is the
of
But
or
less
tion
applicaintrinsic
ideal
of
the internal
of individual
320
of
PSYCHOLOGY.
the
regard
we
nature
individual
it
shall
as
see
as
something
in
the
principle
to
sequel,
of
and
origin
and
religious.
[BK.
be
of
explanation
explained.
a
primitive
most
beliefs,
than
Herein
important
in.,
lies,
clue
magical,
to
n,
to
as
the
logical
mytho-
CHAPTER
PERCEPTION
animals
ALL
there
far
render
according as
are
or
far
external
necessary
the
are
external
as
to
The
the
to
their organism.
between
ing
chang-
own
the
ence
pres-
of behaviour,
their
nervous
present operationof
their
distinction
between
it involves
to
own
world,
ditions
objects. The very cona purelybiological
point
organism.
difference
occurring in
due
of apprehensi
the external
different mode
processes
not
in
their
the
mentary,
very rudiits specific
be
much
some
existence,from
agenciesexternal
I say
them
some
may
it merely involves
as
operationof
view,
kind
very
experience so
of their
system
for
exist
states, and
of
have
perceptionof
own
our
must
and
rise above
must
differ
it may
experienceso
processes
physicalreality.It
and
from
REALITY.
conscious
whose
of
But
EXTERNAL
sensation-reflex
level of the
nature
OF
II.
The
life is
the pure
Self
an
stream
at
this
embodied
of
scious
con-
nected
experience and the body with which it is conis a late product of psychicalevolution.
But
here which
there is a subtletyinvolved
be caremust
fully
The
noted.
body is directlyidentified with the
Self only in so far as it is the instrument
of sense-perception.
But one
part of the body may be perceivedby
Psych.
321
322
PSYCHOLOGY.
another
the hand
belongs pro
seen
instrument
tanto
the
to
; in this
case
of
which
animal
any
n.
Not-Self; the
to the Self.
perception,
of fact,two
There
are, as a matter
groups
originatingin different ways which we
in
point of view can clearlydistinguish
as
eye,
own
as
part ;
[BK. in.,
has
to
maintain
all kinds
ences
experi-
from
the
its existence
its environment.
adaptation to
of
of
case
by
On
our
the
ceptual
perone
of
from
are
moment
We
to
from
our
distinction.
The
inquirehow
easilydraw this
psychologistis to
can
the
manifests
percipientsubject.
the
different
vary.
itself in the
The
relation
periences
ex-
of
essence
of
the
two
tions
experiencesto motor
activity.The sensawhich
definite manner
with
or
vary in a specific
also vary continually
operationof external agencies,
with
the movements
alter
the hand
The
the
conditions
of
groups
the
the
these
point of view
problem for
lies in
answer
as
distinction
the
of
the
moment
as
of the
the
eye
animal
is moved
itself.
Visual
tactual
sensations
as
spatialrelations
to
tions
sensa-
is moved.
animal's
movements
alter
its
mine,
it; and in this way deterthings which surround
of the
and intensity
to a largeextent, the nature
ii.]
en.
PERCEPTION
EXTERNAL
OF
REALITY.
323
it receives
from
its environment.
impressionswhich
But experiencesoccurringindependentlyof the present
operation of any external stimulus are unaffected
by
its parts in
the changing positionof the organism and
relation to surrounding objects. The
hungry animal
mal
anicarries its hunger about with it,and the wounded
carries its wound
Our
first
result,then, is
objects arises
which
vary
with
about
in
with
it.
ternal
presentationof exconnexion
with those experiences
the changing positionof the
that
the
with
organism and its parts. It arises in connexion
are
dependent on motor
experienceswhich
activity.
final.
It only serves
But
this result is not
to bring
of our
to the threshold
us
inquiry. For it turns out
closer examination
that in so far as an
on
experience
is merely dependent on
it is not
motor
a
activity
entation
presof an
external
an
object. If I walk towards
object,the visual sensation which it produces changes;
it changes preciselyas it would
mained
change if I had reof my
still and, instead
moving, the object
itself had
But
the
moved
towards
me
or
had
increased
movement
as
the
case
is different
in size.
moving
from
on
if the
my
the
chair
under
An
me.
animal, if it acted as if
gives way
changes purely due to its own
changing positionwere
due
to change in things themselves,would
inevitably
perish. So far as they depend merely on the changing
of the organism, they do not
positionsand movements
therefore
correspondto external conditions,and cannot
324
PSYCHOLOGY.
determine
[BK.
in.,
n.
effectively
adapted to these conditions.
itself and
Just so far as they are due to the animal
not
be useless as determinants
to its environment, they must
of the actual course
of practical
activity.There is
the ostrich burying its head in the
a libellous story about
sand
the approach of danger, and
on
resting satisfied
in this manner
with this sage precaution. To behave
be to behave
if the mere
would
as
disappearanceof an
equivalentto its actual removal.
objectfrom sightwere
the conditions
such that,if
This is so only in case
are
it were
actions
present, it would
be
The
seen.
closure
of the
no
eyes, or the burying of the head in the sand, makes
conditions
difference in the external
; the consequent
discontinuance
with
movements
own
the
contradiction
contradictions
when
we
assert
is
are
that
disappearswhen
The
partlynot-B.
it
may
also
of
these
complete independence
or
Thus
our
of
we
the
removed,
contradiction
is at
say
change
as
that
in
once
is
visual
vary
in partial
movements.
many
is
and
ent
appar-
present
not-B;
partly JB and
sensation,which
CH.
when
occurs
approach
we
object,may
an
325
REALITY.
EXTERNAL
OF
PERCEPTION
ii.]
also
occur
when
approaches
But
The
two
factors
us
subtler
kind.
that the
resultingchange
in part does not depend, on
the
in part depends, and
of the organism. A
varying positionand movements
given movement
always give rise to altered impressions
may
from surrounding things. But the specific
nature
determined
of the change is not entirely
by the specific
nature
of the
co-operate
movements.
so
On
the
contrary, the
same
stances.
yieldsvarying results under varying circumthe
to
Opening of the eyes permits access
the specialnature
of
light,but it does not determine
the optical
stimulation received.
Movement
of the eye
direction
in a certain
of optical
produces a sequence
what
pression
the imimpressions,but it does not determine
movement
shall be
order
shall
which
succeed
each
other, or
in what
Similarly,the initiation of
of effort to move
movement
or
depends on the animal ;
and
but various
external
conditions
mine
deterfluctuating
in a given direction shall be
whether
a movement
free or
impeded, and if it is impeded what kind and
If the same
degree of resistance it shall encounter.
motor
effect,there
activityalways produced the same
such thing as adaptation to environment:
would
be no
be meaningless. We
the phrase would
imagine
may
they
occur.
326
the
PSYCHOLOGY.
case
of
animal
an
able
[BK.
command
to
in.,
n.
conditions
affectingits nervous
system purely by its
to obtain
own
so
as
initiative,
any impression on
any
occasion
cles.
merely by a suitable innervation of its musSpecificolfactory,optical,tactile,and other
stimulations
of the
of
organs
sense
would
then
be
ly
free-
the specificimpression
manner
as
produciblein the same
arisingfrom the changing states of muscles,
of
movements
joints,and tendons, which
accompany
the body and limbs.
A certain mode
of sniffing
would
always yieldthe smell of roses, and a certain movement
of the eye would
always yieldthe sightof roses, and so
forth.
that want
of food or
we
Similarly,
may
suppose
drink
could
be satisfied by merely going through the
formal
of eating and
motions
quet
drinking,as at the banof the Barmecide
in the Arabian
dently,
Nights. Evifor such
have
creature
a
as
we
imagined, the
external world
would
be virtually
Such
non-existent.
would
be a world
a creature
complete in itself.
Our general result is as follows : (1) The
presentation
of external
objectstakes place through those experiences
the subjectmust
to which
adapt itself if its action is to be
efficient for the attainment
of practical
ends.
(2) These
experienceswhich correspond to external conditions and
make
be of a kind
possiblepracticaladjustment must
which
of the
vary concomitantly with the movements
animal.
(3) But they must
only do so in part. They
yieldeffective guidance only in so far as they actually
of
occur
partiallyin independence of the movements
the
animal.
for
the
may
In
animal
give
other
only
rise to
words,
in
so
different
far
external
an
as
the
world
movement
same
consequences,
exists
or
different
PERCEPTION
IT.]
CH.
movements
to
the
to
same
EXTERNAL
REALITY.
We
consequences.
327
have
now
if and
what
It
OF
far
so
we
of animal
primary ends
it consists
as
call the
may
is difficult to
find
in
direct
is all alteration
meant
or
the
prepares
of
manipulation
tha" when
clearlyunderstood
we
imply no exclusive reference
word;
we
say
to
be
What
is
tion,
posi-
direct
ting
put-
All pulling,
against resistance.
pressing, rending, tearing, combining, separating,
breaking,bending, crushing, moulding, and the like,
included
this conception. It is obvious
under
that
are
in all such
of the
operations what lies in the power
efforts in certain
directions and
agent is only to make
in
of
certain
the
of
objects.
alter the
to
for
way
manipulation
the hand.
endeavour
only
it should
but
serves
sub-
life is effective
or
better
mount
para-
effort
order.
material
of action
The
result
manipulated.
be
varies
To
with
be
the
nature
effective
the
constantlyguided by varying
of the
experiencescorrespondingto the varying nature
the paramount
material.
Now
practicalimportance of
the actual
manipulation of objectsconstitutes it the
dominant
ultimate
and
is physicallyreal
test of what
real size or shape of a thing is
and what
is not.
The
its size or shape so far as it has a practicalbearing on
actual manipulation. A man
look as
at a distance
may
the table ; but he is not
small
doll on
as
a
reallyso
if I went
and tried to pick him up
out
small, because
and
So the
bring him away, I should not succeed.
real size of a hole to an
animal
is essentially
mined
deterby reference to such questionsas whether it can
course
must
328
PSYCHOLOGY.
creep
obvious
when
or
[BK.
This
not.
n.
stated,but it is
once
m.,
of the
portance
greatest im-
now
may
always
psychology of perception.
sum
Perception of physicalreality
up.
in essential
connexion
with the experience
arises
of active movement.
antithesis
is not,
so
far
as
as
or
the
connexion
is
one
of
contrast.
such, a
the
But
activityis
motor
in the attainment
of the
ends
limited
or
of animal
circumscribed
life
by varying
periences
conditions,is physical realityapprehended. The exwhich
the adjustment of active
determine
movement
to these conditions
are, as such, presentations
of the Not-Self,or external
object. In the actual course
of practicalactivity
attention
in the form
of watching,
and
the like, must
be directed
searching,scrutinising,
predominantly,if not wholly, to the external object.
determine
Only those experiences which
adjustment
have
All else is ignored by
an
objective reference.
The
attention.
psychologicalcorrelate of inter-organic
disturbance
of
the
nervous
system
consists
in animal
of
source
keeps
The
is different
case
activity.
external
The
which
other
up
and
the
the
hand
One
the
hand,
or
parts
of the
body, just
explore
portion
external
the
organism,
the
to
it.
other
and
So
In
Self.
other
and
bound
ject.
ob-
rest
far the
the
jects
ob-
explore
the
perceive
one
be
as
an
a
sense-perception,and
or
sentient
regarded
is
body
body
external
can
may
nature.
explore other
select
we
the
hand,
of
as
hand
or
If
Self
pure
always
perceive and
eye
bodies.
object
On
thing.
as
the
two-fold
perceive
can
eyes
external
of
has
just
can
other
primitive perception
particularexternal
it behaves
portant,
im-
It is very
Self is
of
self,
it-
hunger
embodied
the
bodily organism
hand
one
do.
of
apprehension
the
to
its
and
opportunity
the
is called
what
presented,but always
words, the apprehension
the
of
in all
is
with
practical
Self
like.
the
that
not
of
the
to
attend
may
note
Self, it is
the
For
On
to
which
being pre-occupied by
deprived
lion
the
being
as
intervals
directed
its prey,
to
however,
of
the
not
satisfyingits hunger,
of
in
be
hungry
instead
work.
attention
Here
object may
states.
at
movement
interest
the
constitute
and
alive
hand,
other
the
activity,they
attention
active
which
to
On
adjust itself.
must
of
conditions
the
criminate
329
REALITY.
EXTERNAL
OF
PERCEPTION
ii.]
CH.
as
external
vehicle
the
of
body
active
movement
in
relation
to organic sensations,
peculiar and intimate
an
appetites,etc., belongs to the Self. Thus
its
animal's
perception
connecting
Not-Self.
link
of
between
its
own
the
organism
perception
constitutes
of
Self
and
III.
CHAPTER
PERCEPTION
SPATIAL
Nature
" 1.
how
imperfect
then
its first
its
We
out
or
and
of
into
an
distances.
these
Analysis
it is
as
we
formal.
find
The
of the
forms.
We
conditions
also
explain
and
called.
in
of
continuous
are
Our
panse
ex-
connected
and
spread
never
of audible
connected
are
But
distance.
composed
touch.
by
extended
audible
only
primary
or
as
is
concern
senses.
Extension.
presented
it two
formal
parts of
and
is
and
space
tions.
spatial determina-
smell
expanse
be
must
concerning
that
Objects
and
inquiry
our
positionsseparated
positionsseparated
with
not
Extension
sound
Now
in this way
therefore
may
have
smell
extended.
odorous
same
of their direction
speak
distances.
odorous
the
whether
inquiry than
composed
by
indefinite
perfect
begin with,
Sound
not
are
and
development
To
narrower
general.
they
from
inquire
to
so
perception of extension, strictly
the
to
is
This
consider
to
origin.
limited
definite
more
determine
which
in
to
have
We
"
spatialperception develops
the
have
Problem.
the
of
GENERAL.
IX
to
"
the
consider
we
extended
330
tension
ex-
ness,
developed consciousand
constituents, a material
constituent
an
If
in
consists
whole
in
the
the
tions
rela-
way
of
positionand distance.
and distance
be position
material
is the
But
of
positionand
something :
It is
constituent.
distance
and
For
whole.
extension.
as
these
They
those
in
For
determinations
are
found
which
instance,
in
are
must
this
thing
some-
plain that
mere
such
331
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
"2.]
found
is not
the
ficient
suf-
extended
apart from
series,
merely qualitative
colour
sensations
in
series
the
of
be arranged.
may
intermediate
Che
we
must
ask
determinations.
answer
to
this
what
In
is left when
the
case
question would
we
of the
be
think
away
colour-series
easy.
If
we
332
PSYCHOLOGY.
to
cease
the
arrange
[BK. in.,
in
colours
none
In
the
of
case
its
extended
an
intrinsic
own
the
whole
in.
of them
series,each
CH.
n.,
ity.
qual-
answer
be
the
part of the
with
the
sensitive
qualitativedifference
tipof
the nose,
could
we
and
this difference
this is
and
would
to
and
there
may
contact
be
tend
the
our
may
the
same
reproduce
would
qualityof
But
of
qualities
the
with
tended
to
tact
con-
is
there
the
according to
tactile surface
affected,and
of the retina.*
we
must
But
with
would
reproduce,
them.
between
distinction
no
t.
difference
in
point of
the
assume
the
same
pointsmust
two
one
said
association.
to
association
affirm that
sensation
the
different,association
whatever
be
therefore
unless
were
as
due
be
wise
Other-
toe.
It is sometimes
touched.
was
some
affectingthe
tell when
shut
not
be
must
contact
eyes
because
impossible,
We
with
not
There
affectingthe big
one
the other
when
that
and
between
and
stimulated
stimulus.
of the
nature
surface
be
cal
noted
which
this difference of locarefully
distinguish
In the first
signfrom other qualitativedifferences.
of the stimulus
place,it does not depend on the nature
applied,but only on the part of the sensitive surface
thereof local signaturecannot
Difference
affected.
*
It
is difficult
signature. They
to
are
determine
probably
the
rather
physiqlogical
central
than
conditions
peripheral.
of
local
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
"2.]
fore be
333
the
exist unaffected,whether
stimulated
in
of white
uniform
manner
not.
or
uniform
is
panse
ex-
and contains
expanse
local differences in spiteof the sameness
of the colouring.
or
blue is stillan
Local
differ from
of the
the qualities
sign qualities
dependen
inasmuch
as
specialsenses
they are not discrete and inpression
continuous
total imThey unite in one
forming a kind of quantity called extensive
quantity or simply extensity. "Suppose," says Dr.
Ward,
"
hand;
we
postage
stamp
pasted
in consequence
have
added
back
the
certain
of the
sensation.
If
experience would
not be adequatelydescribed
by merely saying we have
a
greater quantityof sensation,for intensityinvolves
is not what
is meant.
quantity,and increased intensity
For
sensation of a certain intensity,
a
say a sensation
be changed into one
of red, cannot
having two qualities,
red and blue, leaving the intensityunchanged;
but with
extensitythis change is possible. For one
of the postage stamps a piece of wet
cloth of the same
size might be substituted and
the massiveness
of the
the same."*
compound sensation remain very much
another
Now
be
the
Article
xx., p. 54.
it,the
new
two
the touch
to
beside
on
an
object which
"Psychology,"
has
Encyclopaedia
not
present
only extensitybut
Britannica,
ninth
edition,
PSYCHOLOGY.
334
extension.
the other.
whole
we
But
and
the
can
we
stamp lies
to
abstract
must
CH.
in.
the
from
all these
tions,
determina-
difference
only the quantitative
consider
one
n.,
One
A
[BK. in.,
postage stamp
and
the
two.
If
we
tween
be-
fix
are
aspect, we
purely on the quantitative
from
extension.
consideringextensityas distinguished
have only attempted to
" 3. ^Extensity. So far we
oped
that extensity
is a constituent of the fullydevelshow
be distinguishedin
percept of extension, and can
sity
extennext
it by analysis. The
question is whether
but actually
is not merely distinguishable,
separable
from
Is there such a thing as an extensive
extension.
tinguishe
dislocal sign differences
not
are
quantum in which
by
by positionsseparated and connected
distances ?
Can the quantitative
aspect of space exist
is that though it
order ? The answer
without a spatial
is perhaps not possibleto give examples of absolutely
exhibit many
nevertheless
we
can
proximat
appure extensity,
to it. We
can
ences
point to sensible experidiffusion
with a relatively
which have extensive
spatialarrangement.
vague
The first set of examples is suppliedby experiments
If the skin receives two
tactile sensibility.
on
punctiform
such as those produced by the points
impressions,
it
of two needles, or of the legs of a pair of compasses,
be
is found, as Weber
first showed, that the pointsmust
at a certain distance
apart, if the two impressionsare
At less than this distance only one
to be distinguished.*
attention
our
"
The
distance
it is finest in those
varies
with
regions,
the
as
the
part of the
fingers
and
skin
affected.
lips, which
"
are
In
general,
known
by
SPATIAL
" 3.]
tactile
continuous
impressionis
differences
in the
this is not
the
not
335
PERCEPTION.
to
Even
discriminated,the
the
but
It
be
posed
sup-
any local
facts prove
sign
might
of
absence
an
sensation
case.
felt.
the
when
points are
recognisedas
two
is often
sensation
that
much
very
distance
smaller
when
than
they occur
simultaneously.This shows that they may
be simultaneously
appliedwithout being distinguished,
plexity
althoughthe sensation they produce contains a comof local sign differences.
ferences
The
local sign difunite
without
in
internal
continuous
one
distinction
extensive
quantum,
of
direction,and
position,
the
needle
distance.
When
points are
successively
without
tive
their relaapplied,they may be distinguished
positionbeing apprehended. For apprehensionof
their relative positionor direction they must
be a certain
distance apart. The
experiment may be further
varied by applying one
needle
and afterwards
applying
the other without
removing the first. In this case, they
be somewhat
further
must
apart to be distinguished.
But what
interests us is that the applicationof
most
the second
point is sometimes
only recognisedas producing
diffuse contact.
a blunter
or
more
Finally,the
every-day
in the
parts
observation
mobile
(the trunk).
surface
to have
parts, hands,
of the
high
feet, and
It is about
twice
tactual
sensibility. It
lips,than
as
fine
fingers." (Sully,The
in the
on
Human
the
is much
finer
comparatively
anterior
Mind,
as
vol.
on
the
fixed
terior
pos-
i.,p. 106.)
336
PSYCHOLOGY.
[BK. in.,
n.,
in.
CH.
be stimulated
the adult
consciousness
marked
than
the
tactile.
an
outer
is best
This
definite
no
perhaps the
is kept open in a
*
etc."
"
Ueber
Von
closed.
are
die
G. A.
field which
The
edges
tral
cen-
There
spatial order.
is presented
outline.
But
gray
is
extensive
has
imagery which
comparatively vague
in the
seen
the eyes
when
margin.
of dim
zone
diffusion,but
its
there
the
But
It is
Wahrnehmung
Tawney.
zweier
Punkte
Philosophische
mittelst
Studien,
Band
Tastsinnes,
xiii.,2, Heft.
des
"4.]
SPATIAL
diffused blackness
its
337
PERCEPTION.
is
presentedto
partialdeterminations
are
us
consider
such
sensation
that of
as
in so far as
spatial
it is localised in a certain portion of the body, but it is
internal
almost entirelywithout
spatialarrangement.
do not distinguish
in it pointsof hunger having
We
definite relations of position
to each other,
pointsof
hunger separated and connected
by hunger-distances.
hunger
of stomach-ache.
or
This is
"
At
rate, if
any
But
way.
do
we
there
is
no
so
quantity. It is,as
James
says, "voluminous
or
massive."
It is also
senses, such
"
James,
"
The
are
sometimes
sound
as
or
urged that
smell,have
reverberations
more
of
voluminous
the
an
other
special
extensive
acter.
char-
thunder-storm,"says
than
the
squeaking of a
is not a purely
similar conditions.
to
remains
has
of
and
tympanum,
of the external
However
this may
of
as
bration
vi-
ear, and
be, the
is present, and
fact
that
it
"
extension,must
*
assume
Principles of Psychology,
Psych.
more
vol.
ii.,p.
or
134.
22
338
[BK. in.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
en.
n.,
TIT.
is this
How
parts.
constitutes
which
extension
is not
arrived
in
at
this
obtained
by
sign qualities
stimulating different parts of the body, and arrange
them
by comparison in a qualitativescale. Indeed it
the
between
is probable that there is less difference
local signaturesof corresponding parts of the
two
in the fingersensation
hands, than there is between
tips
We
way.
sensation
and
to
factor
factor
of
local
the back
on
of the
have
spatialorder, we must
distinct altogether from
show
must
positionand
definite
serial
order
to
recourse
extensity. This
in the way
arrangement
It must
distance.
In
hand.
for
account
some
take
cannot
also be
intimately
so
nite
experiences of extensitythat the defiarrangements which belong to it may be transferred
with
connected
to
them
for it is not
enough
to
have
experience
pure
eyes
the
or
In
hands.
body
arises, due
as
to
whole,
the
of the
movement
any
a
series
of
limbs
varying
of
changing conditions
Following Dr. Ward,
joints,and tendons.
symbolisesuch a series as Pl P2 Ps P".
be presentedalong with Pz and from P"
"
or
of
sensations
muscles,
we
PI
it is
may
cannot
impos-
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
" 4.]
sible to
reach
339
through P3
Pl again save
and
P2"*
or
series. These
motor
determinate
other
through some
motor
experienceshave therefore a definite arrangement.
tute
Pl and Ps. P2 and P3 constiPz lies between
distance separatingand connecting P1 and jP4.
a
Further,
if the
is not
movement
merely
in free
made
of some
object,there
space, but exploresthe contours
and correspondingseries having
is another concomitant
definite
arrangement.
is the
part of
the
hand.
object to
of
Suppose the instrument
As the finger-tips
pass from
another, there is a series of
ploration
exone
tile
tac-
The
succession
yields a
in
occur
stimulation
of
of the
parts of the
local
order
is the
order
hand
of the parts of
an
extensive
definite
the
rangement
ar-
of time-
definite
quantum
presented.
simultaneously
It is essential to the possibility
of this that
the
experience of extensityand the experience of active
should
enter
movement
as
co-operativefactors into a
*
Article
XX., p. 54.
"Psychology,"
Encyclopaedia
Britannica,
ninth
edition,
PSYCHOLOGY.
340
process
process
behind
to
[BK. m.,
IT., CH.
in.
each
which
and
in their
factors
This
tive
cumulaconjoint interaction have contributed.
the prois re-excited as a whole when
disposition
cess
the factors which
is repeatedin part. In this way
into the process may
become
enter
profoundly modified
by their previous combination, so that each separately
which it has acquiredfrom its combination
assumes
a character
with
for
the
mean
the
of
extension.
at
for
of its parts,
so
to
that you
of active
become
clasping an
on
how
once
has
stand
or
mean
experience has
system
experience
If,
to
comes
extensive
an
stand
or
extensive
It
others.
When
others.
to
come
the
make
will
ments,
move-
tion
percep-
object in the
ploration
a
systematicexhave
nothing to
spatialcharacter.
As
the
finger-tips
pass
over
an
SPATIAL
" 4.]
object,the
themselves
successive
of co-existent
Extensity
341
experiences do
not
time-sequence. They
successive presentationof
the
present
become
whole
parts.
and
active
combined
be
tactile
merely
as
for consciousness
said,
PERCEPTION.
movement
must,
essential
as
as
factors
in
have
we
processes
is the
into
cumulative
which
separately,will
with
they
whole
when
it
Each,
enter.
modified
occur
the
after-effect of the
by
other, because
its
cess
prooccurs
previous
it will
re-excite
junction
con-
the
total
far
active
is
delicately
adjusted
to the shape, size,distance,etc., of objects. The
ing
guidclues to such
motor
adjustment can only be found
in touchand sight-experiences.But
just in so far as
the toucheither originally
or
sight-experiences
possess
of guiding active
or
subsequently acquire the power
movement,
they are or become
perceptions of spatial
so
as
movement
order.
We
have
general
by
at
now
statements
which
the
to
once
by
an
explain and
development
visual,perceptionsof
space
of
account
of
the
(1)the
is determined.
justifythese
tions
specialconditactual,(2)the
to
CHAPTER
SPATIAL
" 1.
dissevered
BY
have
birth,or
lives ; and
to
should
lost their
into
sight in
they should
lightor
colour.*
visual
as
blind
retain
trace
no
who
have
their
tactile
ourselves
we
for this
from
first year
the
Those
imagery
ence
exist-
study touch-space
be
translate
year
The
"
it is essential
either
also that
in their fourth
Blind.
to
us
sight-space.But
persons
TOUCH.
the
enables
persons
from
the blind
blind
PERCEPTION
Spatial Perception of
of blind
that
IV.
their
of their
of
sibility
sen-
become
sions
impresin
do
the
dark.
The
chief
the
shape
two
hands.
hand,
instrument
and
size of
These
either
the
the
blind
in
perceiving
objects is
the
hand,
or
rather
or
open
used
in
two-fold
closed,
it does
part of
an
not
involve
object to
another.
it
The
Heller's
facts
most
adduced
in this
valuable
sophische Studien,
"
may
Studien
section
zur
are
342
called
active
sive
pas-
movement
It may
also
be
neous
total simulta-
parts of the
as
the
of the
almost
object.
finger-tips,
may
object by grad-
entirely
Blinden-Psychologie
ously
simultane-
be
yieldsa
the
(1) The
way.
touch
may
one
called
by
are
touch, because
from
used
531.
due
"
to Theodor
in the
Philo-
SPATIAL
" 1.]
ually moving
touch,
because
PERCEPTION".
343
This
be
may
consists in
it essentially
over
them.
called
active
active
ment.
move-
it
also be called analytic touch, because
It may
sions
analysesor breaks up into a series of successive impres-
what
whole.
Now
of the blind
of the
the
synthetictouch
the main
lesson
that
we
as
simultaneous
learn
from
study
is that all
perceptionof
intimate
presents
union
be
It must
analytictouch.
and experimentson
understood
that
the
vations
obser-
we
PSYCHOLOGY.
344
it is found
[BK. in.,
IT.,
CIT.
iv.
preciseapprehensionanalytictouch
be combined
with
must
synthetic. Synthetic touch
alone without
the aid of previousexperienceyieldsat
the most
total impression.For
schematic
a generaland
tell whether
the object is round
or
instance, they can
it is regular or
irregular. But
angular, and whether
of its shape, analytic
for more
precisedetermination
movements
are
required. It is particularly
noteworthy
selves
that the blind are
almost
incapable of confining themthe object is at
when
to purely synthetictouch
all unfamiliar.
Involuntary twitchings of the hand
which
occur
they find it difficult or impossibleto suppress.
that for
the
are
active
highest stage
in
its main
sometimes
are
their
and
movements
the blind
features
acquired
use
in
in
favourable.
their
a
combination.
the
At
plan of procedureidentical
different
This
individuals.
early childhood
where
to
power
the
the
work
is
ditions
con-
with
of
hending
appre-
other
hand,
not
have
who
good intelligence,
been compelled to acquire control over
objectsby pressure
of practical
needs, often show great helplessness,
tions.
and do not appear
to have
any interest in spatialrelaof perceptual
In such cases, a specialeducation
activityis required for adequate apprehension of the
advances, the blind
shape of objects. As education
adults
of
otherwise
" 1.]
SPATIAL
becomes
345
PERCEPTION.
capable of determining
the size and shape of objectspresentedto him.
At the
of explorationshow
same
a
time, his active movements
and more
more
systematicand purposefulcharacter.
In higher stages of development the process
of
analytictouch takes a form such as the following. One
and turns
hand holds the object in position,
it so that
it may be convenientlyexplored by the other.
Finger
of exploration,
and they
and thumb
the instruments
are
used simultaneously.The
are
fingerglidesalong one
of the object,
and the thumb
contour
along an opposite
The varying distance
of fingerand thumb, as
contour.
and
measures
they proceed from their starting-point,
the distance and direction of the boundary
determines
relative
retain the same
lines. If fingerand thumb
the boundary lines are
parallel
position,
; if they move
divergent; if they apapart, the boundary lines are
proach
each
other, the boundary lines are convergent.
inating
of discrimMany blind persons have wonderful
power
distance
in this way.
They can, for example,
person
determine
the
more
various
and
more
in this process
the object is pushed backwards
paper.
of
thickness
When
of
different
kinds
of
analyticexploration
till it touches
into
the
face
sur-
synthetic.
The two
hands
sometimes
interchangefunctions,and at
intervals synthetictouch
intervenes,the object being
clasped and pressed. As a rule,synthetictouch comes
and introduces
first,
analytic. All active explorationis
with the total presentationof
brought into connexion
The
the object, as
it exists for passivetouch.
more
practiseda blind person is in the apprehension of the
of bodies,the more
rapid and sketchy are
configuration
of the
hand, analytictouch
passes
PSYCHOLOGY.
346
active
the
movements
Indeed,
[BK. in.,
for
necessary
adequate
that neither
IT.,
on.
iv.
tion.
percep-
active
nor
movement,
main
can
person
by
But
resource.
often
in
must
seem,
this is not
the
measure
these
quite true.
dimensions
be
cases
The
of the
the
blind
object
stance,
body, comparing,for inits height with his own
cance
height.* The signifipends
of analytic
touch
as
appliedto larger objectsdeit has acquired in
which
the significance
upon
the dimensions
of his
own
of
Large numbers
synthetictouch.
unable
blind persons are
to acquireprecisespatial
prehensi
aply
be immediateof those objectswhich cannot
itself
manifests
This inability
claspedby the hand.
co-operationwith
in their
of active
movements
touch, which
are
for the
strikingand
discoveryof some
feature
of the object which
distinctive
as
a
serve
can
sign of it. But it is often possibleto induce these persons
undertake
to
a
systematicexplorationof larger
by putting
objects in the way of active movement,
scale.
models
of these objectson
before them
a reduced
originalsand
They are thus prompted to compare
copies. Afterwards
they freely apply the system of
thus acquired to all objects which
movements
require
in the active explorationof
and
admit of them.
As
part limited
most
We
spatial
shall presently
relations
of the
to
have
body
the
to consider
itself
come
the
to
be
conditions
presented.
under
which
the
SPATIAL
" 1.]
PERCEPTION.
347
the two
arms
of connexion
is of the
greatest value.
between
these
methods,
two
is
There
link
inasmuch
as
it is
for
possibleto use either of the two methods
smaller objects. A thing
either be taken between
may
the opthe opposing thumb
and
between
or
finger-tip
posing
fingersof the two hands.
So far,we
have dealt with the explorationof comparatively
limited
have
We
kept within what
spaces.
be
may
called
the
restricted
more
limit
is the
touch
than
spaces
horizon.
embraced
be
can
Larger
arms.
visual
the
that
space
This
horizon.
than
these
is very
much
Its utmost
by
the
stretched
out-
only be
can
on
reduced
scale.
The
scale of
their
Of
picture
course
it.
we
can
think
of
such
an
expanse,
although
we
cannot
PSYCHOLOGY.
348
[BK. m.,
n.,
CH.
who
are
confined
to the
of touch
sense
in
an
restricted than
more
must
we
not
parts of
very
can
see.
much
But
the
becomes
spatialwhole
scale.
may follow
this respect
case
who
make
apprehensionof the
purely successive,the
that where
suppose
parts themselves
of persons
that
iv.
presented as successive,so as to
transform a spatial
perceptioninto a temporalperception.
ready
of exploration
On the contrary the movements
have alperiences
acquired a spatialsignificancethrough the exare
obtained
Hence
within
the
limits
the
parts of
the
of the touch
zon.
horiwhich
spatial whole
apprehended as
related
in
the
of
co-existence, although they
way
be simultaneouslypresented. Similarly,
cannot
a
son
perfor ten
who
road
can
see, in walking along a
successivelypresent
miles, has
themselves
of successive
number
are
fields of view
which
be
simultaneously
presented either actuallyor
ideally. But he does not apprehend these fields of
view
as
forming a time series : he apprehends them
as
presented parts of a co-existent whole.
successively
cannot
The
reason
for
this will
become
clearer
in
the
next
may
now
section.
" 2. Extension
proceed to
consider
as
Physically
Real.
of
"
We
cerned
explorationconin the apprehension of size and
configuration
from
another
point of view.
They not only contribute
of exmodes
to perceptionof size and
tension
figure,as mere
time
yield a perceptionof
; they at the same
external reality.The
configurationand size perceived
the
movements
SPATIAL
""2.]
PERCEPTION.
349
is
and size
the configuration
essentially
of bodies existingand
persistingindependentlyof us
of
and of percipient
activity.In followingthe contours
not
an
are
object,our movements
wholly free, but are
the one
We
bound
must
on
by certain conditions.
hand
with the object,continually
keep in contact
serving
prethe experience of resistance.
If contact
and
resistance cease, we
are
no
longer exploringthe object.
by
their
means
On
the
other
hand
main
we
avoid
force ; when
any
effort to
overcome
sistance
re-
PSYCHOLOGY.
350
"
"3.
The
So
far,we
restricted
[BK. in.,
Spatial Significance of
have
dealt
only with
Free
what
n.,
CH.
iv.
Movements.
may
restricted
be
called
by the
conditions
which
the actual
determine
explorationof
bodies.
But the experiencesthus acquired cannot
be
free movements.
without effect on
The
spatialsignificance
in
acquired in the explorationof bodies must
when
some
degree clingto analogous movements
they
take place without
with external
contact
things. As a
of fact such movements
matter
yield the perception of
what may
be called geometric configuration,
tion
configurain which
the spatialcharacter
is not
regarded as
belongingto any external body, but as the product of
our
subjectiveactivity.To quote Professor James :
trace
If, with closed eyes, we
figuresin the air
with the extended
forefinger(the motions may occur
from
the metacarpal-, the wrist-,the elbow-, or
the
shoulder- jointindifferently)
what
conscious
we
are
of
in each
indeed
most
case, and
acutelyconscious of, is
the geometric path described
tip. Its
by the fingerall as distinctly
felt as if
are
angles,its sub-divisions,
seen
ceives
reby the eye ; and yet the surface of the finger-tip
In persons born blind
no
impression at all.
the phenomenon
in questionis even
more
perfectthan
in ourselves." * In these geometrictracingswe
ing
makare
an
express experiment,and concentrating attention
the movements
of the finger,
such
on
such.
Under
as
conditions there is present a
image
very distinct mental
of the path described
by the moving finger. It is as if
the fingeractually
left a marked
track behind
it,and so
drew figuresin the air. The
outline is generallyvisumovements,
movements
"
...
Principles of Psychology,
vol.
it, p.
190.
alised in the
it in the
image
do
The
indeed
present, or
distinctly
less they still possess
the
of
sweep
not
all.
at
direction
and
amount
and
direction
the
to
present
spatialsignificance.
of the whole body,
the movement
limb, or
in
extension, differing
means
does
in
is
imagery
ably
presum-
which
on
ordinarymovements,
attention,this ideal
expresslyconcentrate
not
None
that
however
appear
we
of
case
351
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
" 3.]
cording
ac-
of the movement.
amount
body; it is
of it
Inasmuch
the presentation
free or empty space.
as
depends purelyon free movement, it ought accordingto
in the precedingchapter to lack the
laid down
principles
of external
character
reality.This is true of geometric
tracingsin which attention is wholly concentrated on the
free movement
itself. But, in general,free space is,as
is not
extension
This
Kant
of the external
form
says,
external
of any
that
This
world.
cause
is so, be-
of
his
or
arise
when
colour
and
is it.
What
round
the
the
air
but
I don't
as
as
if
to
a
is
see,
my
it isn't
the
at
lost
and
arises
dislike
their
image,
than
because
see
after
after
the
noteworthy
of
they
it.
have
they
fourth
that
to
appearing peculiar.
the
use
all,
"
finger
my
If
are
so
no
vague
to
seems
figure.
the
to
seems
it has
But
after
count
ac-
in this
even
only
it.
nearly invisible
made
sight
It is
image
will)boundary
letters
then
see
"
following
image
and
I will
touch
touch
(either
of the
visualise.
This
saw.
mind
more
figure much
vaguely apprehend
they have
who
get
the
me
visual
the
character,
vaguest
the
tracing
probably
they
far
inside
I can't
up
sure
or
to feel
the
really
plainer
outside
see
"
make
were
not
seem
will
those
as
is
t Unless
they
it
I'm
seem
it is of
rate
blind, gives
means
no
experience.
own
at any
case,
is by
who
Welton,
Mr.
are
go
tainly
cer-
try writing in
finger moving,
made."
year;
in that
case
blind
usually
talk
the
same
language
352
[BK. m.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
resisting
body to another part. But
proceeding from one definite point to
point imposes restriction on the amount
of the movement.
"Let
us
"
for
There
another.
and
this state
is
has
is,to
felt
mind
is
After
less
or
the
to
and
as
Dr.
two
of
contact
of
sense
to
feelingof
other
takes
In this way
by
direction
Bain.
fixed
box
to
with
touch,
abrupt departurefrom
the
.
time, the
again roused
of the movement."
side
one
consciousness,a call
is awakened
that follows.
the mind
in
mark
and
with, the
more
the
from
definite
another
between
moving
iv.
necessityof
the
well put
commence
resistance,
a
been
hand
example,
pressure,
and
the
suppose
obstacles,
one
This
CH.
n.,
attention;
movement
note
of the cessation
free space
acquiresthe
of a space separatingand connecting external
character
bodies and thus itself partakes of external reality.
Extended.
" 4. Perception of the Organism
as
Up to this point,we have been dealing with the further
development of a spatialperceptionwhich has already
"
attained
we
considerable
have
advancement.
been
blind persons
vanced
already so far adThe
passivetouch, they
could obtain at least a vague
and schematic
sion
apprehenof the shape even
of unfamiliar
objects. Also it is
evident
that the movements
which
ploration
they use in the exof objects have
or
already acquired a more
For
less definite spatialvalue.
example, the relative
means
fingerand thumb
degree of separation between
have
We
for them
corresponding spatialdistances.
in the scale of development,
down
to go further
now
and to trace the rudimentarybeginningsof spatial
per*
The
Senses
and
the
Intellect, fourth
edition,
p. 197.
" 4.]
SPATIAL
ception. This
will
in which
way
On
extended.
best
be
to
come
we
this
353
PERCEPTION.
pointI
by consideringthe
body as
perceiveour own
done
Croom
quote Professor
may
doubt
that the
slightest
of as resisting,
and
first object that we
become
aware
time
at the
own
same
spread out, is our
body. Of
well
the very beginning sees
as
course, the child from
as
touches, but I am
putting aside vision for the present,
Robertson.
I have
"
and
that
suppose
the
not
have
we
child,at firstunable
to
subjectand object,beginning
to acquire objective
experienceby way of touch.
And
that the first object it would
I say
come
other body, but its
to apprehend vaguely is not
any
That
one
own.
object it has always with it ; other
and go, but it has always the power
of
objects come
touching its own
body and thus of findingthe activity
of its own
hand
impeded."* He also points out with
mensely
great distinctness one importantcircumstance which imfacilitates spatial
perceptionin the case of our
own
body and its absence in the case of other bodies.
There is this special
This is the fact of double contact.
feature in
the child's
tactile experience of its own
body, that whereas in touching another body it has an
intensification of touch on the hand through which
it is
exertingpressure, in pressingthe hand againstits own
with the activity
face it gets, in connexion
put forth
discern
difference
between
"
"
and
resisted,an
touches
and
touch
"
to
orderingof
suppose,
touch
there
is
part of the
*
Elements
touches
This
is touched.
in every
Psych.
intensification of two
it both
of Psychology,
pp. 113-114.
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
354
but
not
its attention
have
fingersit has
the
varietyof
by way of
different
this,that through
to
touches
the
according to
the latter
and
also
of the
parts, a
in which
way
it is not
helped
when
is yet another
There
perceptionof
skin with
calls
Robertson
of the
We
area
of
the
have
only
touch
normally in
when
detect
but
state
with
to
any
the
sensations.
temperature
contact
attend
to
tactile surface, to
and
cutaneous
is
skin
of
its occasional
excitation,apart from
bodies.
in mind
borne
intensification
an
surface
sensitive
not
external
an
be
always
portance
im-
paramount
ous
organism is in question. Cutanewholly depend on contact of the
gives what
object. Such contact
the
does
sensation
of
consideration
should
which
the
iv.
in this double
extended
en.
n.,
it is
Thus
drawn
m.,
the
of
ternal
ex-
special
of
presence
Besides
this,an
external
they
as
In
bodies.
explorationof
contact
with
cannot
the
the
combined
be
the
of
case
parts of
whole,
cannot
in
the
external
whole,
and
case
of
bodies,
ternal
ex-
active
simultaneous
co-exist; so
that
thetic
syn-
analytictouch
can
Ibid.
the
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
" 4.]
in
body
which
various
its organ
has
355
directions, this
in
the
surface
synthetictouch,
touched, acquires
spatialsignificance.There thus arises a direct senseperception of the configurationof the body and its
other spatial
is always with
us, whatever
parts which
perceptionwe may or may not have at any moment.
of our
bodies
This primitivespatialpresentation
own
is of great importance as a preparationfor the perception
relations in external bodies.
of spatial
Owing to it,
touch as applied to external
both syntheticand analytic
certain
from
the outset
bodies have
a
spatialsignificance.
Take
for example the act of graspingan object
the objectgrasped
When
between
finger and thumb.
is a part of our
own
organism,such as the hand or the
the contact
of
leg,the skin surface which lies between
of the finger,
and the contact
is itself the
the thumb
sensation which
has acquired spatial
seat of cutaneous
the interval between
significance.Thus
finger and
extended
is directlyperceived as an
whole
thumb
by
cording
synthetictouch. The extension is greater or less acand fingerare more
the thumb
less widely
or
as
apart. Hence, when an external body is taken between
them
and the
finger and thumb, the interval between
of this interval already stand
variations in the amount
and its varying degrees. There
distance
for spatial
is
have not considered,that
yet one experiencewhich we
is passively
in which
cutaneous
area
one
imposed upon
a
another, as
there
when
two
one
contacts
hand
; but
is laid
on
it does not
the
other.
that
Here
they
are
Supposing that perceptual
usually discriminated.
that both have spatial
development is so far advanced
the perceptionis not of two
surfaces but
significance,
are
appear
356
PSYCHOLOGY.
of
this surface
in the
be
can
when
another,
the
of
the
of
of
which
of
the
skin
is
touched
is laid
contact
total surface
When
arm.
external
the
to
result.
surface
objects one
spatialperception will
both
area
portion of
contribute
distinct,because
hand
one
the
surface
simultaneously.
sensitive.
are
in
comes
of
palm
is apprehended both
of the right hand
the
total
surface
the
palm
of
object,the area
by synthetictouch
the hand
and
arm.
in which
one
hand
the
of
tween
be-
and
with
part of
is
wider
two
the
palm
other, the
portion of
and
arm,
as
and
left hand
the
is
Further,
as
the
as
hand
of contact
as
the
be
contact
apprehended
the
upon
alone
previous contact
area
areas
area
of both
of
surface
the
as
iv.
in contact,
are
wider
of
But
part
one
either
CH.
n.,
of external
applied.
surfaces
hands
right,or
in each
case
full and
more
regarded
of the
or
sensations
Now
be
may
If the two
surface.
common
[BK. in.,
applied
to
an
immediatelyperceived
of
It is not
directlyapprehended by
synthetictouch as only a portionof the surface of the
external body. But previousexperiencesof the kind
a
as
is laid
on
the
other
must
constitute
of
preparationfor regarding the area
portion not only of the body surface, but
certain
a
surface
help
which
to
of the
object touched;
give significanceto the
other
and
it must
active
contact
of
the
therefore
by
explored.
movements
object are
tive
sensia
Projection. When
attend
surface is affected by a stimulus,we
may
either to the locality
of the part affected,
principally
of the organism as a
and its relation to the spatial
map
" 5. Localisation
and
"
whole,
or
of
organ
in an objectexternal to the
space-relations
the face,
if a flycrawls
Thus
across
sense.
to
will be directed
attention
our
and
occurs.
On
contours
of
the
an
other
external
face
ticklingirritation
activelyexplore the
attend chiefly
to the
not
this object,and
the
if
hand,
of the
surface
to the
part of it in which
that
to
357
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
"5.]
we
object,we
and
way,
when
face
the
is
an
face.
external
insensible
other
the
which
In
thus
object.
touch,
to
external
hand
relation
the
arise
when
as
to
iarly
pecul-
the
we
pass
the
would
the
the
hand
exploringhand,
face
object. But
touches
it, and
in
one
activelyexplores another,
over
combined
projectionare
face
be
just
like
the
were
any
successive
experiences
[BK. in.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
358
sent.
We
hand
may
cannot
explore it by
active
of
n.,
touch,
CH.
as
there
course
iv.
one
is
no
of localising
of seeingit. The
possibility
impossibility
retinal impressionsin the retina itself shows
that localisation
can
projection. We
only localise
pre-supposes
in those parts of the body which
have been
previously
manner
explored by active sightand touch in the same
external objects.
as
" 6. Tactual
Perception of the Third Dimension.
There
is one
point which ought to be made clear from
do not and can
have
We
the outset.
not
a
perception
kind
of solid volume
of the same
the perceptionof
as
in the case
of touch may be easily
The
surfaces.
reason
touch
stated.
We
cannot
one
thing behind another.
in contact
with thingsonly at their surfaces.
We
come
"
lies behind
What
the
When
once
surface
in
the
solid volume
of
be found
within it may
by analysisof
distinguish
the total presentationas simultaneously
given to synthetic
of surfaces
But
the indefinite
touch.
multiplicity
each other and connected
surfaces
by cross
intersecting
indefinite
in an
which
multiplicityof ways
compose
be
solid volume, can
never
presented to synthetic
we
touch.
It is free
our
We
have
movement
movement
seen
direction
in " 3 that
of the whole
differingin
and
which
amount
amount
"
body,
and
of
of
the sweep
comes
direction
the
to
mean
limb, or
the
extension,
according to
movement."
Now,
the
the
SPATIAL
" 6.]
extended
either
move
fro
all these
down,
direction.
surfaces
the
to
consider
the
becomes
the
any
or
Each
consciousness
for
means
and
up
intermediate
given positionmay
right and left,or in any
startingfrom
arm
359
PERCEPTION.
intersect
extended
an
each
other
originalpositionof
movements
clenched
by
fist.
of the
sweep
which
The
the
the
to
arm
and
surface ; and
in
arm.
line
Or
extended
various
sponding
corre-
again,
palm
intermediate
series : and
of them
each
positionsform a continuous
has arisen
has an
which
acquired spatialsignificance,
through the actual grasping of objects of varying size
of the fingers
and shape. When
the surface
the
meets
surfaces
surface of the palm, the two
for perbecome
ception
At each
intermediate
one.
position,they are
and
are
distinguishable,
apprehended not merely as
of the body, but as surfaces
of
part of the superficies
objects which might possiblybe clasped in the hand.
have a series of surfaces which, instead of formThus
ing
we
part of
one
surface,overlie
and
underlie
each
other
in clasping an
actual
layers. Hence
object,the
from
positionof the hand derives a spatialsignificance
its placein this serial movement
by which we pass from
the outstretched
palm to the clenched fist. In this way
for that peculiarly
distinct presentaaccount
we
tion
may
which
of solidity
accompanies the grasping of an
object.
In exploring an
object with the hand by way of
active touch, the actual
termined
depath of the movement
as
by the configurationof the object is only
indefinite
number
of possiblepaths of free
of an
one
At
the surface
movement.
which
any given moment
has been actually
exploredmay have an indefinite num-
in
360
PSYCHOLOGY.
her
of
the
third
[BK. in.,
n.,
CH.
iv.
dimension.
For
whenever
we
either
touch
organism
own
or
an
external
dimension.
referred
to.
But
the
"
When
we
gan
be-
discuss
" 7.]
361
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
inquiry.
for development
Do the same
conditions which
account
for its first origin?
of the spatialperceptionalso account
conceivable.
This seems
at first sight at least abstractly
hand
We
the one
at the outset
on
ence
experimay
suppose
of mere
and on
the other experienceof
extensity,
forms.
It is
active
movement.
now
time
take
to
Neither
the
up
of these
second
experiences is in
self,
it-
to
ive
experienceof actin the manner
have
which
movement
we
already
described.
If the combination
is to begin with entirely
vidual
absent, so that it only arises in the historyof the indiconsciousness,spatialperceptionhas not only a
psychologicaldevelopment but a psychologicalorigin.
If we
is
ourselves
to what
adopt this view, we commit
called a genetic as opposed to a nativistic
theory of
spatialperception.
The
the
correspondingnativistic view would assume
the outset
of mental
From
followingform.
ment
developcertain connexions
there are
between
experiences
in the way
of extensityand appropriate motor
activity,
connexions
not learnt by experience,but due to congenital
So far as these originalconnexconstitution.
ions
kind of spatialperceptionis born with
exist,some
the individual,
not
acquired by him.
of
extensitycombines
with
the
"
evidence
The
case
of
many
emerging
from
for the
animals.
its
nativistic view
The
chick,
shell, pecks
the
the
direction, situation,and
suitable
as
in
from
to
some
distance
is strong in the
for
instance, on
the
show
outset
that
manner
of the
at
without
aware
object.
of
It
would
to
therefore
seem
large
such
animals,
the
indefinite.*
from
Apart
indeterminate,
and
it
movements,
in
development
Thus
point.
So
theory.
But
and
and
It
is
mere
noted
animals,
perience
ex-
the
at
for
strongest
ever
how-
experiences
how
subsequent
have
is
that
in
even
the
to
starting-
what
human
nativistic
said
have
we
original endowment
for
starting-point
only
orate
elab-
highly
development.
in
is
what
from
far
growth
is also
though
to
congenital
new-born
the
is very
physiological
same
this
that
say
that
appear
infant
The
higher
to
be
conclusion
from
that
sign
conceded
clear
be
But
connexion,
congenital
be
rudimentary
be
should
new-born
other
could
may
complex
necessarily
by
respect
lar
simi-
sign
may
is
see
probable
it will
about
are
supplies
the
to
most
much
beings.
not
difficult
spatial perception
vague
is
this
the
it
local
between
higher
local
between
congenital
some
the
is evidence
evidence
The
trary,
con-
degree.
same
there
beings
exists
The
through
go
activity, though
motor
very
sight.
human
is
discern
objects.
the
nearly
the
on
to
process
etc., of
to
iv.
spatial perception
monkeys,
connexion
and
outset
of
case
original
some
not
CH.
n.,
in.,
beings,
gradual
and
dogs
as
though
process,
in
by
it
Human
distance,
situation,
shape,
even
learn
to
with
that
innate.
extent
have
it
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
362
some
the
the
infant.
being
as
in
fully
The
growth
true
in
this
case
the
does
system
Much
from
of
being
nervous
grown.
distinguished
extent
human
new-born
is much
to
comes
learning
by
dog
more
of
perience.
ex-
and
rapid.
CHAPTER
PERCEPTION
SPATIAL
Perception
" 1.
in
tactual
of
corresponds
touch.
more
most
part
have
in the
which
eye
an
view
seen
it
within
of
by
seen
is
in
bring the
the
area
is
is at
the
most
movements
distinct
as
eye
the
delicate
of
from
the
a
a
all.
eye
of
the
vision.
which
limited
ness
distinct-
is
there
Now,
general
colour
centralis, and
of
tinct.
dis-
and
and
its
light,
spot in
and
whole,
yellow spot
fovea
the
We
to
one
of vision
spot, called
outlying parts
of
is
peculiarclearness
the
for
are
sensitive
there
moment
ence,
differ-
analysisare
peculiarly delicate
any
with
central
the
this surface
sive
pas-
successive.
than
surface
on
to
important
They
rather
the
sight
passive sight
this
expanded
and
Active
sightsynthesisand
sensation
there
Thus
by
of
case
Both
synthesis.
is however
centre
visual
field of
touch,
simultaneous
the
near
developed.
visual
the
by which
depend
that
intimately combined.
much
but
is
There
in the
that
developed,and
active
to
difference
no
by which
process
analysis and
is
There
"
is
space
perception
combination
area
the
SIGHT.
BY
of Surface.
principle between
perception of
V.
here
active
the
a
pit
criminati
dis-
sight
successively
field of
view
certain
amount
within
and
364
[BK. m.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
II., CH.
V.
of these
of
is
movement
movements,
and
of
others
connected
with
the
we
into
take
account
its relation
to
the
tactual
what
we
of
determinations
are
the
object.
condition
the
objectto
in is the real
objects themselves,
in their relation
to
we
spacetend
the nature
to
of
So
the
interested
far
as
"2.]
SPATIAL
365
PERCEPTION.
object varies
spective
greatlyaccording to our distance from it. By introdiscern a varying apparent
we
can
analysis,
magnitude of the objectcorrespondingto the varying
distances.
But in ordinarypractical
experience,these
variations are
crossing the
largelyignored. A man
the
of
area
towards
room
tall in the
retina
the
does
us
has
denied
are
the
of
means
This
appears
In
twice
become
to
distance
perceivingthe
the
by
appear
same.*
touch.
to
not
His
process.
stimulated
vary, but
to
place,the
second
the
which
dimension
third
as
arises from
is stimulated
eye
"
As
which
on
depend
the
perception of
manifold
are
and
by sight
celebrated theory
complex.
advanced
This
the
applies
variation
before
have
its
be
it,and
so
in
on.
of
developed
is
is
their
capable
the
size
meaning
recovered
should
to
consciousness,
marked
feature
sight by
operation,
an
appearing
as
of
Persons
apprehended.
big
as
the
but
the
blind
express
whole
it is
probable
condition
conscious
from
wonder
house
that
infancy,
that
which
who
room
contains
[BK. in.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
366
CH.
n.,
v.
is in
true
and
futed
matter
by
visual
tactual
elements
superadded to
are
of ideal revival.
that
way
it is certain
But
the
that
unchanged, and
it merely in the
remains
such
experienceas
maintained
be
It cannot
valuable.
in
moulding
and
visual perception
the visual perception. Tactual
pends
develop together. The practicalinterest of sight deand
to guide active touch
mainly on its power
the practical
manipulation of objects.
The
ily
presentationof visual extension depends primarof extension
correlation
its intimate
on
revealed
as
must
touch.
to
with
is between
There
sion
exten-
them
since the
real
extension,the
will be the
exist
cannot
tactual
modification
more
an
object
outlines of the
visual
*
The
image
vast
exceptions.
in
the
object,he
of it.* The
majority
of
directlyreveals
of the visual experience
explainwhat we mean
experiencemore
profound.
modification,let us
by this
handling
modification,
mutual
without
mankind
To
take
the
dark.
at the
visual
does
As
same
image
so.
There
case
he
time
is
of
man
explores the
constructs
throughoutde-
appear
however
to be
termined
tactual
feature
by
of
moulded
concerned,
not
the
by
visual
with
perception. What
we
say
is
corresponding
visual
image is
a
Now
touch.
we
imagery, but
that owing to
of tactual
union
intimate
The
extension.
visual
throughout
and
is correlated
there
extension
are
with
the
here
visual
frequent
perceptions,
visual
with
of
feature
each
With
experience.
tactual
367
PEKCEPTION.
SPATIAL
"2.]
the
visual
order
and
with
active
visual
and
of
arrangement
parts from
its connexion
In like
analytictouch.
perceptionof extension acquiresa
and
certain
its connexion
parts from
of its
arrangement
manner,
the
order
with
It would
thus apperceptionof extension.
pear
of
that though the eye had no
independent means
lines
and
apprehending those relations of surfaces
the tactual
which
third
the
pre-suppose
dimension, it would
none
The
whole
difficult to say
solid
much
much
and
figureand
is due
room
tactile
complication.* It is
preciselyhow much of our perceptionof
distance
is gained in this way, and how
process
to
is
other
for
case
factors.
that
doubt
of
But
the
there
combination
experienceplays a part
*
See
pp. 90-93.
does
of
not
seem
of visual
primary impor-
PSYCHOLOGY.
368
it does
What
tance.
of
superiority
the
To
peculiarto
vision.
is connected
with
two
As
(b)
Whenever
not
Dependent
look
we
at
these
Among
only.
on
the
is the
v.
great
from
and
account
the
the
ditions
con-
portant
im-
most
normally use
we
Use
object with
an
CH.
n.,
apprehensionof
in the
touch
over
for
account
of
distances
body.
vision
not
[BK. m.,
of
both
Two
eyes,
Eyes.
we
ceive
re-
of the
it two
other,so
as
to
superpose
the nasal
half of each
on
the
stimulated
in
the
points thus
but
when
the
similar
way.
stimulated
deviation
do
from
when
But
it also
not
exactly correspond,
occurs
correspondence,or
dis-
SPATIAL
" 2.]
parateness,
as
it is
called,is
single object is
behind
or
is most
before
that
seen,
presented,or,
distinctly
is
the
When
and
fingeris
if
we
then
it into the
doubled.
and
fix
centre
The
held
in
we
vision may
between
seen
the
other
which
words,
that
directly
looking
are
the
pointsaffected
result.
eyes
and
our
pens,
hap-
lying
as
field of vision
between
disparateness
relatively
great, double
If
it is
but
this
When
small.
of the
area
369
PERCEPTION.
between
object,
to bring
as
the finger
an
the
finger
but
not
with
every
one.
There
are
some
few
who
conditions
of the
24
PSYCHOLOGY.
370
attention
object,and
to
in
seen
the
area
m.,
n.,
CH.
v.
is concentrated
only on what is
vision, double images are
noted
that when
carefully
distinct
It should
discerned.
not
of
[BK.
be
vision
of it may
be
referred
disparatepositionof
of the
two
eyes.
the
two
It would
conditions
other
to
than
the
the
not
a
separate
is outlined
the
one
surface
same
one
before
drawing
surface
is set before
which
On
each.
of
the
presents it
these
same
as
seen
both
eyes, but
surfaces
solid
from
there
object, but
a
point of
to
the
left,the
other
from
more
situated
disparately
and
the
stereoscope.
The
greatest when
the
one
are
the
is
seen
of
the
eyes.
Of
not
course
momentary
of
are
thus
the
of
which
to
as
is
stereoscope
freelyfrom
unmistakablypresent
the two
pictures
to
it is also
by
as
the
move
allow
the
time
eyes
for
ments
move-
fixate
one
after
But
transient
in
allowed
illumination
so
case
effect
are
eyes
another.
point to
when
solid
impressionsthey produce,
in looking through the
the
are
is the
same
371
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
" 2.]
other
illumination
the
eyes.
But
the
which
when
allows
no
movements
time for
ments
move-
of the
eyes
372
PSYCHOLOGY.
tivelydim
mind
and
[BK. in.,
imperfect. It must
in ordinaryvision
that when
also be
n.,
CH.
borne
v.
in
fixate a
steadily
singlepoint in the field of view, and attend to objects
obtain double
before or behind it,
we
images rather than
of distance from
the pointfixated.
These
a perception
of the
facts point to active explorationby movements
important factor in the perception of the
eye as an
An
for
third dimension.
even
more
powerful reason
introducingthis factor is the general analogy of the
in which
the spatial
perceptiondevelops. The apprehensi
way
of tactual space developsthrough a co-operation
about
of active and passivetouch.
know
What
we
blind
from
and
about
children
early infancy
persons
shows
recovered
their sightby an operation,
who have
of operation
is true of sight. In a case
that the same
for congenitalcataract,*a boy could
not
count
even
of passivesight,
though
alfew
two
as
as
objects by means
of touch.
had
learnt
he
to
count
by means
When
two
objects were
placed before him, and he was
called on to say how
they were, using sightonly,
many
each of them
he could do so only by fixinghis eyes on
in
the
At
turn.
outset, it
we
was
necessary
successivelywith
him
for
to
the finger.
point to each of them
sufficient. At a later
Pointing without touching was
able to count
merely by fixinghis glance
stage he was
each object in turn.
This he did at first not by
on
of the
of the eye, but by lateral movements
movements
head.
a
It
number
not
was
Uhthoff,
of
"
objectsat
Sehenlernen
operierter Menschen,"
der
till much
Sinnesorgane,
Bd.
in
singleglance.
blindgeborener
Zcitschrift fur
xiv., Heft
3 und
4.
und
Psychologic
In
spater
und
to
all
count
cases
mit
of
Erfolg
Physiologic
this
373
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
" 2.]
kind,the perceptionof
distance
sion
in the third dimen-
two
In
dimension.
eyes.
the
and
two
that
so
The
any
have
we
eyes.
the
line
point
lines
of vision
to which
When
the
of
vision*
is
an
the
eyes
are
converge,
turned
inwards,
objectsnearer
is directed.
PSYCHOLOGY.
374
[BK. in.,
CH.
n.,
v.
the
it would
which
in
have
not
isolation
from
the
other.
The
fixed
are
eyes
and
combined
the
for consciousness
eyes becomes
of the
movement
a
movement
over
two
tract
of space.
for the
this way
account
we
may
which
relative distance from the point on
In
fixed
at
How
is the
?
distance
the relative
the
other
body
from
besides
and
the
the
less
the
eyes
are
questionstill remains,
itself determined
fixation-point
has alreadybeen
given by
the
determines
termine
also demust
fixation-point
from
distance
of the fixation-point
eye
body
the
answer
the
points.Thus
this another
greater or
of
of the
Part
implication.Whatever
of other
points from
these
But
moment.
any
perceptionof
all
objectsinterveningbetween
contribute
of the
factor
degree,
"
to
fix the
absolute
tance
dis-
But
seen.
point distinctly
is no
doubt
operative in a
the sensations
due
to
the vary-
375
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
"2.]
There
are
no
ing positionof the eyes themselves.
of the eye do not
the muscles
because
joint-sensations
work
on
joints. But this defect is compensated by the
of the eye in
tactile experiencesdue to the movement
sensations
its socket ; and muscular
are
probably
proper
vergence
contributoryfactors. Thus the varying degrees of conwill be marked
by varying tactual and motor
These
in the eyes.
will also help to mark
sensations
it
and
of movement.
But
extent
varying direction
of the eyes,
should
not be forgotten that the movements
in the
whether
way
of
or
convergence
otherwise,
are
panied
experiences. They are accomopticalas well as motor
by displacement of impressions of the retina.
In converging movements,
disparateimpressionsare in
of becoming correspondent,and vice versa.
It
process
has been
urged by Professor Hering and others that
admits of greater delicacyof
this purely opticalprocess
is a more
and therefore
discrimination
important factor
and
in our
experience of movement
positionof the
Hering
(c)
is
consider
debate,
conditions
but
Under
which
the
The
tion
ques-
probabilityis
the constitution
this
remain
These
only one
eye is used.
an
auxiliarykind.
They do
that
head
operative even
conditions
not
of the
have
we
in
the
are
to
when
mainly
of
first instance
perceptionof depth;
it has been
otherwise
but when
once
produce
formed, they reThere
it by association.
is only one
monocular
ing
experiencewhich appears capable of directlyconstitutis the varying acthe perceptionof depth. This
commodation
of the lens by which
distinct vision is seenter
into
themselves.
right.
Monocular.
As
sensations
370
PSYCHOLOGY.
[UK. m.,
11., en.
v.
lens
at
is too
convex
"
of diffusion
occur
Thus,
and
yield a
more
remote
and
diffused
from
the
fro
along
distinct
circles
"
the
image
on
successively
fixingthe eye
points of a line, the
any
called
are
retina, and
in
at
and
the
on
distant
more
flat,what
too
or
for
moment
image
this.
of
more
will be
lens
the
is indistinc
point looked
Points
nearer
commodated
ac-
at
or
will
indistinct
more
produce progressively
impressions,the greater is their distance
As
fixation-point.
the
distinct,and
line,the
vice
the
indistinct
versd.
Thus
glance
and
progressively
becomes
we
to
moves
have
total
rience
expe-
third
dimension.
Here
too, muscular
sensations
As
in
the
case
experiences,accom-
of
SPATIAL
" 2.]
377
PERCEPTION.
of the eyeball,
are
conjoinedwith a
panying movement
paratene
due
to the varying disseries of opticalexperiences,
of retinal impressions; so, in monocular
experiencesaccompanying
vision, a series of motor
of the lens, is conjoined with a series
accommodation
due to varying distinctness and
of opticalexperiences,
diffusion of retinal impressions.
We
have
to
now
operative in
turn
monocular
to
as
class
another
well
as
of conditions
binocular
vision,
may
the third
be
called
dimension
from
the outset.
The
artifices used
by
the
PSYCHOLOGY.
378
conditions
associative
these
we
in.,
refer
may
n.,
v.
en.
first to
the
covered
variation
which
retinal
in the
[BK.
have
we
image
area
moved
close
has
passed through
last to that image
giving place at
and
guides actual
To
contact.
the
varying
series
which
in extent
in
of
view
potent
the
varying
means,
the
of
means
case
the
and
the
hands
of
that
of
of the
object
an
retinal
ferent
dif-
retinal
the
pression
im-
regular
The
eye.
of size with
the
artist
producing stereoscopiceffect.
distance
full
the
systematicand
changes
accompanies
remember
must
way,
distance
the
of
object produce
same
that
so
appreciate the
them,
to
up
is fixed
by
creasin
in-
most
Where
other
termines
impressionmainly deperception of magnitude. This is well seen in
of after-images.
Produce
an
after-imageof
extent
"
the
than
look
and
sun
your
at
your
finger-tip
; it
Project it on
nail.
379
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
" 2.]
the
will be smallei
table,and
it will be
different distances.
in all
cases
Another
not
the
size but
of
conditions
in the
cross,
the
is
same.
group
in the
But
depends
of the
nature
line
If
we
or
curve
look
on
variation
retinal
sion
impres-
looked
at from
straightat
angular
rect-
or
ly
equalparallel
James,
Psychology,
vol. ii.,
p. 231.
380
PSYCHOLOGY.
rectangular
the
retinal
direction
[BK. in.,
produced by
cross,
an
n.,
CH.
v.
object in
and
Fig. 3.
right-handcorner,
upper
Fig.
we
see
4.
slantingcross,
as
in
Fig. 4.
all cases,
the retinal
sation
impressionand the visual senremain
unchanged. The above is only a specimen
of what
is continually
takingplace. The nature
of the retinal
impressions produced by straight or
curved lines and their combinations, is constantly
ing
varyin a regular and
with the posisystematicmanner
tion
of the eyes relatively
The
to the object looked
at.
the shape
variation depends in a very large measure
on
their relative positionin the third
of surfaces and
on
the after-imageof the square
Thus
dimension.
cross
In
381
in front of
wall directly
perpendicular
the retina.
But if
cross
on
eye, produces a square
plane on which it is projectedis tilted away from
if it is
the
the
or
PERCEPTION.
SPATIAL
" 2.]
seen
on
towards
the
retinal
spectator, the
cross
is distorted.
image
picture,will,if an afterbe thrown
it,distort the shape thereof,and
upon
make
of which
see
us
a form
our
after-imagewould be
that form
the natural
projectionon the retina, were
laid upon
Thus
the wall.
a signboardis paintedin perspective
and
ing
the eye, after steadilylookon
a
screen,
at a rectangularcross, is turned
to the painted signboard.
The
after-imageappears as an oblique-legged
*
In looking at any solid
the signboard."
cross
upon
tours
figurefrom a given point of view, the lines and conpresentedby its bounding surfaces produce varying
retinal images according to the shape of the surfaces
and
their positionrelatively
to the eye.
These
retinal differences
correspond to no real differences in
the shape of the lines and
themselves.
contours
Our
tendency is therefore as far as possibleto ignore them,
position in the third
except in so far as they mark
In so far as the variation in opticalsensadimension.
tion
is disregarded,it fulfils the function
such
of
as
determining our perceptionof depth and solid figure.
The artist avails himself of these perspective
distortions
in producing stereoscopic
effect.
The
play of light and shade also contributes in a
determine
to
our
large measure
perception of
very
in which
varies
light is intercepted
depth. The mode
with
the shape of the solid object on
it falls.
which
Even
The
an
"
inclined
distribution
of
wall, in
shade
*
among
Op. cU.,
p. 254.
the
parts of the
ob-
PYSCHOLOGT.
382
determined
is
shade
[BK. m.,
IT.,
OH.
v.
the
case
This
elling,"
"modprojectingface.
the most
it is called by the artist,takes
as
lows
holsubtle gradations,
according to the various minute
in the surface of an
elevations
and
object,as for
this what
in the folds of drapery. Besides
instance
of
mask
hollow
is called
and
"cast-shadow,"
the
viz.
very
of very
remote
and
are
thrown,
modification
in
seen
important part.
in
better
strong and
distinct
in
of
colouring.
distance,and
the
indistinctness
include
perspective, and
aerial
thrown
noonday light."*
have
case
a peculiarimportance in the
objects. These are covered by the term
are
factors
Other
than
shadow
much
out
"
cast-shadows
the
one
If two
appears
of
line
out-
mountains
bluish,and
The
perceivedas nearer.
tance
of the vegetation is only visible at a certain disgreen
it givesplaceto a blue tint
; at a greater distance
These
associative
from
the intervening air.
derived
the
other
conditions
of the
when
the
green,
do
not
green
themselves
is
enter
once
been
formed
are
into the
able
to
constitution
reproduce it
by other means.
the
signs which
It is'
mind
frequentlysaid that they are
if we
are
interprets. Such phrases are only permissible
of the signs and of their
careful to explainthe nature
interpretations.
Usually when we speak of interpreting
and
a sign,it is implied that the
sign is itself distinctly
is an
separatelynoticed, and that the interpretation
additional distinct act of thought. But this is not the
*
Sully,
Human
Mind,
"
SPATIAL
2.]
with
case
their
have
themselves
meaning
their
from
with
one
it
is
sign
revival.
and
The
percept
meaning
not
is
an
one
of
cussing.
dis-
ignored,
its
fixity,
The
complication
and
They
consciousness
experience.
idea.
been
consciousness.
are
the
impressional
and
main
the
meaning
that
have
we
for
obtrusiveness,
of
definiteness
in
existence
sensations
the
which
before
meaning.
the
383
are
comes
independent
no
signs
perceptual
the
They
only
PERCEPTION.
apart
being
inseparably
signs,
has
and
the
In
other
connexion
and
mediacy,
im-
the
detailed
words,
between
not
of
free
CHAPTER
TEMPORAL
VI.
PERCEPTION.
"
it is evident
form.
On
the
other
that
hand,
time
find
exist in this
cannot
in
sciousness
perceptualconthose
our
primary experiences on which
developed apprehension of time is ultimatelybased.
" 2. Immediate
Experience of Time- Transience.
we
"
The
first fact
we
have
itself is
avoid
to
take
process
account
in
time.
of
is that
We
must
sciousness
con-
here
two
fact
that
"
follows
A
384
in
consciousness
does
not
of itself constitute
A.
On
the other
that
the
the
consciousness
of It
must
jump
hand,
because
cognitionof
385
PERCEPTION.
TEMPORAL
" 3.]
we
the
that
not
the
to
clusion
con-
in itself
is not
it is therefore
sequence,
not
perienced
ex-
tween
bedistinguish
consciousness
of change or duration,and changeduration-consciousness.
consciousness
or
Change in
be felt without
consciousness
being cognised as
may
change, and duration may also be felt without being
in a consciousness
which
Even
cognisedas duration.
has no distinct perceptionof temporal relations,
experience
would
be different accordingas change took place
in it rapidlyor slowly,suddenly or gradually,
and the
like. Without
immediate
an
change-experience,cognition
of change would
be impossiblefor lack of preThe
sentative material.
thought of succession in time
be based
the direct experience of time-transience,
must
on
the thought of red colour is based on the coras
responding
sensation.
As
the perceptionor
idea of
is impossible
the percepto the blind,so
colour-quality
tion
idea of change would
be impossibleto a being
or
without the change-sentience."*
The
ate
immedi" 3. Perception of Lapse of Time.
is probably universal
experienceof time-transience
in all conscious life. Some
rudimentaryform of it
at the level of the sensation-reflex.
probablyexists even
But in the case
of the higher animals,the facts require
at
all in any
AB
sequence
following
as
way.
We
must
"
"
us
to
much
assume
more
than
this.
Their
at
intelligently
adjustedso as to occur
To
explain this,we need more
experienceof time-transience.
*
Psych.
Analytic
Psychology,
vol.
i.,p.
actions
the
than
We
are
ment.
rightmo-
mediate
im-
the
must
as-
160.
i
PSYCHOLOGY.
386
that
sume
duration
effect
succession
of the
same
varying
with
We
has
process
with
In
taken.
animal
or
of
minute
We
have
seen
having continuity
cumulative
disposition
process
them
add
now
in its nature
varies
time.
lapse of
the
succeeding stages
must
vr.
experiences,or the
experience,produces a cumulative
behind
modifies
which
CH.
n.,
of different
stages of any
of interest leave
[BK. in.,
the
this
that
the
of
of time
we
ence.
experi-
cumulative
amount
this way
total
effect
which
the
explain why
can
an
human
from
although
the
it is at
what
sound
the
itself may
of two
end
not
have
utes,
min-
quality. This
In
in
of
sort
explanation appliesto
music, the several notes
intervals.
To
correctly.
But
can
duration-line
time
itself.
attention
a
is to
Certainlyit
events.
tainly
cer-
soundbefore
The
empty
time.
separated by temporal
are
say
the
is
Of
by
what
process
by
intervals
these
measure
it is difficult to
series of
is called
what
them, except by
measure
of
keep
it
duration-block.
or
in
altered
no
course,
of
ideal
means
we
expectant
tion
reproduc-
empty
time
is
is absent
from
what
it is the
only relatively
empty;
its beginning
specialkind of experience which marks
There
and end.
are
always other experiences going
of a motor
and organickind.
on, especially
TEMPORAL
" 3.]
progressivelyless preciseas
If
we
how
moment
for
go
long
we
immediately without
have
been
that
we
The
limits
of
there
seems
of
is not
with
time
established
have
man
fair
estimate
of
time
practiceit is found
tolerable approach to
calculation
when
hour.
edly
undoubt-
and
accuracy,
that
accuracy
by
and
the
clock.
tell with
without
or
not
his subjective
can
person
hours,
two
or
yet
between
measured
as
hour,
an
any
of
relation
With
a
at
an
wide, but
power
amount
and
about
or
very
accurate
an
ger.
lar-
estimatinglapse
comparativelylong periods. It
to try this experiment without
be able to estimate lapse
may
some
these
become
ourselves
half-an-hour
fair test
quite a
become
to
appears
ask
is most
walking, we can
say
explicitprocess of calculation
indeed
be
previouspractice;
of
been
are
for
time, even
have
time
intervals
the
and
about
to
It
walk
any
error
of
lapse
intervals.*
small
for
accurate
of
estimate
immediate
The
387
PERCEPTION.
express
half-an-hour
elapsed.
has
It
should
be
noted
that
varying degrees. We
may
occupation,and so have a series of distinct mental processes
each having its own
specialinterest. But from
another
point of view they may all have a certain unity
with each other.
and continuity
We
successively
may
read
book,
of these
conditions
on
and
student
which
it
them.
and
others.
our
our
dinner.
Each
depends:
but
that
eat
specialinterest relatively
own
been
have
conflicting,
with
its
the
parts of
experiments
Many
walk,
has
from
interest,as
the
for
processes
disconnected
go
I have
not
But
to determine
the
results
thought
more
obtained
it advisable
precisely
are
to
so
the
biguous
am-
trouble
PSYCHOLOGY.
388
[BK. m.,
n.,
en.
vi.
mediate
imcontribute
to determine
our
collectively
estimate of lapse of time.
The
mediate
part played by attention in determiningthis imis illustrated by the fact that conditions
estimate
we
are
affectingattention affect it also. When
bored
by monotony, or when we are distracted by a too
tion
rapidityof experiences,the duragreat variety and
of time is so to speak magnified. We
say that it
is very
in"
attention
slowly." When
passes
very
of
tensely and disagreeablyaroused, as in moments
hours.
On
the
acute
as
danger, minutes
appear
may
other hand, when
attention passes easilyfrom objectto
object,and is agreeablyabsorbed
by each in turn, time
conversation,we
passes rapidly. After an entertaining
they
may
"
astonished
may
be
have
travelled
holds
due
good
over
for the
to
find
so
much
the
hands
of
This
space.
immediate
the cumulative
to
that
estimate
the
clock
contrast
only
lapseof
time
of
When
we
which
have
we
been
periods which
passing,shrink
were
seemed
their
on
bored,
of
interminable
it
; whereas
as
actual
train
The
were
to
occurrence
when
we
ideal
spect,
retro-
while
pass
review
they
periodsthat
rapidlyare
them
in the
of ideas.
Some
Organism as Time -Keeper.
before going to sleep at night can
determine
in the morning, and
hour
at a pre-appointed
in doing so with remarkable
There
accuracy.
" 4.
wake
In
appeared
correspondinglyexpanded
form
shorter.
"
sons
perto
ceed
sucare
PERCEPTION.
TEMPORAL
"5.]
389
many
can
Present, Past,
"5.
is the
mark
time
as
time
which
The
has
and
of
stamp
or
Future.
present is
certain
never
the
an
the
past
of
moment
sensation
Actual
present time.
distinguishedfrom
contains
"
or
The
present
future, is
sensation.
actual
indivisible instant ; it
duration
which
between
the
always
is
cording
longer or shorter acOn
the perceptuallevel it
to circumstances.
is longer when
conation
is obstructed
or
delayed,arid
conation
shorter when
and easily
proceeds successfully
the attainment
of its end.
towards
The present is long
the hungry dog compelled to
to the hungry child
or
wait for its food ; whereas
one
present rapidlysucceeds
another
child
the
when
the dog is enjoying its
or
play.
a
Distinction
*
Principles of Psychology,
vol.
future
can
PSYCHOLOGY.
390
in
only be apprehended
level.
call
may
"
there
But
not
yet
"
The
consciousness.
[BK. in.,
CH.
n.,
consciousness
ceptual
perwe
"
"
no
more
consciousness
yet"
"not
and
vi.
in the
is
tained
con-
"
"
"
"
its actual
lets go
in
bone
marked
order
would
water,
have
to
seize
this
the
reflected
experience in
manner.
With
"
more
the
and
advent
the
definite.
more
only
occur
not
the
in
bone
as
as
"
of
not
This
ideal
yet
must
"
be
supplements
components
representationthe
experiencesbecome
the
of
even
when
trains.
The
much
ideas
perceptual process,
ideational
of
case
"no
and
hungry
tal
seeing preparationsfor food, may call up a menThe
pictureof itself eating the food.
ideallyrepresented
satisfaction
in sharp contrast
stands
with its
the
not
present impatienthunger. In this case
yet
child
"
consciousness
definite
form.
"
Sully,who
gives this example, illustrates the corresponding "no
consciousness
in the
more"
"A
following manner.
child is watching some
interesting
object,say the play
the wall of his nursery.
of the sunbeam
on
Suddenly
is obscured
of the
the sun
by a cloud and the marvel
In place of the golden brildancing lightvanishes.
assumes
very
there
liance
attention
of
and
"
is
ness
its
involved
the
in
if
we
is
to
The
primary
the
cumulative
present
now,
occur
ditions
con-
consciousness
of
and
The
by
determine
Human
their
actual
vol.
of
i.,
320-321.
past-
"fu-
involved
The
sensations
the
the
attention
attention.
at
pp.
"
of
is
expression,
of
with
of
experience
attention
Mind,
up
effect
nature
the
bound
experience
the
prospective
characterised
guide
is
primary
allow
may
essentially
present
the
favourable
most
perception
The
process.
tureness,"
of
not
same
sunless
the
of
is
the
supply
temporal
own
of
experience
which
the
At
sight
the
actual
so
attention.
of
the
attracts
contrast."*
or
process
paper.
wall-
and
interestingness.
development
general,
In
persists,
experience
the
difference
commonplace
dull
present,
both
represented
for
its
actual
the
simultaneously,
serve
image
then,
Here,
and
in
[ideal]
reason
is
there
wall.
the
391
by
time
stands
now
The
.
on
PERCEPTION.
TEMPORAL
"5.]
which
moment.
BOOK
IDEATIONAL
IV.
CEPTUAL
CON-
AND
PROCESS.
I.
CHAPTER
IDEAS
to
We
Introductory.
" 1.
"
ideational
which
process,
IMAGES.
AND
now
those
from
"
from
pass
perceptual
trains of mental
tivity
ac-
pression
prompted and guided by external imin bodilymovement
and directlyworked
out
lation
which proceed independentlyof external stimuto those
in the head."
and
worked
out
are
Up to this
ideas or images only
point we have taken into account
in so far as they enter
into the compositionof processes
in their essential character
which
are
perceptual: we
are
"
have
consider
to
now
processes
which
reach
their end
the
higher mode
with
mental
of
some
image.
merely imaged
perceived?
mental
care
In
and
nature
it
activity,
the
what
differ from
function
respects does
the
393
same
of
is necessary
characteristic
features
to
ries
sepounding
ex-
this
amine
ex-
of
object as
objectas actually
an
PSYCHOLOGY.
394
It should
[BK. iv.,
CH.
i.
"
"
and
"
to
the
continued
after
the
external
due
are
sense
and
therefore
cannot
excitement
stimulus
be
has
regarded
of
the
ceased
to
ideas.
as
organ
of
operate,
They
are
from
what
has been
called the
easilydistinguishable
primary memory-image. This is the peculiarlyvivid
and definite ideal representationof an objectwhich
we
maintain
recall by a suitable effort of attention
can
or
immediately after perceivingit. The persistenceof the
after-imagedoes not depend on an effort of attention,
but on
the abiding effect of the external
stimulus.
It
part, very rapidlyfrom a positive
passes, for the most
to a negative phase and
undergoes other modifications
which
do not affect the primary memory-image. There
is also another
conspicuous and importantdistinction :
whatever
have been the spatialarrangement
of the
may
perceived objects,the correspondingafter-imagesare
and perspread out in a flat expanse ; but the solidity
spective
of objects as
in the
actuallyseen
reappear
primary memory-image and in ideal images generally.
Relation
and
" 2. Distinction
of Image and Idea.
An
idea can
exist without
no
more
an
image than
But the image
perceptioncan exist without sensation.
"
is
no
identical
more
identical
with
of
perception.
the
idea ;
constituent
is the
If I think
about
present
outline
to
of
my
an
with
the
the
idea
The
image
other
meaning which
the
Duke
consciousness
aquilinenose.
than
and
sensation
is
is
stituent
only one conmore
important
the
image conveys.
of Wellington, the image
be only the shadowy
may
But
this of
course
is not
IDEAS
" 2.]
the
result
cumulative
such
aquilinenose,
mental
same
image
according to
varies
This
with
and
of
train
the
idea
includes
mental
cesses,
pro-
War,
else with
have
been
an
very
the
virtually
different
have
meanings
very
The
circumstances.
meaning
thought in which the image
shows
example
may
context
one
some
attitude would
mental
indeed.
different
Wellington. My
of many
complex
thinkingof
been
my
395
IMAGES.
the
as
If I had
etc.
of
Duke
of the
idea
my
AND
that
occurs.
are
people,especiallythose who
clined
inare
much
occupied with abstract thinking, who
to deny that they have
imagery at all.
any mental
They are almost or quite unable to visualise objects,
of mentallyrevivingauditory
their general power
and
also be rudimentary. The
and tactile experiencesmay
the successive
steps in
images which with them mark
What
train of ideas are
a
mainly or wholly verbal.
they mentally reinstate in the way of an image is the
of spoken
the sound
of articulation,
or
motor
process
and
their meaning are
The
words
words, or both.
There
all
are
that
are
some
present
to
consciousness
that
verbal
such
image
persons
is
just as
think
much
in
concomitants
But
such
cases.
of the
it is inaccurate
ject
obto
without
an
objectis.
be noted
however
that the verbal
It should
image is
capable of conveying a kind of meaning which the
visual pictureor other revivals imitative of the object
of themselves
All higher modes
itself cannot
convey.
of
of conceptualthinking are
possibleonly by means
sense
as
visual
pictureof
the
396
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
words.
conceive
To
is to
think
in contradistinction
and
embraces
I think
of
indefinite
enables
from
the
fix attention
the
on
not
fulfil the
in
manifested
The
word
modes
of
if it
the
were
an
life
form
common
function
same
versal
uni-
general or
to its manifold
process in contradistinction
mental
manifestation.
A
pictureimitative
could
i.
which
it
particulars
of life,
for instance,
If I think
connects.
to
me
of the
CH.
of
of
ject
obnot
the
transition
is
gradual
As
process.
one,
we
and
shall
the
see
germs
later
of
rudimentary trains of
the highest
here is that even
What
ideas.
concerns
us
developments of conceptionstill involve imagery,though
be and often is,purely verbal.
In the
the imagery may
have
of
deal with
the nature
to
present chapter we
from
mental
imagery in general as distinguished
ceptual
perexperiences.
and
Object as
" 3. Likeness
of Object as Perceived
The image is a reproduction
of the percept;
Imaged.*
conception are
present
even
in
"
these
*
In
therefore
must
what
and
follows
the
object
the
as
agree
object
imaged,
as
the
in
their
perceived
"image."
is
nature.
simply
called
But
the
the
cept,"
"per-
AND
IDEAS
"4.]
397
IMAGES.
from
the original;
reproductionis easilydistinguishable
ferences
there must
therefore be an important difference or difThe
points of agreement are at least in part
such as colour,
sensible qualities
easy to assign. The
sound, etc.,in all their varieties enter into the composition
of the percept and
both
of the image, and these
can
only appear in an image because they have
qualities
previouslyappeared in a percept. The complication
also and in general the spatialand
temporal form of
these qualities
to both
common
are
percept and image.
Both
the sensible
bination
qualitiesand their forms of comoriginate primarily in the percept and are
reproduction
merely reproduced in the image. The
and completeness.
varies greatlyin degree of accuracy
individual differences are very conspicuous. Some
Here
can
scarcelyrecall colours at all ; others can do so with
great vividness
and
accuracy.
person
who
almost
pable
entirelylacks the power to image colours may be caof reproducingsounds
with precision
and distinctness.
Some
men
seem
quiteincapableof reproducing
odours ; others can
reproduce odours more
vividlythan
any other sensible qualities.
differences
have an important influence on the
These
dividua
general character of ideational process in different inwho
There
work mainly with visual
some
are
imagery, others with auditory and others with ideal
these extreme
revivals of motor
experiences. Between
manifold
intermediate
tions.
gradatypes there are of course
Characteristic
" 4.
"
(a) Intensity.
that
Differences of Percept
Hume
is
and
age.
Im-
ing
perfectly
rightin affirmimages in the force or
"
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY,
398
is
the statement
We
must
they strike
ambiguous.
which
liveliness with
with
examine
great
liveliness,which
and
others
is distinctive of sensations.
affirm
cannot
revived
is
that
always
that
in the
variations
reproducible in
much
sound
louder
On
sensation.
or
the
same
or
to
brighterthan
a
sensible
way
as
But
Hume
colour
i.
of this
nature
as
and
tally
men-
the
contrary, it would
of
degree
the
the
care
en.
the mind."
according
force
We
upon
iv.,
responding
corseem
qualityare
variations
in
kind.
I may
"
James,
Principles
of Psychology.
AND
IDEAS
" 4.]
fusion
discarding
But
them.
between
distinction
psychology and
we
accept it,we
common
399
IMAGES.
On
sense.
the
other
if
hand,
"vividness"
something
those degrees of sensible
different from
qualitywhich
be equally present in the sensible
ually
qualityas actmay
is
perceived and as mentallyreproduced. What
must
The
this vividness?
words.
Hume's
of
and
force
as
most
do
the
convenient
to
of
consider
It is most
strike
of
acteristic
charis the
the
mind.
point.
At
of
not
quality,
in the
same
first
way
to
steam-whistle
serve
may
invades
The
disturbing way.
might perhaps
by a
accuracy
not
actuallyheard.
mind
In
in this
such
in
the
consciousness
degree
activity.
piercingscream
illustrations.
as
tion
sensa-
violent manner,
flow of mental
the
it is
of loudness
The
in
of
shriek
violently
of the
sound
would
would
in which
cases
be
the mode
But
this direction.
sound
it will be
conspicuouswhere
difference
the
consciousness
of the steam-whistle
in
images
essential
difference
nature
in upon
breaks
with
they
is the
a
distinctive
not
out
bring
conspicuous.
is
the
in
percepts.
To
so
mind"
difference
degree. Images
which
contained
be
to
seems
with
liveliness
the
bottom
answer
According to him
percepts as compared
"striking the
This
by
mean
be
"
No
different.
strike the
mere
of
occurrence
The
mind
image
in
sciousness
con-
mentally revived
"
ever
like the
does
sound
as
strike
the
manner.
experiencesas
that
of the steam-whistle
the
400
PSYCHOLOGY.
work.
a
mass
concomitant
revival these
except in
i.
The
rise to
iv., en.
is
sensation
primary
[BK.
sensations
fail to
recalled
be
It may
be suggested
very imperfect way.
in the actual sense-experience
it is their presence
that
which
gives to
it
Now
seems
character
intrusive
highly
in the
experienceunless
and
"strike
can
ultimate
the
to
and
themselves,
character
reason
matter
obtrusive.
But
the
as
mind"
in
they
possess
of fact
if
this
they are
tion
organic sensathere
way,
of the
case
aggressivein
the
same
way
that
as
the
this
the
sound
is
no
The
shows
itself is
organic sensations
it. The
accompany
shock
and
in which
instances
overwhelming
of
bell heard
break
disturbance.
in
liveliness.
upon
But
sensations
it in
as
this
we
are
there
strike
the
with
have
abundant
are
mind
painfulmanner.
passing in front
consciousness
need
But
notable
without
The
of
chimes
a
church
force
and
disturbingeffect,
be
not
and
they need
accompanied by conspicuous
None
the less they have
iman
organic sensations.
or
aggressivenessanalogous to that of the
pressiveness
The
holds
true
steam-whistle.
same
sations
generally of senproduced by a stimulus which is stronger than
we
are
they
accustomed
to.
not
But
there
is
certain
normal
AND
IDEAS
" 4.]
401
IMAGES.
catch
our
attention:
that it has
take
note
therefore
of what
but
it would
ceased
is familiar
be wrong
to exist.
to
We
us, but
to
do
conclude
usually
not
only of
what
is
natural
that the
unfamiliar.
It is therefore
relatively
is expressed
which
characteristic
of sense-experience,
striking the mind or
laying
by such metaphors as
it is
hold"
the mind, should
on
only be noticed when
present in an unusual degree of intensity.
in these lower
Its presence
even
phases of intensity
if we
be detected
sations
may
pass from the comparisonof senwith sensations
to the comparison of sensations
with the sensory
of the image. If we
look at a
element
sheet of white paper, and then, closingour
eyes, call up
a mental
pictureof the paper, its brightnessas actually
in the
seen
may be revived with approximate accuracy
image. But if we again open our eyes, and pass from
the mental
pictureto the actual percept, we may note
of transition a difference which
in the moment
can
only
be described
by saying that the image does not strike
"
the mind
as
the actual
"
percept does.
"
We
may
vary
the
20
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
402
electric
force and
strike
Our
light.
liveliness;whereas
the mind
in the
conclusion
same
is that
with
the mental
iv.,
CH.
i.
degree of
image does not
some
way.
at
bottom
the
distinction
tween
be-
image
and
percept,
as
AND
IMAGES.
reappear
in its
" 4.]
IDEAS
experiencefails
to
is therefore
This
does
and
blurred
apply
not
403
which
reproduction,
hazy.
without
with
maximum
recall inarticulate
When
some
The
they
make
imitation
by
schematic
distinctness
may
be
unable
the human
character
voice
of
to
to
manner.
substitute
ideal
representationis
in the mental
best exemplified
reproductionof the appearance
of material
things as they are presented to
of the eye
sightand touch, and explored by movements
and
hand.
In most
this reproduction is prepersons
dominantl
visual, though some
depend mainly on
404
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
and
motor
visual
the
"
imagery.
"
inward
This
follows
eye
their parts
scans
revivals.
tactual
We
shall here
includes
the
much
successively
of
as
only
revival
motor
contours
iv.,
the
i.
en.
sider
con:
for
objectsand
bodily eye
does.
It is well known
between
that
there
are
very
great differences
of different individuals.
visualising
powers
Some
few seem
mental
to be capable of callingup
tures
picof what
tinctnes
they have seen, possessinga vividness,disand wealth of detail,
little short of actual vision.
But the accounts
these people give of themselves
which
instances
must
cum
certainlybe accepted in many
salts.
tion,
They are usuallyuntrained in introspecgrano
and they probably do not express themselves
with
a point
rigorousprecision. In any case we must make
of distinguishing
what a man
between
is capable of in the
when
the occasion requireshim to do
way of visualising
his best and the imagery which
into his ordinary
enters
trains of thought. We
shall see
at a later stage that
the
the
habitual
recall
of all the
concrete
detail of actual
in ordinary thinking,such
takes
as
perceptionwould
of words, be not only a superfluity,
but
place by means
who
an
encumbrance, destroying efficiency.A man
call up mental
can
picturesequal in distinctness to the
than a man
realityis no more
likelyto do so habitually,
who
take very
can
long leaps is likelyto substitute
these for ordinary walking. Settingaside certain exceptional
cases
not
as
we
investigated,
yet sufficiently
affirm that ordinaryvisual imagery is more
less
or
may
sketchy and blurred in comparison with actual vision.
In some
includingthe best introspectivepsymen,
chologist
such
as
Fechner,
it is
so
very
blurred
and
IDEAS
" 4.]
405
IMAGES.
AND
more
so, without
sketchy that it could scarcelybecome
picturesof
ceasing to exist altogether.*The mental
these
can
scarcelybe called picturesat all.
persons
They are rather the indescribablyattenuated ghosts of
language, airy,
pictures. They are, to use Fechner's
and
unsubstantial
possessinga
vaporous." Persons
than Fechner
ily
will readmuch
higher visualising
power
as
applied to
recognise the aptness of these terms
visual imagery.
the greater part of their own
Very poor visualisers often find the greatest difficulty
in indicatingwhat
it is that they actuallysee with the
of James's
mental
Thus
one
pupils,asked to call
eye.
replies, There is
up a pictureof his breakfast-table,
I cannot
nothing definite about it. Everything is vague.
I could not possibly
the chairs,
count
say what I see.
I see nothing
that there are
but I happen to know
ten.
chief thing is a general impressionthat
in detail.
The
I do see."f This
is a sometell exactly what
I cannot
what
But
it brings out the point which
extreme
case.
The
most
requiresto be emphasised in this connexion.
indistinctness
of mental
imagery is to a largeextent of
It is different in kind
character.
from
a quitepeculiar
"
"
"
indistinctness
the
dimness
of
different
in kind
of
percepts such
light,distance,and
from
as
may
like.
the
the indistinctness
be
due
It is also
of
positiveand
phases through
There
are
to be
appears
Victoria
few
completely
University,
of
t Op.
exceptional
assures
absent.
me
visualising capacity.
cit.,vol. ii.,p. 54.
cases,
Mr.
that
in which
Welton,
he
does
the
of
not
to
power
the
of
Yorkshire
possess
even
matic,
schecon-
visualising
College,
the
ments
rudi-
PSYCHOLOGY.
406
[BK. iv,,
i.
CH.
But
it is a surpriseto most
sense-perception.
tiny,
scrupeople, who subjectthese images to introspective
when
they discover how the extract is often made.
that Alice in WonIt becomes
derland
to them
quiteintelligible
could see the grin without the cat.
This applies
but also in the experience
not
only to complex objects,
of some
to apparentlysimple sensible qualities
persons
tent
of
such
colours
as
and
definite shade
the
the
imaged
a
with
the
I succeed.
and
of red
I
perceived,
the
colour.
recall
to
attempt
On
tain
cer-
comparing
to identify
able
am
But
two
with
red
sounds.
as
same
"
"
in the
this
percept which
in
filling
"
confident
is non-existent
"
I cannot
be
may
in the idea.
All
say.
What
that
am
conspicuouslypresent in
the percept and conspicuouslyabsent in the image.*
The
comparative indistinctness of images is traceable
It is partlydue to what
Dr. Ward
to various
causes.
has
about
called
"
is that
it is
obliviscence."
Some
have
recalled
are
in
fixed
and
definite
The
manner.
I am
also
accompanying
confident
motor
and
that
the
organic
"
fillingin
sensations.
"
does
not
wholly
the
con-
consist
in
" 4.]
the
cerned,
had
image
the
seen
in
and
who
fluctuating. "One
would
once
scarcelybe likely
stances
circumfinding the attendant
different
stillmore
407
IMAGES.
hundred
is
there
But
but
without
as
recur
her
is vague
queen
of her
think
to
AND
IDEAS
of
ideal
for the
revival.
recall
of
details
actual
is in its character
thought
service
the
Only
disadvantageous,to
perception. A train
of
much
so
need
revived
be
interest
dominant
of the
as
be
may
all the
place in
interest.
theoretical
practicalor
some
be
ideational
of
It takes
conative.
parative
com-
would
It
only useless,but
not
ing
see-
scenes."
importantreason
indefiniteness
after
happen
not
required by
all else
being
be a mere
irrelevant
would
encumbrance, hinderingand
of mental
embarrassing the course
activity.If I wish
I did yesterday,
in order to find out how
to recall what
fallen short of the moral
far I have
ideal,or for any
minutes
fice
will probably sufother practical
a few
reason,
the
for
retrospect.
is it that I
how
But
moment
recall in
can
few
"
actions
and
events
Mere
details.
"
this
possible ;
forget,and yet
do
it would
guiding
interest.
breakfast
have
*
there
not
not
"If
is much
recall.
xx.,
at
the
Article
p. 62.
their
ing
individualis-
also
I pass
which
it
to
make
I do
not
simply
over
beginning of
generic image of the
Ward,
edition,
without
but
because
appear,
"Psychology,"
the
day,
it is
breakfast-table
Encyclopaedia
enough
and
Britannica,
to
the
ninth
PSYCHOLOGY.
408
succession
half -hour
to
recall
to
pass
are
to
on
something else."
detailed
more
and
more
power
often
of
other
than
at
of
In
least
of
and
tal
general,men-
or
whose
The
abstract.
of
modes
minute,
in persons
the poet
and
person,
vivid
and
rather
concrete
the uneducated
usuallyfar
in the fraction
hour,
an
imagery is
interests
T.
CH.
iv.,
of
occupied half
then
[BK.
age,
sav-
have
artist,
mental
tion
visualisa-
imagery
than
the
mathematician
the
or
the
stimulus.
What
the
stimulus
does
for
at
all,
in
in ideation.
for ourselves
have
do
to
perception,we
far and so long
to only so
Images are attended
themselves
with the general direction
they connect
mental
rent
curor
arouse
a new
activityat the moment
of activity
conaby bringing into play pre-existing
as
of
"
tive
tendencies.
Sensations
on
the
other
hand
us
tend
by their
they are
sensational
Analytic
Psychology,
vol. ii.,
p. 185.
co-operates with
lus
It
continuous.
and
tends
to
pass from
steadfastly
subjectiveactivity,
attention is never
perfectlyfixed
flagsat intervals and constantly
point to another ; it is probably
our
Now
sustainingit.
409
IMAGES.
AND
IDEAS
" 4.]
one
tion.
regularrhythm of remission and concentraof images even
the peculiarunsteadiness
Hence
when
we
deliberately
attempt to arrest and detain them.
efforts to
As Dr. Ward
says, the image, in spite of our
and completeness,
in clearness
fix it,"varies continually
of the illuminated
as
reminding one of nothing so much
the
of gas jets common
at fetes,when
devices made
subjectto
wind
sweeps
is not
There
them.
across
this perpetual
of
exertion
The
the
flicker in what
But
fluctuations.
these
when
and
the
manifests
Ideas
of ideas.
the
tion
deten-
degree of mental
attendingto percepts.
itself in
perceptualchange
compare
cases
and
kind
requiredin
contrast
sequence
in these
even
costs
is not
which
same
we
image
we
follow
and
another
way
transition with
each
other
in
cordance
ac-
Article
"
Psychology,"
p. 58.
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
410
I.
CH.
iv.,
of the stimulation
affecting
of sense.
So far as this is the case
the organs
they
of a continuous
not
bear the character
development of
conscious
happens in
process, but of something which
is most
This character
consciousness.
conspicuouswhen
external
experiencesfor
changes suddenly introduce
is unprepared, as when
the chair we
which
the mind
But
are
sittingon unexpectedly gives way beneath us.
and
when
are
are
we
even
prepared
awaiting an event
it comes,
there is still a cerwhen
tain
to act appropriately
rence
or
abruptness in the mode of its occurdiscontinuity
in consciousness
as
compared with the sequence
of ideas in a train of thought. It is not a continuation
mental
of our
own
activity;it is something which
happens to us, something which strikes upon the mind
by
in the
alterations
nature
without.
from
(d)
Relation
depend
external
on
stimulation
can
head
carry
or
away
ideas
our
close
our
about
eyes
with
we
with
the
cepts
perfrom
tions
spatialrela-
tions.
environing condi-
to
us;
can
as
proceeding
with
perceptionsvary
our
Inasmuch
Activity.
Motor
to
movements.
our
if
but
we
turn
longer see
no
our
what
receive
the sensations we
particular
For most
sense-organs.
vary with the adaptationof our
distinct vision we
bring the eye into such a position
that the rays from the object fall on the yellow spot; we
the lens so that they form
accommodate
a distinct image
we
saw
on
the
before.
In
retina,and
adjustments forms
vision
mutatis
and
mutandis
forth.
so
an
visual
The
presence
of these
important distinction
imagery.
of the other
The
senses.
same
between
holds
motor
tual
ac-
good
It is true
that
is also
there
411
IMAGES.
AND
IDEAS
"5.]
adjustmentto images,
an
this
that
drawn
backward,
revival
exists
the actual
side
mental
of the
revival
ideal
vision.
But
motor
due
sensations
the
motor
the
at
The
brain."
the
side with
by
of the
state
scanninga
be
towards
same
processes
involved
time
abstain
we
to
may
some
in actual
from
the
of the
The
corresponding active movements
eye.
Thus
the motor
be closed.
revival
bodily eye may even
is the more
easilydistinguishedfrom actual movement,
of positionand movement
the actual sensations
because
receive
from
the eye are
which
we
incompatiblewith
which
the movements
are
ideallyreproduced. The ideal
movements
therefore
appear
the
from
Extruded
to
periphery they
inner
an
occupy
to
seem
circle.
take
place
the head.
within
Independence of Percept
" 5. Relative
and
Image.
blue
the
serves,
obsky, we may, as Dr. Ward
mentally picturea portionof it as red instead
it is very important to note
Now
that most
of blue.
people,while they are imaging the sky as red, do not
Gazing
"
cease
to
them
and
in
see
it
the
calling up
persons
the
at
grey
It may
find
as
blue.
sky
so
with
that
field which
sometimes
The
as
to
hide
closed
this
red
appear
image
does
to
to
get between
not
its blueness.
eyes
is due
does
be
the
Similarly,
image, most
visual
not
form
retina's
merging
own
part of
light.
itself in
the
PSYCHOLOGY.
412
field.
grey
this
when
But
[BK. iv.,
it is
happens
in
distinct it
disappearingaltogether.The more
and
disconnected
more
independent it appears
i.
reality
is,the
tively
relain the
source
of the retina.
state
The
is similar with
case
other
fingerswhich are
dipped in
they were
the
how
their
have
which
sensations
the
to
OH.
feel if
senses.
holding
now
my
would
pen
But
water.
warm
imagine
can
the
tal
men-
I
Similarly,
image does not annul actual sensation.
ever
a mentally articulated
word, howcan
clearlydistinguish
faint it may
be, though my ears are simultaneously
also articulate a
I can
assailed by a deafening din.
of speech are
less
motionword
mentally when
organs
my
engaged
or
of
Facts
possess
for if
we
in
utteringother
kind
this
relative
independence.
suppose
that the
process
are
excited in ideational
This
that
show
is borne
view
not
sounds.
percepts and
This
tracts
nervous
wholly
be
can
accounted
excited
coincident
images
with
in perceptual
those
process.
out
by pathologicalcases.
We
ing
alreadyquoted cases in which the power of recallwas
ideal images, visual,tactual and auditory,
parently
apthe correspondingpernon-existent,whereas
ceptual
comparativelyintact. Instances
processes were
describes
not
of the converse
are
wanting. Wilbrand
with
of a lady who, sittingin her arm-chair
the case
could distinctly
describe streets and houses
eyes closed,
them
in their rightorder,though she could not recognise
lost when
she saw
soon
when
them, and was
hopelessly
left to find her way by herself.*
have
See
ii.,"Mind,
Professor
Oct.
1894.
Ward's
Article
on
"Assimilation
and
Association,
questionas
The
of
and
sensations
ideas
probableconclusion
and
continuous
the relation
percepts
other, is
the
on
to
still
vexed
or
be
to
less
of the
the
on
appears
more
41?,
IMAGES.
AND
IDEAS
seats
nervous
hand,
one
the
But
one.
and
of
most
that,though they
are
by
no
overlap, they
are
necessarilycoincident.
means
In
any
it is
case
the existence
plain from
of percepts does
ordinaryexperiencethat
not
imply the possibility
little or
who
have
correspondingimages. Persons
actual objectsas
of visual
see
no
imagery can
power
those who
have
well as the best visualisers.
Similarly,
of mentally reviving sounds
limited
may
power
very
have
people, if
quite keen auditoryperception. Few
degree the power of calling
any, have in a considerable
In
animals
images of organic sensations.
up mental
be
generally,well-developed perceptual powers
may
with little or no capacityfor ideal revival.
combined
of
" 6.
conditions
Two
On
having
Illusions,
Hallucinations,
some
the
or
are
to
necessary
hand,
one
all of the
Dreams.
and
constitute
ation.
hallucin-
an
presentationmust
distinctive
"
exist,
characteristics
of
the
other
hand, the
sense-perception. On
be actnot
ually
object as it appears to be perceivedmust
The
of the
specificnature
present to the senses.
ditions,
object presentedmust be constituted by subjectiveconnot
by the present operation of an external
actual
stimulus.
Some
and
nearlyalways
the
nature
of the
sort
of
stimulation
is present;
but
it does
object presented;
be
may
it
determine
not
only
give
present
serves
to
the
the senses,
as
it would
414
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
I.
nr.
TV.,
are
normally produce : but these sensations
wrongly
interpreted.A presentationmay be partly an illusion,
and
Thus
we
see
a
partlyan hallucination.
man,
may
is actually
when
what
The
present is a suit of clothes.
of the sensations experiencedmay
be due
specialnature
partly to the suit of clothes, and partlyto subjective
conditions
normal
far
so
from
manner
to
It may
sensations
of clothes
are
would
lies
wholly
the
illusion
in
so
enter
happen
which
stimulus
far
as
into
arise
other
experience,there
in such
illusion without
sensations
that
case
pure
in
wrongly
are
is
sensations
the external
subjectiveconditions
is hallucination.
other
the
is illusion ;
there
interpreted,
due
as
the suit
the
error
this is so,
element
any
no
of
hallucination.
It is not
Dreams
far
as
necessary
that
all the
characteristics of perceptual
dreamer
appears
to
see
and
hear
what
is not
it often happens
But
actuallypresent to his senses.
that these
dream-experiencesare indistinct and lack
without
sensational intensity;and in general they are
that dependence on
motor
activitywhich marks
cepts.
perTheir
is mainly due
to
perceptual character
continui
their independence of subjectiveactivity, the disof their emergand abruptness of the mode
ence
We
into consciousness.
are
passivein relation to
in which
in the same
tion
them
WTC
are
passivein relaway
to actual objectspresent to the senses.
Probably
the hallucinations produced by suggestionin hypnotised
subjectsare of a similar kind.
"
have
in
often
greater
or
other
less
degree
distinctness
hallucinations
and
dream-experiences
But
415
IMAGES.
AND
IDEAS
" 6.]
sensational
the
of actual
sense-
perceptionsin all
of the object perceived
respects except that the nature
is determined
by subjectiveconditions rather than by
is
stimulation
generallyif
in the
variations
certain
and
chloroform,
the
on
system.
nervous
blood
the
respiration,
acid, which
have
may
blood
have
an
irritant
sleep, owing
In
contain
may
as
like, which
the
effect
lowered
to
charged with
excitingeffect on the
becomes
an
of
tion
pathologicalaffec-
in
The
such
poisonous substances,
of
of the
distribution
and
nature
brain-substance.
of the
consist
of stimulation
brain, or
the
blood-supply within
kind
some
not
essential modes
the most
these
this is so,
When
stimulation.
external
fact actual
carbonic
sensory
of the brain.
centres
external
cases
of
general modes
these
Besides
conditions
of
more
So
far
of
illusions.
as
In
an
stimulation,in
specialkind
the
assume
illusion,there
most
operate.
character
is present
some
normal
the
extent
same
way.
illusions.
of
sleeperdream
enemy
may
if the
conditions
or
the
give rise
stimulation
of
bite
to
excited
were
in
to
a
large
Dream-experiences are
the
A
slightpain in the ribs makes
stab from the dagger of a threatening
of a dog.
Contact
with a cold body
the dream
the
sense-organ
retina
of
which
corpse.
That
is called
the
constant
retina's
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
416
.
TV.,
i.
" n.
own
colour
due
which
in
"The
most
to
his
very
the
internal
case
stimulation
of
peculiarlybrilliant
are
visual
elaborate
dreams
the
and
retina,
varied.
originate in
may
retinal excitement.
Perhaps a harder problem
intraorganic
could not be given to my experimentsto solve than
the following:
How
be made
one
can
by such excitement
of words
to see
a printedpage
clearlyspread out before
in a dream
?
several times verily
But I have
one
in the feat of having
caught my dreaming automaton
On waking from
a
just performed this transformation.
I had distinctly
lines of printed
seen
dream, in which
and
had
been
letters forming words
sentences, and
engaged in reading these lines by sight,I have clearly
.
detected
the
character
originatedsuch
minute
lightand
rods
and
cones
lines
parallel
*
See
p. 151.
of that
retinal
field which
had
extraordinaryhallucination.
dark
the activityof
spots which
occasions, had arranged themselves
the retinal field." $
extending across
an
t Mind,
N.S., vol.
i. (1892),p. 301.
ibid., p.
The
the
302.
in
"
IDEAS
6.J
illusions
Pure
is
of
the
sensations
as
and
things
observer
or
unmixed
take
with
tricks
same
actual
fact.
shared
by
On
their
the
the
this
hand,
is
are
explanation.
of
rare
of
had
of
collective
guaranteed
occurrence,
are
and
the
juggler
pressions
immuch
very
the
illusions
in
sword
be
may
simultaneously.
persons
the
in
sensory
hallucinations,
by
ually
act-
illusion,
the
spectator
pure
not
pure
When
the
yet
may
swallowed
reason,
same
exemplified
appearance,
number
great
other
eye
juggler
For
existence
Society,
of
if
as
the
on
is
conjurers.
in
merely
and
this
the
on
the
just
to
mainly
of
made
produce,
which
and
element
no
perceived
is
It
hallucination,
made
rise
give
apparently
place.
sword
which
normally
ventriloquists
of
swallows
the
would
417
impressions
may
processes
exist
in
The
present.
they
IMAGES.
illusions
are
hallucination
senses
AXD
Psychical
stand
much
though
Research
in
need
II.
CHAPTER
TRAINS
IDEAS.
OF
trains
with
combination
ideas,like
a
certain
some
of
of
which
and
their
and
characteristics
of
have
to
We
the
now
and
sequence
Trains
meanings.
of
have
in general
perceptualactivity,
serve
unity and continuityof interest.
They subThose
tions
transitheoretical.
or
end, practical
another.
Thus
passingthought.
it may
show
general transitions
be
noted
that
may
be
to
appear
gratifyany
the
none
to
less be
in
break
singletrain
It may
if it tends
evanescent,
in
are
It should
evanescent.
but
which
of ideas
flow
gives unity to
idea;
"
In
"
of
of interest
to
with
ideas,
images
trains
in the
train
Process.
Two-
" 1.
be
no
consist
tinuity
con-
from
one
interest
the
slight
very
than
more
of
single
interest,however
regarded
as
tinuous
con-
train.
The
of
course
distinct groups
of
and
reproductive,
for it must
this
material
the
total
train
of ideas
conditions.
is determined
On
the
one
by
hand
two
it is
rial
productive. The matefrom
be derived
past experience. But
is variouslyshaped and
transformed
by
mental
on
the
other
condition
418
existingwhen
the
ideal
TRAINS
" 2.]
revival
takes
Even
place.
IDEAS.
OF
when
419
interested
are
we
to
consciousness
of the
present, and
they appear
circumstances
place since
that
their
their
on
is determined
they
before
come
sible
pos-
by
has
It is for this
originaloccurrence.
revival
all that
by
in
in
the
taken
reason
consciousness
their
originaloccurrence
they bore the character of present experiences.
Every train of ideas has both a reproductiveand a
of
productive aspect; though the relative dominance
shall first
We
the two
aspects may
vary indefinitely.
the
consider the reproductive side of the process, under
of Ideas; and
then
the productive,
head, Association
under
the
of
ch.
head,
the
is the
re-excited
suppose
as
that two
in this way
so
whole
which
recur
For
general account
must
refer
have
whenever
combined
a
experiences,
as
to
of
an
form
the
any
to
and
total
to
i.,
the formation
tends
of the
produce
#, have
bk.
connexion
experiencesin
which
disposition,
singlecumulative
"
of distinct
concurrence
of
Ideas.
Association, we
The
7-9.
""
ii.,
of
of
nature
on
Construction.
Ideal
Association
" 2.
be
whereas
past events;
as
it.
been
to
ences
experiIf
we
united
Dab,
disposition
the
cite
experiencesimilar to a will re-exIf the reproductiontakes the form of mere
Dab.
the result
acquirement of meaning or of complication,
of a, which
is a modification
we
represent by ab.
may
But in ideal reproductionsomething more
takes place.
of ab is followed
The
occurrence
by the ideal revival
of ba"as a relatively
independent phase in the successive
re-occurrence
flow
of mental
process.
420
PSYCHOLOGY.
It must
the
be
total
noted
that
conditions, b will
relation
that
tendency is to
the
experience ab.
[BK. iv.,
tend
be
to
in which
n.
the revival of
from
Hence, apart
en.
ing
interfer-
in
revived
the
same
it
occurred.
If
originally
in the originalexperience one
object has been apprehende
as
succeedinganother,or as situated on the
another,
top of another, or as logicallydependent on
the tendency of the ideal revival will be to represent
the object in the same
It is evident
that
relations.
these objectiverelations may
be indefinitely
numerous
and
diverse
in nature.
it is impossibleto base
Hence
on
them
to
as
of ideas.
As
Reid
remarks:
thingshas a tendency,more
in a thinkingmind, from one
that in classifying
the forms
consider
must
relations
or
forms
"Every
less,to
lead
of association
relation
the
of association
between
thought,
It follows
the other."*
to
of
of
ideas,we
psychical states,
as
the objects
distinguishedfrom relations between
of which
they take cognisance. Ultimately,all
depends on continuityof interest: but this continuity
be direct or indirect,
giving rise to two forms of
may
association which
are
commonly called association by
contiguity and by similarity.
" 3. Different Forms
of Ideas.
of the Association
(a) Contiguity ( Continuity of Interest). The law
of Contiguity,
as
ordinarilyunderstood, may be stated
gether
as
follows, If B has been perceivedor thought of towith A or immediately after A, then, on a future
occasion, the perceptionor idea of A will tend to call
such,
as
"
"
up
the
ideas
idea
follows
*
of B.
the
Works,
In
order
Hamilton's
other
in
words,
which
the
their
sequence
of
objectshave
386.
TRAINS
" 3.]
attended
IDEAS.
OF
421
in
lying
previousexperience. The underprincipleis that mental activitywhen
partially
revived tends to repeat itself ; it can
only repeat itself
if its original
direction and order are reproduced.
This perhaps is the best form which
be given to
can
the law of Contiguity,
But
as
ordinarilyunderstood.
in this form
It is by
it requiresqualification.
even
been
objects which
those
only
association
that
true
means
no
to
succession.
Professor
by
heart
denote
may
in
series
"
only
but
also
The
same
Ebbinghaus
found
shown
that
disconnected
of
"
the
-
"
between
associative
J?, J?
point
and
is
regular gaps
establish
to
between
much
Repetition of
served
and
him
cost
we
etc.
"
mediate
im-
experimentally.
after learning
series with
same
in
words, which
A, IB, C,
not
been
learn
to
it,e.g.
has
connects
attention
by A, J3, (7,.Z),etc., it
time
shorter
this kind
occupy
This
series
of
D,
the
links
and
(7,C
and
D, etc.,
and
G, G
and
H,
etc.
conspicuouslyillustrated in
recallinga train of events
more
ordinary experience. In
salient occurrence
to
we
other,
anusually pass from one
leaving out the relatively
unimportant details
which
between
them.
actuallyintervened
Similarly,
in describing an
all the
mention
object, I do not
details which
I actuallyobserved
in the exact
order in
which
I noticed
characteristic
of much
The
dominant
the dominant
a
them.
and
which
the
distinctive
is not
interest
of
that
which
characteristic
the
is
one
by
objectswhich
and
distinctive.
originalexperience and
selection of items
the condition
On
I recall
no
means
introduce
it,determine
tied down
by
each other in
PSYCHOLOGY.
422
revival must
have
is that the
is not
but
dominant
the
whole
fundamental
in
contiguity
rather
the
n.
en.
attended
in
to
the
strict
The
ciation
asso-
of
sense
interest.
conative
interest,the
process,
principleof
the
continuity of
the
stronger
tendency guiding
more
links
being dropped
unimportant to the general
This
is well brought out
in
be,
to
been
iv.,
succession.
truth
word,
[BK.
out
trend
which
of
relatively
activity.
are
mental
in which
specialcase
some
having continuityof interest is carried
process
If the
with interruptions
out
occurring at intervals.
of a speciallyinteresting
interruptionsare not themselves
ing
kind, we tend to omit them altogetherin recallthe main
activity.The gaps, so to speak,close up.
should
It may
be asked
we
ber
rememwhy in any case
teresti
the interruptions,
when
even
they are speciallyinis interruption,there
For
where
there
is
not
continuity,but rather discontinuity of interest.
The
is that
answer
takes
processes
condition
serves
is
an
to
very
is not
association
which
immediacy of
important factor.
transition of attention
revival,rather
the
may
But
Other
from
than
is called
The
A
a
terrupt
inboth
association
often
it must
succession
two
fundamental
the
and
ruption
inter-
the
the
in ideal
the
disconnected.
succession,then,
of the
which
continuitybetween
at
moment
otherwise
are
is itself
Immediate
the
place there
which
equallyand
at
the
does
conceded
be
does
ceed
pro-
count
as
from
to
TRAINS
" 3.]
OF
IDEAS.
423
of feeble-minded
conversations
the
originalorder
the
there
is
an
will
be
interest in exact
Of
persons.
exactly repeated,
as
repetition,
in
course
where
learning
heart.
by
Duke
the
The
novel
before
occasion
had
never
in
ideal
any
kind
revival
combination
of
seems
instead
to
think
connexion
of
this
with
man
each
pletely
give rise to a comof reproducing a past
to
combination.
were
PSYCHOLOGY.
424
[BK.
iv.,
CH.
IT.
in character
the same
the
as
partially
experienceswhich I have previouslyhad in looking at
the Duke's
hind
portraits.The mental dispositionleft beand in
by these experiences is partiallyre-excited,
ing
at
the
is
man
it tends
consequence
this re-excitement
to
re-excited
be
of the
whole
as
whole.
But
of the
in consequence
est,
continuityof interdistinct principle. The
and
not
to any
essentially
principleof continuityalone is operative,but it operates
and
in a very different manner
produces a very
and reprodifferent result : reproductionby similarity
duction
by contiguityrespectively.Reproduction by
its
is most
to
aptly described
by reference
similarity
effect.
It ought to be called reproduction of similars
rather than
reproduction by similarity.Reproduction
by contiguitymay be called by way of distinction repetitive
reproduction. Both repetitivereproduction and
of
the reproduction of similars
in a sense
cases
are
involves
plete
comreproduction by similarity. Neither
of fire because
of
reminds
one
identity. Smoke
tion.
preformed associations. This is repetitivereproducof the
re-excitement
But
its
the
smoke
in which
part is due
see
now
it differs
to
may
have
features
of
from
previousexperiences.
in
be
It may
more
voluminous, lighter or darker
In other words, there need
colour, and so on.
only be
ence
not
similarity,
complete identity. The pointsof differthe reproduction.
do not contribute
to bring about
The
partialidentityis alone operativein this. But the
differences none
the less play a positive
specific
part in
the process.
Though they do not help to bring about
of what
is rethe reproduction,
produced.
they modify the nature
own
thin
thread
of
smoke
suggests
small
fire ;
large volume
and
moorland
suggests
The
reproduction is
in
different
mental
idea
of the
due
is
what
Smoke
fire.
in
house
on
London
but with
suggest fires,
difference
425
big
rising from
smoke
both
the
IDEAS.
OF
TRAINS
"3.]
reproduced
is due
to
their
setting.
in the reproduction of similars the points of
Now
the reproducing presentationand
divergence between
terminin
is reproduced play no
that which
positivepart in dethe reproduction. The
partialidentityof
I meet
between
whom
ally
casua man
personal appearance
mind
of Wellington calls up in my
and
the Duke
the
in
specialmanner
distinguishthe
by
this idea
But
Duke.
transformed
which
divergent characters
the
before
man
is not
from
me
the
of
victor
Waterloo.
the actual
carefullydistinguishbetween
quently
reproduction of similars and the processes which freit.
follow
When
one
on
presentationhas
similar to it,the mind
called up another
proceed
may
the partialidentity
to compare
them, and it may make
We
must
is discernible
which
between
parallelismin
repetitivereproduction.
out
the
reminds
earth
legend, of
the
other
The
Newton,
relation
them
of the
the
ing
basis for work-
respects by
relation
of
according to
moon
to
the
an
the
of
means
apple
to
familiar
earth.
But
he
does
not
of the two.
stop here.
426
PSYCHOLOGY.
" 4.
same
[BK.
connexions
many
of association.
CH.
iv.,
n.
The
"
great
The
tion
ques-
friend
who
formerly was
then
it,why
that
it
does
?"
others
follows
have
has
why
severally,
of
one
the
on
in which
it
which
it
portraitsof
"
rather
"
than
the
question is as
with ", c, and J,
the
symbolic terms,
associated
any
in
number
of
room
of these
one
become
on
these, b,
enumerates
in
the
me,
circumstances
perhaps many
connected
with
accidentally
been
suggest
Stated
If
part, and
events
to
series
the
hung,
formed
and
it
presented
conditions
which
under
association
the
has
The
originallyformed.
greater and more
longed
prothe attention
given to a and b and to their
the time
connexion
at
associated, the
they became
been
firmer
will
be
tendency
of
which
and
the
to
association,and
recall b.
have
been
important factor.
three
or
reading them
"
very
which
once."
only
recency
any
*
could
we
We
four
Brown,
of
Philosophy
of
t Op.
we
take
the
we
are
Human
cit.,p. 273.
able
Mind,
vol.
verses
them
of
account
the
after
to
after
read
had
"Immediately
poetry,
the
over,
with
is
remember,
we
times
also
of the association.
single line
Thomas
It is thus
must
frequency
previouslycombined
repeat, when
not
the
Again,
stronger the
the
reading
repeat it,
ii.,pp.
271-272.
" 4.]
TRAINS
OF
IDEAS.
427
have
attention to it ;
paid no particular
in a very few minutes, unless when
have
we
paid particular
attention to it,we
are
no
longer able to repeat it
and
in a very short time we
gether."
accurately,
forgetit alto*
Lastly,much depends on whether b has been
associated in a similar way with other objectsbesides a.
though
"The
we
may
which
song,
person,
scarcelybe
can
that
have
to
person
much
we
have
we
less chance
heard
the
same
never
heard
our
heard
again by
memory
from
but
us, without
; but
there
one
calling
re-
is obviously
of this
air
if
particularsuggestion,
and words
frequentlysung
the average
remarks,
by others." f As Dr. Ward
his umbrella,"
Englishman is continuallysurprisedwithout
the weather
is so changeablethat
t justbecause
"
fixed association
no
These
most
conditions
important.
the actual
be found
lines
been
state
at the
are
The
which
in the
not
have
tend
can
be
formed.
conditions
previouslyformed,
time
when
revival
which
under
but
in
takes
the
associations
total
place.
mental
Those
jects
ob-
be
Ibid.,
p. 274.
% Encyclopaedia
t fbid.
Article, p.
63.
PSYCHOLOGY.
428
" 5. Ideal
last section
that
ideal
which
factor in
have
total
revival
to
add
and
place. They
enter
associated
with
shall tend
I
which
into
the
see
at
important
most
time
We
of the
house
on
their
re-instatement
combinations
new
in
and
that
ideal
the
think
to
the
at
the
past the
livingin it,whenever
that
place, is
relations,so
If in the
state,
in
seen
under
aspects.
have
ir.
iv., CH.
the
conditions
acquirenew
We
mental
takes
that
manners
the
takes
the
determiningwhat
now
various
by
Construction.
[BK.
see
think
or
inside
person
fire,or
of
hear
the
it.
that
house
Supposing
it is
on
fire,
ideal
mind
will dwell
and
great conqueror
In
these
the
by
place.
which
The
the
to
But
that of the
relations
some
there
into which
manner
is
or
another
be
man
the
before
life of the
me.
relations
modified
as
it enters
at
the
fied
is moditime
of
of
takes
transformation
specialconditions.
not
only be modified by
it enters
into which
require
; it may
a
pre-conditionof its enteringinto
prominent
only becomes
ideallyrevived object may
new
between
contrast
recalled
the object ideally
instances,
In
its recall.
the
on
under
relations.
these
not
parts, but
form
to
this
The
of
nature
429
have
we
whole
is to
wThole
constituent
its
of
related
so
relation which
bd.
If the
be
maintained
while
be
in
Now
combination.
b and
terms
altered,it may
is
constituent
two
mined,
is deter-
whole
any
that
suppose
IDEAS.
OF
TRAINS
"5.]
constitutes
of
one
its
for the
necessary
as
stituents
con-
other
correspondingmanner.
If instead
substitute
of l" we
substitute "
/3,we must
instead
familiar
of d.
A
illustration is supplied by
mathematical
ratios.
Suppose that we have given the
ratio 1:4;
if 1 be changed into 5, we
must
change 4
into
be
to
in order
20,
to
in ideal
Now
it may
changed
associated
the
But
given
the
term
in its nature
/3; /3 may
the
from
In
of whole.
that
" instead
of d.
the
ideal
simple instance
mental
repetitionof
A
in which
it has
pitchof
the notes
The
d,
it
so
of
this
revival
tune
as
no
form
to
take
supplied by
in
the
the
whole,
should
tical
iden-
given term
longer enter
re-constitute
to
is
can
b, not
to
call the
us
re-instated.
be
same
form
it may
the
of
be
form
the
different
singing or
key from that
been
The
absolute
previouslyheard.
is determined
by the keynote,which
identityof the tune is preserved by
correspondencein
*
"
Let
with
order
d to
only similar
b that
characteristic
necessary
vary.
it.
relation
same
b and
be
with
differ
so
combination
may
preformed association,
happen that the trend of
requires the relation
terms
may
ratio.
same
on
frequentlydoes
activityat the moment
between
kind
based
and
mental
into
the
preserve
revival
the transitions
Analytic
Psychology,
between
vol.
ii.,p.
57.
the notes."
430
PSYCHOLOGY.
To
common
example of a more
sightof a piece of sugar arouses
take
that
[BK. iv.,
of its sweetness.
as
sugar
by
seen
ideal
the
presentatio
re-
specialpieceof
It is this
recalls
which
this moment
at
me
ir.
type, suppose
an
the
ni.
the
The
taste.
rumble
'
actuallysuggested to
case
in the nature
which
actual
he
peal
had
of thunder
him
with
becomes
boy ? Was
reproduction of
the
at
If his mother
had
anything
clap
thunder-
any
had
this
heard
this would
moment,
natural
as
it
the
If he
in
was
told him
not
of
complement
an
the
that
painted
der,
only be accompanied by painted thunhave
would
in all probability
answer
appeared
little girl,playing
one." t
A
a
satisfactory
a
doll, treats it as if it were
baby. The doll
painted scene.
lightningcould
the
rumble
heard?
ever
fitted itself in
have
to
literal
^ofa
of
kind
what
Now,
centre
from
which
train of associated
which
would
be
ideas
suggested by
living child. But the fact that she has not to deal
ence.
with a livingchild,but only with a doll,makes
a differShe puts food to its mouth, but does not expect
be very
the food to be swallowed.
| She would
certainly
a
t
near
the
doll;
others
t Ibid., p. 46.
it seems,
go
have
further,
and
way
hold
of
putting
the
food
food
long
on
to
the
the
floor
doll's
"5.]
TRAINS
if it
startled
much
ideas
actuallybegan
431
train
of
only reproduced
in
to
is
babies
with
connected
IDEAS.
OF
The
cry.
analogue.
ideal
construction
other
cases,
which
revival
into relations
If
predominant
takes
place ;
in which
they
is in the mood
man
for
epigrammatic contrasts,
and
cause
is
effect,these
interest
that
so
have
in
But
the
moment
puns,
at
brought
before.
occured
never
for
or
ing
draw-
tracingrelations
for
of
modes
at
the
mined
entirelydeter-
objectsare
making
or
determine
association.
by
of combination
form
the
the
by
revived
are
which
relations
examples,the
In these
combination
of
pose
im-
will
objects revived
by association,
these objectsso far as may
and will tend to transform
make
them
fit into the ideallyconbe necessary
to
structed
I once
heard
whole.
a
man
propound the
riddle,Why is a sparrow like a chimney ? The answer,
of course
it has
which
nobody guessed, was, Because
have
been
flue ! Obviously,his mind
must
crooked
a
trated
very bent on riddle-making,before he could have perpehe utilised most
such an atrocity. Hence
mising
unprothemselves
the
transformed
and
material
in
the
on
it to
uncompromising
most
way.
first clue
is
viflue withjftew;but
probably the verbal resemblance
the analogy he had
in working out
mentally to turn
flight into flew and to do violence to the nature both of
and
chimneys. This is probably the worst
sparrows
mouth;
some
or,
insisting
of
again, stopping
dodge,
as
when
while, slipped
short
one
Jan.
push
of
still
the
such
child, after
it down
Review,
on
its neck."
1899.
realistic
more
food
into
violent
holding
the
mouth
realism,
the
break
performance,
food
Sully, Article
with
the
cover
to the
on
pin.
out
Others,
unreality by
doll's
mouth
"Dollatry,"
for
porary
Contem-
a
a
PSYCHOLOGY.
432
state
to
I had
me.
mind
own
my
when
before
never
[BK.
better
serious
more
this
with
evoked
of the
n.
less
example,
illustration
thought
connected
has
CTT.
iv.,
is the
occurred
sparrow
and
the
trine
psychologicaldocI am
now
expounding, yet my mind, pre-occupied
this doctrine, and bent on using all material which
iniscence
help in its development, summoned
up this rem-
chimney joke as
with
could
and
It should
wove
be noted
in the mental
differences
that
stitution
con-
largelyconsist in differences in
of relation in wrhich they are
the kind
predominantly
interested.
Some
attend
tions
relaby preference to mere
of contiguity
time
and
and space ; others to metaphorical
analogy; others to rhetorical contrast ; others
is
to logicalconnexion
; and the kind of transition which
dominant
in the sequence
of their ideas varies
relatively
accordingly. In the mind of a schoolman, the ruling
of connexion
scheme
was
gism.
apt to be the form of the sylloin those which
In many
are
minds, and especially
with the study of Hegel, a specialform of transaturated
sition
is favoured, which
consists in a triplemovement,
passingfrom a one-sided view of the case to the opposite
one-sided view, and then to a more
comprehensive view
embraces
in harmony.*
which
the two
extremes
in the Flow
" 6. Obstructions
of Ideal Activity.
like perceptual activity,
Ideal activity,
be successful
may
of individuals
"
unsuccessful.
or
In
so
far
as
it is unsuccessful,it
to persistwith
tends, like perceptualactivity,
examples
The
tary;
engine
but
or
such
of
oonstructiveness
complex
constructions
novel-writing depend
given
as
essentially
the
on
in
this
section
invention
the
same
of
variation
are
the
conditions.
elemen*
steam-
IDEAS.
OF
TRAINS
" 6.]
is of
of
to
ideas
of various
are
the
on
which
conditions
The
reproductiveor
merely
it
When
process.
find ourselves
we
occurs
is called
what
and
unable
of
either
occur
side
remember
to
recall the
to
flow
of the
reproductiveside,it is
the
failure
may
constructive
the
on
delay the
hitch
The
on
proportioned
course
involved.
obstruct
kinds.
433
of
name
when
as
a
person
interested,
sufficiently
less prolonged
failure is followed
such
or
by a more
effort to recollect. In this effort we
procedure,
vary our
which present themselves.
ing
Supposusing all the means
or
the title of
it is the
name
recall.
If
book.
of
are
we
person
try various
We
we
are
succession.
in
clues
endeavouringto
We
fix
connected
with
objectsand circumstances
We
the person.
perhaps inquireof a bystander, or
look in a book ; or
the
on
go through a list of names
hit on the rightone.
that we
chance
may
the constructive
When
the hitch occurs
on
side,the
attention
mental
on
processes
which
directed
are
to
it may
overcome
nishes
guessing of riddles furWe
have
a good example.
ideallyto reproduce
all the conditions of the
something which shall satisfy
riddle.
find
relations
Certain
another
whole.
of
then
this,and
solution
in turn,
all conditions
the
case
We
we
make
think
though
given, and
are
shall
which
term
harmonious
not
The
extremely complex.
be
fit in
trial after
of that ; but
it may
with
we
have
these
to
in
think
we
trial,
each suggested
of the
which
Psych
the
flow
of
ideas
is controlled
by
the
of
urgency
in
which
has
height by
experience
past
of
ideal
The
think
to
light
him
out
he
wants
what
therefore
his
idea
the
into
supposed
his
tends
will
which
to
up
ropes
out
his
circumstances
suit
tearing
Of
the
has
this,
that
the
own
will
of
been
case
similar
the
used.
on
admit.
may
at
may
it
comes
not
may
to
nearer
has
of,
thought
to
and
give
last
At
he
first
hits
that
of
heard
it
them
twisting
is the
his
blankets.
supposing
he
important
an
mind
have
in
as
and
purpose.
are
He
he
it, and
on
already
not
assume
he
sheets
we
course
may
In
his
up
else
dwell
to
it
but
the
fit into
him,
to
take
it.
sheets
by
What
will
and
him
rope.
had
occurs
anything
than
mind
his
using
difficulty;
prisoner
it.
of
the
from
to
no
expedients,
suggestion
similarity plays
calls
work
of
of
We
by
this
rope.
invented
idea
which
shape
new
various
reach
will
if he
would
rope
of
the
on
first time
help
the
as
which
something
"
height
down
which
something
Let
the
can
has
up
escape.
familiar
he
case
shut
in
he
be
may
this
is
of
IT.
CH.
TV.,
man
himself
letting
rope
in
but
rope,
scheme
proceed
last
therefore
needs
place
of
of
means
mode
before
descended
notion
difficulty lies
main
the
The
Suppose
devising
on
be
to
ground.
he
bent
that
assume
need.
practical
and
prison
us
on
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
434
this
our
pedient.
ex-
who
man
instances, association
His
part.
analogous
man
He
then
parallel lines,
in
own
case
cases
proceeds
so
far
as
in
to
the
III.
CHAPTER
MEMORY.
" 1.
Definitionof Memory.
is used
memory
as
Sometimes
"
in
retentiveness
with
synonymous
word
the
is
inconveniently
It is better to confine it to ideal revival,so far
wide.
and
does
not
ideal revival is merely reproductive,
as
of
general. This application
transformation
involve
the term
is revived
of what
in accordance
reproductiveaspect of
in which
in those cases
ideal revival is best exemplified
the controllinginterest requires the objects of past
experiencesto be re-instated as far as possiblein the
of their originaloccurrence.
Hence
order and manner
is applied with specialappropriatethe word
ness
memory
A witness
to these
cases.
giving evidence in a
is bent on
is a typicalexample. His mind
law-court
recallingpast objects and events, as they actually
in his previous experience,omitting the inference
occurred
he has subsequentlydrawn
from them,
which
with
or
present conditions.
is inclined
to
which
he
as
recalls
actual
The
as
far
at the
draw
he
This
drew
from
present
them
The
moment.
when
they occurred
possibleonly as inferences,and
as
ference
in-
not
percepts.
witness
in
law-court
recalls his
the
same
This
own
personal
time-relations
may
be
called
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
436
is
there
; but
personal memory
largeclass
CH.
iv.,
of
in.
in
cases
in
is remembered
impersonal. What
is the knowledge acquired by personal
these instances
experience,and not the particularincidents connected
When
of acquiring it.
a
with the process
boy first
begins to study his Euclid, his natural tendency is to
learn the propositions
by heart, so as to reproduce the
the process of learning
When
of the book.
very words
be only the
in his mind
is complete, what remains
may
will to a large extent
of proof. He
general method
of the book, and he will certainly
have forgottenthe words
that happened in the process
much
have forgotten
he sat
which
of learning; the particular
occasions on
in hand
down
with Euclid
to learn
a proposition
; his
He
blunders
in attempting to reproduce it,and so on.
he has an
interest
will finally
tend to recall only what
The
in recalling,
forgettingwhat is irrelevant.
process
of Habit, as described
is quite analogous to the formation
which
is
memory
in bk.
i.,ch. ii.,"
distinct conditions
habit, two
is retentiveness
second
conation, according
of
cease,
holds
rote
if and
good
the
his
; but
errors
in
of
to
The
"
first
which
learning by
accession
of
formation
involved
are
and
processes
This
is attained."*
their end
as
in the
rote.
death
In
of
learning by
the kings of
will go over
them
again and again in
will again and
again attempt to repeat
boy
in the
incidents.
"commit
in
even
and
book,
them
far
so
dates
England,
to
; the
As
11.
long
He
run
will
he
will
forget his
forget these
successive
See
p. 101.
ular
partic-
attempts
failures
and
437
MEMORY.
" 2.]
Bad
and
Good
" 2.
Memory.
The
"
marks
of
the
rapidity with which
of recallingan
experienceis acquired ; (2) The
power
length of time during which the power of remembering
lasts without
being refreshed; (3) The rapidityand
good
(1)
are,
memory
revival.
of the actual
accuracy
but
quicklyand easily,
time
to
have
so
there
yet
may
is retentive,
memory
is not
easilyforgotten,
hesitancyin the actual
and
it
mention
we
may
memory,
the readiness with
in other words
of
mark
fourth
its serviceableness,or
which
when
slowness
be
learn
can
once
persons
of reminiscence.
process
As
is
what
Some
soon
Even
learned.
once
that
also
learn,but
The
good
is relevant
reproduces what
interest
of the
extensive
moment.
without
being
to
memory
in this
the
may
sense
ing
prevailbe
tremely
ex-
able.
service-
like
Sampson's mind, for instance,was
with goods of
"the magazine of a pawnbroker, stowed
but
so
cumbrously piled together,
description,
every
that the owner
in such
total disorganisation,
and
can
never
lay his hands on any one article at the moment
Dominic
he has
occasion
for it." *
this in
Those
who
cram
for examinations
So long
painfulmanner.
that the answers
the questionsare
so
as
straightforward,
be taken
directlyfrom the books they have used,
may
as
a question
they may find no difficulty.But as soon
is asked
which
requiresthem to record their acquired
from
that
knowledge in a different order and manner
in which
it is given in their text-book,they break down.
The materials for an answer
reallybe contained in
may
often
realise
Guy
Mannering,
ch. xxxix.
PSYCHOLOGY.
438
[UK.
iv.,
CH.
in.
has
in their minds
associated
been
never
with
the particular
answer.
the power
of recallingis
rapiditywith which
acquired depends to a large extent on the keenness of
the interest attachingto the originalexperience. Much
and faintly
attention only transiently
fails
that attracts
The
to
remembered
be
tend
remember,
to
in
interest
letters
are
the
of
them.
remember
for
alphabet
made
young
its
own
gingerbread,it
far
So
the
as
noted
which
circumstances
little interest.
have
be
is in itself
only what
not
connected
also
but
is to
It
all.
at
that
interesting,
in themselves
may
child
takes
sake,
but
is
more
of
power
we
little
if the
likelyto
acquiringa
be set
depend on interest,it must
But
of congenitalconstitution.
down
to the account
far congenitalconstitution
how
be doubted
it may
gives
of remembering without
the power
giving capacityfor
Mozart
is remembered.
as
a
interest in what
boy of
memory
does
fourteen
years
not
old
write
could
; but
once
take
to
the
power
actual
the
hearing.
Probably
the range
Some
They
can
words
lists of disconnected
once.
intense
most
of memory.
this
of interest
music
musical
after
idiots
for
which
interest
repeat long
they have
heard
the
only
fact
that
narrow
excessively
They are scarcely
correspondinglyconcentrated.
capable of apprehending any relations except
bare
contiguityin time and space. Hence
and
caused
remarkable
show
instance
idiot is
it
heard
having
with
an
memory
genius of Mozart
and
absorbing
is connected
in the
from
down
those
their
of
re-
" 2.]
439
MEMORY,
markable
of
powers
only connected
divergent lines of
in this
which
by
are
formed
are
There
manner.
association
the
objectswhich
of
recallingseries
to
are
with
compete
mere
other
no
those
of external
sequence
impressions.
Differences
in
of recall
power
same
its permanent
bearing on
case
on
is
the
have
The
over.
permanent
Another
very
of the
terest.
in-
in
sarily
neces-
causing
the facts
learns
but
rapidlyforgetsmany
when
the
only a transient interest,
properly legal aspects of the case,
in them
is not
effective
barrister
The
the
of interest
kind
memory
is most
particularcase,
which
them,
of
acquisition
retention.
a
the
that
that which
as
time
also
remarked
facilitates the
the
of
be
during which
depend largelyon
length of
is retained
It is to
which
the
to
be
retained
he
because
has
interest.
important factor
in
determining
tion
dura-
of recall is the
power
the
retentiveness
either to interest
of memory
which
not
are
must
frequentrepetition
be referred to congenital constitution.
Here
again it
is doubtful
how far congenital constitution can
favour
without favouringinterest.
memory
The
conditions
which
serviceableness
on
depends are
of a different kind.
A man
who can
readilyrecall what
he
needs
at
the
time
he
or
to
needs
it is said
to
The
than
form
his
have
of
mass
that
of
cum-
of
PSYCHOLOGY.
440
[BK.
disjointederudition.
effective
incomparably more
and
brous
be
theoretical
purposes,
examination
papers.
must
that
note
and
To
first heard
I may
as
in
do
the
at
distinction
the
recall
to
recalled
we
call
the
if I
verse
verse
which
is that
reason
but
line of
same
point in
The
moment.
line of
is
of this
previous lines
the
interested
the
in the absence
so
be
practicaland
answering of
perfectlyable to
certain
prompting cue
TIT.
may
be
may
or
for
understand
man
cir.
his memory
both
even
when
something to mind
given, and quite unable to
I may
be quite able
cue.
have
Yet
TV.,
am
I have
line of
particular
a
specialconnexion
All
of relation
for
may
it to
is necessary
involved
mind.
the
that
should
verse
should
for
be
have
been
thought
of in
this
nexion.
con-
in
recalled
be
general kind
is that the
more
instance
or
wish
less familiar to
to
illustrate
fact that in
the
of
identityin
whole
complex
its material
rather
identityin
than
constituents.
For
presses
ex-
of
of combination
form
the
the
this
the
purpose
nature
I may
is not
throne
which
There
doubtful
throne
in the
is ice
least like
it is
is
in
to
occur
to
me
as
an
the
ice,nor
Tennyson
seas."
summer
of
dangers
summer
to
seas.
illustration of my
point,
MEMORY.
" 3.]
it is not
that
necessary
before
in
should
previouslyhave
this connexion.
The
more
441
should
But
have
thought
it is necessary
of
it
that
tions.
thought of other similar illustrahave done
this,so as to familiarise
transition,the more
myself with this kind of mental
readilyshall I be able both to recall old illustrations
and
Thus
to produce new
ones.
we
may
say that the
of memory
serviceableness
depends on our forming the
The tendency of A to recall
rightkind of associations.
J5 in a certain kind of relation,r, depends on
ing
havour
previouslyattended to A and B in this relation,or
and IB in similar relations.
to thingssimilar to A
with
" 3. Decay
Lapse of Time.
of Memory
last for various periodsin
Though particularmemories
-
different
cases
general law
if
and
that
with
they tend
different
to die
persons,
away
Professor
in
yet it is the
course
of time
Ebbinghaus has
of determining the
view
lapse of time and decay
of the power
of recall.
this purpose
For
he learnt by
heart lists of unmeaning syllables
of three letters each ;
from
each list contained
twelve to thirty-six
syllables.
After
learning a list so as to be able to repeat it,an
allowed
interval of time was
before again
to intervene
attemptingto recall the syllables.Memory had in the
interim
become
less partialand
more
or
fragmentary.
The
the
determine
to
point of the experiment was
of time required for re-learning
the list as comamount
pared
with the time originally
required. This yields
of the degree of decay of the mental
positions
dismeasure
a
and
shows
the relation
between
decay and
lapse of time. After an interval of 20 minutes, about
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
442
40
the
of
cent
per
after
re-learning,
72
cent, and
per
the
of
amount
speak
we
but
but
of
bad
bad
increases
is smaller
the
Memories.
person
having
per
cent, after
days, about
that though
this we
see
with the lapse of time,
longer the interval.
In ordinary language
a
a
faces,and
for
56
two
"
for names;
one
one
From
required for
was
cent, after
per
on.
decay
Variety of
" 4.
65
so
it
yet relatively
about
minutes,
64
about
minutes,
526
originaltime
in.
CH.
iv.,
so
for numbers
good memory
for places
good memory
we
on.
Theoretically,
As memory
further.
carry this division very much
be
of ideal revival,there must
consists in the power
must
relatively
separate
revived.
There
for every
memory
not
must
only be
experienceideally
for
separate memory
name.
particular
cognising
But
ordinary language is undoubtedly right in refor generaldepartments of
distinct memories
for
experience. Mozart had an extraordinarymemory
have
been
music; but he may
very bad at recalling
but
names,
The
numbers.
be
differences
constitution
wonderful
most
accompanied by
These
for each
separate memory
; but
poor
are
for dates
memory
very
for words
memory
largely due
specialkinds
to
of memory
and
may
events.
congenital
also be
may
cultivated.
" 5.
Improvement
of Memory
by
Practice.
"
It
is
in a special
certainlytrue that the exercise of memory
direction
By long
improves it in that direction.
their parts more
to learn
rapidly
practiceactors come
learn
of clergymen who
is true
and
easily. The same
effects of practice
These
their sermons
by heart.
confined
to the
to be
specialkinds of
strictly
appear
ideal
revival
which
are
exercised.
man
who
im-
443
MEMORY,
" 5.]
his memory
It has
for
does
for words
his memory
proves
therebyimprove
not
places.
that
denied
been
be
can
memory
directly
of remembering
improved by practice. The power
depends on the kind and degree of attention given to
the originalexperience. It has been
urged that what
is educated
by practiceis the attention,and not the
of
power
that
Professor
recall.
"
all
improvement
improvement
of
one's
for
James
consists in the
of memory
habitual
tains
main-
instance
of
method
recording
of
It is the power
"
"
There
"f
James
is
attention
no
doubt
right in assigningincreased
as
of the
cause
practice. It may
important factor.
endeavour
be
can
be
even
and
better
improvement
admitted
endeavour
The
that
that
to
Professor
directed
of memory
by
it is the most
remember
is
an
and
to
it may
*
attend;
be
doubted
Principles
whether
of Psychology,
t Ibid., p. 664.
Professor
James's
PSYCHOLOGY.
444
of the
account
to
contains
matter
as
It is
can
once
hope
never
and
in
better
fagged
or
; and
health
and
fresh
ill.
.
is born
with
general physiologi
no
hours
than
this
than
we
in disease
doubt
fact of observation
more
cording
Ac-
"a
It differs
vigorous
But
his
it is
m.
physiological
quality,
and which
he
organisation,
change.
to
en.
TV.,
truth.
of retentiveness
power
essential part of his
an
constitution.
given
whole
the
the
him,
individual
each
[BK.
that it is
when
we
cannot
are
say."*
this
in
certain
is often
direction
connected
It might be
specialinterest in this direction.
of
gives power
argued that congenital constitution
remembering only by giving the aptitudeand impulse
is at least true in part, if it is not
for attending. This
with
the whole
native
truth.
power
But
if it be
of retention
and
we
so
may
Professor
To
acquiredby practice
that
none
the
James
maintain
this
less demur
appears
distinction between
so, the
to
supposes.
of
retentiveness
exercise
to
the
draw
conclusion, he
or
stands
this
in
education,
conclusion
from
is
need
which
theory.
of
an
"
Op. cit.,p.
664.
445
MEMORY.
" 5.]
the formation
requisitefor
of another.*
the facts of
But
corresponding to
dispositions
the
be regarded as partially
experiencesmust
larity.
This is peculiarlyclear in association by simiin his personal
One
by some
similarity
man,
show
association
similar
same.
resemblance
is.
association.
Yet
of the
the
It has
I may
scrutiny,what
the
has
person
not
of
separate link of
behind
by
re-excited
been
cover,
dis-
point
left behind
dispositions
The
other.
formed
not
left
disposition
the
one
another;
of
me
careful
after
even
sightof
remind
may
appearance,
the
that
perience
ex-
my
by
by
the
the
tor.
faccommon
experiencesmust therefore have some
interpenetrate.In general,so
They must partially
there
far as the revival of similars by similars is possible,
of mental
be a partialcoincidence
must
dispositions.
The
same
appliesto association by contiguity. If /3
two
been
b and c have
recalls "y because
be
left behind
by b must
on
associated,the
position
dis-
partiallyre-excited
of /3; the dispositions
left behind
the occurrence
by
therefore
be absolutely
and ft cannot
independent.
of mental
position
disJust in so far as this interpenetration
exists,the exercise
experienceswill improve
When
in the
progress
is
which
certain
do
not
case.
man
the memory
has
need
Of
to be
course
does
Probably James
is
misleading.
language
*
for
a
periences.
analogous ex-
certain
general characteristics
learnt
it does
general is improved by
in
made
for certain
memory
of
amount
learning of a foreignlanguage,further
iar
familfacilitated,
justbecause he has become
progress
with
of the
not
mean
language,
over
not
follow
its exercise
really
of the
to
deny
ticular
par-
that memory
in
this
or
this
; but
if so,
that
his
PSYCHOLOGY.
446
particular
direction.
analogous
experiences
of
of
of
"
6.
The
will
in
precise
of
little
do
will
progress
Exercise
analogy.
languages
[BK.
only
proportion
the
in
it
for
and
Memory
Past
When
Time.
There
them
discuss
is
of
the
point
origin
and
as
"The
Ideal
is
been
not
It
now.
the
gree
de-
study
tion
reten-
World
is
Construction."
will
as
presented
or
Ideal
part
of
of
the
be
the
ideal
discussed
Construction"
most
one
touched
not
events,
or
necessary
development
which
time-relations,
on
Self
It
have
we
objects
having
as
this
which
memory
remember
we
experience.
past
of
of
aspect
apprehend
the
the
"
upon.
to
formulae.
chemical
important
in.
extend
to
memory
improve
to
CH.
iv.,
often
we
to
us
in
our
convenient
general
to
question
representation
in
the
and
ters
chap"The
IV.
CHAPTER
IDEATION,
Ideal
AND
COMPARISON,
CONCEPTION.
P re-arrangement
distinguished from
Perceptual Pre-adjustment.
Perceptual activityis
guided by the actual presence of perceivedobjects. It
is true
that
perceptual activityconstantly involves
for coming
pre-adjustmentof the body and sense-organs
impressions. But this pre-adjustmentis directly
sists,
prompted by present or past impressions,and it conin a pre-determinationof the future, but
not
" 1.
"
plainthat
there
make
the process
suitable
admits
447
re-arrangement.
of all kinds
of
It is
variations,
PSYCHOLOGY.
448
[BK.
iv.,
are
re-adjustments of part to part, which
for perceptual consciousness.
" 2. Conceptual Analysis and Synthesis.
and
"
en.
iv.
sible
imposAll idea-
volves
inas
compared with perceptualactivity
activity
and
kind
some
degree of generalisation.We
that mental
have seen
images are in general fainter and
the corresponding percepts.
than
less detailed
much
of actual senseparticularity
They lack the determinate
volves
in the image inexperience. But indeterminateness
in the meaning of the image
indeterminateness
in so far as expression of the meaning depends merely
of the image without
the presence
on
being otherwise
and developed. Hence
denned
image
any given mental
taken
by itself may be equally capable of representing
of diverse
a
objects. If I think of
great number
mental
wealth, I may have in my mind a vague
picture
mental
of a bale of goods : but the same
image might
had
I been
mind
been
equally have
present in my
of a warehouse.
or
thinking of a wharf, of commerce,
Similarly,a bag of sovereigns might stand
for wealth, or
either
of Enga
miser, or the Bank
land.
The
mental
picture of a spade might stand
for the
either
of digging, for a garden, for a
act
for a grave-digger. But
minateness
indeterthe mere
or
navvy,
of the mental
plaining
image is very far from exthe beginnings of general thinking. We
give
tion
funcan
inadequate view of the generalising
essentially
it
of thought, when
what
dwell
on
we
exclusively
This
omits.
negative side of the process has for its
correlate a positiveside.
In any train of
indispensable
terest
thought,we are under the guidance of a controllinginof the several
Each
constructingan ideal whole.
tional
AND
COMPARISON,
which
representations
ideal
successively
emerge
perceptionwhich
actual
We
ideal combinations.
details
of actual
structure
than
But
house.
we
can
more
use
unhewTn
in this account
the
use
is vague
stones
of the matter
fit in to
not
perceptionin building up
can
and
of
they will
no
tributes
con-
details
The
structure.
omitted
are
omitted,because
are
449
CONCEPTION.
indefinite
complete
mental
in
buildinga
it is indirectly
of ideal
kind
our
our
tion
representa-
of determination.
in
the
several
definite
images and their meanings is made
relatively
of ideas as the train
and complete by the combination
several
ideas are
The
defined
of thought advances.
by their relations to each other in the ideal whole.
side by side a process
of analysisand
Thus
have
we
of synthesis. By the process
of analysis,
the
one
detail of actual sense-perception
is broken
concrete
up,
and
certain
aspects of it selected.
In contrast
with
the
Psych.
29
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
450
word
The
space.
meanings
from
pointof
the
word
here
sensation,and
view
From
of ideal combination.
perceptionthe
the word
and
now
now
here
iv., CH.
different
have
of
and
sense-perception
point of view of sense-
the
the
means
actual
of
moment
of
means
IT.
ject
ob-
an
percipientorganism,as immediatelyrevealed
recalling
by the sensation which produces it. But in ideally
in time, or a grouping of objects
events
a series of
is absent, and can
in space, actual sensation
no
longer
mark
of what
is now
serve
as
a distinguishing
present
details of
what
is here present. The
or
individualising
absent
to a very
large extent
present perception are
and
the here
from
the ideal reproduction. The
now
denned.
In fact,they are
therefore be otherwise
must
into
which
denned
by the combinations
they enter.
To go back to the
purely relative terms.
They become
old example, suppose
that I picturemyself as eatingmy
to
our
I pass
breakfast.*
the
enter
then
table;
in review
successive
breakfast-room
out
pour
the
; then
tea; then
of
entering
I
now
am
the
temporal position of
of visual
of
most
verbal
this
supposed
images.
language
I have
is reserved
in their
imagery.
of
ideas
done
so
because
for
meaning,
It is the
not
each
train
people would
naturally
as
description, either
verbal
newspaper;
If I want
may
the
at
to
instead
now
say
sent
repre-
Now
present.
am
I am
breakfast-room,now
sittingdown,
I
Whether
pouring out the tea, and so on.
or
then, obviouslywhat I am doing is to define
now
I have
tally
men-
the
say
sit down
open
then
events.
the
next
recall
a
nature
place by
the
series
substitute
peculiarity
in their
to take
But
of
as
of
for,
words
mental
of
as
past events
or
that
of
means
treatment
chapter.
its relation
by
event
the
to
series
function
matter
in the
of
way
fact
of
of,
accompaniment
they are indeterminate
an
images,
in
series.
AND
COMPARISON,
word
The
451
CONCEPTION.
becomes
now
purely
and
in
so
its
on.
trains of
ideational
definite
and
minate
deter-
is due
of
to
we
are
synthesis. In this sense
of Hegel, that thought passes
the
to
with
supplements another, so
and
and
more
is of
different
course
perception,and must
at least equallytrue
synthesis.In
the world
which
the
to
comes
only
senses
become
never
of
very
an
be
small
of ideal
from
of
new
tum
the dicfrom
the
combines
whole
thus
tained
at-
that of actual
of it.
But
of actual
by
it is
ception
perideal
distinctions
synthesis
which
By
presentedas
part is
the
is attained
ideal
aware.
individual
make
to
concreteness
apprehended
are
always
fall short
which
that
the process
relations
can
that the
understand
concreteness
in kind
always
of
falls short
and
The
concrete.
more
as
deter-
conceptual
abstraction
One
abstract
concrete.
to
which
sense
tion
percep-
combination
unified
system of
actuallypresent to
percipient. Thus sense
perever
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
452
tion,
with ideal combina-
and
is less concrete.
sense
growing mind, we
beyond simple perceptionwhen
Comparison.
" 3.
passes
suppose,
stalking
The
The
"
"
in
striking difference
is the
of
occasion
is
hunter
is
what
the
or
not
There
he
distinct
remain
ceived
per-
yet
legs,it
two
on
and
him,
all fours
on
never
moves.
idea
percept and
is
like
not
till,on
compared, what
and
moment
crawls
assimilation
immediate
no
some
presentations.
instantlyrecognised as
like
looks
scarecrow
the
at
may
conflict of
destroyingbiped,because
the
iv.
CH.
to
the
differences."*
Such
series of
"
"
; and
move
the
like."
There
abundant
are
occasions
in animal
transition
to
of attention
discover
some
Ward,
Article
edition, xx., p.
78.
the
respect in which
to
one
the
other, so
as
things differ
in which
different things
or
similarity,
their diversity,
and also a fixingof the
spiteof their
agree in spiteof
of
precisenature
in
from
this agreement
in
"Psychology"
similar
or
difference.
Encyclopaedia
Ibid.
Britannica,
If
an
ninth
unpalatablemoth
moth,
bird
resembles
will be
apt
in its
to
453
CONCEPTION.
AND
COMPARISON,
markings a palatable
confuse
them, and
so
meet
ceivably
disagreeabledisappointment.The bird might conthe difficulty
by settinga
attempt to overcome
specimen of the disagreeablespeciesside by side with
and then, examining them
of the agreeablespecies,
one
might consider first one character and then
alternately,
ences.
differof each, so as to find out distinguishing
another
jects
Or again,without
bringing the two actual obthe one
as
perceived
together,it might examine
and
the other
as
ideallyrepresented,and go through
with
the
same
process.
This
would
be much
because
harder
reason
to
re-affirm Locke's
but
dictum
that
"
brutes
compare
to be
to me," he says,
imperfectly." It seems
the prerogativeof human
it
when
understanding,
has sufficiently
to cast about
distinguished
any idea,
and consider
in what
circumstances
they are capableto
be compared." *
"
"
...
pp.
Locke's
204-205.
Essay
concerning
Human
Understanding
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
454
We
have
It is the
this view.1*
confirms
systematicobservation
that
seen
iv.,
iv.
CH.
of animals
result most
distinctly
brought out in Mr. Lloyd Morgan's book on Comparative
Psychology. I may here quote an experiment which he
and patience. Taking with
carried out with great care
had
him a dog which
been
trained to fetch and carry,
he threw
stick into a field surrounded
a
by railings.
The dog bounded
after the stick,and brought it back in
his mouth
far as the railings. But here he was
as
fronted
conwith a difficulty
; he could get through himself,
but he could not get the stick through. His experience
had
not
taught him that the only way of succeeding
was
by grasping the end of the stick ; instead of this,
he tugged now
cal
here, now
there, in a perfectlyuncritiIf,by accident,he did get hold of the right
way.
end of the stick,or if Mr. Morgan showed
him how to
assistance
the
to yield him
no
on
proceed,this seemed
of the experiment. He had stumbled
the
on
repetition
no
solution,but could not do the trick again. This was
casual observation
peated
a systematicexperiment re; it was
lar
of simiday after day, and only one of a course
experiments. It is evident that the dog here passed
from
alternative
one
that
so
it,he
shown
from
The
without
another
to
when
failed to
one
he
note
unsuccessful
hit
the
the
on
selective
right one
points in
or
which
parison
comwas
fered
it dif-
attempts.
which
animals
learn
distinguish
what they have
previouslyconfused, or to identifyfor
what
practicalpurposes
they have previouslytreated
different is rather one
of tentative
as
groping than of
*
ch.
Cf.
i.f"
process
the
6.
account
by
of
Mr.
Thorndike's
to
experiments,
bk.
iii.,div.
i.,
comparison.
process,
the failure
decrease
circumstances
in
which
455
blindly tentative
alternatives will gradually
of the wrong
chance
CONCEPTION.
in
Even
"
the
animal
an
AND
COMPARISON,
of their renewal."*
it has
will become
been
ceived,
previously de-
cautious
more
Under
and
tive,
atten-
the
will hold
converse
this may
take
of
the
successful
action.
All
of two
comparison
lines of conduct,
or
objects,groups
ence
having for its aim the marking off of points of differfrom
points of agreement or of points of agreement
from
Thus
a
points of difference.
dog, in first
learningthe trick of opening a gate by a latch,will,to
the gate. In doing so, he
begin with, scratch all over
accidentallyhits
upon
occasion, there
the
right movement.
be
almost
On
the
much
preliminary
It is only gradually that the
groping as before.
is discontinued,
and the successful
unsuccessful
activity
from
method
the outset.
This
adopted unhesitatingly
of the general principlethat activity,
is simply a case
next
obstructed
other
are
in
one
wrong.
aware
The
direction,tends
When
channels.
not
may
why one
right course
attention
animals
course
is
by the circumstances
Comparison in all but a most
*
Analytic
as
to
learn
divert
itself into
in this way,
they
is
case.
rudimentaryform
Psychology,
vol. ii.
is
an
PSYCHOLOGY.
456
activity.Even
ideational
are
both
present
For
turn.
anything
resemblance
the mind
can
for
the
senses,
each
than
more
of
representation
examining the other.
of
detail
and
comparison, so
characteristic
as
to
iv.,
CH.
TV.
objectscompared
is scrutinised
in
awareness
of
vague
ideal
act
each
when
difference,it is necessary
or
the
the very
the
to
[BK.
the
in
keep
to
before
object in
one
Only
in this way
turn
be
selected
the points of
distinguish
ence
differ-
Hence
tribute
atwe
pointsof agreement.
may
of comparison in animals
in all but
the absence
and rudimentary form, to the absence
its most
or
vague
extremelyimperfectdevelopment of ideational activity
in general.
the process
of deliberate
When
comparison plays an
sponding
life,it involves a correimportant part in the mental
development in conceptual thinking, in the
distinction of the general or universal from the particular.
is always to compare
in some
To compare
special
theoretical
or
practicalend is to be
respect. Some
subserved
by the comparison. The difference or agreement
from
the
be
to
but
discovered
which
is not
has
any
difference
significancefor
or
ment,
agree-
the
guidance
for the solution of a theoretical difficulty.
of conduct
or
Thus
comparison takes place only in regard to the
characteristics which
happen to be interestingat the
other characteristics
being disregarded or set
moment,
most
aside as
unimportant. Objects in other ways
diverse
yet in a certain
respect be compared
may
less similar, and
and found
more
or
objects in other
ways
most
and
process
one
similar
found
advances
be
may
more
or
it becomes
compared
in
less unlike.
possibleto
certain
Hence,
group
as
spect
re-
the
objects
COMPARISON,
according
to
the
in this
or
their other
according
tones
their
attributes.
the
different
most
and
sounds
position,
positions. A shrill
equal loudness, and
of different
It
the
or
taking
blance
resem-
into
count
ac-
musical
arrange
may
of their loudness, disregarding
We
degree
their
according to
In
loudness.
457
their difference
respect without
that
pitch, or
their
sounds
degrees of
to
CONCEPTION.
AND
the
scale
regardin
pitch dis-
of
loudness,
in
of
note
and
low
of the
sounds
one
be
may
be
pitch may
same
of
loudness.
is evident
conceptual analysisof
what
have
we
called
details of
the concrete
sense-
the
ideational
other
abstract
characters
category of Thinghood
thinking
from
that
assumes
which
attributes.
or
a
new
attaches
form
to
in
it in
perceptual. The
unity of the thing is distinguished
of its qualities,
from
the plurality
and that kind of predication
becomes
in Language.
possiblewhich is embodied
The
necessityof doing one thing at a time has
and progress
led us to describe the nature
of comparison
reference to the use
without
of language. But
in
fact the ideational activity
which
comparison involves
could
proceed
not
by
occupy
expressive
and
ideas
and
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
458
origin
us.
of
their
these
far
unless
signs,
it
i.e.
relations.
signs
is
were
signs
The
the
topic
guided
directly
nature,
which
iv.,
and
CH.
iv.
ported
sup-
ing
express-
function,
will
next
V.
CHAPTER
" 1. Language
Analysis
such
as
In
Synthesis.
"
is
psychologist
that
not
any
of Conceptual
speaking of Language,
Instrument
an
as
remember
must
we
and
CONCEPTION.
AND
LANGUAGE
what
the
primarilyconcerns
specialsystem
of external
signs
of
peculiarmode
and
mental
most
important
characteristic of this function
or
activitythat many
minds
can
co-operate in it as if they constituted a single
of this co-operative
But the possibility
mind.
thinking
of the mental
be grounded in the nature
must
process
I do not mean
it takes place in the individual mind0
as
of language in individual
that the use
thinkingwas or
of intercommunication.
could be priorto its use
as
a means
but
certain
psychicalfunction,
activity.It is a unique
I do
What
could
only
certain kind
is that
mean
take
be
process.
communicated
perceivedobject. In
ideas,it
the
place between
of mental
cannot
the
"
order
minds
capable
of
perience
Merely perceptualex-
except in presence
that A
and
may
of
change
inter-
from
start
a
they must
cuss
basis of common
experience. It is impossibleto disGreek
with a person
who
does not know
particles
a
word
of Greek.
is evident
tion
earliest communica-
But
that
if communication
459
is to be
real
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
460
and
valuable,it
does
to
convey
has
had
not
consider
us
how
one
an
to
not
but
merely
also
he
what
communicate
to
to
to
experienceand of which
?
Let
is this possible
experience. How
I wish
to show
some
analogous case.
or
had
has
pronounce
is either deaf
He
able
be
must
which
something of
B
what
know.
not
possiblefor
already knows,
be
must
v.
CH.
at
he has
which
word
distance,so that
heard.
never
I cannot
adopt
In
elements.
fact to B
has
become
like manner,
communicate
can
it out of elements
by reconstructing
of
acquainted with in the course
which
his
new
ous
previ-
of ideas therefore
experience. Intercommunication
impliesanalysisof the objectsand processes presented
in
constituents
which
to perceptioninto certain
recur
in various particular
The
cases.
varying combinations
of language,then, involves the analysisof objects
use
and
processes
into
out
It must
factors
which
each
unchanged
in
the
they enter.
They
merely change their
which
without
elements
of
combined
in
inward
supposed that
rigidand
construction
re-
factors.
common
not, however, be
have
remains
of these
their free
and
factors
common
unalterable
nature
which
into
like
not
mode
common
combinations
various
are
these
of
modification.
are
experience which
all kinds
of varying
printers'
types,
external
tion
juxtaposi-
On
the
contrary, the
being continually
in spoken or
ways
AND
LANGUAGE
" 1.]
CONCEPTION.
transform
discourse,mutually
written
of
meaning
varies
word
with
the
never
the
but
which
that
of
'
general,but
bridle
in
'
of
the tongue
assumed
by
my
general,
'
'
'
phasises
em-
held
was
'
an
woman,'
Paul
Principles
sentences
like, I
drew
never
bridle,'
in
is not
to
The
by John.
Compare such
a
good point,' a point of honour,'
hotel,' the bar of justice,'the tongue
as
bar
In
"
hand
other.
the
work,
John
is not
to
referred
the bridle
'
him
upon
referred
hand
hand,
hand
each
its context.
this
of
401
balance.'
word
in
"
The
stances
in'
the
of
ing
specialmean-
specialcontext
special
be called
its occasional
circumstances
meaning,
may
It is only at a late stage of mental
development that an
identical and
to distinguish
an
attempt is made
express
of meaning prevading the varying
element
persistent
a
or
of a word.
When
the attempt
significations
it constitutes an epoch in the historyof thought.
is made
and
of the scientific
It is the beginning of definition
of Socrates
fame
The
rests
largely on his
concept.
having been the first to insist on a systematicinquiry
In popular and
of this nature.
pre-scientific
thinking
which
the occasional meaning is the only one
to
comes
occasional
clear consciousness.
from
It follows
of communication
express
that
this account
of
words
and
that
process
constitutes
essentially
of language
The
use
concrete
content
Ch.
iv.,p.
73.
their
analysisand
train
of
means
combinations
synthesis which
ideational
thought.
the breaking of the
pre-supposes
actual
perception into its partial
a
constituents,and
aspects and
*
of
of
language as
It Avill repay
the
student
the
re-combination
to read
the
whole
chapter.
of
PSYCHOLOGY.
462
these
form
to
with
meaning
ideal
new
to
the
wholes.
is due
context
The
to
the
iv.,
en.
The
variation
nature
of the
word
only calls up
controllinginterest guiding the
process.
relevant
[BK.
v.
of
structive
con-
what
is
train of
thought.
Ideational
would
from
of
this account
seem
activity
the matter
of the existence
of
to be a prior condition
this is so, but
it is
language. In logical strictness,
equallytrue that ideational thinkingcould only exist in
most
a
rudimentary and inchoate form apart from the
of some
kind of expressivesigns. Language is not
use
merely an accompaniment of ideational activity
; it is
instrument
essential
It is an
to its development.
an
of fixingattention upon
presented
appropriatemeans
ideallyreobjects as distinguishedfrom percepts. It
becomes
the
more
representationis,
"
of the
in
precise mode
language
with.
words,
in
form
some
the
in communication
is
considered
an
mind
with
hearer
be
with
fix attention
of the
the
ideal
abstract
more
less it contains
sense-perception.The
to fix
expressive signs serve
will
ourselves
Within
to
serves
in other
which
ideas
on
content
we
the
details of actual
concrete
attention
necessary
Here
on.
affirmingthat
provisionally
tool to think
indispensable
of
the
the
on
later
object of
others,it
thinker
individual
serves
his
to
it
ideas ;
own
the
ideallyrepresentedobjects
present to the mind of the speaker.*
For illustration of conceptual analysis
and synthesis,
take any sentence
combination
we
or
intelligible
may
*
It is unfortunate
corresponds
for the
psychical
that
to
on
there
is
perception.
state
and
for
no
In
the
word
corresponding
ordinary language
object apprehended
to idea
idea
in it.
is used
as
cept
perboth
"1.]
LANGUAGE
of words.
Each
the
stands
of
for
463
partialaspect of
perception, in other
actual
some
"
is called
for what
objectof
CONCEPTION.
stands
word
detail
concrete
words, it
AND
universal
psychicalprocess called
The
universals expressedby the several
combine
in a unity, each
helping to determine
the rest, so as to form an ideal whole.
particularise
the
"
such
proper
sentence
and
name,
the
skates."
"Nansen
as
may
therefore
be
cept,
con-
or
ception.
con-
words
and
Take
is
"Nansen"
supposed
to
stand
for a universal.
This is true from
not
particular,
The
Nansen
certain point of view.
word
a
nates
desiga
being. But from another
particularhuman
individual
The
Nansen
point of view it is a universal.
is a universal
the unity and
as
connecting identityof
and varying states, relations,
his own
manifold
ties,
qualiand
Nansen
be
activities.
as
perceived must
Nansen
ing,
lectursleeping,or Nansen
eating,or Nansen
in some
other
Nansen
or
skating,or determined
the word
But
Nansen
specific
by itself does
way.
stand for any of these
not
particulardeterminations
for
"
"
"
"
rather
than
The
stands
"skates"
word
"Nansen."
universal.
It
others.
But
Other
it does
people
and
for
in
Nansen
eral.
gen-
the universal
particularises
by
so
skate
in
means
besides
of
another
Nansen,
in
varying
manners
"
"
"
PSYCHOLOGY.
464
be
would
his
general and
in
contradistinction
conscious
no
the
[UK.
between
The
particular
agent.
in the
CH.
between
particularact, or
is involved
function,then, which
iv.,
of
use
v.
the
the
psychical
language,
is the
conceptual analysisand synthesis. Discourse
thinking.
expression of discursive
old and
well-worn
We
now
problem,
pass to an
the question
that of the originof language. Of course
is
"
is not
capable
There
of what
are
of ideas
But
originated.
would
be
called
or
remains
enable
circumstances
the
evidence
records
no
which
ages
may
we
by
means
are
by
state
of
historic
pre-
munication
intercom-
expressivesigns first
at
means
no
swer.
an-
cal
histori-
on
which
under
Language actuallygrows
account.
of remote
to
us
historical
and
loss
on
that
develops under
eyes,
differ
from
and
apply the
development to account
us
the differences
" 2.
The
we
can
we
may
between
Motor
process
is
ourselves
Element
in
clue
and
Ideal
penetrated through
experiences of movement.
define
to guide and
serve
which
obtain
Passive
motor
to
the
nature
of
primitiveman.
Revival.
"
ceptual
Per-
and
through by
sensations
only
activities.
Besides
the
the attainment
of
directlysubserve
practicalends, there are also constantly present the
involved
in attending
adjustments of the organs of sense
There
the movements
of explorato percepts.
are
tion
of
by which touch and sightfollow the contours
for sounds,
objects. There are the attitudes of listening
movements
LANGUAGE
" 2.]
465
CONCEPTION.
AND
form
which
the movements
tend
generalwe
to
reinstate
part of it.
essential
an
process,
of
appearance
of it with
the
In
thing
eye, and
cf
movements
in recalling
a
sound, we
adjustment. Similarly,
better
or
mentally repeat the attitude of listening,
may
still,mentally imitate the movements
by which the
able
is produced. If it is a sound
which wre are
sound
ocular
less
or
more
vocal
own
of
the
the
this
respect
by
it.
greatest with
is
of
means
articulate
mentally
we
organs,
in
power
imitate
to
successfully
our
Our
the
words
in
recall them
we
ordinary speech, so that when
of mental
form
images, we
constantlyreproduce
motor
process
of articulation
well
as
the
as
mere
sound.
revived
element
has
peculiar importance,
of freelycontrolling,
ing,
detainbecause
our
power
modifying,and repeatingmental images depends
of controlling
in a very large measure
on
our
power
The
constituents
their motor
or
accompaniments.
is capable of dischargreason
ing
why revived movement
This
motor
"
specialfunction is that
analogous and proportionateto
this
movements."*
actual
it and
command
over
example
*
is
it in
ideal
suppliedby
Analytic
f'si/rh.
distinctive
Psychology,
the
vol.
the
that
this
motor
of
processes
it,the greater
"f A
representation.
articulate
i.,p.
213.
is so,
intimatelya
more
with
it is
over
of controlling
power
show
have
peculiarto
our
"To
we
control
our
sounds
is
our
good
of ordi-
t Ibid., p. 215.
30
nary
has
speech.
"Let
any
word
almost
lie in the
loud
may
control
as
the
do
almost
what
with
that varies
with
as
same
holds
We
we
them
trace
can
with
good
and
vivid
words,
with
greater
or
accordingto
cannot
in
as
repeat the
its
vary
of articulate
such
actual
cases
Many
thing, and
one
odour
other
sounds.
take
the
associative
some
scale
So
will
far
be
to
appearance
in idea
varying
*
as
we
as
we
of
series,
of
cession
suc-
We
with
of times
certainty";we
the
can
have
indirect
circumstances.
smell, and
of its
in
another
thousands
"
free
of articulate
case
same
; but
accuracy
in the
to
smells,or
produce
mentally re-
can
and
is
of
that
as
as
odour
intensityat
recall of the
The
utterance.
persons
cannot,
one
of the sound
order
unfailing definiteness,precision,and
cannot
repeat
may
simplergeometricalfigures.
them
trace
as
we
mentally much
We
less
this,one
the
from
pass
the
reproduction
is another.
control
We
as
it
great vividness
with
accurate
it.
say
invert
physically."* Contrast
of organic sensations.
odours
tion
articula-
from
but, apart
may
freedom
much
he
that
even
may
find
rapidlyor slowly,
emphasis or with emphasis
certainty
; we
emphasis or without
and
with
will
mentation
experi-
represented sound
likes with
one
of times
it thousands
the
;
mental
v.
CH.
The
sensation
actual
rv.,
the internal
over
make
to
inability
for
; he
sentence
or
external.
the
select
one
any
great
as
over
as
to
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
466
any
and
odorous
We
freely run
loudness
depends
on
of
objects or
simply
cannot
up
and
down
intensities ; according to
Ibid.
in
power
all
AND
LANGUAGE
" 3.]
CONCEPTION.
467
It is in the motor
elements
of the mental
image, and
the image as
in the control which
a
they yield over
whole, that we have ultimatelyto look for the origin of
expressivesigns,or in other words, of language,in the
said that language
of the term.
We
have
broadest sense
of fixingattention
is an
on
appropriatemeans
ideally
represented objects,as distinguished from
perceived
of controlling
ideal represenobjects.Since the means
tations
constituents
of mental
lies in the motor
images,
be found
here or nowhere.
the source
of language must
first definite stage in the development of expresThe
sive
signs is constituted by the tendency of ideas in
far as they have
motor
a
so
aspect to issue in actual
movements.
" 3.
Actual
Bain
Tendency
Motor
of
Movement.
No
"
Reproduction
one
has
done
more
to
pass
than
into
Dr.
into
bring
"
"
...
furnished
than
the
vocal
recollections.
When
we
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
468
recall the
impression of
it out,
speak
not
about
the
to
larynx,the
.
do
we
of weak
incontinent
or
muttering
without
just
"
"
persons
v.
articulating
parts
all sensiblyexare
cited.
point. The
tongue, the lips
think
hardly
can
sentence, if
that
Some
or
we
to
come
word
en.
iv.,
nerves
talk
they
"
to
themselves."
is restrained
f Since
speakingor acting."
Dr. Bain first wrote
these words, psychological
investigation
has very
their general purstronglyconfirmed
port.
The
is
out
tendency of ideas to act themselves
of psychology. Probably Dr. Bain
now
a commonplace
this tendency is ordinarily
exaggerates the degree in which
realised.
of the organs
of speech
The
twitter
about to come
feature of
to the point is not
constant
a
Thinking
"
inward
doubt
articulation
that
in
it is very
all persons.
aloud, he
by
no
It
nerves.
rather
disregardof
has
to
is often
absorbed
in their
their social
to
he
what
persons
found
great deal
In
understates
confined
means
in
frequent,and
invariablypresent.
in
his
of weak
those
or
who
with
the
is
correlated
one
as
Social
process.
The
brain
with
the rest
The
Op. cit.,p.
Senses
and
358.
the
of the
is
brain
edition,
which
of
the
to
pass
process
organism,that
Intellect, fourth
tion
conven-
restraint
Ideational
tensely
into the
thought
follows.
with
habit is
become
the
actual
utterance
ordinarilyput on
thoughtswhich pass through our minds.
The
general theory of the tendency of ideas
movements
most
al-
incontinent
we
into
no
ing
think-
; this
surroundings.
do
about
says
case
is
people
some
trains of
own
there
But
so
is
mately
inti-
processes
p. 357.
AND
LANGUAGE
" 3.]
take
in it cannot
place
creates
nerves
and
may,
of
overflow
flowing
over-
in
to
particular
directlyconnected
; and
"
excitation
brain
the
to
and
muscles
the
subject
thought-readingthe
in
of it. Thus
being at all aware
is revealed
place where an object has been hidden
the thought-readerby slightmuscular
pressures
twitches
unconsciouslyproduced by his guide, who
time
the
hidden
On
object and
the
most
whole,
are
the
ideational
in
of
trains
of
them
to
on
the
idea
it is to be
and
all
of the
found.
present mental
our
unless
others.
But
need
the
arises
conditions
primitive stages
more
to
movement,
in
different
level
any
actual
communicating
very
the
at
attention
place where
part without
embodiment
for
his
concentrates
development,
the
"
of efferent
complex apparatus
functional
unity between
This
muscle.
measure
some
whole
The
the muscles.
it is most
which
parts with
those
in
without
other
to
469
CONCEPTION.
of
tion.
evolu-
is just strugglinginto
activity
independent existence, so that it may be regarded as
extension
little more
than
an
or
supplement of perceptual
ideas
can
activity,
scarcelyfail to pass into
The
life in general is a life of
overt
movements.
more
the more
likelyis bodily activityto
bodily activity,
into ideal process.
Besides this,
enter
must
we
ber
rememthat the less developed and
habitual are
trains of
difficult they are
to sustain ; so
that
thought,the more
Where
whatever
and
means
ideational
offer
support of the
partialrepetitionof
means
themselves
process
the
of actual movements
for
will be
the
furtherance
utilised.
But
the
ideallyrepresented object by
yieldsa ready and effective
PSYCHOLOGY,
470
[UK. iv,,
v.
CH.
of
we
fixingattention on the object. Hence
ments
regard the actual expression of ideas by movemay
as
primary, and the absence of such expression
the result of a comparativelyhigh degree of mental
as
development.*
if we
that the tendency to act out
But even
suppose
means
does
idea
an
privatetrains
own
arises to
occasion
that A
not
and
are
It is .Z?'s turn
B
of
thought,it must
communicate
with
when
so
others.
Suppose
important work.
co-operatingin some
to do
something, and
either fails to do
do
ual's
individ-
what
wait
^4's to
is
pectantly.
ex-
requiredof
him
tional
wrongly. Suppose that A has no conventhat he
language to express himself in, or even
used
has not
language of any sort until that moment.
If he is capable of ideallyrepresentingwhat
he wants
JB to do, he can
scarcelyfail in his impatienteagerness
make
movements
to
indicatingwhat is required. It
be sufficient to point to some
object actuallypresent.
may
This does not strictly
speaking involve the use of
a
language. But if he uses
truly imitative gesture or
it
does
or
combination
birth
of
rope
and
the
of imitative
language.
imitate
of
act
actual
point of
"
fancy
you
will
chattering
believe
M.
H.
your
of
act
body
internally
hear
eyes
Kingsley,
with
when
West
man
or
such
you
of
.
the
.
energy
African
idea
own
from
lower
when
even
coming
and
from
Studies.
classes
you
down
them
that
he
that
has
of
hauling
psychological
of language
Africa
think
sittingalone
the
expression
of
of
are
to
imitation
The
primitiveform
woman
learn
his
Thus
most
main
of
away
the
is the
instance, point
hauling.
movement.
view
the
instead
forest
for
may,
hauling is simply
issuing in
He
the
his action
gestures, then
narrow
you
no
bush
can
ternally
ex-
in the
path
hardly
companion."
"4.]
LANGUAGE
is the imitative
of this
in favour
evidence
shall
We
gesture.
471
CONCEPTION.
AND
proceed to give
now
position.
Signs.
Many writers appear
that all language worthy of the name
must
of conventional
signs. Such a view creates
" 4. Natural
difficulties.
unnecessary
of
language
as
such
nature
of
resemblance
using
state,
or
gether
alto-
A
to
and
largely
the
stand
least
at
adjunct characteristic
gestures which
employ
natural
producing it,or
or
sist
con-
essential function
The
deaf-mutes
for themselves.
a
sume
as-
of
means
uninstructed
as
devise
be fulfilled
synthesismay
to
"
of
alone
to
action,
some
it.
Merely
and
not
as
strative
demon-
part of
context.
Thus
if
man
as
he
imitates
man
the
act
it does
presents
an
action
and
then
of
pointingis a sign of
not
tion
merely draw atten-
himself
at
the
moment;
on
is
used
only
as
as
of
means
which
iv.,
at the
man
OH.
v.
moment
representingsomething else ;
as
representingthe man
forming
perat the
is not
he
moment
forming.
per-
cannot
when
to
the
convey
this
conveying to
is true
in
act
his
itself
language ;
meant
which
made
to
makes
Earlier
it
convey
So, too,
by
only
the
but
C will be
some
the
becomes
idea
so
of
only a
when
way
if B
angry
or
the
C and
is not
act
of
imitation
animal
ing
notic-
pointsto
^4's
For
emotion,
that
if A
Thus
certain way
own
his idea
language.
expressionof
direct
of the emotion.
idea
preparing to
frowns,
is
of
means
action
an
not
of the
the
it is used
as
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
472
thing is
the
thing
of
does
acteristic
charnot
in
mimicry
or
animal
the sound.
writers
the
LANGUAGE
" 4.]
in
the
minds
of
signs.
"most,
at
knows
while
makes
cannot
command
"
strikes
What
"
says
another,
"
that
the
who
the
distinction to him
is,while
such
tional
conven-
deaf-mute
between
one
signs of objects
and
once
signsby which he knows these objects,
them
tokens of things. And
again; they become
he elaborates
the signshe has found
for singleobjects,
thing and
are
He
what
or
those
473
CONCEPTION".
AND
distinctive
he describes
imitates
their forms
for himself
in
in
them
is not
There
signs from
monkey may
demonstrative
of the kind
*
the
employ.
described
Quoted
But
are
much
distinguishsuch
intelligent
gestures an
cases
to
in which
occur
inadequate.
by Tylor, Early
History
"
The
of Mankind.
devices
deaf-mute,
PSYCHOLOGY,
474
be, wants
it may
drink
drinking-glassin
nor
the
to
one
hand
fetch
or
in order
[BK. iv,,
of water
; he
the room,
the
other.
him
lead
he
cannot
takes
He
v.
neither water
sees
that
so
CH.
some
point
one
by
to
to
the
"
"
"from
and
this
describe
absent
language
of natural
time
forward,
he
learns
forms
for
himself
he
objects,and
to
a
of
and
words,
them
in the
and
Ueber
t Col.
Smithsonian
use
such
no
of
attempts
f
gestures."
shipwrecked mariners
die
Mallery
Taubstummen,
in the
Annual
pp.
are
"
made
to
instruct
Missionaries,explorers,
acquirethe language
of
267 seq.
Report
276.
of the
Bureau
of
Ethnology
of the
LANGUAGE
"4.]
CONCEPTION,
AND
475
of natural signs.They
through the medium
at the same
gesticulations,
point to objectsand make
associated
time observing what
articulate sounds
are
with these motions by the persons addressed."*
ever
Whenof
is at a loss to express himself by means
a person
ject-matt
words he naturallyhas recourse
to gestures if the subadmits of it. "Without
having ever before
of the signsused by Indians or deafmade
seen
or
one
not
mutes, he will soon
only catch the meaning of
their's but produce his own,
which
they will likewise
of gestureThe
comprehend."!
primitive character
language is indicated
by its widespread use
among
This is partly due to the inadequacy of the
savages.
signs of their conventional
language, and partly to the
make
the spoken words
of
diversities of speech which
lers
Travelto each other.
neighbouringtribes unintelligible
have
reported the existence of tribes whose oral
for ordinary intercourse.
language is inadequate even
Their evidence
called in doubt, but apparently
has been
races
savage
without
Bubis
each
in
sufficient
of the island
other
West
to
It is wTell established
reason.
of Fernando
Miss
in the dark.
Africa
tells
to
propose
go
us
Po
to
the
understand
cannot
Kingsley in
that among
that the
her
the Fans
fire in order
Travels
it is
to
see
mon
com-
what
have
reason
we
people are saying. But the second
assignedis probably the more
important. The fullest
the
development of natural
signs is found
among
American
North
the diversities of conIndians, where
ventional
languages
within
limited
area
are
very
numerous.
The
free
and
copious
*
Ibid.
use
of imitative
t Ibid.
gestures is al-
PSYCHOLOGY.
476
universal
most
all
[BK. TV.,
North
over
America,
and
CH.
v.
it is also
It must
not be
widely spread in South America.
supposed that the same
signsare everywhere in common
This
is far from
There
is no
use.
being the case.
is only possibleby
code.
code
A
common
common
It must
the vast
be fixed by usage.
convention.
But
very
which
distance
separates different
tribes
does
not
mit
per-
arbitrary
uniformityarisingfrom habit. An
imitative
strikingoutlines
gesture delineates the most
of an
of an
characteristic features
object or the most
of this
action.
of
different individuals
But
people do
outlines
and
features.
various
"by
his
gait when
horns, and
these
always
not
not
sometimes
characteristics."
fixed
by
of these
selection
for instance
deer
be
may
signated
de-
of
by
expressingfleetness,
rapid motion, by the shape of his
of several of
by combinations
*
come
Besides this,when
a sign has bemodes
it may
usage
in various
takes
in
in the
agree
different bodies
and
ways,
as
modified
become
conventional
and
viated
abbre-
understanding
the
place of self-interpreting
pantomime. It might
therefore be expected that Indians
dialect of
using one
natural signswould
understand
other Indians,using
not
a
diverse
that
a
an
dialect.
Indian
deaf-mute
or
It would
should
on
the
vice versd.
appear
still less
first encounter
But
probable
understand
in fact it is found
in
that
of signsmutual
spiteof the diversity
understanding
is possible
between
all who
have any expertness in the
of imitative gestures.
However
use
specialsignsmay
principleremains the same, and this
vary, the formative
formative
flexible
principleadapts itself in the most
A
understand
at
man
way to varying conditions.
may
*
cit.
once
gesture which
he
has
477
CONCEPTION.
AND
LANGUAGE
" 5.]
seen
never
before.
If any
one
of the
more
Of
for mutual
conventional
that
it is assumed
course
there
is
basis
of interest and
understanding in community
experience.
" 5.
Natural
Thinking.
"
Signs
Instruments
Expression by
essential function
analysisand
experienceis
as
of
language
synthesis
; by it
resolved
into
natural
as
the
means
of Conceptual
content
of
concrete
stituents
relatively
elementary conin new
ideal
which
are
freely recombined
the signs of gesture-language
That
structures.
bring
with them
an
apprehension of the general or universal
and
tails
specificdeaspects as distinct from the particular
their very
of perceptualexperience is plainfrom
An
imitative gesture can
nature.
only suggest general
features
to a class of objectsor
characters
common
or
The
actions.
thought it expresses or evokes is only a
completion. It is
fragment of a thought and demands
and
indeterminate
requires further definition from a
The
itself
context
context
expressed or understood.
consists of other imitative
gestures, each expressinga
universal.
Each
of these relatively
relativelyindeterminate
universals
indeterminate
and
particularises
PSYCHOLOGY.
478
defines
defined.
Just
we
as
random
at
is
others, and
the
so
illustrate
can
we
combination
intelligible
analogy holds good in another
conventional
the
of
CH.
v.
tional
conven-
random
takingat
of imitative
The
gestures.
respect also.
word,
iv.,
and
particularised
ing
this process by tak-
illustrate it by
can
any
sign, like
them
combination
intelligible
any
words,
by
[BK.
natural
The
modified
becomes
in
'
in
meaning
We
and
varying contexts
illustrate
under
stances.
varying circum-
both
points simultaneously. An
asked the same
acquaintance of Colonel Mallery'sonce
favour
of two
chiefs successively. Each
in replying
used the common
sign for repletionafter eating, "viz.
the index
and
thumb
turned
the body, passed
towards
may
"
from
up
the
made
being
with
meant
other,
made
truculent
different
the throat
; but
in the
one
case
am
accompaniment of a
read, 'I have had enough of that.'"
for bodily repletion
derives a metaphorical
violently,with
it
sign used
meaning
meaning
from
theory
that
the
the
in both
context
and
cases,
in each.
" 6. Conventional
The
to
frown,
the
Here
abdomen
Element
in
Gesture-
Language.
"
natural
the
signs are psychologically
most
primitiveform of language has two advantages.
first of these
The
is,that self-interpreting
signs arise
there is any need
naturallyand spontaneouslywherever
The
for them.
second
is, that they rapidly tend to
become
more
or
less conventional
between
members
of
of
to
become
the
same
more
or
less conventional
inasmuch
as
the
" 6.]
AND
LANGUAGE
479
CONCEPTION.
understanding of
own
on
On
in
or
this
specialcontext
then
were
occasion
second
in
teacher
the
edge
of the
not
that
but
that
that
one
of
it would
it had
because
cuttingoff
right hand
; the
the
stood
underdumb
the
among
left
with
arm
of this
reason
on
and
named
was
be
not
been
deaf
"The
sign
understood
be
may
or
if the
that
so
time,
institute
action
the
by
sign was
there
this
it
ing;
mean-
circumstances
absent,
first
just
Berlin
the
children
seen
the
the
to
as
these
first occasion.
the
on
be
nevertheless,
doubt
no
occasion
may
for
made
understood
the
leave
subsequent
on
to
comes
which
context
it
was
with
man
sign might
of
members
arm."*
one
institution
the
understood
be
to
come
It is evident
who
and
knew
that
used
by
of
nothing
its
derivation.
One
tend
to
natural
highly important way in which
signs
is through abbecome
conventional
breviati
relatively
is a strong disposition
There
to abbreviate
familiar
to
be
gestures.
substituted
Mallery
convey
forward
wise.
observed
the idea
bent
This
stick, bent
at
The
mere
for
the
of old-man.
his
back,
and
Tylor, Early
movement
itself.
"
Indian
He
elbow, fingersand
conveying
movement
Cheyenne
not
hint of
any
History
of Mankind.
he
side-
closed
thumbs
supported
Colonel
attempting to
his righthand
held
sense,
comes
found
his
frame
long
in
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
480
totteringstep by
imagined."*
By processes
language must
the
of this
stick
held
those
as
iv.,
( n.
before
was
v.
only
who
employ gestureof
familiar
with the possibility
become
a conventional
arrangement for the expressionof ideas.
But the natural system never
ner
actuallypasses in this maninto a conventional
principle
system. Its formative
that of imitative repreall through essentially
remains
sentation.
deaf-mute
and
the Indian
The
rarely lose
between
sign
sightaltogetherof the natural connexion
unable
to
and signification.A bystandermay be totally
in conversation,
detect the meaning of the signs used
owing to abridgment of natural pantomime. But the
deaf-mute, or the savage, is able if required to act out
in detail his abbreviated
signs may
gesture. Natural
lead up
conventional
to
a
language, but they do not
develop into one.
The
guage
lan" 7. Origin of Conventional
Language.
of natural
signs is pervaded by the systematic
tion.
unity of a singleformative principle that of imitaThis gives it so strong and tenacious a hold upon
that it can
the mind
only be displacedby a conventional
language which has also a systematicunity of plan. It
be displacedby a chaotic multiplicity
of detached
never
can
and disconnected
signs,each of which has to be
remembered
separately
by an independentmental effort.
kind,
"
"
mind
The
human
The
conventional
gestures
must
could
not
endure
signswhich
therefore
form
are
some
burdensome
so
to
load.
displaceimitative
kind
of
system,
fied
uni-
Annual
Report
of
Bureau
of
Ethnology,
vol.
i.,loc.
cit.
481
CONCEPTION.
AND
LANGUAGE
" 7.]
deaf-mute
is sometimes
is
purely conventional.
of easily
remembered
He makes
ual
mana limited number
signs,each correspondingto a letter of the alphabet,
and by successively
combining these he spellsout words
Such
and
sentences.
a
position
language has a unity of commakes
it manageable. There
is in it
which
a
expression and
systematiccorrespondence between
similar,expresmeaning. Where
meaning is partially
sion
is partially
similar ; where
meaning is modified,
and
expressionis modified in a correspondingmanner
degree. But the important pointis that the systematic
unity of composition belongs in the first instance to
articulate speech. The
manual
alphabet is merely a
translation of the oral alphabet. Further, it could only
have
been
devised
alreadyanalysedinto
a
conventional
not
system of
a
deaf-mute
its
had
elementaryconstituents.
system of manual
analogous
could
articulate utterance
after
the
or
other
visible
been
Now
ments
move-
conventional
finger-alphabet
spontaneouslyout of a previous
grow
up
imitative gestures. We
might as well expect
or
an
to
untutored
savage
to
invent
the steam-
ageable
light. A limited and easilymanset of manual
signs is required. But on what
the signsto be selected,
and on what prinare
principle
ciple
are
they to be limited ? Oral languagehad been in
for long ages before
its alphabet was
discovered.
use
of a similar system of visible signs
But the invention
would
have
been
covery
incomparably harder than the disof the alphabet. The
discoveryof the alphabet
the discovery
of unityof composition in a structure
was
But the inalreadyexistingand familiar to mankind.
engine or
Psych.
the electric
31
PSYCHOLOGY.
482
[BK.
iv.,
CH.
v.
dependent
invention
been
not
of familiar
On
of
hand, articulate
the other
characterised
process
visible
alphabet
is
utterance
by unity
of
would
as
have
natural
composition.
by the structure
This
of
unity of composition is determined
the organs
of speech. There
is no
need
to invent
an
in sylalphabet before combining elementary sounds
lables
The
and words.
alphabeticalsounds which form
the vital constituents of all speech were, as Ferrier
says,
from
"there
the
beginning." Undetected, but yet
possiblea systematic
present and operative,they made
correspondence between
meaning and expression. This
kind as that
correspondence is not indeed of the same
which
characterises the imitative gesture. Any isolated
imitative gesture has a direct affinity
with
the thing it
of this direct self-interpreting
represents. The absence
is just what
from
the conventional
affinity
distinguishes
the natural sign. None
the less,systematic
ence
correspondis possiblewhere
direct resemblance.
there is no
The
rise and
corresponds
does
not
fall of
the
to
and
correspondence
of
its utterance
varies
more
may
manner.
between
meaning.
fall of
So, apart
what
in
mercury
rise and
it.
resemble
sounds
the
from
the
thermometer
all
between
similarity
they signify,there
the
Where
relations
it
temperature, but
be
may
of sounds
and
a
lations
re-
is
similar,
partially
be partially
similar; where
meaning
may
less in this or that specialmanner,
or
pression
exless in a corresponding
more
or
vary
This
we
find
meaning
to
be
the
case
in
all known
languages.
It is here
that
philological
analysisbecomes
impor-
LANGUAGE
" 8.]
tant.
In
all
languages
AND
there
CONCEPTION.
are
483
traceable
certain
paratively
com-
going
animal, is
all fours
and
as
much
an
imitative
gesture
on
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
484
en.
Y.
theory.
The
ding-dong theory is more
distinction of being advocated
According
it
to
subtle,and
Professor
by
it has
the
Steinthal.
of
specifickinds
objects so affected
him, or to use Max
him, correspondingly
elicit from
to
as
primitiveman
Miiller's metaphor, to ring out of
The
most
primitivewords would
specificutterances.
the organism
out from
therefore be phonetictypes rung
of
first
the
is
There
man
or
harmony
and
of sound
with
struck
when
men
sense
which
idea.
an
does
not
The
by another.
of poetry consists
of literary
charm
styleand especially
vocal expression
between
largelyin the subtle affinity
which may
exist
and the objectsor activities expressed,
depend
the imitation
on
apart from
The
zigzag is
and
this way,
zigzag
motion
What
wide
sound
of
the
of sounds
zag
good
vorpal blade
is
went
rather
thus
another.
one
The
zig
goes
describinga
the line
expressiveof
blade,
to
illustration.
that way,
goes
Again, take
course.
"The
The
the
sound
one
resemblance
any
word
of
snicker
the
than
snack."
gleaming
of
the
and
sound
rapid
of
it.
trinsic
has often this incall reduplication
philologists
"wide
a
expressiveness,
e.g. a "big big man";
of
sea"; "far far away." Among the Botocudos
Brazil ouatou
stands
is the
sea.
In
ance
metaphoricalexpressivenessof vocal utterguise
detect under
somewhat
a
we
deceptivedismay
the essential principleof the imitative gesture.
this
Even
the
disguiseis
; here
more
kind
same
of
kind
same
485
present in the
not
of the
more
of the
CONCEPTION.
AND
LANGUAGE
" 8.]
thing.
of
case
of sound
Other
cation
redupli-
represents
instances
may
tent
mysterious. But the mystery to a large exdisappearswhen we consider that articulate speech
consists not merely in articulate sounds, but also and as
look
more
well
in the
motor
of articulation.
process
The
tongue
go
of
movement
the
mutes
use
way.
Heinicke,
mute, nineteen
able words
of
organs
Even
tongue.
articulation
in
born
had
old,who
things."
invented
of these
Some
deaf-
this imitative
as
years
for
the
"
many
deafwrite-
arbitrary
;
were
at
least
gesture.
little value
Vague
cannot
and
in
two,
an
is not
explanationof
recondite
the
for
part of it which
That
as
mumm
the
so
is of
originof language.
affinities between
first instance
reducible
constitute
sound
a
and
natural
sense
and
of Mankind,
p. 73.
PSYCHOLOGY.
486
stamped
so
make
to
with
character
the
its
clear
be admitted
become
that when
creation
determining the
and
These
similar
meaning
a
sense
it must
hand,
of
of
word
has
ity
affin-
words.
new
all be
must
that
v.
operate powerfullyin
selection
theories
CH.
general feelingof
may
and
iv.,
as
thing signified
and
given context
the other
the
once
and
sound
between
On
of convention
matter
of the
applicationin
given circumstances.
under
[BK.
regarded
as
natural
signspsychologically
precede conventional signs. They are true and
useful inasmuch
as
they emphasise the part played by
tive
imitain imitative expression. The
phonetic elements
of vocal
use
utterance
paves
the
for
way
the
velopmen
de-
conventional
speech. Why
to consist almost
entirelyof phonetic
language has come
elements
have
tion.
we
attempted to explain in the last secThe
reason
why natural signs have to so large
been
extent
an
displacedby conventional signs lies in
of conventional
their
and power.
superiorconvenience
" 9. Advantages of Conventional
Language.
primary and essential procedure of the language
signs is
the
and
The
of natural
itating
processes by imof their sensible appearance
to
broad
of
especially
characters
"
which
features
their appearance
are
to
the
eye.
But
the
comparativelylow
They represent an analysisof perceptualexperience
a
into
universals
versals.
But
and
the
its reconstruction
universals
out
themselves
of these
are
very
unifar
and
Now
on.
so
the
dissection,
to
the
COXCEPTTOX.
advanced
more
either
result
is this process
within
in the intercourse
or
487
of
helplessis pictorial
representation
more
the
express
the
AND
LANGUAGE
" 9.]
individual
the
of different minds.
sciousness
con-
But
of
ply
mentally representing a universal is simof conceivingit. Where
the power
the mental
presentati
redoes not exist,
the conceptiondoes not exist.
mind
Hence
whose
discursive
a
thinking could only
find expression in self-interpreting
capable
signs,would be inof the higher reaches
of abstraction.
Broadly
speaking,natural signs are capable of fixingattention
power
universals
on
constitutive
are
of particular
characters
but
on
which
universals
which
universals.
constitutive
are
thinking which
The
characters
depends
it
; but
of other
the imitative
on
hardly generate
can
ing
conceptual system, in which there is an ascendscale of generalisation,
passingfrom speciesto genus,
and
from
and
to higher genus,
so
on
through a
genus
series of gradations till the highest genus
is reached.
a
It
seems
which
beyond the
works
through
unaided
of
powers
natural
signsto
the
frame
thought
system of
classification.
This
higher
says
to
impotence
of
the
universals
is
easily illustrated.
Tylor,
show
is too
abstract
an
sewing
"
imitative
the
the table.
"*
the
table,he
coat, and
Early
the
coat,
would
to
History
or
of Mankind.
make,"
deaf-mute
that
represent
sawing
Schmalz, "The
express
"To
the carpenter
According
to
gesture
the
the
and
more
penter
car-
tailor
planing
general
[BK. rv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
488
CH.
v.
of
series of imitative
be
gestures may
with
who
wished
where
in
travelled
train
to
the
conception of
wheels, and the third
of
mode
expression ma}r
analyticthan
what
them
by
totality
could
use
If there
of
far
than
uses
the
that
use
of
he
had
universals
one
sign. But
signs if
occasion
this
Now
first
more
sight appear
train.
single word
It
and
of
the
conventional
of smoke.
that
at
the
reconstructs
language
there
give
need
were
in
expresses
remember
must
we
out
that
for
its
we
them.
analyticdescription
railwaytrain,that descriptioncould be given with
more
fineness,precision,and adequacy in words
in imitative gestures. The
conventional
language
word
because
is enough.
word
The
guage
lanone
one
were
imitative
pantomime
describe
why
three
many
of
to
the
into
resolves
Indian
an
the idea of
only convey
bits of pantomime, one
senting
represomething covered in,another
the
that of
deaf-mute
purpose
train, could
successive
three
by
to
convey
needed,
to
gesture
because
it cannot
because
it cannot
is it unable
to
express
generalconception of
*
Ueber
die
uses
do
an
separate bits of
three
with
less.
It is forced
directlydesignate. Now
by a singleappropriatesign
railway train f The reason
Taubstummen,
p. 275.
is that
the
of
concept
railway train
480
CONCEPTION.
AND
LANGUAGE
" 9.]
high
too
possesses
relations.
difficult
be
would
all,in
at
the
gesture language,
of
aid
convention.
of
and
in
in
gestures, where
imitative
the
convention,
only
so
is not
the
as
intended
signs, without
has
been
as
by
by
select
be
to
sufficient
appear
divined.
it difficult to
makes
certain
apart from
to
convention
is
The
depictionof
may
to
is associated
and
the
or
may
person
If
train.
successful
All
in
representation
is
reached,
as
in
the
ficiency
de-
gesture
of
rectly
dithe
belongs
to
Proper
Name.
ity
peculiar-
or
directing attention
depends
others
insufficient,
proves
understanding
be
intended.
circumstances.
the
to
incapable
specialcharacteristic
some
not
with
and
individual
an
at
same
imitative
The
are
enable
to
The
refer
self-expressive
sign.
and
such
as
of
previous
no
to
self
it-
the
communication
possible is
them
meaning
also
person
of
many
on.
capable
of the
object, which
particular characteristics
once
important and easily presented to the eye,
exhibit
the
within
embraces
there
course
instance
traffic,and
natural
Hence
press
ex-
its
particulardeterminations
all these
it
to
even
for
as
the
which
some
concisely,or
express
communication
of
means
Now
to
included
are
mechanism
principle or
as
these
Among
of
context
on
this
may
case
or
be
that
added
of the
and
acteristic
charuntil
railway
VI.
CHAPTER
EXTERNAL
THE
AS
WORLD
CONSTRUCTION.*
IDEAL
Unification of Perceptual
" 1.
function
continuous
consciousness
ideational
of
whole
occurring in
the
the
Data.
detached
data
to
of
of individual
course
"
It is the
connect
in
sense-perception
experience. The
made
continuous
are
sense-perception
them
with
each
other by interposing between
ideally
representedlinks. The physicalobject reveals itself in
and
actual perceptionas existing,
changing
persisting,
activityof the percipient.
independentlyof the motor
Its characteristic
nature
as
physicalobject essentially
this independence of the percipientsubject
involves
and his changing positionin relation to it. But the percipient
in regard
not only alter his relative position
may
isolated
facts
of
it,while
can
make
he
difference
no
it
as
to
its nature
and
existence.
therefore
When
In
connexion
necessary
re-read
is
he
with
ch.
this
ii. of bk.
chapter,
ii.,div.
490
the
ii.
student
should
recall
and
if
" 1.]
is
THE
EXTERNAL
WORLD.
491
ing,
longerperceived. He will represent it as existif
and changing in the same
manner
as
persisting,
in
in its presence
and actually
he were
observingit. Hereof extending knowledge of malies the possibility
terial
things and processes far beyond the limits of
actual perception so as to construct
an
ideallyrepresented
of which
world
fragments are
only detached
actuallyperceived.
which
We
have
to assign the motives
now
prompt
of ideal construction.
The
first
and guide the process
of these
is that which
constitutes
the impulse to all
theoretical
as
distinguishedfrom
practicalthinking.
ence,
incoherIt is the endeavour
to clear experience from
tradiction,
contradiction,and ambiguity. Incoherence, conand ambiguity obstruct
the onward
flow of
of mental
ideas.
Where
they rise,therefore,the course
Now
it is
activitywill direct itself to their removal.
obvious
that conflict must
an
continuallyarise between
object as actually perceived and the same
object as
ideallyrepresentedon the basis of previousperception.
A man
leaves an object at rest in one
place : he returns
and finds it in another
place : the discrepancycan only
be removed
by ideallyconnecting the two experiences
links representing
in which
mode
some
by intermediate
the transference
from
one
place to another may or must
have taken place. A fire is left burning brightly
; after
interval nothing is found
but grey embers.
an
Percept
and remembrance
be connected
must
by ideal representation
of a fire gradually decaying. Again, the fire
which
is left burning brightlymay
after a long interval
of time
found
still burning as brightly as
be
ever.
Here
the representationof the fire as graduallydecayno
[BK. TV.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
492
The
out.
some
as
Apart
theoretical
be
removed
interfered
from
It has
percept.
may
having
as
one
the
perception,
and
actual
incoherence
it alive.
keep
the
with
collides
ing
for
ideal
gone
meantime
conflict between
strangeness of
motive
not
vr.
by representing
in the
actual
mere
en.
to
idea
objectacts
an
construction.
The
of things
to fit it into the general scheme
inability
come
impels the subjectto trains of thought directed to overthe difficulty.
is on
the whole
Merely theoretical interest however
of secondary importance ; and the more
a factor
tive
primithe stage of mental
development attained,the less
important it is. The pursuit of knowledge for its own
tion.
evoluof mental
sake is a comparativelylate outcome
In early stages of human
development thinking
is mainly subservient
to practical
ends, and its impelling
of practicalneeds.
motive
lies in the pressure
of ideal interpretation
carried on
Thus
the process
was
Merely
only so far as it supplies a guide to action.
theoretical speculationmight exist as a sort of amusement
mere
it
but
strenuous
followed
not
was
function
they
course
of the
serious
and
mary
He-interpretation. The priis the framing of
construction
"
of ideal
are
attainment
of
head
be
in the
formed
the
The ideal
practicalends.
which
of use
thus arise are
only in so far
translated
into action.
The
plan which is
for the
combinations
as
in
manner.
" 2. Verificationand
means
out
of events
plan may
arrangement.
arrangement
or
must
which
may
When
is verified
takes
not
it does
by
so
the
execution
the
ideal
the
ideal pre-
place in
conform
to
conform,
the result.
Now
When
events
pre-
fall
otherwise
out
EXTERNAL
THE
"2.]
than
by the result.
impulse to thought.
is contradicted
there
is
new
In this way,
ideal
order
be
may
is a,
sequence
#, c,
is verified.
c, m,
d will be
other
relevant
On
is the
practicalend
the
On
d.
m,
is perpetually
the
original
the
#, c, d, but
",
sequence
plan is carried
This provokes a
when
#,
a,
plan is reached.
In
data.
failure,
ideal combinations
The
into
the
c, q.
construction,in which
of ideal
process
of events
sequence
execution,
be
of
case
construction
utilisingnew
may
In
effective
an
of ideal
the process
findingand
train,there
actual
until
be modified
must
ideal pre-arrange-
the
anticipated,
was
ment
493
WORLD.
new
the
represented
trial,this ideallyrepresented
subsequent occasions,whether
same
substituted
conditions
the
different,
or
similar.
sequence
"?,where
c,
Thus
ideal
struction
con-
in its turn
and
practicalactivity,
struction.
practicalactivityyields fresh material for ideal conIt may
that a plan of
happen of course
succeeds
and
action sometimes
sometimes
fails,owing
to conditions
beyond the agent'scontrol and possibly
When
this is the case,
beyond his power to foresee.
subserves
of his ideal
effective re-construction
and
he
his chance
take
must
scheme
of
is not
success
or
sible,
pos-
failure
in each
instance.
Again, it may happen that
particular
conditions entirely
the result depends upon
outside
the
that his action is quite inof his experience,
efficie
so
range
such
Under
cessation of the
of
activity
execution, if
strong.
in the
is
We
circumstances
the
have
widespread
an
use
but
reallyhelpless,
there
will
ideal combination
interests
involved
are
practical
sufficiently
of this in modern
of
medicines.
he tries every
means
no
or
instance
quack
be
The
times
patient
that suggests
PSYCHOLOGY.
494
itself.
In
primitivestages
more
whole
[BK. iv..
systems of ideas
of
arise
mental
en.
vi.
ment,
develop-
in this way,
which
as
superiorpoint of view stigmatise
ology
mythor
superstition.
Real
trol
insightinto physicalnature, and effective conits processes,
ical
are
over
acquiredmainly by mechancontrivance
and mechanical
execution.
Weaving,
basket-work, pottery, building,the construction of tools
and
yield in early stages of development a
weapons,
real knowledge of the nature
of physicalthings and a
real control over
In such mechanical
them.
operations,
ideal analysis
to
intranslated
and synthesisare
accurately
real analysisand synthesis,
and recombination
a real separation
we
from
our
of the
of
parts of
matter.
Thus
the
tion
constitu-
the
Space
as
Ideal
Construction.
perfectlystraightlines
can
conceive
because
possible,
abstraction
line
in nature, but
to
in ideal
regard
as
"
none
There
the
are
less
no
we
perfectlystraight. This is
construction
tal
we
can
by menirrelevant
the physicalcondi-
be
which
tions
drunken
in
EXTERNAL
THE
" 3.]
man
spite of
his
efforts
his
In
his
zigzag.
to
intends
to
to
is
course
is that
pursue
with
againsthis
pursue
more
which
the
will.
he
less
or
the
mind,
own
is contrasted
pursue
compelled
495
WORLD.
would
he
course
tends
in-
he
course
The
spicuously
con-
is
he
course
apart
pursue
It is thus an ideal
conditions.
interfering
due to conceptual analysis.Now
construction
it is possible
in this way
irrelevant all
to disregard and
treat
as
contrasted
with
those
as
properly physical conditions
from
certain
which
conditions
space,
as
such.
of
will admit
contained
in
the
line,as straightas
the
are
apart from
very
nature
of
of space
nature
other
interferingconditions,
ideal construction
to
as
a
perfectlystraight
appears
line.
the conception of a perfect
In a similar
way
circle and other perfectfiguresarises.
It is possibleto
notice
different degrees of roundness
before
attaining
the concept of a perfect sphere or
circle,just as we
different
notice
degrees of bigness, although there
neither is nor
be an ideal of perfectbigness. Having
can
had
than
experienceof ", which is rounder
a, we
will differ from
b in degree
try to make
c, which
may
of roundness
hinder
or
us
as
b differs from
in such
the nature
abstract
of the
from
attempt
an
material
such
a.
are
we
conditions
The
our
obstacles
deficient skill
own
have
and
which
to
deal
with.
If
consider
only the
of space, we
have
nature
ness.
a
concept of perfect roundThe
of this development is probstarting-point
ably
found
in the attempt to make
to be
things as
or
as
as
round, as straight,
possiblein the prosquare
cess
we
of
mechanical
construction.
In
this
way
there
PSYCHOLOGY.
496
will
be
to
come
and
squareness,
or
into
pass
with
the
roundness,
ideals,at
these
Euclid
which
ideal of
an
[UK.
of
made
us
vi.
straightness,
mately
rude, will ulti-
or
mathematical
abstract
has
first
en.
iv.,
conceptions
familiar.
The
described
kind
that
the
the
perceivedor imaged
as
Time
" 4.
of time
case
in
how
than
between
or
past.
we
what
and
now,
But
in this
has
sensuous
sense
or
between
that
have
the
one
the
seen
tion
distincand
now
according
the
to
besides
is also
is not
specialstamp
vividness
what
we
call
may
of present sensation.
merely
or
defined
mark
and
upon
and
an
sequence,
sub-
absolute
Present
time
but
by its relations,
it,constituted by its
definiteness.
It thus
forms
fixed
What
but
We
in
may
the moment
"
then,
of
process
there
now,
The
"
greater difference
relative, so
becomes
view
point of
and
now
space
conceived.
as
in that of space.
even
from
ideallyrepresentedtime-series
an
another,
space
Construction.
makes
construction
ideal
to
Ideal
as
is made
transition
as
past;
absolutely
what
is
subsequent to
it is
re-
EXTERNAL
THE
" 4.]
WORLD.
497
future.
but as absolutely
merely as relatively
Past and future are still defined only by their relations ;
from
which
define them
is
but the starting-point
we
tion
not arbitrarybut fixed,and fixed not
by ideal construcTo
As Dr. Ward
but by actual sensation.
says :
a
passed through the
being whose presentationsnever
first divested of the
transitions which
ours
undergo
again re-invested
strengthand vividness of impressions,
and
with them
brought back from the faint world of
of 'now'
and
ideas
the sharp contrasts
'then,' and
emotions they occasion,would
be quite
all the manifold
In the obligationto wait and work
unknown.
in
there is much
hope or dread of what is still to come
time-order."*
The
than
more
apprehension of past
garded
not
"
"
"
...
'
'
and
in this absolute
future
in
sense
immediate
the
pre-supposes
ing-point
start-
experience of the
ideal construction
in two
moment
an
directions,
; and
the one
on
hand, of what has preceded,on the other,of
is to follow,the actual now.
On
what
the whole, anticipation
of the future
be regarded as prior in
must
the order of development to reminiscence
of the past.
For the primary stimulus to ideational activity
comes
needs ; and these are in the first instance
from practical
concerned
in
the
made
to
links
hunger
procure
out
train
food
Given
activityis
or
drink.
of ideas
of satisfaction.
Article
"Psychology,"
present
urgency
thirst,the primary
or
for
the
It is thus
state
Trains
Encyclopaedia
of
need
of ideas
Britannica,
demand
devisingof
called
the
representing
xx.,
future.
ideational
upon
follow
of
way
means
the
with
sense
to
successive
with
ture
fu-
representing
ninth
edition,
p. 64.
Psych.
on
32
PSYCHOLOGY.
498
[BK.
iv.,
vi.
en.
shall have
we
Self-Consciousness.
There
to discuss
of
characteristics which
two
are
the head
under
but
with
of
number
each
other
But
the
one
definite
alternative
for
exclusion
of others.
already been
Besides
this,past
The
future
less
degree
himself
actions
is
relation
something which
determined
and
so
as
he
to
modify it,if
Retrospection
data
So
for
far
what
have
considered
the
individual
to
is sometimes
plainthat this
by the clock.
"in
us
divers
that
time is
time
does
called
not
selected
in
is to
at
But
the
only
the
or
subject
be
live
and
in
use
ing
supply-
future.
subjectivetime.
coincide
have
greater
survive
with
time
the
to
future
and
of
agency
he
pre-arrangingthe
we
it appears
can
; in it
continuallyadjusting his
be
must
form
practical activity.
be
may
the
by
to
compete
consciousness.
determinate
has
altogether different
an
in
predominance
lines,which
constant
rate.
evidentlysubjectivetime, and
time
words
But
as
as
it is
measured
time
Newton
travels
tells
Shakespeare's
Newton's
object-
ive time.
minutes
In
time
distinguishedfrom
as
construction.
it
which
find
The
to
comes
pass
ent
is differ-
of time
is found
conceived
be
hours
joyment
en-
measured
as
in the
lovers
Two
may
subjectiveestimate
The
time
ideal
by
like hours.
lovers' conversation
like minutes.
from
499
WORLD.
and danger
positionof great difficulty
appear
may
of
of
EXTERNAL
THE
" 4.]
in
the
conditions
termination
to
with
the
measured.
be
takes
Thus,
get from
to
process
one
of which
duration
the
if the
place
to
another,
long it
sufficient
of the
by reference to the course
may be found
of a
It will take perhaps from sunrise to sunset
answer
sun.
summer's
day;
of
from
or
this mode
of
sunrise
till
The
noon.
procedure depends
themselves
at
of events
defined
more
process
intervals.
in
If it is found
general can
for
that
ciency
effithe
upon
or
is
These
repeat
the
tion
dura-
practicalpurposes
the
same
time
as
be
one
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
500
The
urement.
is the
use
which
interval
which
ideal
call
we
it
Thus
if
they
start
to
the
proved
the
occupy
the
will occupy
tion
posi-
one
fixed
movement
riod
pea
over
fixed period
another
the
same
same
time
time.
same
terminate
dissimilar
time
on
one
on
another
like conditions.
Causality
to
The
Objectivetime is thus an
principleon which it rests
similar,and taking place
as
Ideal
vi.
clock.
they will
simultaneously,
if two
so
on.
Similarly,
found
occasion,they
" 5.
the
are
occasion, under
So
minute.
and
simultaneously,
processes
again,constitutes
otherwise
processes
similar
under
of
hands
CH.
commonly
most
now
on
construction,and
is that
the
hour.
an
call
we
we
minute-hand, startingfrom
returningto
and
smaller
of
movement
of the
movement
which
process
TV.,
discontinue
unsuccessful.
modes
To
Construction.
is
"
On
the
tendency to repeat
proved successful in the
of procedure which
have
a
category of
But for
causality
operates in perceptualconsciousness.
the merely perceptual consciousness
the questionwhy
ence.
a
given course
produces a given effect has no existIdeal construction
is continually
asking this question.
It is the very essence
of the process
by which
ends
-devised for the attainment
of practical
are
means
and its termination
the starting-point
to interposebetween
series of ideallyrepresentedlinks,each
a
stituting
conin a train of causes
an
indispensableterm
periences
leading up to the ultimate effect. These practicalexwhich
events
yield material for interpreting
of the subject. Thus
take place apart from the agency
EXTERNAL
THE
"5.]
WORLD.
501
take
In such
absent.
or
which
form
and
Because
cock-sparrow
absurd.
good example
the stile.
over
the
milk,
As
the
higher point of
his bow
whose
woman
as
the
kill the
red
and
will
view
breast
cat
arrow.
simple causal
to
robin
the
it with
shot
soon
began
cat
the
old
"
has
Why
of
story of the
the
from
appears
fanciful
cases
is
pig
would
had
lapped up the
rat
began to
rat, the
not
go
gnaw
nursery
The
rope,
word
lie in
are
This
began
to
fables.
asking why
may
rope
why
may
have
given effect
discoveringwhich
a
another
application.In
is produced, the interest
of a given group
of conditions
which
irrelevant.
result
inquirynaturallyarises when the same
under
circumstances
apparentlydissimilar on
lows
fol-
the
PSYCHOLOGY.
502
whole,
or
fails to
similar
on
[BK, iv,,
under
appear
the whole.
To
circumstances
find
CH.
vi.
ently
appar-
is here
cause
to
tions,
points of identityin apparently dissimilar condiand of difference in apparently similar conditions.
is a West
African
There
a
story according to which
from
hunter
took the first hint for weaving nets
templating
conHis wife suggested that
the spider'sweb.
and similar articles in like manner.
he might make
mats
He tried,but failed to give them
shape. Accordingly,
he went
back
the procedure of the spider,
to observe
so
the pointsof difference
between
the animal's
to note
as
method
and
his own.
discovered
He
that the spider
its
started
and
wove
always with a fixed framework
web
that.
on
task, he made for
Going back to his own
himself
of sticks and poles,and
a framework
by means
succeeded
in giving proper
so
shape to the articles he
made.
He had compared the two
modes
of procedure,
to distinguishthe
so
as
points of agreement from the
and in this way was
able to explain
pointsof difference,
why a certain result should follow in the one case, and
in the other.
It is by such
a different result
processes
of analyticcomparison that universal laws of nature
are
discovered,which laws may form the basis of
ultimately
and complicatedmechanical
contrivances
such exact
as
the steam-engine or
the electric telegraph. In early
stages of development, the distinction of the essential
find
part of
from
cause
irrelevant, and
degree
and
of
is
the
in
of advancement
accidental
the
main
is very
The
without
savage
in the mechanical
never
the incantations.
and
the
proportioned to
thinks
The
of
Arsenic
arts.
sheep.
crude
kill
using
medicine
flock
the
man
senic
arac-
503
WORLD.
EXTERNAL
THE
"6.]
companies even
...
swine,
animal,
other
of any
indeed
or
the
within
the
for them
He
that it would
result,so
natural
phenomena
disease
as
mind.
is essential ;
interests
construction
ideal
Here
and
since
the
demands
concerned
be
he
had
chosen
death, in which
and
main
the
the
easy
the accidental.
to
would
such
in the
fall
of
control
and
practical experience
agents interested
ing
hav-
in which
case
it."*
of
beyond
the
uncultured
fix upon
cannot
the
what
operativeconditions to form
causal
cumstanc
efficacyis ascribed to all kinds of cirin reality
which
are
irrelevant,such
totally
the evil eye, the malignancy of departed spirits,
as
the magical practicesof witches, and
like.
On
the
these assumptions,elaborate
methods
of procedure are
based.
Such
with
methods
are
truly curative
*
Essays
of
Ella
often
more
measures,
or
less intermingled
which
(Ainger's edition),p.
prevent
168.
the
being wholly
result
much
whole,
not
is laid
stress
more
of accident.
matter
than
inefficient,
and
In
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
504
are
may
either
used.
Other
which
their
by
conditions
very
the
the
nature
cannot
way
within
does
cure
the
tient
pa-
drugs
same
imagined
except in
come
the
control
of
the
man.
" 6.
seen
efficient.
therefore
are
vi.
the
on
like ; for
when
recover
or
uncertain
partialand
medicine
die
and
that
CH.
is irrelevant
is relevant
what
on
But
what
on
iv.,
distinctness
unity and
of
interest
is
We
"
whatever
have
has
separate thing.
is
whatever
acts as a
primarilypractical,
whole, and is capable of being acted on as a whole, is
that conceptual analysisreone
solves
thing. We have seen
the unity of the thing into its constituent
parts,
qualitiesand relations,and that conceptual synthesis
of these constituit by ideal combination
ent
re-constructs
and relations.
parts, qualities
Very important developments of the process of ideal
Since
interest
arise out
construction
of
The
forms.
causal
The
nature
of the
them,
The
first line of
other
departure in
as
these
connexion
ultimate
as
basis
lines
mechanical
man
of the
category
two
causality.These assume
to give a
thought endeavours
vidual
and unity of the indinature
has
of
and
the
pre-supposes
them
first of
Inasmuch
the
thing as
uses
connexion
that of
explanationof
thing from the
parts.
of
with
Thinghood
of the
interaction
intrinsic
unity and
instead
of its
of
explaining
of causal explanation.
thought takes its point
and,
contrivance
himself
and
actuallyput
execution.
a
pieceof
mechanism
together,so
is able
function, he
by showing
to
how
505
WORLD.
EXTERNAL
THE
" 6.]
fulfil a certain
it may
tion,
explainwhy it fulfils this functhat
the
parts
are
and
combined,
act
togetherin producing a
kind
of explanation may
The
certain result.
same
self
himhe cannot
be applied to things which
afterwards
He
construct.
ideallyanalyse and combine
may
he cannot
in a mechanical
what
actuallytake to
way
assume
piecesand put togetheragain. He may even
elements
which
constituent
are
beyond the reach of
and by ascribing
to these fixed modes
actual perception,
of behaviour
in relation to each
other, he may explain
the products of
he can
observe
the phenomena which
as
on
other
each
so
as
to
work
Modern
their interaction.
theories
of atoms
and
cules
mole-
of ether are
particles
examples of the highestdevelopment attained in this
Atomic
and
theories
direction.
explain the nature
of perceptible
mode
of behaviour
things,by assuming
less
as
elementaryconstituents of the physicalworld "counttheir minuteness, persistent
atoms, invisible from
in their duration,and
unchangeablein their properties.
These
coalescingin most manifold fashion,
atoms, now
now
binations,
comwithdrawing unaltered from these fluctuating
and
produce by the varietyof their positions
of natural
the different
kinds
motions
products and
their changeful development." *
The
essential presuppositi
and
of
of such
they assume
the
whole
mode
as
same
nature
way
is
the
theories
ultimate
of behaviour
*
of
motions
the
shall
in the
supposed
to
third
in identically
circumstances.
same
in relation
Lotze, Microcosmus,
always behave
be
to
constituted
each
Their
by
other,and
which
31-32.
their
this is
PSYCHOLOGY.
506
Explanation is more
less varietythere is
invariable.
the
ultimate
the
[BK. iv.,
It would
atoms.
complete
in the
be
CH.
and
vi.
factory
satis-
constitution
of
perfectfrom
most
"
"
to
universal
conditions.
These
laws
with
the alteration
invisible forces
our
of definite
mechanical
skill
into
compelled (by the cunning combinations
it has beguiled that which
holds them) to work,
has
such
must,
ends
conditions
without
that
are
that
their
conformityto
of
any
purpose
our
purposes."*
*
Op. cit.,p.
their
Such
18.
which
under
universal
own,
realise
human
laws
the
contri-
EXTERNAL
THE
" 6.]
507
WORLD,
questionwhether
not
animated
even
composed partlyor
organisms were
having their originin "the
wholly in a similar manner,
vances
could
world's
course,
in
one
way,
suggest the
but
not
which
sometimes
combines
the
another, and
in
sometimes
elements
in each
of these
groups
and
to
matter
the
actual
of their connexion."
mode
of fact, physiological
explanation,so
far
As
as
it
principle.
The mechanical
point of view, which has received so
vast
tremely
a development in modern
science,sprang from exand
rudimentary beginnings in primitive
meagre
of mechanical
construction
thought. The power
strumen
and
analysisimplied in the making of the simple inalmost
if we
of savages
seems
infinitesimal,
elaborate
it with our
machinery. It is utterly
compare
the remotest
of a
insufficient to suggest even
possibility
mechanical
explanationof the complex processes and
of livingorganisms
products of nature, and especially
goes,
and
is based
on
this
their behaviour.
the mind
Yet
of the
savage
not
can-
at
rest
Ibid.
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
508
quires
simply a familiar fact which rethat individual thingsexist,
ing
havno
explanation,
of behaviour.
distinctive
It
propertiesand modes
is a familiar fact that such
things are composed of
and
acted
act
are
on
together, so that
parts which
change in one part is accompanied by changes in other
parts. All this he does not think of explaining,but
it without
questionas a basis of explanation.
pre-supposes
line of thought which
he follows
Hence
a
we
Instead
of explaining
call the anti-mechanical.
may
and interaction
the unity of the whole
by the combination
of the parts, he explainsthe combination
and
interaction of the parts by the unity of the whole.
He
ciples.
him
vi.
en.
To
that the
knows
it is
the
unity as
if
a
nail
of
cry
pain.
sole
links
of
his
because
brain
in
processes
foot, his
he
is
one
and
ideas.
nerves,
part.
or
When
being
are
mouth
utters
kind
individual
organs of speech
of
that as this mode
that
mechanical
speech
and
knows
facts
of
organs
vidual
indi-
same
of the two
his
muscle.
; he
foot, his
of his
the connexion
But
of intermediate
series
of his head
crown
into the
runs
is part of the
The
emit
He
by
lies
knows
of molecular
the
a
of which
nail
cry
runs
simply
both
foot
important point is
of
explanationtakes no account
mechanical
conditions,it is not subject to mechanical
The
limitations.
between
the
sympathetic communion
by
parts of a whole is not supposed to be conditioned
those
relations
interaction
in space
depends.
and
It is thus
sympatheticcommunion
supposedparts of the same
the
time
on
which
mechanical
possibleto represent
when
the
as
existingeven
individual whole
are
widely
separatedin
interaction
ideas
The
absent.
are
of mechanical
conditions
that the
so
space,
509
WORLD.
EXTERNAL
THE
" 7.]
and
practicesof
great degree
the
what
the
the
man
in
to
" 7. Ideal
function
It
be
Its
whole
and
to
and
of
as
ideal
distinguished
If
that
that
this
from
were
science.
even
and
quires
ac-
In
some
this
measure
tiger'steeth, a
ing
by appropriathe
share
may
Instances
shall have
to
of
refer to
Co-operative Process.
combination
the
of
the
merely
so, there
whole
that
the
little use
view
by
be
the
of
society.
capacity for
to a solitary
the
parts.
explanation
no
of
contains
explanation
mechanical
would
becomes
merely, but
savage
substituting
explanation
suppose
truth.
lie in
in
chapter.*
individual
the
in
person,
we
like
part,
whole,
good-fortune.
and
In
the
fierce ;
deceased
next
remarked
crudity
instead
one-sided
whole
be
should
error
of
and
confidentlyasserted
be of
thought would
ideation al
It
of
Construction
not
may
brave
language,
-Through
with
individual.
himself
the
again in
other
the
another.
innumerable,
are
from
thing may be
By wearing
person'sskill
this kind
custom
regarded as
operativein
some
one
belongings
that
them
of
make
may
the
with
nature
transferred
self
him-
them.
to
is often
whole
dissevered
been
connexion
way
of
present and
it has
when
misfortune
cause
nature
manner
some
common
person
hair- cuttings,
and so
nail-parings,
happens to these may not by sympathetic
communion
manner,
the
their
bury
that
so
food, when
it is
Hence
away.
to
savages
on,
of his
the remains
nails,or
But
great
parts
truth.
by
the
it is
can
equally
yield the
as
510
PSYCHOLOGY.
animal.
[BK.
iv.,
CH.
vi.
a social function.
thinking is essentially
Other animals
co-operate in work and play,but only men
united in
men
are
co-operate in thinking. Where
many
end, each single mind is,
strivingto realise a common
The
to speak, part of one
so
great collective mind.
ideas occurring to each are
communicated
to all. What
be valueless
to C respectively
to A, to .Z?,
or
occurs
may
the ideas of ^4,J5, 6Y,taken
in combination,
: but
in combination
form
real advance
a
: even
they
may
of D,
be futile,yet when
they reach the mind
may
feasible
they may fall on fertile soil and suggest some
plan of action or plausibleline of thought.
The
Such
which
debt
by
of
means
individual
the
is two-fold.
language
social
to
owes
and
done,
heard,
and
done.
others
not
from
but
both
the
His
also
In
debt
debt
of
to
of
trains
social
have
His
ing
think-
has
have
their
of
placed
never
place, he
results
their
his
others
second
the
merely
what
on
the
results
his
ways
but
is
He
course
inter-
seen,
seen,
receives
tions,
observa-
thought.
environment
In
is immense.
is not
and
What
lead
has
to
been
new
results
said holds
in the
true
case
of each
for the
rela-
tions of the
but
more
of
511
WORLD.
EXTERNAL
THE
" 7.]
of the
men
same
assimilates
its ancestors
whole
outline
the
whole
tem
sys-
of
ysis
conceptual analand
synthesis,which has been acquired by the
and
mental
bodily activityof past generations. It
and
acquires knowledge by question and answer,
by
of the
a
meaning of words, as
gradual divination
in
than
used
by
ordinary conversation, far more
The
words
direct
and
tences
senpersonal experience.
of
ideas, the
in
system
"
fall
that
are
kind
soon
"
upon
the
"
"
ear
his
lips,express
experience, as the common
upon
which
not
it were,
of
so
child
much
"
and
his subjective
experience
of
his
objectiverule or
his shall conform.
to which
ample,
Why, for exmeasure,
does a child have no difficulty
about the relation
that has given philosophers
of substance
and
qualities
much
trouble ? and why do all children understand
so
it alike,whatever
their experito understand
or
seem
ence
have been ?
Why ? but because the language
may
e'en use,
they must
put into their mouths, and which
and all ; involving,
settles the point for them, one
it
as
in itself
does, a metaphysicaltheory which, whether
serviceable
unexceptionableor not, has been found
We
use
our
through all the generationsof men."*
own
private experiences"mainly to decipher and
of knowledge that is
verify the ready-made scheme
of our
mothergiven to us en bloc with the words
is the result of the thinking,
less
tongue. This scheme
of all the genor
more
conscious,and mainly practical,
*
becomes,
Croom
as
Robertson,
Philosophical
an
Remains,
p. 68.
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
512
erations
of
speaking
articulately
gradual increase
The
from
educational
another
each
influence
is
learned
to
in the
do
again in
possiblein so
over
elders,and
its
far
as
of
child
individual
it attends
human
to
is
the
What
has
As
to
learn
behaviour
a
have
men
This
case.
the
part played
matter
to
is
do
only
of its
of
fact,
childhood
with
on
generation
wholly dependent upon the
one
period of
reproduce
vi.
en.
each."*
to
past, the
own
passed
men,
by no means
of language. The
use
importance of
be exaggerated.
by imitation cannot
on
iv.,
Op. Cit.,p.
69.
THE
EXTERNAL
this way,
as
" 7.]
In
being.
are
transmitted
to
the
from
that
so
much
ideas
the lower
animals
one
be
to
like
grow
avalanche
an
material
accumulatingand retainingnew
Now
of
in this
do not
make
in part to
not
do
Their
constructions
to
work
their
own
does
not
instance,so
intelligence.
do
arise
it does
and
tendencies
environment.
other
mals
ani-
may
be
said
But
they do
designsframed by themselves.
rected
not
embody trains of ideas diof
attainment
the
an
of
in execution
so
create
manner
themselves
definite constructive
with
ever
it advances.
as
by their own
birds,beavers
Bees, ants, nest-building
for
environment
guage
help of langeneration
oped,
by it further develcomparativelysmall beginnings
next
civilisation may
human
the
by
as
the
imitation,
direct
and
513
WORLD.
from
not
foreseen
trains of
ends.
ideas
in
the
trains of ideas
awaken
their
As
in
first
the
human
mind.
is
The
a
social
external
world
product.
It
as
must
ideal
an
struction
con-
therefore
subject in
the
be
same
514
and
manner
is
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
degree
of
independent
thus
introduced
external
"
become
social
the
reality,
real world
minds
also, and
which
the
if
they
become
so
individual
mind
ideal
Besides
the
On
Social
the other
hand,
other
societyto
the verification
by actual experienceby
corresponding perceptual experiences,another
required.
senting
repre-
by
of ideal combinations
verification is
only
structure
in
current
binations
com-
can
entertained
are
belongs.
ideal
The
individual
parts of the
of
constitution
the
factor.
in the
arise
permanent
the
in
is
There
members.
factor
new
vi
organisationin general
its individual
which
social
as
TV., CH.
kind
is
endorsement
ideal combinations
of
means
of
sary.
neces-
which
are
in
generallycurrent
otherwise.
dares
in
Now
deny
to
his direct
as
harmless
he
is
so
flat.
"
kind
is that
againstthe
built
of
is
is round
; there
is
show
the
; he
by
multitudes
than
matter
work
by
as
the
is true
of
he
nothing
ness;
round-
it,it
observe
can
who
is
garded
generallyreis generally spoken of as a
is more
and what
important,
maintaining
vast
up
"
the
generations. It
his
person
of persons
himself.
own
The
reason
individual
ideal construction
which
co-operativethinking
that
know
who
this ideal
of
structure
ideas
has
many
is in
process
it
is met
far
such
of lunatic ;
spoken
he
so
with
person
earth
Now
crank
less about
much
been
that the
contrary,
be
to
seems
then
personal experience to
the
on
and
of constant
EXTERNAL
THE
" 7.]
ing
integralparts of it,and receivit has previouslyrejected.
which
previouslyformed
had
itself others
into
But
the
this advance
supposed
his
does
earth-flattener
of
own
do
product.
not
so,
of the
figuresas
in
antagonism
his
strength of
the
established
social
to
be harmless
is
in which
so
case
ideal
diversified
or
is
settingup
to
the
social
accredited
sentatives
repre-
of the
his
general system of
fore
pretensions: he there-
appearing in the
privatejudgment in oppositionto
order,
taken
he
same
is therefore
way
as
garded
re-
lunatic
difference
sidered
being that he is conand amusing.
from
our
own
complex society,
construction
that there
and
in the
by societymuch
or
ative
represent-
individual
isolated
own
the
are
development
an
individual
an
forward,
as
experts who
The
as
appear
puts himself
he
merely
privatethoughts
to
515
WORLD.
is no
is
so
vast
in its extent
singleperson
who
can
and
hold
more
than
PSYCHOLOGY.
516
novation
which
activity
to
is
does
the
on
with
been
handed
whole
tradition,
justify
developing
not
and
down
actual
improving
from
[BK.
find
general
or
in
to
explain
experience,
than
ideal
the
generation
its
scheme
to
vi.
Ideal
acceptance.
occupied
more
CH.
iv.,
finding
sons
rea-
consistency
in-
apparent
in
which
generation.
further
has
VII.
CHAPTER
SELF
" 1. The
AS
Personal
CONSTRUCTION.
IDEAL
Series.
"
On
perceptuallevel,
experienceinto two
the
of conscious
bi-partition
parts,one belonging to the Self and the other to the NotSelf. To the Self belong all sensations like the pain of a
wound, which exist or at least persistindependentlyof
external
impressions; all organic sensations and appetites
of free movement.
; all active impulses and experiences
To the Not-Self
belong all those experiencesto
in order
which the organism must
adjustits movements
ends.
them efficient in the attainment of practical
to make
Now
ences
adjustmentis possibleonly in so far as the experito which
adjustmentis made arise from conditions
independent of the organism itself and its movements.
if
Thus
changes and differences in sense-experience,
free motor
and so far as they depend purely on
ties,
activibelong to the Self. Only in so far as they are
determined
for and not by the percipientsubject do
it possible
they possess the independence which makes
activities being adjusted to them.
to speak of motor
the physicalobjectreveals itself in actual percepThus
tion
and changing in relative independe
as
existing,
persisting,
of the motor
activityof the percipient.
of ideal construction
is analogous. This also
The case
there
is
517
518
is
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY,
activityprimarilydirected
order
it must
to be effective,
ends
practical
adjust itself to
which
it does
not
relations
physicalobjects and
On
other
the
hand,
the
tions
condi-
conditions
These
create.
vii.
; and
to
an
in
CH.
iv.,
are
ideallyrepresented.
as
of ideal construction
process
is
volved
activityof the Self, just as the motor
activityinin perception is. The
ends
tated
pursued are dicof the Self.
So too the order and
by the nature
of these
of devisingmeans
for the attainment
manner
order in
ends is largelywithin subjective
control.
The
which
ideas occur
is very far from
corresponding with
In ideal construction
the
the order of objectivefacts.
an
mind
with
starts
nature
end
the
and
the
compared which
separated in space
in
with
see
see
time.
the
order
their
actual
touch
it
; in
end
of
jects
thought obrepresentedtogether and
of
The
nature
holds
in which
relations.
The
afterwards,or
But
are
same
this
no
widely
true
of
parts and
the
perceived in
it afterwards.
order
the
train of
order
object are
thing and
first and
the
and
In
be
may
perceptual process;
an
of the
last.
comes
processes
of
qualities
idea
way
sponds
corre-
percipientmay
he may
touch
it
subjectiveorder
has
AS
SELF
" 1.]
trated
and
by
the
order
of
of
qualities
may
distinction
it has
that
say
condition.
His
the
of
nature
is asked
If he
he
qualities,
he
that
it,that
order
in
The
say
may
felt
and
order
for
therefore
in which
put it
his
to
heard
and
ear
good
merely
to
it has
these
it
at
and
nose
only
ideal
The
order
of
in
of
the
Self
in
appetites,
ideational impulses
construction
is the
as
tinguished
dis-
of the
Reference
to
cannot
thinking of
the
so
and
experiences actuallyoccur,
we
it,
smelt
crackle,and
construction
organic sensations
the order
because
idea without
the
on
himself.
began by looking
and
activities,
these
concerned.
but
in
activities.
from
are
his
that
out
is in
"
impulsesand
motor
he
it,that
to
he
and
reference
found
that
of
material
consists
has
he
testing the
cigar it is,he
concentrated
are
exposition
after
flavour
cigar,without
the
put it
he
His
on.
thoughts
how
then
excellent
an
of
order
between
discovery. If a man,
cigar,is asked what sort
519
CONSTRUCTION.
IDEAL
it
as
something.
It is evident
that the
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
520
the mind
when
in its
is absorbed
rv.,
CH.
vn.
train of ideas,the
own
of its own
body constitutes an important part
presence
of its experience. Whatever
objects may be absent,
the
itself is
body
which
to
It
cannot
condition
external
an
move
constantlyenters
itself;it
conform
activitymust
motor
We
always present.
is the
ity
activbeing any motor
At the same
at all.
time, it does not belong purely
jects.
obIn some
it is just like external
to the Self.
ways
One
perceiveanother,
part of the organism can
tween
just as it can perceiveanything else. This analogy bethe body and other material thingsbecomes
more
and more
ment
completelyrealised with the general developof knowledge ; till in the end it becomes
possible
of there
indispensablecondition
organism
Self in abstraction
of the
conceive
to
such.
as
development.
civilised
often
say
a
"
The
not
I took
glassof
Social
it.
have
These,
have
individuals
such
dependent
a
on
Development of Self
far only given an
stract
ab-
so
is meant
said
as
the
in
in the
to
by
case
as
ideal
motives
from
other
community
each
his fellows
and
in
the
the
struction.
con-
which
of the external
arise
each
Self
of the
nothing
primarilypractical,and
In
more
Factor
of what
We
different
in
"
We
"
account
are
"
and
wine."
Consciousness.
prompt
"
"
The
" 2.
word
of educated
even
ordinary language as
refers directlyto the body ; as when
we
a pit," I swallowed
walk," I fell down
men.
as
material
ordinary thinking
the
foreign to
the
tellect
very late result of inIt constitutes a point of view
this is
But
from
world,
relation
same
individual
of
munity.
com-
is
their conduct
even
than
521
CONSTRUCTION.
IDEAL
AS
SELF
"2.]
have
We
seen
physicalenvironment.
and
of thinking effectively,
for the power
that even
so
adjustinghis actions to physical conditions,he is
of language
dependent on intercourse with others by means
He
be continuallyadaptotherwise.
and
must
ing
is
he
his
on
himself
to
He
strive to
must
is led to
he
it is true
history. Now
his
own
Self, but
very
though they
are
ideas,and
they
that
are
other
none
that
the
their experiences,
their
on.
of their
Selves
the
duct
con-
each
towards
so
end
less
actions,
In this
tive
subjecare
not
Selves,
Selves.
other
of
Interpretation
determine
construction
ideal
the
and
ideallyrepresent
impulses which
the
to
determine
himself
towards
of his fellows
other.
which
conditions
study the
he must
; and
of others
the behaviour
only be
data derived from his own
founded
on
experienceof the
ideas which
and
and
motives
guide his own
prompt
in the very
of constructinga
Thus
actions.
process
representationof the subjectiveexperience of others,
of his own
construct
he must
a
representation
tive
subjecexperience. He is continuallycomparing others
ence.
with himself,noting the pointsof agreement and differEvery advance in his knowledge of them is also
in his knowledge of himself ; and, converseadvance
ly,
an
in his knowledge of himself
advance
is an
every
in his knowledge of others.
The
result
advance
same
be
may
reached
has
towards
He
as
must
to
in
somewhat
different way.
dividua
The inonly to consider the attitude of others
not
himself,
shape
can
but
his
pleasethem
own
and
his
own
ways
secure
attitude
of
towards
them.
thinkingand actingso
their friendly
behaviour
[UK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
522
towards
himself.
require of
fellows
his
about
is
he
what
between
comparison
think
Thus
him.
In
vn.
en.
constantlyurged
is and
he
iv.,
this
and
does
his
what
is forced
he
way
to
to
and
thoughts,actions,capabilities,
own
the like.
In
this way
environment
the
the
this
But
motives
social
of
only
as
link
the
part of the
one
tion,
construc-
past and
remembered
is
relationships
ideal
an
embracing the
future.
of
in
expected
function
of
which
wishes
he
them
"
of him
The
thinks
other
take
to
they will
that
take
It not
if he
of
take
of
acted
him,
the view
which
the view
him,
take
of
him,
in certain
that
or
characters,attributes,
functions,or
of the self
constituents
forth.
so
other
organic
our
experiences,however
one's
self-consciousness
self
in
reallyexists,
and
estimates
the possessor,
one
the
extended.
feels
of
of
some
of their
or
or
not
and
of one's
ideal
the
judge
notion
least
of their
cannot
of one's
be
can
inner
that
the
vain,
one's
thoughts
worthy,
abstract
for
if not
When
envy.
self in and
own
is
one
other,for
is at
praise or
does
presence
real
way
others, and
guilty,one
conceived
involves
When
would
they
extend, from
commonly
cipates
anti-
he
and
ways,
which
from
the
guilt. In
perience
ex-
all
SELF
"2.]
such
not
it,to
be led
from
now
of self-consciousness
himself
takes
who
being
"
which
without
the
brief,a
in
a profession,
office,
have
to
self would
be
not
end,
a
vast
appeal
to
that
the
self
get form
as
social
position,an
group
of functions
to
appear
to
were
estimate
to
or
view
as
appears
by it,or
in the
comes,
thus
behold,
to
points of
such
523
could
influenced
otherwise
or
It is
and
not
in the world
others
there
it.
it would
that
something
to
self of self-consciousness
the
cases
CONSTRUCTION.
IDEAL
AS
itself to
atively
be, rel-
of
account
the
ideas
and
estimates
of
other
people."*
As
the
idea
of Self
relations
its relations
to
vary.
involves
essentially
other
In
Self ; in relation
receptiveSelf ; in
controllingSelf.
in
about
fancied
people who,
as
I then
beholders,
the
abasement,
my
ideal
the idea of
to
relation
accordingas
enemies
superiorsit
to
is
it is
To
bative
com-
submissive,
inferiors it is
to
rying
va-
dominant,
If I strut
again quote Royce :
dignity,my non-Ego is the world of
cordingl
Acfondly hope, are admiring me.
"
exist,for myself,as
model.
If
non-Ego
people whose
sink
is the
in
the
beheld
despair
world
of the
and
of
all
self-
conceived
or
Prof.
"
Observations
Royce,
Psychological
Review, vol. ii..No.
*
on
Anomalies
5, pp.
437-438.
of
Self-Consciousness,"
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
524
vn.
CH.
is the
"
be
to
this coincides
do ; and
or
himself
and
the
this is the
case,
projected/
it contains
his
imitated.
person
conceptionof
the
which
elements
other
do
not
so
tween
be-
far
as
is
person
into
enter
so
as
his imitative
ceases.
His
far
his
conception of
the
other
to
out
into
person,
the
the
other
other
efforts have
conceptionof
the
he
succeeded, this
himself
coincides
other
person.
In
simply
ascribes
his
person,
person,
"
he
or
ejects,
instead
of
trast
con-
with
thinking of
own
ences
experithrows
them
projecting, or
as
something beyond what he has
regarding them
himself
actuallyattained. "For
example, last year I
who
had great skill
thought of my friend W. as a man
*
Op. cit.,p.
443.
525
CONSTRUCTION.
IDEAL
AS
SELF
" 2.]
who
bicycle and
the
on
the
the truth
we
on
'machine.'
now
which
marks
particular
of myself,have
is this
that
call
now
very
But
of
think
to
writes
and
'wheel'
wrote
thought
W.
am
cludes
in-
So
...
of the
many
I think
mine, when
"
"
'
we
generally,
To
see
of
the
case
may
the full
the
idea
call the
Prof.
of
of children.
Baldwin,
Social
pp. 10-11.
socius.' "
importanceof
social environment
*
'
Self, we
all that
and
imitation in the
must
Children
have
development
consider
especially
to
is necessary
Ethical
learn
to
Interpretations
from
make
in
Mental
their
them
velopment,
De-
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
526
members
of the
societyinto
Baldwin
notes
that
iv.,
CH.
vn.
which
less
Unthey are born.
pulses
aptitudesand imthey are born with the connate
of acting
for acquiring the ideas and
the ways
in the community to which
current
they belong, their
existence
is resented
by the community. They have
of survival
in savage
little chance
communities, and
in the more
civilised their positionis a very uncomfortable
even
one.
They are for the most part locked up
in prisons or
child is
lunatic
asylums. The normal
perpetuallyengaged in acquiring the habits of thought
and action
of its elders, and
in doing so is constantly
developing the idea of Self by a process of imitation.
mental
the
child
has
characteristic
two
the
In
protective"and "ejective" phases of imitation.
the first,
he is receptive,submissive, and respectful.In
dainful
disthe second, he is aggressive,self-complacent,
and
or
patronising. The two attitudes correspond
"
to
is
pole of
one
...
be, depends
to
other
it to
on
which
pole, over
be.
If the
child's
The
child
other
has
presents
novel
against what
is
he
other
serves,
'subject'over
ments
elerecognisesnew
hand,
rightto
has
be
gone
there
is
trembles, he
are
different.
further.
to
persons
In
He
the
has
certain,
un-
self is
the
"
he
the
features, or
protective.'He
of personal suggestion not yet accommodated
consciousness
is in the learning attitude ; he
His
features,then
it is
control, calls
no
involved
person
pole
which
particularrelation
the
self
of him-
sense
which
relation ; and
the
on
"
slave.
whom
case
But
tates,
imithe
of these
mastered
on
to.
tic
the dialec-
all their
fea-
tures, he
developments
new
ejects'them,
an
'eject'is a
4
the
as
person
consciousness
that
to
brothers
is
read
it what
makes
in his
intercourse
with
the
able, out
it.
will, in
individual
of his
It is
he
so
who
thinks
of
store
own
ejectiveto him,
Now
sense.
sisters,
notablythe
and
them
into
he
527
no
they do, he anticipates
what
in it which
elements
those
the
himself
do
can
CONSTKUCTION.
IDEAL
AS
SELF
" 2.]
that
perience,
ex-
for he
is what
ones,
younger
of
are
youthfulhero.
They are his ejects'; he knows
them
by heart,they have no thoughts,they do no deeds,
he could not have read into them
which
by anticipation.
his superior activities on
So he despisesthem, practises
them, and tramples them under foot." *
the Many
All selfSelves.
" 3. The One Self and
consciousness
impliesa division of the total Self. When
I think about
myself,the I and the myself are never
I have
idea is
an
quite identical. The Self of which
from
the Self which
has the idea.
always distinguished
As Professor
Royce observes, "I can question myself,
to
'
our
"
and
for
wait
an
can
answer;
reflect
upon
my
own
and
states
own
taught me
to
do
processes
whatever
suffer in presence
or
of others."
social
life has
of the states
and
Op. cit.,pp.
18-19.
t Psychological
Review,
No.
vol. ii.,
5, pp.
454-455.
PSYCHOLOGY.
528
it is
which
Of
aware.
[BK.
the
even
course,
CH.
iv.,
present
vn.
moment
is
is
There
yet another
in which
way
necessarilybroken
up into a number
of the individual
The
life-history
of very
multitude
and
states
of
At
moment
as
they
is
each
partialselves.
often
other,
of self-conscious
from
and
braces
em-
ous
incongru-
usually fixed on
of experience. In
specialmodes
differ from
Self which
any
total Self is
consciousness
and
tendencies.
these
of
diverse
reflexion,attention
other
the
the
one
or
far
so
present
is
the
"
say,
was
time."
as
not
the
same
myself,"or,
Self of
The
In
person.
our
"
was
dreams
fact,he
not
is
is
apt
to
quite myself at
usuallysharply
ing
distinguishedfrom the Self of waking life. The wakSelf generallyrefuses responsibility
for the thoughts
actions
of the dreaming Self.
and
In such
instances,
the
person
himself
and
feels that
these
is between
there
there
is
more
difference
between
than
specialphases of his life-history,
himself
but
and
other
These
are
and
the
cases,
same
with
the
persons.
the normal
Self,
The
IDEAL
AS
SELF
"3.]
antithesis is found
same
persons
the
often
in the
with
and
ourselves
other
In
such
often
cases
The
moral
conflict between
the
consciousness,and
is transferred
persons
consciousness.
own
sciousness.
con-
by conflicting
two
were
quasi-
if there
as
as
if
of the
one
identified with
two
true
our
tion
rela-
the
to
of tendencies
conflicting
groups
between
our
present
is divided
individual
same
of
moment
were
one
the
appears
on
only in reflecting
not
mind
the
When
impulses,it
in
also
529
CONSTRUCTION.
within
example, perhaps,is
principleand temptation.
is
tendencies
conflicting
Self,i.e. with the normal
best
flow
of
situation
...
another."
We
selves those
future, or
must
add
to
had
might
been.
past and
ent
pres-
It is
*
Psych.
actual
which
the
ourselves
wish
to
as
be
we
or
are
wish
or
that
454.
34
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
530
en.
iv.,
vn.
pictureof it so as to represent
ourselves
as
thinking,feeling,and acting,not as we
have
actuallythought, felt,and acted, but as, from our
present point of view, we should wish to have thought,
We
can
felt, and acted.
disregard actual conditions
with
ourselves
and
limitations, and mentally endow
and
neither
nor
we
qualitieswhich
possess
powers
have possessed,and we
can
ly
imagine situations especialtion
the admirafitted to call them
into play, and
evoke
of our
social environment.
Without
going to such
extremes
as
this, a man
simply say to himself,
may
did I not work
Oh ! what
I have
been ! Why
a fool
his
allow
instead of play?" and the like; and he may
mind
follow
to
out, by a train of ideal construction,
representationsof what he would have been in the past,
transform
to
past
the
"
future, if
present, and
ideal
the
constructions
he
most
are
future, especiallyin
to
and
and
do,
other
represent what
what
is to
in
relationships,
happen
with
accordance
to
its social
it,in
to
dency
ten-
is
future
of the
to
is
There
young.
Self
the
reference
in
common
the
Such
otherwise.
acted
had
be
and
present desires.
is sometimes
himself
a
he
as
direction
tends
said
to
be
realisation
from
Self.
the
wish
would
is
realise
to
mere
given
his
to
be,
to
When
what
self-realisation,
of
future
Self
imperfectionsand
as
which
activity,
his
ideal.
of
instead
the
ethical
is meant
constructed
limitations
must
he
is,
actually
end
be
is
the
by abstracting
of
the
present
"4.]
AS
SELF
IDEAL
531
CONSTRUCTION.
Under
mal
norPathology of Self-Consciousness.
the tendency to regard various actual or
conditions,
less
or
more
possiblephases of the Self as if they were
" 4.
"
is not
carried so
persons
metaphor for literal fact. The man
far
distinct
remind
always
into
up
in the
other
each
still knows
or
can
in
is not
realitysplit
from
distinguished
personalities,
in societyis
person
way as one
himself
he
that
pluralityof
mistake
to
as
same
in many
from
another
But
cases
distinguished
person.
the analogy is no
of insanity,
analogy for
longer mere
is brought about
the patient.So great a transformation
in the train of his experiences,
that the present phase
cordant
of his life-history
and disis altogetherdiscontinuous
with
his
same
and engrossing,
and the idea of
persistent
so
feeble,that his whole actual bygone
past relatively
historyis either partiallyignored and partially
phase is
the
so
re-constructed
Cases
themselves
the
have
skin
been
received
said
had
But
there
him
at
You
is
in which
insane
patients
great personages
God
even
When
he
to
know
Father
no
Austerlitz ; what
machine
ask them
to
never
such
person.
the
as
and
Father,
poleon,
Naact
as
want
wretched
he
other
some
wound.
to
far
dead
a
be
to
Messiah, or
accordinglyas
whose
is ascribed
or
extremely common
are
believe
he
the
At
past.
make
made
a
to
better
said me,
Taine,
but
On
asked
was
how
Lambert,
you
where
Austerlitz,
see
In
is not
him
; you
p. 377.
is ?
killed
; it is
ought
speaking of
always it"*
Intelligence,
health,
ball
cannon
his
Lambert
Father
here
one.'
to
as
he
to
self
him-
PSYCHOLOGY.
532
delusions
Such
in the
iv.,
en.
vn.
this
of
nature
[BK.
with
present discontinuous
the past.
disorders
Nervous
of continuity. In
bring about such breaches
with the
general,a change in the experiencesconnected
to
body, and especiallywith organic sensation,seems
tend
be
to
an
essential
in
factor
the
Sometimes
process.
the
the
life-history,
alteration
of the
transformation
of
tone.
highly important
factor
in
produce
it may
change
of
either
emotional
states
attended
But
; alteration
by
emotions
general
are
not
of
characteristic
expansive and
Now
may
be
attitude.
merely specificmodes
aversion.
in emotional
or
idea
reason
emotional
individual's whole
be
we
have
seen
initially
vague
that these
and
conative
undirected
to
dencies
ten-
cific
spe-
IDEAL
AS
SELF
" 4.]
themselves.
initially
vague, tend to define
of
tional plane, the process
of
to
ideal
If
construction.
pathologicalconditions
and persistent,
whole
which
in this way
with
the
with
connexion
definition
takes
emotional
the
the idea-
On
the
form
moods
due
tense,
sufficiently
profound,in-
are
quite discontinuous
and
cordant
dis-
actual
moods
emotional
Now
be
may
533
CONSTRUCTION.
in human
certain
social
life
commonly
situations.
These
arise in
same
define and
pathologically
may
of corresponding
explain themselves
by the ideal representation
the patientand his social
relations between
environment.
Suppose that one's depressed emotional
ium
condition,as in melancholia,or at the outset of a delirof persecution,contains
of suspicionor
emotions
emotions
of conscientious
resembling the normal
guilt,
Then
these
the feelingof social dread.
or
feelings
assimilate in one's
tend
actual
to
surroundings,or
in one's memories, data which
patient
suggest, to one
of his deeds,
an
actuallybelieved social condemnation
actual judgment of his inner conscience
or
an
passed
his sinfulness,while to another
patienthis own
upon
of emotion
hostile scrutiny
sorts
suggest an especially
of his appearance
inner sense
or
an
by the passers-by,
hide
from
that he
must
possible scrutiny. On the
other
of these
hand, feelings quite the reverse
gest
sugto the exalted
bered
rememgeneral paralyticwhatever
fancied
social relations,
or
expressinghis vast
the fragments of left-over social habits which
powers,
still survive in his chaos
permit him, in passing,to
express."*
moods
when
they
arise
"
Prof.
Royce,
Psychological
Review,
vol. ii.,No.
5, pp.
456-457.
Now
social relations,that
involves
past and
the
ideal
an
this amounts
cases
between
bound
so
separate persons.
In
other
the
present and
of
to
Selves
two
the idea of
of
continuity
they appear
be
to
neously
simulta-
another.
one
these
of
that
appear
strife with
at
vn.
the
breach
en.
TV.,
re-construction
present Self,so
be
cases,
with
up
re-construction
ideal
an
in extreme
to
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
534
times
Some-
which
words
his ideas
he
themselves
utter
hallucinations
"
sense.
of them
off his
run
the
the
to
form
are
this way,
his
is not
express
of
of the
The
own.
his.
tory
audi-
His
cular
mus-
ing
sound-
thoughts
out
he
walks, are
who
is hostile
idea
of this other
motives
to
" 5.
idea
either in the
thoughts
forth,in
in his shoes
end
mind
own
at least hallucinations
or
The
his
within
uses
The
of the
abstract
to
him
and
contemptuous,
person
in various
supplying him
and
and
he
fills out
ing
ways, attributwith words
propriat
ap-
his character.
External
and
Self includes
developments the
*
the
Internal
in all but
idea
Ibid., pp.
of
456-456.
"
The
Self.
body
as
most
the
ve-
" 5.]
IDEAL
AS
SELF
535
CONSTRUCTION.
activity.There is also
perceptionand motor
another
garded
why the body should be repowerful reason
as
part and parcelof the Self. The idea of the
includes the idea of its relation to other
Self essentially
But it can
selves.
only exist for other selves in so far
in bodilyform.
it appears
to them
as
But however
importantthe body may be, it can never
the most
Self or even
be regarded as the whole
as
sential
eshide
of
far
they differ
as
from
of other
those
movements,
material
things,
be
to
appear
the external
more
less
or
instruments
is their instrument
observer
that in which
analogous
to
used.
The
are
emphasised by
the body
which
thinking,in
while
the
Thus
dreams.
the
between
kernel.
inner
be
mind
in
even
we
the
body
as
outer
But
we
find
way
material
inner
and
cent,
apparently quies-
The
is true
same
of
primitivestages of
antithesis recognised
most
find
of ideational
process
may
is active.
development,
human
the
other
between
contrast
Self is
outer
in
used
an
husk
that
and
the
the
more
soul
as
primitive
modes
the
continuous
All
these
views
naturally and
mental
series of
are
very
conscious
remote
inevitablytaken
development. The savage
from
in
themselves.
states
those
earlier
cannot
which
are
stages of
find out
what
the
for
the
vn.
examination
mortem
inner
Self is not
is not
the
the
CH.
Self is
inner
Thus
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
536
internal
an
brain
heart
or
conceptionof
series of
mere
of the
or
simple
conscious
of
power
can
organ
lungs.
On
the
immaterial
other
hand,
substance, or
states, pre-supposes
conceptual
abstraction
of
velopmen
detirely
en-
the
This
irrelevant
material
in which
bedded.
it is im-
makes
"
This
he
has
mode
of
little
man
inside
who
him."*
moves
who
man
in his dreams.
of the person
*
is absent
The
dreamt
Fraser,
The
or
dead
appears
to
another
Bough,
vol.
i.,p.
121.
AS
SELF
"5.]
637
CONSTRUCTION.
IDEAL
; and
savages,
conditions
these
much
more
so
than
are
among
ourselves.
among
which
difficulty
common
very
the
human
Add
mind
to
finds
personalexistence after
is not
The
death.
merely that of realising
difficulty
that the
in the abstract,but of realising
annihilation
dead person has ceased to play his habitual part in the
ordinary life of the living. The habits of thinkingand
actingof his survivingfriends and relatives have grown
fixed on the assumption of his presence
up and become
is always a conflict between
There
these
them.
among
conditions
introduced
pre-formed habits and the new
tressing
by his decease, and the conflict is often intense and dissurvivor feels a shock of surprise,
The
often
painful,when he misses his intimate friend from his
habits of thought lead him
usual place. His rooted
to
ideallyrepresent the dead as still having an existence
analogous to his existence when alive. He is thus prepared
and dreams, in
to meet
illusions,
hallucinations,
the dead
with the personal
which
once
more
appear
and garments of the living,
with no
dulity.
increappearance
in
realisingthe
On
termination
the
contrary, the
of
must
is that what
remember
theories
psychological
natural
of the
that
he
and
necessary
is
actually
physiologicaland
sees
originof dreams
and
hal-
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
538
lucinations
beyond
utterly
are
of savage
the range
ordinarybody
the
relation between
The
CH.
and
vn.
ception.
con-
ternal
the in-
way.
Self and
On
Self.
the external
reason
lies
sympatheticcommunion
the bare fact that they form part of the
the soul is
In ordinary waking life,
individual.
same
supposed to be locallypresent in the body. But it may
depart from the body without severingthe connexion
them.
At least a modified form of sympathetic
between
soul
in
are
but
departure is
temporary
only illness,or
communion
well
trance,
which
brought
out
is
dreams.
case
and
of
body
supposed to involve
The
sympathetic
independent of
in the
soreness
or
of the
the death
often
The
them.
between
still continue
may
final departure of the soul means
communion
local
The
dreams.
fatigueof
his
has
his soul
painful struggles which
dream
wrestlingswith other souls during
presence
is
savage
body to
undergone
the
in
its temporary
" 5.]
AS
SELF
IDEAL
CONSTRUCTION,
539
which
are
departedspirits
supposed to go are in primitive
thought generallyrepresented as faint reproductions
of the actual world, and the societyof ghostsas
analogous to the societyof the living,retainingsuch
relations as that of master
and slave,rich and poor, and
the like.
Since
in Chinese
uncommon
folk-lore.
But
these
are
tional
excep-
Familiar
there
why
there
find
that
is
should
no
not
in the
reason
be
more.
primitivethought
As
often
nature
a
matter
of the
case
of fact
we
ence
recognisesthe existof several.
The
and
flexions
reexplanationof shadows
by opticallaws is beyond the range of the
mind
cordance
accordinglyinterpretedin ac; they are
savage
with the system of ideas familiar to primitive
PSYCHOLOGY.
540
thought. They
much
be
as
impersonationsof
are
the
as
man's
shadow
set
it free and
of water.
the
stole
so
the
young
"
As
have
different
and
with
the
the
functions.
kra.
Thus
ascribe
the
of
each
to
own
pool
land,
supposed to
Tshi-speaking
individual
two
the Brahman, or
body,
is especially
connected
kra
dreaming, and of birth and
his
The
phenomena
in his
about
impersonationsare
projectedit upon
in
water."
the
on
different
Sometimes
vidual,
indi-
whole
imprisonedit
and
moved
man
moved
shadow
vii.
CH.
to
they seem
soul, but they are often regarded
a
Polynesian story of a girlwho
is
There
distinct.
the
iv.,
is ; sometimes
soul
the
identified with
[BK.
"
of the
and
visions it passes
out
heredity. In dreams
with
some
body ; after death it acquires connexion
kra has passed through
other body, so that each man's
The
a long series of distinct embodiments.
srahman,
leave the body without
or
soul, cannot
suspension of
After death, it passes to deadobvious vital functions.
land, which
other
of
which
the
world
in
arrangements
is
it has
previously
If the man
lived.
has died before completingthe proper
of life,
the srahman
term
lingersabout its former
habitation.
During life,body, srahman, and kra are
vidual,
indiregarded as different impersonationsof the same
that what happens to any of them
so
may affect
counterpart
the whole.
The
adventures
of the
incidents
kra.
in
"If
a
a
dream
are
believed
native, having
to be
taken
stiff and
muscular
the
night
"5.]
SELF
his kra
in
has
AS
feels
he
pain
to
in
another
toilsome
some
Jcra, and
he
made
or
exertions
the
541
CONSTRUCTION.
engaged
been
conflict with
IDEAL
pursuit,or
attributes
the
the
flicted
in-
blows
form
the
and
It is true
person.
part regarded
most
is
and
there
one
described
"
the
Here
as
that
very
these
ghosts
attenuated
forms
for
are
the
of matter,
twisted
up
first
The
in
principleis probably to
long after Plato the old
form
As
in the
even
clearer
lightthe
of
the
ascribed
notion
survived
of matter
the progress
be
of
to
Plato.
spiritas
an
But
ated
attenu-
in scientific
thinking.
of thought and knowledge brought into
ception
unityand continuityof nature, the con-
material
even
soul
became
modified.
There
was
Ellis,The
t Pearson's
Tshi-speaking
Magazine,
Peoples of
March,
1898,p.
the
255.
Gold
Coast
of Africa,p.l51.
PSYCHOLOGY.
542
certain form
universe.
of matter
The
of
phenomena
this
from
the
In
later
of
which
vn.
throughoutthe physical
given by the
theory was
breathingand
soul-substance
CH.
diffused
to
cue
[BK. iv.,
vital
heat.
The
individual
air rarefied
of this kind
eral
gen-
souls
were
The
heat.
by
found
to be
are
gards
repre-Socratic
philosophers.Anaximenes
the soul as being essentially
sentially
air,and air as being esof the nature
of soul. Air in generalis to the universe
what
soul is to us.
Heracleitus regards
our
own
between
the internal soul and
breathingas a connexion
the surroundingair from
which
it is originally
derived.
soul
was
became
often
find
the
doctrine
assumed
commonly
constitute
to
the
of
stillvery
it,and
We
times, when
link
division
material, and
immaterial
an
material
old
soul
exist
togetherwith
between
it and
the body.
of psychicalfunctions
tween
beto
immaterial
souls.
Ethical
and
functions
often ascribed to the immaterial
were
religious
principle,while all lower functions, such as sensation,
ascribed
to the
perception,appetite,and the like,were
material principle. Even
in comparatively
recent
times,
sometimes
find the immaterial
soul recognised only
we
by way of submission to theological
dogma, all ordinary
conscious
functions
being ascribed to material soul.
Thus
brutes
Bacon
"
says
must
"
The
sensible
clearlybe regarded
attenuated
and
made
soul
as
invisible
by
"
soul
the
of
stance,
corporeal subheat ;
breath
of flame
and
air,
(I say) compounded of the natures
and
having the softness of air to receive impressions,
the vigour of fire to propagate its action."*
this
To
*
Works
(Fpedding
and
Ellis),vol. iv.,p.
398.
" 5.]
SELF
sensible
"
soul
he
He
demands
should
be
"handled
in
immortal
this
the
difficult
The
it
;
to
what
last
soul
doctrine
of
in
animal
The
and
the
soul,
but
They
merely
are
immaterial
it.
no
longer
other
Thus
;
matter
conscious
is
is
of
material
recognised
for
of
With
the
displaced
as
figment,
*
Ibid.
even
by
of
body
selves
them-
which
is
and
of
this
the
acted
is
Descartes
from
the
experience.
and
advance
in
form
as
by
matter,
the
the
rigidly distinguished
and
it became
fine
regarded
body
mode
between
mechanism
of
example,
conscious
soul
merely
sharply
link
the
on
of
consist
of
the
acts
doctrine
for
very
do.
contained
longer
kind
any
is
it
and
it to
held,
as
no
are
part
the
it
thought
connecting
existence.
physiology,
was
principle
by
the
spirits
they
of
capable
of
spirits,"
constituting
matter
and
scientific
"animal
Descartes.
for
survival
important
material
left
has
Bacon
in
investigated
theologians,
for
topic
and
uncreated
be
cannot
and
innate
are
The
"
faculties
these
they
as
soul."*
principle
a
of
as
appetite,
memory,
origin
physically
[sensible]
is
see
the
"
faculties
such
imagination,
that
immaterial
way
ascribe
to
reason,
will."
543
CONSTRUCTION.
appears
understanding,
inherent
IDEAL
AS
on
soul
like
from
all
all
modern
position,
VIII.
CHAPTER
AND
BELIEF
" 1. Distinction
A
"
man
himself
between
safety. This
for him
actual
easilyimagine
can
lion,and
ideal combination
idea
Imagination.
has
is
no
to look
pose
supto his
longer possible
; the
an
and
Belief
that he meets
own
IMAGINATION.
of the
lion
in view.
This
the
tween
example brings out the essential distinction beBelief and Imagination. All belief involves objective
control
of subjectiveactivity.The
of
nature
nations
object thought about enforces certain ideal combito
control
upon
So
the
is not
the end
long
as
exclusion
of others.
absolute; it
towards
the
which
subject is
this
objective
It depends
is conditional.
mental
is directed.
activity
strenuouslyaiming at the
544
But
" 1.]
IMAGINATION.
AND
BELIEF
545
tions
practicalends, only certain combinaof ideas are
possiblefor him, but if his mind is
of practical
results or on
bent on
the achievement
not
of new
the attainment
knowledge, almost any ideal
combination
be possiblefor him
which
does not
may
He
contradiction.
involve an
cannot
explicit
imagine
round
and square, black
and
a thing as
being at once
clude
white ; he cannot
mentallymake two straightlines ina
destroyingtheir straightness
space, without
;
but apart from
such
struct
limitations,he can
ideallycon-
achievement
all
and
man
of
of
manner
form
to
as
so
relations ; he
due
that
in each
to
ideal construction,
contradiction
overt
There
on.
; but
of the
Thus
object.
he
women,
which
may
has
reference
no
he has
whom
woman
play of
so
can
the
tion
depends on the general direcmental
So far as the reat the time.
striction
activity
exists at all,his mental
attitude is one
of
of ideas
them
heads, and
the
; he
centaur
horse
case
and
of
image
an
combine
can
or
seen
to
heard
any
actual
of.
So
nature
men
about
man
or
far,the play
down
will
with
the normal
make
them
between
the
belief in
Psych.
the
of human
nature
breathe
their shoulders.
construction
credible
and
narrative
is bound
the
as
beings.
have
fire,or
So far he
features
at
He
must
their heads
by
the
incredible.
historical
variance
not
beneath
distinction
There
is
no
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
546
human
about
and
through.
On
the
other
hand,
wider
much
guided by
range,
initial
of its
assumptions.
The
the
human
; it will then
own
it will still be
but
through
actual
to
vm.
that
suppose
refer
CH.
in it
generalis involved
in
nature
iv.,
more
less
or
subsequent
flow
of
started
he cannot
think
that
in this
man
even
there
case
is
certain amount
consequentlyof
restriction and
jective
of ob-
belief.
in the
objectiverestriction is at its maximum
edge.
ends, and in the pursuitof knowlpursuitof practical
find
It is therefore only in these cases
that we
is not blended
full belief, belief which
with imagination,
Now
"
contrasted
but
confine
our
of
motives
with
ideal
efficient action.
will make
which
a
man
For
moment
we
may
The
practical
activity.
primary
lie in practicalneeds.
construction
attention
combinations
Ideal
it.
to
are
Only
action
builds
first framed
those
therefore
efficient.
bridge
with
across
By
a
are
ideal
stream
view
to
sought
for
tion
representabefore
he
to
it ; but
the
one
" 2.]
becomes
It appears
IMAGINATION.
AND
BELIEF
and
547
the
antithesis between
the
credible
and
the
the
true
incredible,
deepened.
attitude
of belief
and
disbelief is
been,
or
he
as
would
like them
to
He
in any way
which
happen to interest him.
may
his imaginings to his comrades,
communicate
may
and
they
be,
or
be
may
Such
handed
works
down
from
generation to
eration.
gen-
the
plays of Shakespeare,or
the novels of Thackeray, are
vanced
examples of the most addevelopment of this mode of mental activity.
Conditions
" 2. General
of Belief. There are two
main
pointsof view from which the problem of belief
be approached. It is at once
must
of activity,
a condition
and conditioned
by activity.
The relation of belief to activity,"
pressed
says Bain, is exby sayingthat what we believe we act on.' *
as
"
"
"
"
'
This
of
than
scrutiny will
Just
must
because
be
be
to
seem
may
show
that
belief
in
which
is
condition
alone
*
Mental
of
the
condition
means
of
To
an
end,
we
action
Moral
Science
of
But
is
quence
conse-
closer
superficial.
activity,
activity
strive after
an
end
necessary
makes
and
belief.
criticism
of belief.
strivingafter
rather
statement
condition
view
(1872),p. 37".
to
lief
bethat
PSYCHOLOGY.
548
[BK.
iv.,
en.
vm.
practicaland
in determining
This holds good
of practical
as
psychologicalpossibility.Thus
theoretical needs
play an essential part
end
what
in
shall and
we
shall
pursuit of
the
ends.
The
for
theoretical
of
man
useful
that
until
the
he
end
to
no
one
aimed
in
its mark
is
ought
at be
both
as
advance
to
apt
to
meet
pull
constructed
a
them
clingsto
he
He
himself
has
knowledge,
towards
him.
to
edge,
knowl-
working hypotheses;
are
well
as
science, eager
of
sake
the
believe.
not
the
criticism
man's
down
better.
result
practical
cases
because
mind
or
an
they
by
ing
urg-
house
Whether
increase
presses
of
forward
best
clingingto those
per
it,and passing by those alternatives which would hamand paralyseits activity.
with the increase of
The
which
is concerned
activity
knowledge is in order of development subsequent to
ends.
The
the activity
which
directlypursues practical
ideal construction
which
is directlysubservient
to action
cerning
brings into being a connected
system of ideas conthe world
Theoretical
and
the Self.
activity
consists in further development of this same
system of
results.
It
ideas without
direct reference
to practical
free play of the imagination,but consists in the
is no
of beliefs,
velopmen
it is the further deformation
just because
of a pre-formed system of beliefs. The conditions
and limitations of this system as a whole
apply
refuses
all enlargements of it. It excludes
to
to
or
include all merely imaginary combinations.
side of the question.
Let us
turn
to the other
now
but
Belief is not only conditioned
by mental activity,
and
"
restriction of mental
involves
also
is of the very
coercion
IMAGINATION.
AND
BELIEF
2.]
endeavour
belief,we
in its
consciousness.
of
of A
JB
as
is
There
Where
or
of doubt
state
accompanied by
which
that
so
a
arrive
shall be
we
of
play
mere
determine
shall
at
able
to
is
find
as
purely a
it is
ter
mat-
shall think
we
belief
no
disbelief.
or
of choice
something
not
is
selves
our-
the other,
or
way
arrive at a belief.
is
There
us
is absent.
restriction
it is
this freedom
imagination
belief
framing
individual
own
whether
when
effort to
an
our
feel that
we
not-JB^there
as
In
arbitrarychoice
own
our
in determining
to
fluence
in-
Whatever
have
may
independentlyof
nature,
own
such
as
activity.Objective
of belief.
essence
subjectiveneeds
belief,they can never
549
one
this
when
For
endeavour
belief
actual
to
belief,
dis-
or
of
is necessary.
subjectivefreedom
Thus
belief is at once
and
dependent on activity
limitation of activity.There
is no contradiction ; on
on
the contrary, the two
coincide.
pointsof view ultimately
Belief
depends on subjectivetendencies, just because
some
these
tendencies
it.
Ends
but
in order
only
can
to
work
cannot
use
themselves
realised
be
we
means,
by
must
the
have
without
out
use
of
means;
belief
some
in
their
which
a
we
live.
belief be
There
always
other
than,
some
and
must
therefore
endeavour
in the
to
framing of
conform
to
own
ditions
con-
sub-
PSYCHOLOGY.
550
[BK.
iv.,
vm.
CH.
Our
wise
otherto attain ends
inability
jectivetendencies.
than through certain means
constitutes a restriction
less definite channels.
within more
of mental
or
activity
freedom
identical with
If wishing were
having, our
be no
such thing as
be absolute,and there would
would
belief.
The
certain
result
combinations
mental
without
ends
wish
resistance
of the
and
belief,
"
form
our
of
our
of
the
tread.
Importance of the
of Belief. There
"
jective
Subare,
of
Neither
objective.
be operative.
must
who
must
attain
independent
independently
we
be
relative
to
come
drowning
though he
more
their
He
no
which
on
which
urgency
scanty.
walk
can
and
subjective,
one
But
to
control
what
thinking,to
Our
can
in the Relative
factors
keen
we
Objective Factors
of these factors
The
we
ground
" 3. Variation
then, two
free;
submittingto
will, than
or
will.
make
to
ing
devis-
In
us.
free
not
are
we
be
effective,cannot
we
issue in
will
independentlyof
end,
an
steps which
the
fixed
are
to
means
of
nature
would
foothold
whatever
use
never
trusted
have
to
presents itself,
it without
ing
press-
practicalneed to
ity,
a
belief,because indecision would paralyseactivtions
the mind
whatever
must
rest
on
objectiveindicaor
suggestions it can
find, however
slightthese
motives.
So
On
the
may
to be
The
which
be.
where
other
there will
satisfied,
mind
will occupy
lie in the line of
there
hand,
is
where
there
is
no
interest
no
551
IMAGINATION.
AND
BELIEF
" 3.]
The
all relevant
the
the
to
which
interests
tical
pracsavage
involved,
are
they
take
shape
relevant
data
their
to
them.
of the
utmost
relevancy is
Hence,
in
the
importance
hidden
and
formation
effort.
Thus
of
objectivedata
with
Besides
do
which
its immediate
not
aims
constitutingthe
formation
of
to
formed.
belief, the
determine
When
the
made
be
cannot
of
the
the
apparent
is
narrower
predominance
mind
is blind
obviously connect
and
belief,
ignored because
will be
the greater is
interests,
subjectivefactor,because the
the circle
the
patientmental
without
of
in
of immediate
activities of the
the
these
Wherever
confined.
circle
narrow
within
interests
are
of
selves
them-
tendencies.
to
of
the
beliefs
the
tributes
con-
which
negativejudgment would
lyse
parathe active tendency is a force arrayed on
activity,
the side of the positive
If a
judgment, and vice versa.
certain ideallyrepresented combination
presents itself
the only condition,or the most
favourable
as
condition,
of attaining
a certain
end, the active tendency towards
are
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
552
this end
is of itself a
believe
tendency to
CH.
iv.,
in the
vm.
ideally
on
the
safe
of
superstitions
this influence
It should
between
side.
There
which
savages
of fear upon
belief is not
other
to
as
and
to
the
psychologicalpoint
be
is much
shows
in
is better
the
manifest
to
religious
traces
of
belief.
condition
so
activity,
may
false,it
Whatever
It
is
alarm
an
be
the
make
if
Even
that
ways
the
controls
enforce
difficult
of view
control
one
or
an
thus
limits
and
way
of
jective
sub-
thinking,
is from
impossible,
objectivecoercion.
exercised
does
not
it may
though
and
casual
be
recogniseit
to
casual
as
from
of
view
and
that
events
and
must
mind
is unable
which
irrelevant,the
if it
as
appear
less
the
none
coercive
proceeded
of the
the nature
"casual"
insistent,is
for
But
of the association
power
or
and
vivid
irrelevant.
553
IMAGINATION.
AND
BELIEF
" 3.]
and
irrelevant
casual.
But
mind
has
which
not
tained
at-
this
tween
distinguishbesystematicview cannot
control reallyproceedingfrom
the nature
of the
object,and control proceedingfrom what is recognised
connexion
at a higher standpointas^a merely subjective
to
of
ideas.
Hence-
savages
to
appear
confuse
to
us
jective
ob-
with
tween
"saaj"jfrctive
necessity.Any association beA
and B
through which the idea of A vividly
calls up the idea of J3 may
lead to a
insistently
and
belief in
anger
the
real connexion
trample
we
doing the
man
real and
man's
avoid
to
moment
on
himself
between
them.
If in
it
portrait,
believingthat we
a direct injury.
belief that
fit of
is difficult for
by
are
The
the
savage
act
has
injuredin
such ways.
He thinks,for instance,that by destroying
he can
a man's
footprints
spoilhis journey or make him
lame.
So the Chinese
believes that by hanging up in
a
permanent
ancient
his house
influence
whom
the
coins
There
which
is
On
coins
of
the
were
is
he
men
for
secures
spiritsof
issued.
can
the
Such
be
himself
the
emperors
instances
tective
prounder
are
numerab
in-
[BK.iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
554
and
subjectiveinterests
Hence
this.
insistent
of
associations
together with
ideas
vm.
CH.
vivid
unresisted
exercise
control.
subjectivefactor is more
in primitivethought is that the preformed
dominant
perfectl
body of belief is comparativelysmall in extent and imfully
organised. A body of belief is more
organised in proportion as the denial of this or that
into its composition
of ideas which
enters
combination
main
One
involves
the whole
unified
reason
greater and
system.
whole
to
the
why
destructive
more
Savage
nearly
beliefs
the
are
same
alteration
not
woven
extent
as
into
in
a
civilised
objectivefactor is
tions
convicof pre-established
the influence
smaller.
For
of
in determining the credibility
or
incredibility
new
objective. However
suggestionsis in its nature
the old beliefs have been formed, and whether
they are
true
or
false,they are affirmations or denials of real
sistency
of its inconis rejectedbecause
existence.
Whatever
is accepted because
with
them, and whatever
be inconsistent with them, is accepted
its denial would
it is felt to be implied in or excluded
or
rejectedbecause
the
Thus
by the constitution of the real world.
factor develops as the general
influence of the objective
more
highly
body of belief grows in extent and becomes
beliefs; hence
the
influence
of the
systematised.
enough, truth
the gainer; for error
be
cannot
must
ultimately be
in relativelyearly stages of
self-consistent.
But
made
of an opposite
the process the result is to a large extent
the pressing
Beliefs shaped in ignorance under
kind.
of practical
needs help to produce new
beliefs,
urgency
In
this process,
when
it is carried
far
and
give rise
to
the
united
any
part of it.
shaped and
community
factor
of
of
individual
determined
in
which
paramount
depends
course
beliefs at first
came
adequate basis
in
by
Factor.
social
to
are
the
is
But
its
importance.
on
the
into
by
process
fact,their social
in
the
objective
logicalvalue
an
which
current
these
When
being.
extent
current
This
struction
con-
Hence
immense
an
with
Ideal
"
product.
beliefs
lives.
he
that
so
resists interference
of the whole
beliefs of the
of error,
organisedsystem
an
force
555
IMAGINATION.
" 4.
the
AND
BELIEF
" 4.]
have
endorsement
no
simply
serves
in
have
in
will have
who
who
venture
may
reasoning
and
to
exhaustive
for
research
its
they
reality
individuals
any
The
most
will
have
them.
oppose
think
acute
little
chance
adverse
critic is
an
eccentric
who
person
individual
He
is
thing
such
critic should
the
of
his
community.
a
arise within
intrusion
sets
very
rare
the
munity
com-
fluences
foreign in-
PSYCHOLOGY.
556
[BK.
en.
iv.,
vm.
their
people of a community often maintain
of the
each other, as the inhabitants
beliefs by trusting
ScillyIslands are said to have eked out a precarious
livelihood by taking in each other's washing.
Features
Belief. We have
" 5. Some
of Primitive
of new
beliefs depends at every
that the formation
seen
The
"
step
in
Thus,
have
to
side
we
familiar
are
established.
are
the power
to
have
us
understanding of
natural
of interaction
modern
of the
or
savage,
the
in the
not
are
the
parts which
there
Hence
is
individual
the
no
respect
which
he
whole
has
the
ours.
influenced
and
connected
habitually
in
thing
any-
thing
mines
deter-
the connexion
of
the
thing.
parts of
when
even
Besides
in space.
is and
call casual
we
on
component
other
of what
differs from
unity
act
interact
not
each
powerfully
should
the
produces
reason
why
should
to
present
bers
ignorant memstractly
early thought, it is ab-
whole
of
the
society. For
conceivable
that anything should
else. The
unity of the individual
of
ning
begin-
tions
generalcondithings constantly
to
even
of civilised
the connexion
ical
mechan-
certain
which
culture
particular,
material
between
into
come
In
was
process
extremelyrudimentary and
there are
its application.Hence
the mind
yet
construction,and
of mechanical
recognisedby
not
stages of development.
in earlier
being
beliefs which
thought, we
reviewing the historyof human
of two
take account
points. On the negative
remember
that complex systems of
have
to
which
ideas
of the
the nature
on
part of
is not
The
by
savage
an
is in
associations
irrelevant.
thought with
Whatever
a
person
BELIEF
"5.]
IMAGINATION.
AND
557
or
with
it.
body
with
has
who
done
to
that what
to
continues
He
to
associate
vividly the
dead
lost
the
body
the
is done
the
associates
makes
to
man
who
man's
the
has
difference
amputated
lost it.
clothes,or
limb
the
to
makes
he
Similarly,
his tools
and
is
ghost, or
a
ence
differ-
ly
habitualweapons,
himself ; in thinking
belongings,with the man
of the personal belongings,
he is impelled to think
of the person, and he is led to regard them
as
part and
these external
parcel of the total personality.Hence
external
appendages are for him no mere
appendages ;
the unity of the individual is present and
operativein
them.
By appropriatinga dead man's spear, he may
appropriatehis skill and good-fortune, and the like.
The
unity of the world in general is vaguely conceived
or
his other
after
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
558
in relation
the mind
pressedon
interest.
example,
For
of
course
the
world
future
belief in
Often
divination.
keener
no
Hence
signs and
is felt in
find
we
in various
is made
all
over
of
methods
and
omens,
more
or
that which
than
events.
appeal
strong practical
some
is
there
widespread practicalinterest
the
to
vm.
CH.
iv.,
to
ways
to
interested
persons
be
may
regarded
as
the
sign. Among
of
names
the
and
when
the
the
it is
rope
of
is that
breaks
fastened
rope
being pulled,the
called
is called
which
name
on
out
at the
out
nately,
alter-
moment
will
party which
the
the belief in
compare
found
is sometimes
which
may
ourselves.
among
This
imposed on
knowledge,
nature,
trasting
point to be emphasised in conlimitations
with savage thought. The
ideal construction
by our pre-existing
of
view
especiallyby our mechanical
is the
then
cultured
our
and
first
non-existent
are
consideringthe
besides
savage
mind,
of the
ideas
unity is
we
familiar
among
seen
to
for
ideas
the
which
savage
are
mind.
absent
But
from
the
the
positivenature
ing.
most
are
predominant in his thinkthat the conceptionof individual
him and constantlyutilised by him ;
must
which
have
We
but
haul
While
till it breaks.
tree
to
also
all individuals
consider
those
which
are
most
famil-
"5.]
and
iar,interesting,
himself
and
lives.
Hence
which
things in
a
as
source
in
of
terms
Whatever
having
good
his
analogous to
failure
to
natural
events
and
beings,
human
are
"
"
the
and
understand
and
existence
more
or
as
him
less
possiblebecause of his
mechanical
explanation of
is
This
own.
himself,is regardedby
evil to
of conscious
sort
some
of
his attention
arrests
of
known,
societyin which he
and
constant
prevailingtendency
primitivethought to interpretall
personal life and personalrelations.
the
find
we
best
members
the
559
IMAGINATION.
AND
BELIEF
the
processes.
the
When
and
structure
is fullyunderstood,
operationof a piece of mechanism
it can
no
longer be regarded as a separate and independent
prompted by internal impulses,analogous
agency
will of personal beings. But
where
the printo the
ciple
of action is regarded as
something ultimate and
of the individual
independent,intrinsic to the nature
ing
thing,there is nothing to prevent the mind from treatthe
as
personal or quasi-personal. The
agency
the whirlpool appears
cataract
or
a
livingthing to the
he ignores
poet in his poeticmoods
; for in these moods
is simply behaving in accordthe fact that the water
ance
with
certain
abstract
laws
under
certain given
conditions.
This fact is not ignored by the savage ; it
has never
been realised by him.
Hence
what
may be a
transient
play of imaginationin the civilised mind, is
the permanent
It is permanent
and
and
serious
attitude
of the
serious because
it is
own
fellows
mind.
prompted and
In presence
of personal
himself
utterly helpless.
upheld by practicalneeds.
feel
never
agencies,he can
He
can
always attempt to influence
his
savage
in
society. He
them
can
as
he
fluence
in-
propitiate
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
560
course,
these
in
case
the
incalculable
into
elements
to make
only serves
anthropomorphic point of
the
possiblethe
this
But
of the
survival
prayers,
introduce
perverseness
problem.
vm.
by self-humiliation,
by
threats
and
punishments. Of
often fail ; but they fail frequently
means
of human
beings. Personal
caprice and
by offerings,by
and
even
by
flattery,
them
en.
iv.,
view.
Failure
can
always be explained,and apparent success
Continued
always be regarded as convincingevidence.
malignancy on the part of the supposed personalagency
of neglect
can
always be ascribed to deep resentment
of injurydone
to it,consciouslyor unshown
to it,or
consciously.
can
it is
Besides
things
had
have
would
still
been
worse
say
if proper
that
methods
taken.
been
not
always possibleto
primitiveconceptionof
personalexistence differs in many points from our own ;
in the mode
of personifying
and this difference
appears
natural objectsand agencies. Just as the human
son
perhas an internal and external self,personified
things
It has
have
also
been
shown
that
an
internal
and
self in
duplicateof
the
of
case
the
the
external
human
self ; and
beings
is
as
a
ternal
the insort
of
AND
BELIEF
" 5.]
with
each
other,
so
IMAGINATION.
the
that
561
unity
of
the
whole
is
This is even
operativein all of them.
of natural
when
true
more
agencies personified,
they
are
powerful and important. Savage deities often
in this way.
To select an
originateand are conceived
is a god called Behnya worinstance
at random, there
shipped
by the Tshi-speaking tribes of the Gold Coast.
Behnya is primarily a river ; he has also a human
He
has an
image and
shape, with whip and sword.
present and
stool,which
offered
victims
into
cut
was
used
outskirts
of
hostile
force
certain
rock
to be washed
to him.
The
with
body
the blood
of human
of the human
victim
small
the
to
in
make
which
There
entrance.
an
his
influence
was
also
was
present and
the human
operative. Thus the river itself,
shape, the
image and stool,the pieces of the body of the human
all separate vehicles of the
victims,and the rock, were
influence
of
Behnya.
He
was
impersonatedin
all of
the
v.
them.*
*
Ellis, The
Psych.
Tshi-speaking
People
of
Gold
Coast, chap.
36
CHAPTER
IX.
FEELING-TONE
OF
IDEAS.
The
"
be
made
for
differences
between
individuals
but
it
may
be
said
562
IDEAS.
OF
FEELING-TONE
" 2.]
563
limited
in
extent
revival.
ideal
guard againstmaking
visualise
who
vividness
enjoy them
approaching
ment,
in
also
can
a
way
can
absolute
too
Probably persons
We
must
a
colours
in their ideal
more
nearly
ever
how-
statement.
with
great
re-instatethe
actual
much
In
easier.
actual
is due
to
the re-excitement
of the
cumulative
dis-
PSYCHOLOGY.
564
[BK. iv.,
CH.
ix.
positionleft
object. Now
conditions,it
is
about, and
here
With
And
And
And
and
here
Upon
With
by
referred
to
have
been
of
reminiscence.
flake
foamy
of
number
effect of
the
of ideal
objectspleasantly
past experiences
total result is
tremely
ex-
pleasuresand pains
triumphant or
difficulties overcome,
grayling,
succession,and
lusty trout,
golden gravel.
the cumulative
in
silvery waterbreak
agreeable.
very important source
we
the
out,
I travel
similar poems,
In this and
are
many
some
sailing,
there
there
as
me,
Above
toned
there
and
here
in and
blossom
and
here
ing
interfer-
degre'e.
best effects by accumulating
which
pleasingassociations
is a good example.
produce their
references
to objectsround
cling. Tennyson's Brook
I wind
in
generallypresent
often
Poets
apart from
intense ; but
so
defeated.
the greater in
Where
we
The
greater the
general is
have
been
the
ure
pleas-
successful
dwell
unpleasant parts
the
on
detail than
length or in more
Even
pleasures of success.
The
raised
past
us
to
success
or
itself is
in
failure
as
more
from
of indifference.
victory. If
of
on
the
been
have
we
more
feated,
de-
pleasing
pleasing than dismere
lapse of time has
which we
can
regard
matter
past strugglescontinues
our
where
view
point of
kind
experienceat
is required to enhance
is that the
reason
565
of the
is often
reminiscence
IDEAS.
OF
FEELING-TONE
any
the
This
reminiscence
ground
to
of
be interesting,
this
we
revival.
All
that
be
must
we
said
have
with
understood
It is necessary
to
revival
of
feeling-tone
important qualification.
about
one
distinguishbetween
the
attitude
of
ideal
imaginationand the attitude of belief. The mere
of an
objectmay in itself give pleasure
representation
or
ure
pain ; but this must not be confused with the pleasor
pain arising from our belief in the existence
of the objectunder
non-existence
or
given conditions.
the pleasure of ideal revival
is at its maximum
Doubtless
of the pleasure of anticiit takes the form
when
pation.
A
livingin a crowded
citymay take
person
and woods
trees
and mountains
recalling
pleasure in ideally
a mere
as
source
play of imagination. But a new
he finds that he can
of intenser
pleasure arises when
take a holiday and
land
actuallyvisit the scenery of ScotSwitzerland.
or
is
mind
*
Of
continue
course
The
reverse
disagreeablydisturbed
this is not
to affect
the
unfavourably
when
case
our
when
occurs
by
the
the
consequences
present
position.
thought
of
his
that
past defeat
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
566
these
beyond
thingsare
Ms
reach.
"
busy
iv.,
CH.
ix.
reads
man
novel
his
close
the
at
of the
recurs,9'*
work
attention
of
direction
The
to
"rude
existence
actual
the
is due
shock"
to
the
non-
or
previouslymerely imagined.
This brings with it a desire for the actual experiences
of reach
belief that they are
The
themselves.
out
this desire and produces pain which
thwarts
displaces,
often though not
always completely, the pleasures of
imagination. In general, the thought of a pleasing
reach
gives
object which is recognisedas beyond our
there is a desire for its
pain rather than pleasure when
actual possession.To enjoy the pleasureof ideal revival
of unattainable
be able to
in the case
objects,we must
adopt the attitude of imaginationor make-believe, and
this is very often impossible.
" 3. Feeling -Tone
Activity itself.
of Ideational
forms.
two
assume
Belief. Ideational
activitymay
On the one
hand, it may be directed to the production
of what
existence
has
been
"
of
some
of
our
knowledge
it may
be
of
quite the
*
result in the
new
Ward's
xx.,
real
of the real
world,
world;
or
on
to
the increase
the other
mere
and
same,
article
p. 74.
"
it will be well
Psychology," Encyclopaedia
to
treat
them
Britannica,
hand,
tions
condinot
are
sepaninth
tion,
edi-
rately. In
make
to
both
it
so
as
activity
conduces
to pleasure; and
efficient,
conduces
it inefficient,
it and makes
whatever
furthers
first those
trains
cases
more
obstructs
whatever
567
IDEAS.
OF
FEELING-TONE
" 3.]
pain.
to
shall consider
We
the increase
of
obstruction
and
and
towards
directed
are
which
of ideas
"
the formal.
Material
which
of
plan
the
to
or
the
actuallybar
would
stances
circum-
ideallyforeseen
consist in
obstacles
of
occurrence
the
to
way
tion
execu-
desired
event.
body's power of
of thinking ; whatever
power
structs
of a plan, obthe execution
seen.
foreit is ideally
of the plan,when
the formation
If I am
planning an excursion and discover that
railway arrangements at a certain place are fatal to
hinders
As
the
just
belief that
the
it would
as
certain
ideal train of
interfere
has
with
said
been
their
will
event
thought,just as
train of
the
actual
of
obstacles
of
is
with
interferes
itself would
event
What
occurrences.
of
ances.
further-
which
would
equally true
circumstances
an
The
realisation.
occur
the
flow of my
the
arrests
arrest
previsionof
The
the
facilitates its
ideal scheme
formation.
Formal
furtherances
obstacles
and
the form
those
are
which
depend
ideas
than
on
themselves.
They are
misapprehension or
to
the
actual
due
and
rather
confusion
circumstances
of
the
not
to
on
case.
on
error,
our
the
noran
igpart,
Doubt
CH.
iv.,
ix.
contradiction
and
flow
excursion
at
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
568
certain
no
means
there
fit for
our
conflict
thought.
Suppose
that
there
will be
will
be
blocks
the
that
now
state
have
we
of
flow
not, be
train
unjustified,
onward
of
progress
authority,A, says
that there
another, _Z?,
one
train, and
train,the
no
will
and
equally justified
are
an
belief that
The
suspense.
purpose
their
that
so
in
held
ternal
ex-
train arrangements
the
activityis
will,and the
mental
that
discover, not
we
the
of
is intensified.
suspense
The
we
run
come
just at
runs
the time
and
tension
evidence
upon
we
constitutes
proves
it,there is a
want
in
bound
onward
an
that
which
the
release
flow
of
train
from
thought
of
highly pleasurablefurtherance
activity.Similarly,
apart from any previous doubt
which
contradiction,the
to
the
arrange
fit into
source
is the
each
fact that
mere
details
other
of
without
hitch
pleasure. Another
struggleto find connexion
isolated.
our
efforts continue
This
is
ourselves
complex plan
of
spite of
find
we
perhaps best
that
condition
between
to
so
able
they
is
hindrance,
or
formal
or
appear
data
of
illustrated when
pain
which
detached
we
in
and
are
FEELING-TONE
which
follow
the
or
of
effort the
is felt when
and
coherence,
and
painfulit is.
more
facts which
in
detached
have
minds
our
for
hard
too
subject-matter
instead
if the
other ; but
each
IDEAS.
OF
When
we
discern
apparentlydisconnected
and
the attention
we
as
and
one,
the detection
We
of these
we
for
resources
and
command
can
apprehension
but
common
of
the
us,
greater
laid down
our
ence
incohermental
correspondingpleasure
been previously
disjointed
are
one
brought under
be exemplifications
of the
different
conditions.
activityis increased.
principleamong diverse
instead of all
particulars,
being taxed in the separate
come
membra,' they be'disjecta
to
once
command
of
resemblances."
new
find
we
at
seem
expositionbe bad,
the
to
point of view, and shown
same
principleworking under
of mental
Here
the
efficiency
"
569
have
at
our
posal
dis-
enlarged field
an
*
the
structio
general principlethat obof mental
is painful,
and its furtherance
activity
pleasant. This is true, if properly understood;
which
there are
are
fusion
concomplications
apt to cause
if they are
not
carefully
all,
explained. Above
it must
end
have
be
noted
does
that
an
obstacle
to
the attainment
of
necessarily
bring mental activityto a
standstill.
is reallypainfulis dead
What
strain comparable
to pushing againstan
unyieldingwall. But an
formal
or
obstacle,whether
material,to the attainment
of an end, may
the flow
heighten instead of arresting,
of ideas,just as the dangers of mountaineeringcall into
of the climber, thereby increasing
play the resources
his bodilyand mental
and contributing
to his
activity,
an
Ward's
article
xx., p. 70.
not
"Psychology,"
Encyclopaedia
Britannica,
ninth
tion,
edi-
PSYCHOLOGY.
570
[BK.
in face of which
pleasure. A difficulty
is painfulin proportionto
himself helpless,
feels
man
the
ix.
CH.
iv.,
strength
On
the
tendency which it thwarts.
calls his powers
into
other
which
hand, a difficulty
of pleasbe a source
fuller and more
varied play,may
ure.
it will be actuallyso or
Whether
not, depends
of the case.
It is necessary
the specialconditions
upon
kinds
of end : in the one,
between
two
to distinguish
it is part and
tained
parcel of the end that it should be atin a certain
activity
by our own
; in the
way
of
the
conative
is
other, it
with
hit
for
or
without
mark
of indifference
matter
our
with
co-operation.If we
stone, it will give us
hit the mark
it
whether
occurs
trying to
are
satisfaction
no
; it will
give us no
and
satisfaction to walk up to the mark
place the stone
it. So in guessinga riddle it gives us comparatively
on
little satisfaction to be told the solution; the pleasure
lies in findingit out for ourselves.
On the other hand,
if we
tent
are
hungry and desire food, we are perfectlyconit placed on the table for us.
Our satisfaction
to have
is not at all diminished
by the fact that we did not
it ourselves ; on the contrary, the necessityof
prepare
be an actual
preparing it ourselves would in most cases
drawback.
two
We
kinds
between
of
else
somebody
have
of
them
fact,they
to
ends,
as
are
stated
so
as
the
to
bring
the
out
the
most
these
between
contrast
as
antithesis
a
matter
with
part blended
each
partlyin
the formal
man
who
the
process
end.
We
of
attainingit,which
may
suppose
that
we
CEdipus
; and
call
may
was
ordinarily
"3.]
FEELING-TONE
lie in
But
he
when
findingout
had
the
with
deal
to
571
IDEAS.
OF
for
answer
the
Sphinx,
mainly consist
of
being eaten.
would
ordinary riddle,difficulty
pleasure, because it would give
Thebes
Now
be
and
in the
mainly a
scope
case
in
of
his
an
of
source
own
in the
deliverance
from
escape
"
of his mental
But
powers.
in
may
sum
up
in face of
conation
follows.
as
The
continuance
of
dead
gives rise to mere
in so far as the subject
strain,and is therefore painful,
feels himself
On
powerless to deal with the obstacle.
the other hand, so far as the obstacle calls into play the
of the subject to overcome
resources
it,it heightens
free mental
and
to that extent
activity,
gives rise to
in this case
condition of pain is
a
pleasure. But even
introduced
makes
if and
doubtful
so
the
an
obstacle
far
as
the presence
attainment
of
that
of the
obstacle
final result
of
The
activitywhich we have called the material end.
pain is the greater, the stronger the doubt is,and the
greater the importance of the material end.
must
We
obstructed
carefullydistinguishbetween
and diminished
activity
activity.An obstacle blocking
the onward
progress of a train of thought has for its
PSYCHOLOGY.
572
first effect
intensification
[BK. iv.,
of
ix.
CH.
conative
the
tendency
It is only in a gradual
it -renders
ineffective.
which
in intensity,
until it is
way that the conation diminishes
other activity.This takes a longer
displacedby some
an
time
or
The
of
removal
The
obstacle,either by
an
by external circumstances,is a
resultingpleasure is by no means
of the
is less,and
our
of
source
a
mere
often
tension
is not
it is greater.
When
prolonged and
too
pleasure.
lent
equiva-
Sometimes
pain of previousobstruction.
very
ity
activ-
own
the
it
ing
preced-
intense,the pleasure
pain which
such an activity
is its pre-condition.Thus
as
solvinga
chess-problem is predominantly pleasing,in spite of
periodsof dead strain,in which there appears no hope
So
novel
of solution.
with
a
a
good plot creates
checks
and releases
pleasureby a series of alternating
is found
in
of mental
extreme
case
activity. The
A
of the ludicrous.
certain forms
impels the
pun
mind
to identify
objectsutterlydisconnected with each
of relief for
This
other.
is
so
that
course
of the
flow
relief which
the
case
involves
of
that
called
be
it
with
be
the
and
conflict,
But
thought.
the
pain
comes
may
part exceeds
most
of
transient
can
the
at
On
all.
source
of
obstruction
to
the other
insightinto
keen
the
structio
ob-
an
anything
hand
true
the
state
of
pleasure. Mental
mediatel
heightened is im-
be
should
increase
or
noted
further
which
that
mental
the
conditions
same
activity
may
excite
initially
it.
Let
also be
us
take
which
the
ditions
con-
the
case
FEELING-TONE
" 4.]
of
from
transition
opening
of the
which
conscious
life in
this there
will
because
and
are
of routine.
obstructed
conations
the
besides
were
atively
compar-
rich
it has
But
; the
One
"
is the
end.
ideational
same
The
process
will
transform
besides
his routine
ambitions
he
habits,so
has
of
soon
changed
which
into
is
matter
mere
condition
the
this there
become
them
them
of
which
to
man
been
open
previouslylatent
conscious
; but
as
wealth
opposite case
many
calls
satisfaction,
imagination
the material
the
by poverty,
Feeling -Tone
Imagination.
of
But
his
partly because
time
same
crushed
because
of
of these
In
poor,
of life
conations
conscious
" 4.
accession
be
attention
no
these
poor,
satisfaction
in his mode
they
as
remained
conations.
projectswill
course
which
he
becoming
man
paid
be
in
large part
tendencies
it will at the
conscious
much
effect may
period of poverty.
the
sudden
tendencies, and
and
One
actually played
rich
tune,
for-
while
The
them.
into
riches.
into
come
displaced by more
pressingneeds and partly
of the hopelessness of attempting to satisfy
were
free
he has
Consider
to
be many
latent
573
IDEAS.
that
one.
poverty
tendencies
they
lost
that he has
or
the
finds,either
who
man
OF
into
denies
being.
of Ideational
Activity itself.
grand characteristic of the play
absence
end
of what
we
have
called
is
on
which
their
attainment
depends.
We
are
PSYCHOLOGY.
574
thus
compelled
that
we
are
that
we
meet
for
strong
as
lion,this
lion
the
rending
is
imposes.
hand, limitingconditions
If
only
like
begin by fancying
we
and
Samson,
as
ix.
culties
diffi-
and
are
CH.
iv.,
obstructions
all the
the constitution
which
In
face
to
[BK.
proceed to fancy
favourable
kid.
If
nity
opportuother
the
on
we
Dumas'
as
Of
in
there
course
the
Christo
Monte
play
be
must
Three
The
or
certain
Musketeers.
internal
coherence
of
contradiction,there
or
affectingthe
apart from
of
an
reference
this head
Under
its
better
in
pleasing. We
but
a
its
may
apparent
pavement.
by
that
its function.
parts appear
the
it appears
on,
idea
the
or
of
the
quite well
in
kind
a
of
on
key
of
so
the
that
ment
pave-
the
mosaic,
interferes with
same
sight of
worked
effect
relief,the
know
structure
; if it is
object,
an
non-existence.
function
The
and
unevenness
The
of
ence
of incoher-
kind
incongruitybetween
trodden
it is the
its existence
to
comes
object and
is to be
level
formation
is also
explicit
eye
it is
our
more
so
that
is
even
idea
un-
of
unpleasantness is produced
elaboratelydecorated
function.
Similarly
FEELING-TONE
" 5.]
the
lover
of
favourite
books
volume
Most
people who
like
words
This
have
of
English mode
down
due
be
may
if he
discomforted
feels
upside
575
IDEAS.
OF
the
on
to
accustomed
been
ordinary
they see
annoyed when
and
colour
color.
spelt honor
in so-called
phoneticspelling."
spelling,are
and
honour
habit.
of
the
to
pleasant
Un-
shelves.
violation
mere
sees
effect is intensified
"
novel
of
is
the
obstruct
of ideas
flow
unnaturalness,even
though
kind
recognised. This
explicitly
attach
all forms
to
brought
under
of
" 5.
is true
say much
more
pression
im-
contradiction
no
of incoherence
activity.It
imagination,because
may
is here
in distinction from
fects
it afbeliefs
non-existence.
Emotion.
in bk.
of emotion
to
such
and
and
Sentiment
of
as
concerningexistence
the
create
ideational
head
the
and
"
After
div. i.,
ch. iv.,it
iii.,
about
it at this
is not
point.
cessary
ne-
What
of
mutandis,
perceptualprocess, holds, mutatis
On the perceptualplane,the actual presof ideational.
ence
of a dangerous situation
excites fear ; on
the
ideational,the ideal previsionof a similar situation has
effect.
All the general characteristics
of emoa similar
tion
enumerated
in bk. iii.,
which
div. i.,ch. iv.,
we
" 1, apply equallyto perceptualand ideational process.
is only one
There
to
point which
require
appears
more
extended
emotions, so
far
treatment
as
they
at
had
this stage.
not
their
a
We
noted
that
primary originin
character.
parasitical
PSYCHOLOGY.
576
[BK.
iv.,
en.
ix.
in the main
They
arc
condition
which
the
varied
more
and
perceptualtendencies.
which
grow
world
the
Each
of the
and
in certain
act
convenient
to
considered
from
this
better
word
that
any
is
have
the
their conative
certain
general
point of
for
name
ideal
It does
selected
for
of
aspect.
feel and
It is
circumstances.
view.
be
can
primary
construction
general tendency to
under
ways
of ideal
process
parably
incom-
are
systems of ideas
the various
Self, have
of ideas
system
than
complex
All
in the
up
of emotion
occurrence
systems,
not
the
appear
purpose
employing it we extend
its application
If
beyond the range of ordinaryusage.
we
applicationto the word, we may
give this extended
mental
dispositions
regard emotions which pre-suppose
organisedthrough previous trains of ideational activity,
of sentiment.
as
episodesin the life-history
credit of first drawing attention to this distincThe
tion
and
between
emotion
sentiment
belongs to Mr.
than
and
Shand,
Emotions
"
we
cannot
are
in
feeling.
stable
sentiments,
our
"
and
sentiment,
term
in
sentiment, though
'
love
love
'
to
of
do
better
Whereas
affection
express,
than
and
qualifya more
adjectival
the
specificorganisationof
sense
every
so
for
sentiment
that
love of
as
comfort, and
all
friends, the
our
our
we
can
homeuse
the
ness,
knowledge, art, goodinterests,as interest
interest in books,
profession,
collections,self-interest,these, so far from
being
in
our
health,fortune
and
"
IDEAS.
OF
FEELING-TONE
"5.]
577
other feelings,
the
and qualifying
are
adjectives
the first attach themselves,
stable centres
to which
relatively
the complex
the substantives of these adjectives,
the
contain in their possible
which
wholes
life-history
mere
entire
of the emotions.
gamut
is
pleasurein
presence and desire in absence, hope or despondency in
of its loss,injury,
fear in the expectation
anticipation,
in its unexpected
or
destruction,surpriseor astonishment
of our
interest
changes,anger when the course
is opposed or frustrated,elation when
we
triumph over
obstacles,satisfaction or disappointmentin attaining
our
desire,regret in the loss,injury,or destruction of
the object,
joy in its restoration or improvement, and
for its superiorqualityor excellence.
And
admiration
In
the
of
love
object
an
another,
consider
Now
often
of every
with
sentiment
in
one
or
we
in
when
interest,
emotions
same
in
oppositeobjects,
which
order, now
present.
are
these
how
of love
sentiment
in every
there
now
occurs,
appropriateconditions
the
name
selves,
repeat themthe
life-history
dislike
or
hatred.
is
presence
*
"
pain instead
and
Character
217-218.
Psych.
of
prosperous
and
the
state."*
Emotions,"
Mind,
N.S., No.
18
(April, 189C),p;i.
PSYCHOLOGY.
578
large extent
actual
sentiment
ix.
is to
and
dispositions
Such
sentiment
as
at any
experienced in its totality
is felt only in the specialphase which
by
circumstances
the
parting from
are
CH.
iv.,
be
It
is determined
and
between
consciousness.
of
states
moment.
we
distinction
friendshipcannot
one
emotion
distinction between
The
[BK.
feel
friend,we
our
him
of the moment.
If
; if
sorrow
we
are
meet
to
which
that
so
far
as
call emotions.
Thus
experienceis
by the manifold
concerned
we
actual
is constituted
manifests
after
itself.
this must
But
be
we
emotions
may
the sentiment
in which
understood
with
same
name
the
contrary, the
character
it
an
that all
in the
of the
emotion
of
On
say
is
the distinction
to
The
personal and
"emotions
the
to
common
or
presence
hatred
of the
of
See
have
human
bk.
differentiations
new
object,desire
*
which
emotions
ence
refer-
impersonalobjectsrespectively.
love of whatever
to our
object
complicated with
become
love
between
being.
for
Pleasure
in
the
in
the
cb. iv.,"
ii.,
5.
OF
FEELING-TONE
" 5.]
preservationof
or
anger
fear
its
when
existence, for
it is
579
IDEAS.
its
superiorquality,
threatened, hope, admiration,
new
where
to
win
is
emotions
there
is
of
respect and
or
superior power
where
admiration, reverence
a
reverence
respect
qualitywhich fails
this superiorquality
And
both
recognisedas moral.
something of fear blend in this emotion
flavour and specific
qualityof its own.
admiration
and
and
it
give to
PSYCHOLOGY.
580
consider
Lastly,
feel
when
in
and
the
is
or
it
undo
and
recall
has
that
done,
without
sees
rather
no
the
possible
its
it,
deep
escape."
*
Op.
and
regret
despondency
*
cit.,
pp.
218-219.
sorrow
its
futile
And
effort
for
lution
reso-
too
and
what
of
or
and
to
remorse
fear
the
with
own
desire
resolution
and
hope
a
the
with
the
ance
Repent-
of
character
hope
own,
differentiates
universal
same
different.
future
with
the
the
of
outcome
repentance.
ourselves,
past,
of
blend
with
this
on
pass
character
horror
but
we
the
make
to
of
terested
in-
concerned,
the
hatred,
to
and
remorse
acquired
has
that
blame
love
revival
mere
no
regret;
the
of
emotions
new
from
we
are
we
are
but
ix.
that
that
beings
accidental
not
change
the
or
anger,
human
en.
iv.,
sorrow
or
object
any
where
is
action
our
regret
injured
love,
or
the
how
have
we
[BK.
has
even
been
repentance,
despair
which
X.
CHAPTER
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 1. Ascending
Levels
Development.
of Conative
with
inseparablyconnected
"
Conative
development is
cognitivedevelopment. If we consider conation in the
its negaits positivefrom
can
abstract,we
distinguish
tive
We
also
can
phase, appetitionfrom aversion.
its varying degrees of intensity
and
distinguish
ence
persistand its feeling-tone.But
entiation
beyond this all differ"
of
conative
consciousness
is
differentiation
character
no
process
From
at all to
this
without
have
process
levels of
is
there
would
be
character.
point of view, we
levels of conative
of
conation
may
as
different
distinguish
connected
with
ent
differ-
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
582
guided by
perceptualimpulse without
character
involve
may
certain
external
losing its
x.
pression
im-
essential
of ideal
amount
CH.
iv.,
pation.
antici-
distinctly
higher plane when
trains
ideas become
to form
self-sustaining
sufficiently
of the
that are not wholly shaped by the circumstances
We
desire to live again through experiences
can
present."
of which
there is nothing actuallypresent to
of an end
ideal representation
remind
us."*
The
mere
of an
rected
be the primary starting-point
activitydimay
itself
this activitymay
to its realisation ; and
partlyor wholly take the form of trains of ideas. It is
But
we
reach
the
word
"
"
at
its most
has
desire
priate
appro-
at
the
production of
particularcase.
which
have
this
specialresult
that
or
Ideal
construction
sets
instead
in this
before
of the
or
us
that
ends
to be
unattainable
only contribute
Sometimes
been
there
his share
is
in his
op.
lifetime.
bringingthem
whether
they can
towards
doubt
Ward,
own
cit.,p.
74.
He
can
to pass.
be
com-
" 2.]
VOLUNTARY
583
DECISION.
a
certaintythat they cannot
pletelyattained,or even
of this last kind are
the
be completelyattained.
Ends
ideals."
highest,and are generallycalled
" 2. Conative
Aspect of the Conception of the Self.
the concept of the Self as expressed in the
Under
lifeword
I
is included
in systematicunity the
historyof the individual,past, present, and future, as
it appears
and to others ; togetherwith all
to himself
its possibleor imaginary developments.
have
ready
alWe
described
the way
in which
this complex ideal
construction
We
have
to
now
point out
grows
up.
in the
that its evolution
for the originof Will
accounts
strict sense
and
of the word, as implying deliberation
"
"
"
"
choice.
Voluntary action is
impulsive action, and
tendencies.
action
in
the
difference
isolated conative
conflict
first considered
tendencies
When
in their relation
included
in
the
in
is,that
to
of impulsive
impulse
whereas
tendency ;
are
of
follows
from
deliberation
The
from
sharplydiscriminated
be
to
their ends
and
conception
of
the
Self.
disconnected
impulsessimultaneously
prompt
of action,if the conception of
to incompatiblecourses
Self does not come
into play,one
interferes with the
other
in a quasi-mechanical way.
is merely a
There
trial of brute
Instances
them.
are
strength between
two
sometimes
found
characteristic
oscillation
is
"
begun
expressionof
between
in
in young
two
animals.
and
their mental
modes
of
state
action,each
then
is
The
sort
of
of which
and
children
PSYCHOLOGY.
584
from
pulse away
The
child
goes
tells
Titchener
to
up
are
realised
the
dog,
that
us
"
CH.
x.
quick succession.
back
to its father,
runs
on.'M
so
in face
iv.,
in
the
approaches
[BK.
of
the
Professor
impulses,
two
(1) to
door
the
on
"
"
agent which
not
do
makes
"this"
Each
for
of
present
the
total Self.
before
may
In
he
have
been
*
its results
"I"
word
is
sidered
con-
stands.
belongs
to
the
The
Self
of
the
this is
individual.
him,
"shall
or
structed
part of the ideallycon-
as
the
is
of
life-history
it.
this"
I do
moment
; but
moment
action will
the
which
alternative
The
whole
present
of the
"shall
in isolation but
not
the
difference.
the
"that," but
or
that?"
impulse
"
may
the
Titchener,
He
with
may
Primer
of Psychology,
\ Ibid., p. 247.
; but
principleof
and
and
bottle
live to
p. 246.
gret
re-
glass
sobriety
lifetime.
If he
will
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 3.]
585
of the
unable
will be
to
think
normal
act
dencies.
ten-
it without
of
the normal
Self
between
incompatibility
and the present impulse, if vividlyenough realised at
ing.
drinkwill restrain him from
of temptation,
the moment
If it is not sufficient,
further developments of the
efficacious. He
conception of Self may be more
may
This
pang.
think
of
himself
churchwarden
as
or
elder;
he
may
of the ideal
"
"
contemptuous,
he would
malicious.
or
like
look
back
He
may
such
even
consider
episodeon
his death-bed.
Obviously,this detailed development of
in the man's
what is included
conceptionof himself as
of
a
whole, might go on interminably. As a matter
be needed
not
at all.
fact, it is possiblethat it would
I do such
He
a
might simply say, "What!
thing?
could
How
have occurred
the thought ever
to me?"
how
In
this
case
the
to
to
an
mere
PSYCHOLOGY.
586
which
this
or
that
affect the
Self
as
ideal, can
only
of
Self
the
reinforce
or
of
such
becomes
be
simply doing
may
include
lines
of action.
thing
two
or
In
be
Self,and
from
The
as
if
actual
to
developed
that
arises
in
definite
decision
Deliberation.
undone
and
is
no
they
incompatible
;
or
essential
two
or
of them
considered, each
are
in
deliberatingmay
When
cases.
ference
difmore
has
general concept of
pared
they have to be com-
the
with
point of
view
other.
follows.
of
A
view
in
certain
deliberation
line
of
be
may
action being
as
myself as I shall be if
this representationof
less detail until that
is called
In the
kind
tend
suggested
be
to
are
leavingit
or
two
general point
described
mind
relation
this
each
with
the
cept
con-
there
principle,
the
brought into
way
less
or
directlytend
other
this
more
not
the
each
to
In
more
before
between
by
its consequences
possible.
alternatives
The
and
with
will
whole
relation
in
detail
action
action, until
and
realised,would
consciousness
thought. When
as
of
action
the
before
determine
suppress
postponement
if
conduct,
brought
be
to
prolonged train
of
x.
CH.
iv.,
sufficient fulness
of
line
[BK.
I leave
it undone.
I follow
or
hypotheticalSelf in more
in the process
which
turning-point
a
of mental
another,comes
see-saw.
out
Now
one
there
alternative,and
predominantlybefore
is a
now
consciousness,and
mind
the
is
attracted
variously
desires
The
turn.
way
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 4.]
called
are
is often
repelledby
which
aversions
and
the
Hence
Motives.
called
and
587
arise
this
in
of deliberation
process
Motives
Conflict of Motives.
in
each
are
before consciousness
as
impulses. They come
reasons
They
why I should act in this or that way.
not
are
independent forces fightingout a battle among
mere
a
themselves, while the Ego remains
spectator.
motives
On
the contrary, the motives
are
only in so
of the Self,and
the nature
far as they arise from
suppose
prethe conception of the Self as
a
determining
factor.
this it follows that the recognisedreaFrom
sons
not
mere
for
of decision.
cause
Self
decision
as
them
there
what
this
involves
stated
completely analysed or
reasons
the
motives
is
action.
the
motives
the
Or,
deliberation
for
deciding:
triumphant
to
put the
of deliberation
motives
always
lies the
can
is
be
never
of
when
in another
case
going
definite
is
motives
for
while
way,
the
the
on,
decision
the
become
going on,
are
regarded as possiblemotives
decision is formed, they become
process
entire
form
the
of
process
are
made,
in
the
specialmotives.
or
While
constitute
never
Behind
and
whole,
can
the
competing
for action
actual
sires
de-
when
motives
for
action.
"4.
decision
from
the state
it may
been
of suspense
the
mean
attained.
decision
The
Voluntary Decision.
It
is ambiguous.
most
as
state
It will
to
of
be
alreadyformed,
obvious
difference
The
"
the
mean
may
the
phrase voluntary
state
resolution
of resolution
when
simplestto
the
state
between
transition
of
it has
treat
being
the
state
or
once
first the
resolved.
of inde-
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
588
cision and
that of decision
iv.,
CH.
do
we
x.
not
what
we
decision,we
conception of
are
have
the
come
to
Self has
know
our
minds.
own
fixed
become
where
The
it
was
line
The
realisation of one
previouslyindeterminate.
of conative
anticipatedas
tendency is now
definitely
far at least as external
so
part of our future life-history,
conditions
will allow of its execution.
tive
Opposing conatendencies
either cease
to operate, or
they appear
only as difficulties or obstacles in the way of carrying
decision.
out our
They are no longer regarded as possible
of action.
motives
belief
that,so
state
of
will
not
mind,
be
far
as
we
We
are
have
concerned
carried
come
to
which
to
in
the settled
our
present
they prompt
placed outside
" 5.]
VOLUNTARY
direction
in the
of the weaker
a
of
of
still continues
velocity. The
impulse is not of
opposing impulses are
589
stronger force
the
force
diminution
DECISION.
; but
of
triumph
this kind.
itself in
manifest
to
In
action
the
the
tary
volun-
perfectvolition,
not
merely held in check ; they
driven out of the field. If they continue
to exist,
are
they do so as external obstacles to a volition already
formed.
They are no longer motives ; they are on the
in the way
of
same
footing with any other difficulty
a
attainment."*
On
the other
motives
the
hand,
in the
which
of deliberation
of
course
deliberation
persist after
motives
of
because
we
the
it, or
may
is the
so
out
founded
It is
that
certain
and
qualified
desire
in
us
lies
desired
end
" 5.
The
examine
to
we
because
free-will,as
Article
p. 357.
by
author
the
aversion
the
going
are
to
belief is
a
motive.
present
cona-
Volition
as
judgment
the
of
(1)there
call
our
to
state
(2) this
we
act,
that
attainment
far
so
of the
desire it.
we
of
the state
it is
by
we
define
may
bring about
Forming
how
we
defined
shall
of deliberation.
in
which
reason
adopted,
follows
lies
us
the
recognised
an
Thus,
of action
course
of
in
as
of
will the
have
analysedas
far
that kind
on
tive tendencies.
as
be
the
We
its alternatives.
omitting it,or to
voluntarydecision
carry
least
at
be
to
as
voluntary decision.
desire
belief
is over,
side
the
on
arrayed themselves
action that actuallycomes
process
Decision.
of decision
"
We
supervenes
have
on
yet
that
this
on
"Voluntary
Action,"
Mind7
19,
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
590
least in
tarians,the decision,at
of
intervention
of the individual
constitution
and
say
that
in
operating
is
There
the
them
like
of
the
tions
condi-
itself.
deliberation
factor
new
which
in the
Jack-in-the-box
to
by heredity
outcome
of
no
vious
pre-
of the libertarians
natural
process
according to
emerges
determined
opponents
is the
decision
the
as
traceable
not
x.
the
present in the
deliberation,and
of
process
CH.
involves
cases,
factor,not
new
some
iv.,
ruptly
ab-
of
moment
deciding.
it must
Now
state
and
of indecision
it
that
definite
those
previous
the
the facts
Deliberation
and
courses
then
be
of action
apprehended
in
regarded
another.
and
relation
to
to
the
to
state
play
be
alternatives.
of
motives
the
standstill
are
As
restored.
cease
of unstable
nant,
domirelatively
Self.
tendency
a
of
ence.
its exist-
assume
their consequences
of conative
comes
as
vicissitudes,as
to
becomes
The
outcome
at
can
oscillates between
tendency
of
or
disprove
definitely
cannot
we
of
intervention
the
compelling us
kinds
all
impossible to give a
or
factor, we
mind
conative
one
through
The
obscure,
unaccountably
development
If
may
equilibrium.
First
is not
far from
are
be
to
maintain
of such
presence
is often
the
hypothesison psychologica
probandi
certainlythe onus
But
conditions.
from
libertarian
the
who
which
factor
new
it difficult
makes
disproofof
grounds.
with
of decision
that
to
transition
that the
frequently appears
This
abrupt.
rests
admitted
be
to
because
passes
alternative
fully
more
the
process
New
take
it has
velopmen
de-
place;
done
be that
may
it,has
sciousness,
predominance in conpersistent
that the mind
no
longer tends to revert
is made
At this point the mind
up, and
in the judgment, "I will do
formulated
so
the others.
to
the
is
result
this rather
and
that."
than
there
But
of
one
decided
other
are
It may
the
without
other
which
mind
The
predominance.
alternative
one
any
which
cases
present
that deliberation
happen
without
to
relativelystationarycondition, it
with the motives for
the alternatives,
this
In
its work.
591
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 5.]
result.
comes
to
acquiring
first to
tends
tend
if it does
or
supervene,
of
intervention
the
of the
outcome
to
factor
deliberative
find
and
one
would
then
and
that
seem
decision
ought
it must
be
is not
Now
process.
under
definite
new
supervene,
new
still
stand-
developments
superiorityto either,and
No
give a
It
the result is hopeless suspense.
these conditions
under
no
voluntary
occur
culty.
diffi-
more
to
due
to
merely
the
as
matter
conditions
such
voluntary
into
existence.
decisions
frequently do come
They
be of wide-reaching importance like Caesar's
even
may
the Rubicon.
But
determination
to cross
probably in
of
fact
all such
we
that
instances
one
both
or
of
two
traceable
and
of a psychologicalkind
are
recognisable conditions
operative. These are (1) aversion to the continuance
and
of painfulsuspense,
(2)the necessityfor action of
kind.
be that though we
It may
at a loss to
are
some
of action,we
the
decide between
two
courses
are
none
"
less
may
not
fullydetermined
be obviously worse
lines
of
conduct.
much
in the
same
We
way
to
than
may
as
remain
we
inactive.
either
then
take
of the
choose
a
one
cigarout
Inaction
alternative
of
of
them
a
box,
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
592
it is
when
which
matter
no
of
alternative
one
be
may
have
Or
conditions.
other
under
ineffective
been
of
view
determine
sufficient to
for
motives
the
x.
comparativelyslightpredominance
necessityfor action, a
the
In
select."*
we
CH.
again,
continued
we
to
Or
deliberate.
decision
the
allow
to
circumstance
such
as
determine
that if heads
turn
up
if tails turn
and
_Z?,
aversion
an
do
we
up
having one's
to
sent
mentally conmay
determined
by some
If
for
motives
contrast,
issued
has
A.
turn
This
is due
the
with
not
chance.
to
predominance
deliberation
to
come
if
has
be
they
fullyworked
decided
had
on
been
again,the necessityfor
*
happens
mentally
been
set
in
present in preceding
momentary
voluntary decision.
place before
takes
in such
alternative,the
one
are
do
we
has
chance
acquire
determines
volition
Sometimes
acts
which
the
thus
They
that
in part to
it often
opposing motives
the
but with
deliberation,
appeal
of
alternative
other
and
up
determined
conduct
in favour
A,
heads
But
arbitraryand irrelevant way.
that immediately after the appeal to
and
We
penny.
Curiouslyenough, the
an
made,
shall do
we
frequentlyhappens.
reverse
if
uppermost
the fall of
J5.
shall do
we
up
we
be
to
irrelevant
if tails turn
remain
it would
that
confidence
no
itself out.
which
would
the
In
have
process
of
this way,
been
pressed
sup-
Here
fullyconsidered.
and
imacting in some
way,
more
Op. cit.,p.
364.
operativefactors.
pulse
imof some
often lies in the intensity
the reason
not
of the present Self which derives its strength,
its relation to the total system of conduct, but
patienceof
But
from
593
DECISION".
VOLUNTARY
" 6.]
from
the state
of
indecision,are
of the moment.
the circumstances
liberati
through which the process of depasses, it will often happen that this isolated
will acquire
intensity
impulse through its momentary
the full development
such a predominance as to arrest
into play,
of other motives, which, if they had
come
In
would
vicissitudes
the
have
given rise
to
different
The
decision.
cision
de-
placeafter imperfectdeliberation
called impulsive. It is not supposed to be
is generally
degree as that which takes place
voluntary in the same
which
thus takes
The
agent often
commits
the
"
which
reasons
was
its motive
for this.
on
Psych.
One
at
the
outset.
There
are
many
is identified
with
the
mined
deter-
conceptionof
38
Self.
[UK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
594
"When
realise
certain
becomes
of
that
in
end,
the
judge
ipso facto
Failure
myself.
defeat.
my
in the
face
These
are
far
so
endeavour
by
conception
of the
ure,
regarded as my failbecomes
strengthened
volition
Thus
it is
realise
to
emotions.
varying kinds
individuals
of
varying degrees
of
all tendencies
to
strength in
different
hold
out
merely
struggleagainstopposition,
it is
are
opposition,
or
inasmuch
enlisted
integralpart
; but
in the
of the idea
because
of the
service
will,
willed is
the idea
as
x.
shall
lies I
me
to
integralpart
an
of obstacles
of
in
as
CH.
iv.,
an
of Self."*
his
mind
own
is far
more
always wavering.
Hence
strong tendency
abide
it is
resolution.
social
by
no
with
kind
Volition
we
we
most
the
there
persons
is
who
man
is
by a resolution,just because
ened
tendency is greatly strengthIf
upon
weak
are
we
us
Mere
we
ing,
vacillat-
and
shall be
vanity may
viewed
far to
go
the will." f
also becomes
that
conduct,
depend
in
of contempt.
it.
on
This
relations.
will
one
to
give fixity
belief
to
efficient than
So
soon
fixed
as
we
by
have
the
action
attained
which
the
lows
fol-
settled
Op. cit.,p.
358,
t Ibid., p. 359,
and
deeds
and
more
committed
mind
the
more
it would
If I
have
has
of my
and
kind
work
The
other
and
instead
topicssuch
as
this
whole
responding
cor-
begin
about
to
outfit
do,
I
men
to
New
for my
with, the
advanced
more
going
am
to
channels
arrangements
I shall meet
of
Guinea
of savages,
tribes
to
another.
psychology,the
on
savage
kind
the
and
activity.
thing,the
to
New
to
flows into
activity
preformed resolution.
about
of adventures
my
one
on
customs
lecture
to
particular.The
voyage,
going
on
and
my
books
in
Guinea
mental
set
To
ments;
arrange-
others;
mental
with
up
become
decided
the manners
investigate
of stayingat home
read
in
more
on.
our
be
once
direction
disturb
to
expectationsraised
own
general flow of our
the
more
determined
course
be
be
to
come
baulk
to
The
the
to
thus
We
it would
from
withdraw
arrest
this belief.
to
595
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 6.]
the
to
am
these, engross
process
is the
greater fixitydoes
it is to
disturb
it has
which
such
myself to
to
draw
for
be
extent
an
In
this way
that it becomes
mit
com-
impossible
back."*
Perhaps
to
interwoven.
become
the
by
individual
fixityof
reasons
volition
is not
such
these.
differences
inherited
as
counted
adequatelyac-
There
appear
so
constitution,
that
pend
de-
they cannot
be explainedby psychological
generalities.In some
men
infirmityof purpose appears to be innate. They
be relied on.
change like a weathercock, and can never
Others
their voluntary resolutions with a
follow
up
upon
Op. cit.,p.
358.
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
596
Some
" 7.
Resistance"
of Greatest
Line
the
in
Action
"
obstinate,and
born
are
men
x.
utterlyunreasonable.
others vacillating.
is often
which
dogged persistence
en.
only
place and are maintained
tary
volunthe case
when
by an effort. This is especially
decision follows some
general principleof conduct
ideal aim, in oppositionto an intense impulse
some
or
is excited and maintained
of the present Self which
by
Professor
the actual conditions
existingat the time.
has laid great emphasis on this experience. We
James
volitions take
Some
"
"
feel,in
when
all hard
the
line
the
the
at
even
it.
He
who
the
were
under
as
when
refuse
we
surgeon'sknife
the
himself
exposes
for duty'ssake, feels as if he were
cries of
pain, or
he
line
if the
pervious and
more
moment
very
prevail,were
ideal motives
more
greater resistance,and
of
motivation
coarser
one,
and
rarer
line taken,
if the
volition,as
of
cases
who
to
of
easy
to
low
fol-
represses
loquy
social ob-
followingthe
He
line of greatest temporary
resistance.
speaks of
tions.
conquering and overcoming his impulses and temptaBut
the sluggard,the drunkard, the coward,
in that way
talk of their conduct
never
or
say they
resist their energy,
their sobriety,conquer
overcome
their courage,
There
be
can
describes
the
interpretthem
view.
and
so
no
facts
as
forth."*
doubt
that
Professor
accurately.
evidence
But
in favour
he
of the
If volition is
James
here
proceeds to
libertarian
of preceding
merely the outcome
conditions,it must follow the line of least
psychological
but in the cases
described it follows the line
resistance,
This would
of the greatest resistance.
to imply
seem
*
Principles of Psychology,
the
of
intervention
this
which
experienceon
admitting
carefullythe
analyse more
must
it is based.
when
We
Before
factor.
new
conclusion,we
51)7
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 7.]
voluntary decision
was
tendencies
either
opposing conative
to operate, or
cease
they appear only as difficulties or
decision."*
of carrying out
in the way
obstacles
our
The
disappearance of opposing tendencies,on the one
as
obstacles,on the other, are
hand, or their persistence
alternatives which
the two
correspond to action in the
formed,
once
line
"
whether
Now
the
upon
which
and
resistance
of least
line
the
they persistor
absence
or
presence
we
which
conditions
Thus,
to
out
hand,
if
the
use
is
volition
no
continue
"
hard
to
and
decision
of
moment
control.
of
greatest
sistance.
re-
pends
disappear,de-
of
circumstances
simplestcase is
that in which
we
voluntarilydecide in opposition to
some
present organic craving, such as the craving for
drink.
The
craving itself is maintained
by organic
over
have
in
after
because
the
decision
Professor
it is both
is in
decision
favour
of
very
is made.
James,
formed
againsta persistentobstacle.
the
in the
operate both
phraseology of
"
The
On
and
the
the
ried
car-
other
indulging the
animal
motives
tend to disappearaltogethe
appetite,counter
instead
of persisting
obstacles.
as
They are
maintained
not
truded
by organic conditions,nor are they obthe mind
As
on
by any other circumstances.
the man
has given way to temptationand begins
as
soon
to drink, he loses sight of the considerations
had
which
restrain
him.
to
Besides
previouslytended
this, the
if he takes
drink itself,
obliterates
enough of it,soon
*
See
above,
p. 588.
any
to
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
598
lingeringtraces of reluctance.
drink
the man
certainlydecides
least resistance
indeed,
all.
at
On
of
direction
in the
still
appetiteitself
the
resistance,because
in
hand,
decides
virtuallyno
deciding to
be
x.
resolving
direction
in the
may
other
the
he
appetite,
his
there
in
Thus
CH.
iv.,
of
sistance
restrain
re-
est
great-
persists
of
motives
adopted
large part in
themselves
our
us
their
that
with
conceptionof
as
in the
obstacles
resolution.
is not
realisation
decided
our
was
him.
Regulus,
of
moment
in
conflict would
to
his
death
to
after
thage,
Car-
all that
awaited
which
remain
sist
per-
to
return
thoughts
at
Rome,
less acute.
much
been
have
identified
be
to
They thus
and
resolution,
determining
his mental
cumstanc
cir-
other
to
Self.
the future
could
he
sistence
per-
of
opposed to the course
be so complex, they may
play such
to obtrude
life,that they continue
when
are
even
we
decidingor have
may
upon
is due
obstacles
as
the
interests
The
action
when
dissimilar
essentially
is not
case
do
not
show
the
separate
that
weaker
two
in the process
motives
questions.
decision
issue out
other
become
The
triumph.
The
first
inoperativewhen
We
is,How
up
must
does
to
cision,
de-
carefully
untary
the vol-
liberati
previousprocess of decies
far do opposing tendenthe voluntarydecision is
of the
is,How
leads
which
" 8.]
VOLUNTARY
made
In
this has
obstacles
determine
such
for the
account
decision
or
is
tends
here
of
case
followed
by
relation
the
of
new
required to
certain
independent of
the
of consciousness
carries
which
action
of
for
mode
of
will
and
of voluntary
state
questionas to
consciousness,is quite
followed
be
the
have
volition
the
to
the
thought, we
The
"
question whether
will
in
voluntary
between
bodilymovement.
Motor
is not essential
efficacy
decision as a psychicalfact.
the nature
effect.
direction
the
consider
to
that
is
assume
proves
way
Setting aside
voluntary attention,where
determines
merely
no
"
it into
carry
present the
in
Bodily Activity.
and
normally
to
But
result.
Volition
" 8.
libertarians
the
as
It
adequate, and
not
are
"hard."
conditions
psychological
the
volition.
the
conditions
that these
factor
with
they
operative,
volition
render
and
do
nothing to
which
remain
proportionas they
constitute
599
DECISION.
not
or
by
this mode
train of
certain
volition
match
acts
out
goes
out
in
in
because
Similarlythe
turns
the
between
constitution
executive
powder
is
contrary
movements
our
the
less
my
limbs
; but
conscious
occurrences.
it does
and
state
not
which
When
be
damp.
to
if it
act,
or
connexion
The
is necessary
the
volition
intention.
of the
of
to
apparatus refuses
of consciousness
of the
its execution
proves
modes
existence
series
to
of
the
none
muscular
my
certain
of
course
volition
that
way
or
the
ing
correspondto
enter
the
tenance
main-
into the
precedes the
the
conscious
PSYCHOLOGY.
600
is
state
should
of
one
volition,it
forward
look
this kind
is
But
an
at
or
is necessary
essential
of the
falsehood
or
the
OH.
x.
subject
either as
bodilymovements,
least as possible. A belief of
titude.
ingredientof the voluntary at-
the existence
Its truth
that
iv.,
the
to
certain
practically
[BK.
is in itself sufficient.
belief
is
matter
of
ence.
indiffer-
mining
preciselyanalogous way we must, in deterthat
to produce a gunpowder explosion,assume
be dry enough to take fire. But
the powder is or may
in
that the gunpowder
it is by no
means
necessary
point of fact should be dry."*
sponding
Normally, however, volition is followed by correfessor
How
does this take place? Promovements.
factory
satisJames
has supplied what
to be
a
appears
of volition
to this question.The
answer
passage
of the
is accordingto him a special
into movement
case
The
out.
general tendency of ideas to act themselves
of an
action tends
to give rise to
mere
representation
In
the action
and
itself,
conditions.
it
will do
so
in the
absence
of interfering
ing
crookTry to feel as if you were
whilst keeping it straight.In a minute
your finger,
will fairly
tinglewith the imaginary change of position
;
"
yet it will
reallymoving is also
Drop this idea, think
with
sensiblymove,
not
all brakes
part of what
you
of the movement
off,and, presto
because
have
its
not
in mind.
ply,
purely and simit takes place with
effort at all." f
no
It very
without
Article
author
on
"
Voluntary
Action,"
p. 355.
f Principles
of Psychology,
vol.
ii.,p. 527.
Mind,
19,
601
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 8.]
dust on my
pin on the floor or of some
I brush
the conversation
sleeve.
Without
interrupting
no
express
away the dust or pick up the pin. I make
resolve,but the mere
perceptionof the object and the
to bring
of themselves
notion of the act seem
fleeting
the latter about." *
Experiences of this kind are very
have
We
common.
already had occasion to dwell on
in imitative
the tendency of ideas to express themselves
conscious
of
gestures
; and
to
show
in that connexion
proportion to
that
ideas
tend
vividness
their
adduced
we
to
and
act
other
themselves
dominance
dence
evi-
out
in
in
sciousness.
con-
tion
specialcase of volition. Volithe
because
is normally followed
by movement,
voluntary decision gives to the representationof the
act decided
on
a settled
predominance in consciousness
of alternative
courses.
as
against the representations
We
This
seems
now
turn
to
is Professor
the
James's
account
of the
matter, but
further,so
it
as
them
show
how
the
is to be carried
out
to
the exclusion
of the
others.
Ibid.,
p. 522.
to
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
602
of
action
an
or
group
CH.
x.
of actions
to
patientthat he
his eyes or his mouth, cannot
cannot
unclasp his
open
with
and
he will immediately be smitten
hands
*
Tell him that
absolute
impotence in these regards."
he is a pig or a lion or a baby or Julius Caesar, and he
the part.
dition
will proceed to enact
Subjectsin this conexecute
will receive and
suggestionsof crime,
and act out a theft,forgery,arson, or murder."
| Now
idea tends to have
though the suggestionof the mere
this effect more
or
less,yet the result can be produced
the
when
with far more
certaintyand conspicuousness,
operator imposes on his patienta beliefthat he is such
and such a person, or that he is going to do such and
such a thing. Hence
suggestionsmainly take the form
will not do
of assertions,
will do this,You
such
as, You
the patienthas once
When
that.
adopted the belief
the ideas of
that he is going to act in a certain manner,
lows.
alternative courses
are
suppressed,and the action folbring
performance.
about
"Tell
the
"
untary
probable that the predominance which voldecision gives to the idea of a line of action is
connected
the belief that this is the
with
essentially
line which
we
are
going to follow out, to the exclusion
It
seems
of other
alternatives.
strictest
place
me,
so
in
"
In
the
an
to
moment
as
Ideas.
Fixed
sense
determined
in the
Action.
Involuntary
" 9.
to
make
of
certain
action
give rise
to
an
603.
the
stroke
at
muscular
unintended
and
billiards,
apparatus
fails
jerkymovement,
t Ibid., p. 605.
if
action
my
do
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
"9.]
is
strictly
involuntary. But
interest
not
What
here.
us
of
is the defeat
will,not
the
with
interfering
conation.
unsuccessful
603
its
accidental
reflex
by
of
example
an
restrain
effort to
an
execution, but
have
We
by
with
concerned
are
we
this
like
cases
stance
circum-
onistic
antag-
an
this in the
movement
over
have
we
the ultimate
be determined
may
is
strong
so
to
and
the
outburst
to
as
is
sneeze
to
not
give
a
violent.
more
sneeze,
him
although
conation
; to
restrain
to
this
instance
sensation
place because
sneezing has
of the intense
There
the
ideal
will
the
and
on
an
idea.
impulse
The
it is
None
is
involuntaryact
not
the
great uneasiness.
In
of the soldiers
One
dency
ten-
painful,
the
less,if
involuntary.
follows
It does
on
not
ganic
or-
take
ideal
the
become
irritation of the
is however
wide
is defeated
by
the
membrane.
mucous
class of instances
obtrusive
in which
intensityof
an
idea
and
maintains
that
ultimatelyleads
dominance
to
its realisation.
in
consciousness
which
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
604
This
object is
looking down
Owing
upon
with
him
the
vast
of
intense
vividness, and
feels himself
he
have
may
contrary
it is called.
idea," as
that
the
fixed
independent of
possiblethat the impulse to
strength to
peopleactuallydo
this way.
This result
overcome
however
It
is in
realise
; he
may
imperfect powers
which
themselves
is not
would
under
common
that
pathologicalcases
deliberation.
have
vivacityfrom
it is always
cient
acquire suffiSome
in
precipices
down
This
is
The
restrained
mains
re-
normal
the
fixed
partlydue
conative
the
act
to
dencies
ten-
lie in
unity and
only be very inadequatelydeveloped in
stances
inthere
relation to the act contemplated. But
are
in which
this explanationdoes not apply. In
it is not the absence
of inhibitingtendencies,
such instances
but the positive
strengthof the impulsiveidea
abeyance ;
totalitycan
the
of
it may
it still
contrary volition.
reallyformidable.
becomes
its
will ; and
the
throw
But
derives
idea
conditions
idea
itself
obtrudes
"fixed
conditions.
the
thought
He
down.
to
; and
true
the
execution.
it into
and
Self.
the
of
him,
himself
like to throw
be
tower,
beneath
depth
its consequences
carry
distinct
will not
over
into
cathedral
and
action
of the
utterlyrefuse
idea
top of
fascinatinginterest
the
to
impelled to
very
the
it would
of what
thinks
idea
as
eminence, such
an
and
ideallyrepresented
the only feeling
when
even
A man
intense aversion.
standing
it is that of
towards
on
not
x.
the
when
happen even
desired, and
may
en.
concept
of
the
Ego
in
its
leads
which
of a man
gives a case
idea of killinghis mother.
everything; I love you
was
""To
drives
idea
to
desert
in
order
In
time,
the
that
of
mother."
gives place
to
tells him
one
and
home,
impulse
secret
without
and
home
come
But
"
is
tion
cessa-
kill
arrives
his
mother
Some
and
dead,
he
as
tation,
temp-
soldier.
thought of killinghis
killinghis sister-in-law.
home.
returns
this
by
him
stimulated
to
incessant
an
becomes
his sister-in-law
that
past
Tormented
you.'
his
leaves
time
some
"
kill
to
me
he
Still
yet for
soul ;
all my
with
605
Ribot
action.
to
possessedby the
you,' said he, CI owe
who
"
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 9.]
he
he
cordingly
acsees
rible
living. He gives a cry, and the terThat
impulse seizes him again as a prey.
very
brother
him
makes
his
tie
'Take
fast.
a
evening he
sister-in-law
his
an
there
if I
as
cured.
me
the
only
commit
to
This
is
; but
similar
the
Ribot,
Psychology,
Self
Maladies
Never
let
de
la
the
have
he
'
Sir,I
shall
whole
Volontt,
to
of my
"
am
behave
think
to
be
on
text;
any prelibertywill be
fixed
idea
taken
note
arranged
p.
out
me
77, quoted
was
not
and
effect,
in which
adduced
important
as
his entrance
house.
I abhor.'
easilymight
it is
What
so.
your
in which
be
to
will
regiment. You
perhaps I shall pretend
which
could
cases
got admission
establishment
I shall make
crime
it
he
and
go
the
me.
use
case
of
moments
believe
Never
so.
of the
and
barn,
evening before
in
were
At
him
From
The
inmate
an
in the
wolf
the director
become
to
.'
.
asylum.
to
wrote
like
me
it
is the
on
the
ecuted
ex-
many
actuallydid
conflict between
side of the
by James, Principles of
60G
volition,and
its
isolated
the
strengthmerely
of the
impulse to
from
pathologicalconditions.
which
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
In
itself does
these
arise from
any
idea
the
fixation
fixation of the
by
conation
the
cases
primarilyfrom
The
an
x.
rives
de-
which
the fixation of
in consciousness.
not
action
CH.
iv.,
idea
object. But
conditions,the
pathological
in
of involuntary action
those
commonest
are
cases
idea becomes
fixed through intense
which
an
appetite
or
cravingarisingfrom organicconditions. To take an
have
a morbid
example given by Mr. Shand, a man
may
to
cravingfor drink or opium, and the ideas which move
under
normal
as
opposed
are
four
indulgencein
man's
This
express
is
to
at last become
possiblealternatives.
the drink
or
volition
at
opium
the
here
irresistible. Now
may
moment
In
be
the first
contrary
when
he
place,
to
the
drinks.
As
a
occurrence.
rule,
probably a very rare
when
the impulse is strong enough to produce action,it
is also strong enough to prevent or displacean opposing
volition.
In the second
place,there may have been
from
the action ; but
to refrain
a preformed resolution
pulse
at the moment
it takes place,the contrary imat which
the field
to pre-occupy
as
acquiressuch intensity
of consciousness,
that the volition is temporarilyin
so
is non-voluntary
abeyance. Here action at the moment
rather than involuntary
taking a broader view we
; but
call it involuntary,
to
because
it runs
counter
a
may
volition which
has only lapsed for the time being,and
in consciousness
recurs
immediatelyafter the act is over,
in the form
of remorse.
In the third place,the action
effect before
take
a
voluntary decision has been
may
In the midst of the conflict of motives,the
arrived at.
idea
so
to
as
before
know
we
our
minds.
own
the
while
of
process
We
itself out.
working
become
appetitemay
action
into
pass
is still
deliberation
animal
the
correspondingto
vivified
607
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 9.]
act
may
while
man
still
he is to drink
a
glass of
mentally hesitatingwhether
or
not, will find that the organic craving has so
spirits
vivified the idea of drinking that he is swallowing the
whether
to do
so
or
spiritsbefore he has determined
action is then involuntary,
because
it interrupts
The
not.
It may
also be
of forming a volition.
the process
the
be that from
involuntary in a deeper sense
; it may
constitution
of the
have
willed
man's
possiblebefore
organiccraving may
acting.
the
interests
and
be
may
interests
all the
were
taken
still be
which
are
there
away,
general
volition
left.
tary.
involun-
the
totality
opposed
would
be
on
to
moment
lifetime,so
indulgence
the
It may
is discordant
that the
as
hand
the other
the
or
taken
cravingwere
If
the
act
is
mean
with
the
tween
intervals be-
morse.
periods of indulgenceare embittered by reIt is supposed that the morbid
craving by its
There
is,
intensity
prevents full deliberation.
the
isolated
of the
of
is
less,there
between
regarded as
If the
morbid
that
place,the
tion,
genuine volivoluntary at the
the
made
had
animal
Self would
the
None
be
may
isolated impulse.
relatively
away
of
be
tainly
cer-
deliberation
fourth
the
therefore
place.
defeated
the
In
motive
the
action
comparison
opium,
may
it takes
in which
sense
of
action
the
at which
time
be
would
nature, he
if full
otherwise
been
and
whole
in
assumed,
it is
man's
the
volition
determined
Of
action.
voluntariness
the
way,
of
matter
of
eating
tend
think
to
Coleridge
as
play,
have
of
ideal
the
action
an
of the
kind
it is alien from
misfortune, because
of
involuntariness
We
like
man
fair
we
or
degree.
of
system
found
they had
x.
if
even
when
course,
vast
CH.
iv.,
consciousness,would
in
developed themselves
and
nature
if
which,
tendencies
conative
is
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
608
opiumexternal
aspirations
which
we
him.
In
judgment
would
" 10.
be
of
deficiency
proceeding from
Self
the
depends
as
tendency
be
can
Self and
of the
it includes.
both
self-control.
when
this is
degree in
in which
this
in self-control
conditions.
the
the
special
concept
one
which
arise from
hand,
the
one
powering
over-
evolution
fullyformed
On
that
tendencies
may
trol
con-
it exists
which
or
is
ing
determin-
and
with
into relation
Failure
due
prevent the
The
whole
system of conative
our
involuntary
section,are
Self-control
as
degree
of
intensity
last
Self
the
brought
of
cases
the
of two
nature,
meaner
in the
discussed
whole.
the
upon
the
All
"
have
we
of
man
different.
very
of
cases
or
of
case
Self-Control.
which
action
the
of the
concept
of Self
even
To
quote Dr.
and
Clouston
"
The
driver
may
VOLUNTARY
" 10.]
that he
weak
be
so
or
the
horses
control
cannot
be
may
DECISION,
609
well-broken
hard-mouthed
so
that
horses,
driver
no
conditions
arise from
Both
pull them up.
may
An
imbecile
or
dement,
purely cerebral disorder.
self.
appropriatesit to himseeing something glittering,
can
not
such
do
to
known
have
that
motives
The
.
do
acts
not
would
other
operate in such
steal who
man
lead
said
he
had
persons
I
persons.
no
intense
all human
"
It is not
and
impulseand
of
the
with
only
this
Professor
James
marks
re-
those
classed imbeciles
technically
exhibit this promptitude of
dements
who
tardiness
of inhibition.
drunkards
often
On
Ask
half the
mon
com-
prey
time
you
Their
them.
know
nervous
centres
have
become
unlocked
sluice-waypathologically
by every passing
conceptionof a bottle and a glass. They do not thirst
for the beverage; the taste of it may
even
pugnant;
reappear
and
morse.
rethey perfectlyforesee the morrow's
But when
they think of the liquoror see it,
they find themselves preparing to drink, and do not
than this they cannot
stop themselves; and more
say."|
We
have
a
good example of the inverse case in which
the concept of Self is fullyorganised and easily
oped,
develbut finds itself impotent in the face of an abnor-
Clinical
Lectures
of Psychology,
t Ibid., p. 541.
vol.
Psych.
on
ii.,pp.
Mental
540-541.
Principles
[BK. iv.,
PSYCHOLOGY.
610
x.
CH.
who was
mally intense impulse,in the case of the man
possessedby the fixed idea of murdering his mother.
The
through which the
process of ideal construction
concept of Self grows, is gradual,and reaches different
The
more
degrees of perfectionin different persons.
highlysystematisedand organisedit becomes, the more
effective
life is dominated
whose
of
have
which
great
extent
man
of
children
in
children
that
creatures
the
ciples
general prindevelopment of
is absent
accordinglyfind
We
to
are
and
impulse; they
of deliberation,so that
power
the conative
tendency which is
comparativelylittle
action
tends
excited
follow
to
and
supported by
Remoter
Self
which
the present
represented.
present
of the future.
enough
moment
He
cannot
for
time
so
as
as
ideally
savage
He
in order
soon
is predominant
wastefullyexhausts his
indulgence,and is improvident
in a regube brought to work
lar
object which
; but
thinks
action
determines
persistentmanner.
other
some
the
ment.
mo-
operati
comparatively in-
are
Self,not
in riotous
store
and
Thus
of the
circumstances
the
considerations
The
he
and
savages.
savages
ideals
by
conceptual consciousness
and
is greatest in
Self-control
it is.
he
may
gain a
happens
to
his immediate
industrious
be
little money,
to
covet
end
is
at
or
the
attained,
no
For
this
reason
he does
not
the
appreciate
YOLITNTAKY
" 11.]
value
has
of time.
for him
does
great business
whole.
He
of life which
the transaction
in which
relative
merely
be
the moment
as
tance.
impor-
part of the
subordinated
to
the
necessityof completing
the
he
than
it
must
feel
not
pursuing at
rather
regard
not
does
is
he
absolute
an
He
end
The
611
DECISION,
is interested
in time
to
ceed
pro-
sorelytries the
gether
patience of the civilised European by spending altotime and energy
on
relatively
disproportionate
"time
is money"
trivial bargains,etc.
Such
mottoes
as
do not appeal to the savage mind.
The
holds of
same
other
to
children,as
young
is to them
worth
may
be
all know.
we
Attention.
either
The
bird
in the hand
in the bush.
thousand
Voluntary
" 11.
often
he
Hence
matters.
"
determination
ation
voluntarydeterminto perform certain
determination
to certo attend
or
a
tain
bodilymovements
objects. Attention, so far as it follows upon an
express volition to attend,is called voluntary attention.
All attention which
is not so initiated is non-voluntary
attend
When
not
or
we
spontaneous.
merely without
in opposition to
volition to attend, but
an
express
such a volition,attention is in the strictest sense
voluntar
inand
not
merely non-voluntary. A good
in
illustration of voluntary attention is to be found
certain psychologicalexperiments,in which
the experimenter
object,
fixes his attention on
an
uninteresting
in order
observe
to
phenomena attending the
"
of
process
object
when
for
he
fixation.
the
sake
attends
to
He
of
it.
determines
to
observing what
The
attend
to
takes
spontaneous
and
the
place
the
tinct:
voluntary direction of attention are not merely disthey are also antagonistic.Everyone desires
PSYCHOLOGY.
612
futile worry
and
regulatedas
to
to avoid
so
well
at
will from
[BK.
fret ; but
able to
be
irremediable
no
iv.,
has
one
divert
x.
mind
his
misfortune, and
CH.
thoughts
unavoidable
sources
of
movement
"
attention
recurs,
and
murders
sleep."*
mental
All
tory"
trainingand discipline
depend on the vic"This
voluntary attention.
usually takes
of
time.
The
resolution
devote
to
attention
to
an
attractive
un-
we
cease
it.
prompted
which
to
think
We
of it and
think
had
of the
instead
resolved
of
motives
the
which
ter
subject-mat-
ject-matt
study. But this subis, ex hypothesi^ uninteresting.It cannot,
attention.
therefore,command
Accordingly our
from
the point,and
have
to be
called
rethoughts wander
effort of will. This fitful alternation
by a renewed
we
of attentiveness
until
fatigueand
and
tedium
to
inattentiveness
cause
may
task
the
to
continue
be
On
happens,
the
periods of
until
prolonged,
*
Author's
the
Analytic
concentration
necessityfor
Psychology,
vol.
become
deliberate
i.,p.
241.
oned.
abandas
the
this
ally
gradueffort
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
"11.]
to
ceases
in
exist.
such
Thus
it fails in
When
is to
cases
function
the
create
613
of
tion
voluntaryatten-
attention.
spontaneous
and
life
to spend his whole
disgust. A person condemned
efforts to fix his mind
in constantlyreiterated
on
a
hopelesslyuninterestingtopic,would go mad, commit
tion
suicide,or sink into a state of coma.
Voluntary attenbelongs coincidentlyto the province of intellect
of
conduct
and
volition.
It is the
to that of practical
ject
the understanding,'and, like external conduct, is subIn intellectual moralitythe fundalaw.
mental
to moral
*
virtue is patience."
The
to attend
voluntarydetermination
plays a large
liberati
and
important part in the more
complex forms of dethe value
of conflicting
We
may
compare
l
and
to
find that
may
certain motive
we
view
relation
in
motives
the
total
system
considered
or
group
from
of
this
of motives
lives;
our
point
has
of
the
not
We
prominence which it ought to have.
then attempt to give it this strength and
ence
prominmay
by voluntarilyturning our attention in a certain
candidate
Thus
direction.
ation
a
preparingfor an examinfind in himself a strong disposition
ness,
to lazimay
He
tempting him to spend a day in idleness.
at the outset
siderations
very faintlyrealise the specialconmay
strength and
make
which
he
may
at
the
same
such
time
know
important,and that
bitterlyregret doing so.
are
will
not
constitute
decision
to
*
motive
apply himself
Author's
Analytic
inadvisable
course
This
sufficient to
to
work
Psychology,
neglectsthem
at
the
lead
instead
vol.
i.,p.
but
tions
considera-
that these
if he
outset
may
definite
to
of
play;
242.
he
but
[BK.
PSYCHOLOGY.
614
it may
fix attention
to
to
so
which
reach
sufficient to
be
steadiness
with
that
the
For
in
will
we
manner
the
attend ; and
to
" 12.
Freedom.
True
denial of the
is claimed
by
on
It
as
must
in
this
the
be
supposed
chapter implies a
not
issue out
of the
in which
sense
ordinaryconsciousness
"
not
attend
whole.
doubt
have
only thrown
humanity. We
of such freedom,
theory of the nature
of liber tar ianism,
which
goes by the name
choice.
By contingent choice is meant
does
fluence
controllingin-
the
a
to
of
which
in
act, but
our
freedom
freedom
such
said
have
anything we
that
"
conspicuous.
determination
voluntary
of the
these
as
ation
voluntarydeterminvoluntary determination
obviouslydepends
directlyand
cases
The
of the
out
will
work
to
go
is most
only
not
he may
way
to
It is in such
volition.
our
issues
act
to
decision
of freedom
we
cases
the
In this indirect
energy.
consciousness
such
rise to
effective
and
distinct
x.
sion
voluntarydecifor working, and
the reasons
liveliness
the strength and
give
on
CH.
iv.,
total process
on
the
theory
of
or
a
tain
cer-
tingent
con-
choice
of mental
life in accordance
ism
sometimes
call themselves
Determinists.
libertarians
Some
de-
in
identifying
with contingent choice ; they only disagree in
freedom
denying the existence of such choice. As againstboth
terminists
these, we
agree
with
maintain
and
that
that
the
freedom
mination,
consists in self-deter-
self-determination
means
self-con-
as
Self-control,
trol.
in
as
this is to
be
only in
conduct.
the system
acts
Another
are
of the
free
agent
of the Self
constitution
just the
exists
character
the
from
that
say
The
whole
as
sists
con-
degree
in
it includes."*
which
Self
the
the
tendencies
it in " 10,
whole.
depends upon
specialtendency can
that
with
of
Self
the
it exists
which
flow
defined
have
we
proceeding from
control
determining
and
or
"
615
DECISION.
VOLUNTARY
" 12.]
as
in
of conative
way
far
so
; for
of putting
as
they
character
is
Character
whole.
so
far
as
character, because
from
disconnected
"
"
which
can
coincides
Professor
*
P.
this account
from
It follows
that freedom
an
be
ideal
608.
t J. S. Mackenzie,
Manual
of Ethics, third
edition,
J Ibid,, p. 96.
" See
is
v.,
" 12,"The
True
Self."
p. 95.
PSYCHOLOGY.
616
the
of
examination
an
of
will
individual
the
relation
This
such
science
finite
The
it is
Psychology
he
the
thing
same
object,
but
that
Will
as
and
and
means
have
is not
the
and
truth
metaphysician.
possibility
their
the
mode
of
individual
are
occurrence
mind.
it.
will
as
and
or
being
of
now
this
have
like
it,
toothache.
your
such
categories
correspondence.
ultimately
we
an
ness
consciousfrom
may
by
garded
re-
that
exactly
of
any
so
thought
toothache
psychologists,
of
far
a
resemblance,
of
something.
of
has
deavour
en-
miracles.
possible
very
thought
freedom
As
of
intend
explicable
not
are
he
intends
may
you
is
any
we
that
modification
that
or
is
or
object
saying
of
categories
miracle
it
mean
present
an
thought
ultimate
how
verse.
uni-
the
view
it becomes
the
and
utterly inexplicable.
ordinary
plain
causality, substance,
Hence,
in
he
toothache
my
the
of
conscientiously
indeed
as
"
toothache,
and
explain
has
reality
is
chology
Psy-
thought
of
x.
involves
"
resembles
which
point
consciously
can
that
say
the
more
cannot
individual
from
by
miracle,
the
Psychology
it
the
special science,
the
and
closely
explain
between
mind,
as
more
to
To
relation
the
with
discussion
full
Its
Ethics.
with
nor
CH.
rv.,
neither
lies
freedom
about
word
last
[BK-
deal
thought,
time-processes
topics
not
but
for
with
only
taking
the
the
with
place
INDEX.
ACTION
.
Analysis: generalpsychological.
:
tendency of
Bk.
ment,
[^Move-
Analytic
Action,
68.
total
of,to form
Psychology, author's
Volition.]
and passive
sight,362, 372,
373.
combination
I.
conceptual,449.
Voluntary
Active
ideas to
of, with
doctrine
Anaximenes:
regard
374.
disposition,
to the
soul, 542.
feeling-attitude
Activity: mental, distinguished Anger : specific
68.
in, 63.
from feelingof activity,
analysisof, 307 seq.
[SeeConation.]
546.
and belief,
in animals, 308.
practical:
of belief,547.
condition
as
:
practical
of,
relation
and
to
theoretical,548.
restricted by belief,549.
as
feeling-toneof, 566
mental
fallacy of
seq,
253
Aesthetics
of
characteristic
mind
of
that
seq.
for
favourable
"
of, 23 -'24.
in, 243.
in. 265.
in, 308.
comparison in, 453
anger
primary
from
distinguished
"
memory-image,
illustrating
perceptionof
character
of,
543.
Anti-mechanical
481.
light-waves,
spirits": doctrine
''Animal
uage,
lang-
seq.
513.
in,
in, 615.
construction
394.
Amplitude
defining
varied
persistency with
251
effort displayed
by,
seq.
ditions
adaptationto varying conideas
161.
positive,
of
mind,
in, 253-255.
productionof, 160.
and contrast effect,161.
as
between
human
perceptualprocess
"
"
negative,159
conditions
analogy
of, and
in
necessary
mental
processes
tinguished
of, dis-
psychology,6.
After-image:
of, 21.
states
care
from
22.
ception,
per-
seq.
pointof view
oi
conditions
of interpreting
difficulty
Animals:
fear
310.
134.
in savage
617
point of view
thought, 508.
INDEX.
618
Ants
of
instances
adaptationto
varying conditions
Aversion
in,254-
and
the
sensation-
reflex,132.
255.
Aphasia :
and
motor
perceptual,
45.
Appetition:
positivephase
as
of
aversion, 66-67.
and
"
the
BACON:
132.
sensation-reflex,
soul, 542.
74.
Appetitivecontinuity,
Aristotle
referred
"
Arrest
192.
Wundt's,
side
of facilitation,
on
of
on
ideas,419
the
Baldwin, M.
images,
of, 247,
tal
men-
"
when
248.
of,to imitation,271.
Belief
non-
"
"
"
tary,
volun-
voluntary,
:
:
as
and
vision in
habit, 99
seq.
negative phase
conation, 66-67.
on
fishes,
seq.
discernible,
separately
and
23.
imagination,Bk. IV.,
distinction
relation
"
and
as
and
between,
of,
and
seq.
practical
to
546-547.
disbelief,
conditioned
by activity,
547.
involuntary,
[See
Voluntary Attention.]
Aversion
524-
546.
activity,
611.
Automatism
on
imagination, 544
between
ejective
imitation,
ch. viii.
390.
"
Bee-community,
attitude of : and
prospective
the "not
ness,
yet" consciousdistinction
of
176.
time, 388.
"
(note).
139.
"
to
consciousness,8.
Bateson, W.
Beats, 174
relation
: on
experiments
squirrels,
251, 265.
tion,
percep-
of, without
possibility
belief
525, 526-527.
Batchelder
278.
"
to. 298
phases
seq.
prospectivenature
of
projectiveand
on
"
"
246
relation
referred
"
"
as
to
movement,
467.
Faculty
of
ideal
547.
activity,
Psychology, 107.
characteristic
of
tendency
of
enemy
larity,
simi-
423.
[SeeIdeas.]
seq.
Associationism,Bk.
as
ment,
move-
reproduction by
on
and
"
of free
352.
Association:
"
195.
restriction
on
98.
"
innervation-
the
on
18.
to,
sense,
experiment, 24.
negative
A.
his
end, 86.
an
his
Bain,
directed
essentially
process :
towards
"
"sensible"
the
on
involving restriction of
activity,549.
relative importance of subjective
as
"
of
and
factors
of, 550
objective
seq.
INDEX.
"between
distinction
Belief:
jective
sub-
610
in
Casuality:
ideational
and
objective
of, purely psychological,
factors
"
[SeeSavages.]
subjectivefactor in primitive,
from
of
in
revival
of
feeling-tone,565.
as
influencing action after
voluntarydecision,601.
Belt: quoted, 310.
Berkeley : theory of vision of, 3(55.
confutation of his theory of
vision,366.
Bethe, A. : on smell in ants, 186
(note).
368 seq.
perception,
: spatial
perceptionof the,
change,
Character
problem
educational
imitation
of
on,
in
imitation
of idea
development
of self
contingent,614.
necessary
for
the
syntheticand
Cleland:
of
the
the structure
on
eye, 144.
Clouston,Dr.
failure in self-
on
control, 608-609.
visual
ing
illustrat-
the,
perception
197.
Coenaesthesis,
Cognition:
dimension, 372.
far
part
of the
self,535.
[SeeOrganism].
Brain : description
of the, 35 seq.
of, 13
Bridgman, Laura ; case
26.
(and note),
Thomas
on
ultimate
as
"
as
Cognitiveprocess:
4.
psychology,
consciousness
58,
Cold
of
tions,
associa-
stq.
object of
and
its object,
59.
sensations
of.
perature-sen
[SeeTem-
degree of
saturation
distinction
neutral
between,
tints,145.
combination
of
\see
perceptualconsciousness,
148.
differences in saturation
Causality,
Thinghood.]
Causality: category of, 314.
and
whether
simple or complex,
seq.
of,
143.
426, 427.
500.
of
Colours
CATEGORIES,312
mode
being conscious,56
Condillac,
114.
competition
Organic
[_See
Sensations.]
of
Blind-spot,145.
Body: and mind, Introd.,ch.iii.
314,
of
512.
in, 525.
345.
operationson
in
influence
importance of
seq.
"
of, 21.
states
106.
psychologist,
combination
on
illustration of
natural
Classification:
Brown,
dependenton
as
mental
"
Blind
how
385.
15.
introspection,
Children : difliculty
of interpreting
Choice
third
guished
distin-
consciousness
freedom
Binocular
342
500
557.
of
Change -consciousness
primitive, 556
seq.
attitude
construction,
seq.
ideal
as
552.
features
sciousness,
con-
315.
and
intensityof, 150.
complementary, 156.
"
effects of contrast
Colour-blindness
on, 158.
: total,151
seq.
INDEX.
620
Colour-Blindness
total
of,to pleasure
displeasure,234.
coincidence of, with feelingof sensation,235.
tone
in perceptualprocess, 245.
Conation
and
twilightvision, 153.
partial,153 scq.
of explaining,
: modes
partial
"
154.
143-144.
of,
"no
ch. iv,
390.
experimentson,
Conative
attitude,63
by, 456.
development of conceptual
subserved
illustrated
"
"
of
repetition
of
differences
"
sight by touch,
qualification
touch by sight,93.
242.
perception,
reproduction in
of
perceptualprocess,
263.
perception,367.
tendency to alter presented
: a
"
varyingdegreesof
of
"
end
588.
of, 64.
as
attained
processes
"
as
invariable
constituent
nature
habit,
of
seq.
dependent on
74.
continuity,
ative
con-
ch.
iv.
[SeeLanguage.]
words
as
expressing,
463.
and synthesis,
Conceptualanalysis
consciousness,67.
of: and
of
232
ch. iv.
Conception, Bk. IV.
and
IV.,,
Language, Bk.
Concepts:
of, 66.
"
581
,
voluntary decision,
in
unity :
tal
by menonly, 64-65.
defined, 66.
"
of
feeling-tone
sensation,
of
effect
association,422.
ascending levels
"
ciple
prin-
process : cumulative
of, 77 seq.
"
387.
fundamental
retentiveness
primary
as
object,63-64.
"
80.
seq.
in visual
Conation
by rhythm
music,
in, 81.
92.
form
and
verse
illustrated from
as
stimulus,
in
by rhythmic
same
illustrated
"
reproduction,91.
example of, from
to
78 aeq.
analysisin, 457.
of
relation
retentiveness,77.
and
"
seq.
of,
unity, 73-74.
conative
ends
practical
or
cognition,
to
581.
453.
ideational activity,456.
of
of,
relation
:
continuity
theoretical
present
389.
the
"not
yet" and
more"
consciousness,
and
454.
as
perception of
time,
of
emotions,298.
fear,300.
and
deliberate,452.
in animals,
in animals :
attention, 247.
and
146.
Colour -tones :
graduation
series of, 147.
Colour- wheel, the, 158.
relation
relation of, to
"
differences
"
and
"
light-sensation,
in
and
101.
448
seq.
INDEX.
Concomitance
and
conscioxis
between
nervous
[SeeParallelism.]
and
Conscious
action
of
between,
50
between,
process
more,"
pared,
com-
of, to
and
43
"
correlation
tween,
be-
precise relation
and
46
nervous
cess,
pro-
of,74.
of the
"
"
Ladd
and
and
centres
word
by
division
it is not
total
"
function
of
part of
wider
ultimate
: can
never
from
biological
42.
of functions
modes
it exist
of,
56
apart from
in,
entirelyneutral,
the
in
Coughing
marked,
definitely
:
bodily
division
evidence
for
functions in, 45.
of
division
functions
as
of
in
45.
sensation-reflex,
127.
sensations,
[See
and
62.
functions
44.
organs,
"
Cutaneous
60-61.
of
correspondingto
not
52.
feeling?
total:
as
ments,
move-
43.
9.
individual
of
localisation
centres, 40.
reflex actions, 41.
three
reflex
sub-cortical
point of view,
sub-cortical
whole,
process,
and
42.
8.
35-36.
produce
to
certain
function
on,
on,
why
of
by,
use
there is not
prison t where
total unconsciousness, 8-9.
Baldwin
of
35-36.
,
actions,41.
writers, 8.
"
conscious
function
Consciousness, 7.
"
of, 420.
and
48.
use
law
seq.
"
"
mediate,
im-
of
relations
interest,422.
process,
seq.
"
"no
72-73.
"
nervous
and
yet"
390.
vous
ner-
immediate
"
of,
of
385.
''not
Contiguity:
relation
and
the
"
distinguished
consciousness
change,
seq.
pi'ocess, 35.
"
in
from
con-
54
of,"
span
in time, 384.
process
change
comitance
con-
of
theories
connexion
"
as
"
hypothesisof
"
on
79.
in, 48.
"
experiments
"
process:
one-sided
nervous
hypothesis
sentially
es-
conative, 75.
50 aeq,
process,
of:
Consciousness, processes
Pressure
186
seq.
sensations
Temperature
tions.]
sensa-
absolutelyinactive,67.
without
objectivereference,
never
"
69.
"
DARWIN
'"
theory of
tional
emo-
gestures, 311.
of, 72.
conative unityand
of. 73.
his
continuity
Darwinian
theory
"
17.
data
ing,
support-
INDEX.
622
: his Elementary
Davis, Ainsworth
Physiology recommended,
36 (note;.
spontaneous origin
of natural signsin, 472-474.
Deaf-mutes
of
expression
in
Distinctness
Double
how
"
it
of
process
"
414.
hallucinations,
as
of retina's
view
A.
in, 586.
of
conflict
as
of
state
H.
unstable
of,
librium,
equi-
590.
mination
deter-
referred
"
of
the
and
by,
Education
Ellis
Dewey,
theory
of
on
theory
language, 483
Discernment
of
Discontinuity
Discourse,
origin
of
of, 201.
use
work,
Dispositions,76,
"
"
"
III.,
div.
i.,
range
nature
seq.
conditions
of, 286.
emotional
mood, 286-287.
"
in
(note).
83.
character
parasitical
criticism
"
modification
relation
of
"
of,288.
and
persistenceof, 76.
modification
of, 77.
102.
psychophysical,
of
distinguishedfrom
"
"
term
of, 284
of, 285.
arousing,285-286.
422.
interest,
60
varied
sources
"
Disparateness,368.
this
540-
worship,561.
Bk.
characteristics
464.
Displeasure:
of savages,
savage
wide
"
seq.
of the
imitation,524.
63.
135.
threshold
ft'.
attitude in,
specificfeeling-
"
"
Ding-dong
language
in, 510
ch. iv.
134.
of
of
dreams
on
Emotion
177.
Difference-tones,
Differentiation : and integration,
of sense-organs,
of
541.
emotion, 294.
Difference-threshold, 201.
"
libertarians,
James's
on
(note),181
influence
imitation
Ejectivestage
thought, 582.
"
to, 170
and
543.
614.
J.
memory,
(note).
terial
ma-
to, 289.
in ideational
Determinists
referred
"
attend, 613.
doctrine
soul held
Desire
tiguity,
con-
441.
of
law
on
experiment of, on
"
imperfect,593.
ment
experi-
421.
decision
Descartes
own
lightin, 415-416.
motives, 587.
as
seq.
arises,585.
generalpointof
"
pared
com-
as
images, 402
pain of, 277.
illusions,415.
Dumas,
impulse, 267.
percepts
stimulation
with
contrasted
of
contact, 353.
as
"
"
Deliberation
experience,340.
with
cision.]
De-
[See Voluntary
and
Dissonance, 176.
Dreams:
of universals,487.
Decision.
extensive
Distraction
impotence
Dispositions,cumulative
seq.
James's
ment
state-
seq.
James's
INDEX.
Emotion
qualitative Exposition :
ultimate
623
of
distinguishedfrom
299.
disposition,
in ideational process,
576
Emotional
ment,
senti-
"
guished
distin-
:
dispositions
from
moods,
"
seq.
sentiments
mood
emotion,
"
and
experiments on
"
of
cause
discontinuity
past
and
of
use
connected
present
word, in reference
conative
"
to
process:
and
of
the
External
view
of,
from
that
tinguished
dis-
of
world
"
of
construction,
ch.
Space, Time,
by, 616.
\8ce Learning by
Ideal
Eye
stages
in
"
"
vi.
[See
Thinghood,
Construction.]
in
the, 137
in psychology,
as
illustrating,
psychology, 25.
IV.,
351.
as,
ideal
: as
Bk.
24 seq.
Aristotle's,24.
development
of
seq.
insects,139.
of
structure
the,
144-145.
stereoscope
in
Experimental
method
from
guished
distin-
vation,
obser-
mere
19-20.
"
"
"
as
movements
free space
"
discussion of freedom
Experience.
experience.]
Experiment : as method
"
ii.
of:
perception
yielded by
psychology,6.
'"
meaning by,
exploration,348.
of
point
of
47.
Ethics
337
movement,
Bk.
of,
hypothesis,
interaction
senses,
340.
ing
mean-
conservation
other
341.
acquirement
"
of, 74.
ideallyconstructed, 582.
Energy
with,
with, 336-337.
active
seq.,
tendencies,66.
law
and
"
of conscious
"
experiments on
"
selves,532.
:
tactile sensibility,
connected
334-336.
between
End
extension,
334.
286-287.
separablefrom
as
"
287-288.
"
of
extension, 333.
distinguished from
active
338.
movement,
gestures, 311.
"
of, and
real, 348.
physically
constituent
:
as
Extensity
578.
as,
stituents
con-
as
"
"
seq.
material
spatialorder
"
ments.]
Senti-
[See
and
334.
emotional
300.
order
of, 330-331.
and local signature,332.
distinguished
fromextensit-y,
575.
distinguishedfrom
and
analysisof, 330
formal
"
of,
519.
discovery,
Extension
emotional
order
"
limitations
drawbacks
and
called
of, 26.
of, 26.
of,27-28.
on
27.
function
in insects'
due
to
eyes, 139.
attention,96.
experimental illustrations of
of, 98.
nature
formation
imagery
by words,
Titchener
Facilitation
"
mental
up
FACETS
of
habit
as
ample
ex-
of, 101.
positive and
forms
of
I. ch.iii.
negative
fallacyof, 105.
INDEX.
G24
105-106.
Fear
analysisof, 300
stated
seq.
disadvantageous and
advantageous, 301-302.
relation of, to bodily pain,
when
of sensation
"
cised,
criti"
intensity,and
pression
imunfamiliarityof an
suddenness,
causes
of,
conditions
of,
as
"
Fechner:
his
Weber's
Weber's
"
anger
310.
visual
on
"
"
"
"
and
wear
explanation
203 seq. [See
law].
imagery, 404.
revived
"
seq.
ideas, Bk.
of
*"?".
.
law,
imagination and
"
revival
"
belief
in
of, 565.
of ideational
ultimate
56,
necting
con-
of
as
Feeling-attitude:
mode
of being conscious,
theories
due
282
and
logically,
physio-
repair, 236
[8ee
seq.
Sensation.]
of perception,
Bk. III., div.
i.,ch. iii. [SeePerception.]
305-306.
"
it with
303.
"
termining
de-
235.
303.
Spencer's theory of
"
conditions
itself,
activity
[SeeIdeas.]
ing
developmentofreason-
566.
Ferrier:
on
and
60.
cognition,GO.
presupposes
relation
total
of, to our
consciousness, 60,
62.
kinds
of : besides
pleasure
62-63.
displeasure,
: in the emotions,63.
specific
Feeling-tone : as generic word
for pleasureand pain, 62.
Bk. II., ch. iii.
of sensation,
of organic sensations, 210
speech, 313.
on
alphabeticalsounds, 482.
Fixation-point: distance of, in
visual perception,374.
Fixed
ideas ; opposed to volition,
"
and
604.
in
"
pathologicalcases,
604-
605.
normal
under
conditions,
606.
Text-Book
of
Foster, M. : his
Painrecommended,
Physiology
sensations.]
seq. [See
of specialsensations,217 seq.
37 (note).
"
"
of sensation
its relation to
his
"
218.
intensity,
of sensation
"
variations
of,
"
on
219.
of
"
of
of
"
sensation
and
quality
"
on
"
on
sensation, 221.
sensation
224
of
frog,
nerve
tendency,232
regard to
yellow,155.
negative after-images,
on
positive after-images,
162.
and
organic
welfare, 229.
of sensation
of
in
159-160.
seq.
factors determining,
226.
sensation
differences
sensation
diffusive
of, 222,
of sensation
of
37-39.
stimulation
on
fibres,136.
character
"
experiments
and
seq.
conative
light-sensation, 170
(note).
noises and musical sounds,
on
171, 172.
on
INDEX.
Foster,M.
smell-
on
"
sensations,
Geometrical
pressure -sensations,186.
differences
between
and
surepres-
temperature-
sensations,189.
-
of
discrimination
on
after
language,
470.
Signs.]
impotence of, to
express
higher universal, 486-188.
Goldscheider
: experiments of, on
of joints,
191.
sensibility
of
threshold of discernment,
on
of
"
ments
move-
anaesthesia
skin, 191.
on
hunger and thirst,198.
"
illusion,32.
imitative,as primitive
[SeeNatural
188.
on
"
form
temperature-sensations,
on
"
Gestures
perception
fre-
359.
movements,
184-
185.
on
"
configuration;
of, yieldedby
beats, 174-176.
on
"
Geometric
pitch,172.
on
625
201-202.
(note).
145, 363, 30 j.
centralis,
Franklin, C. L. : on Helmholz'
theory of light-sensation,
"
Fovea
1TABIT
and
automatism,
99
'
165.
seq.
Fraser
on
self,536.
Free-will
ing
: questionof, in form589
a decision,
seq.
libertarian
theory of, 590,
"
614.
"
on
Function
a,
:
example
as
"
experiments
37.
misuse
of the
word, in
doctrine of materialism
Fundamental
tones, 178.
Future:
perceptionof
anticipation of :
of
Habitual
from
distinguishing,
past,498,
13
two, 534.
Hallucinations
:
the
self
into
conditions
of,
413.
to
characteristics
Laura
Bridg(note;.
as
determiningon
Hallucination
:
division of
"
past, 497.
facilitation,
actions,99.
man,
relation
relation
"
prior
of
101.
reminiscence
of,
formation
of : analogous to
formation of memory,
436.
Habits
of thought and will, 100.
,49.
389.
formation
Hall, Stanley:
descriptionof
of
101.
Frog
conditions
of internal
view
savage
"
"
"
"
414.
of, to illusions,
414.
to
dreams,
of,
perceptualcharacter
of, 415
modes
of 415.
of stimulation
Harmonic
Hartmann
intervals, 173.
:
quoted, 306.
of, 171.
Hearing: organ
Heat
GENETIC
perature
[See Temsensations ]
quoted by
Tylor,
sensations
of.
theory
of
spatial Heinicke:
perception,361.
Geology : analogy between,
psychology,10
Psych.
11.
485.
and
Heller, T.
of the
011
spatialperception
(note;,
blind, 342
40
INDEX.
626
Helmholtz
of
theory
sation
light-sen-
Ideal
of, 162-166.
of
theory
"
of
analyticpower
the
496
as,
objectivetime
"
as
duct
pro-
of, 499.
ear,
180-181.
"
"
time
seq.
for
accounting
construction:
"
Heracleitus
of the
his doctrine
seq.
soul, 542.
Herbert
type
as
"
associationism,
of
509
107."
in
513.
current
in
opticalprocess
on
quoted, 287,
eye-
Hume
difference
on
between
515.
"
"
of
Elementary
recommended,
logy
Physio-
state
Hypnotic
action
3 6 (note)
following
from
illustrated
volition
"
the, 601-602.
Ideal
taking
reproduction
of
character
of, 403.
motor
element
"
perceptual
pre-adjustment,447 seq.
and
as
"
428
by
world
as,
trains
"
"
"
promptingprocess
of, 491.
and
practicalactivity,
IV.,
space
ch. ii.
of
as,
494,
seq.
by
seq.
association of
competition
by
seq.
divergent
492, 546.
-
"
Percepts.]
law
law
of
of, 412-413.
423
similarity,
motives
"
of, Bk.
409.
relation
and
420
contiguity,
490
seq,
"
compared with
seats
[SeeImages
"
predominant
interest, 431.
external
"
scq.
determined
percepts:
nervous
from
construction.
of
perceptualchange,
guished
distin-
accompanying perceptual
sequence
"
arrangement
pre-
"
464
seq.
533.
beings, 266.
and images, Bk IV., ch. i.
and images : distinction and
relation of, 394 seq.
"
in,
of
definition
in human
"
as
others, 520.
and
"
IDEA
ence
subjectiveexperi-
emotions,
Ideals, 583.
Ideas
and
material
of, 519.
of
198.
Huxley
self
of
order
in,
518.
and
percepts
subjectiveorder
in liveliness
399.
Hunger
primitive societies,
in
"
305.
301,
individual
acquiescencein, 514.
375.
movements,
referred to, 67, 131.
Hobbes:
Hudson:
mals,
ani-
and
children
theory of light-sensation
tiering:
cooperative
process,
seq.
433.
of,
INDEX.
Ideas:
conditions
constructive
on
Image
433-434.
out,
to
act
selves
them-
and
act
selves
them-
and
in
issuing
gesture,470.
feeling-tone of, 5C2
seq.
[See Feeling-tone, Ideaout,
and
of, to
410.
activity,
pendence
percept : relative inde-
of, 411.
origin of
activity.]
language in
of, 467.
elements
relation
percept :
motor
imitative
without
408.
subjective
activity,
468.
tendency of, to
passage
sensory
401.
tendency of,
tional
of
flow
side, obstructing
627
Imagery
visual, 404.
visual
preceding volition,
600.
motor
indistinctness
of,
405-406.
and
and
in,
"
448.
ideas, Bk.
ideas
I., ch. i.
distinction
and
of, 394.
indistinctness of, 406.
unsteadiness of, 409.
indeterminateness
of, 448.
Imagination: distinction between,
and belief,
544 seq.
relation
compared
with
ception.
sense-per-
"
"
determinateness
of, due
to
451.
conceptual synthesis,
of, to language,
relation
"
462.
Ideational
among
"
process
two
-fold
of, 418.
:
activity
566
feeling-tone of,
conditions
of
formal
conditions
of
of, 567-568.
feeling-tone
distinction
obstructed
"
and
"
of geometrical,
32.
of tradition,269.
as
instinctive,272.
learningby,
and
ideal
"
of pure,
nature
:
of, to
dreams,
impulse,270
413.
270-271.
with
272.
417.
mental
and
picture,395.
percept :
Impulse :
likeness
of,
396.
and
in
and
in
percept
in
difference
397
intensity,
of,
seq.
seq.
seq.
seq.
and
animals,
perceptual process,
266-268.
isolated
:
ment
develop-
of,to attention,
in children
verbal, compared
in
of idea of self,524
relation
relation
Image
importance of,
of, 413.
414.
"
273 seq.
construction, 510.
educational
"
conditions
relation
"
"
form
"
diminished,
ence
pain arising from incoherin play of, 574.
Imitation, Bk.
between
571.
Illusion : measurement
of
of, 567.
feeling-tone
Illusions
547.
revival
573.
activity,
material
"
of, in
563.
feeling-tone,
seq.
"
savages,
attitude
pect
as-
as
determining
decision,593.
Impulsive
from
Innervation-
distinguished
voluntaryaction,583.
action
sense,
192.
INDEX.
628
Innervation-
existence
sense
discussed,192
of,
intense
seq.
"
"
in,
of
arisingfrom
percept
with
46.
hypothesis,
to, 46
objections
and
to
seq.
350.
on
405.
visualising,
on
improvement of memory
443, 444.
by practice,
line
in
of greatest
action
on
on
stereoscope,
resistance,596.
blem,
chess-pro-
illustrated
from
sphere
movement,
of
without
of,
600-601.
15.
"
on
necessityof cooperationfor,
of
action followinghypnotic
suggestion,602.
of
failure
on
self-control,
609.
(note).
experimentson sensibility
of, 191.
19.
method
into
600.
on
practice,15.
allegeduntrustworthiness
of volition
passage
on
15.
"
379, 381.
after-images,
389.
organicregistration,
on
14.
from
causing
geometric configuration,
on
illustrated
as
voluminousness, 337.
on
47.
recall,438.
illustrated from
strangeness
"
ing-tone,
determining feel-
289-290.
of power
organic
generaltheoryof emotion,
on
of conservation
law
of energy,
Interest
on
48.
energy,
Interaction
227.
his
quantity:and psychical
Intensive
Prof. W.
sensation
"
failure of
self-control,608.
JAMES,
compared
as
craving,
colour,
151.
of
fixed
150.
independent
not
idea
606.
present
phase of self in the, 531.
Intensity: of a colour, 143.
differences
tion,
representa-
following an
through intense
persistencyof
following
ideal
603-604.
of, 194.
Insane
action
Involuntary
experimentin, 19.
pendent
Introspective psychologist: deon
work
18.
predecessors,
Involuntaryaction,602
example of,
to
movement,
of
KANT
Keller, Helen:
seq.
from
restrain
603.
his
of, 13 (note),
case
26.
ability Kiesow
in-
reflex
H.
Kingsley,
(note),475.
(note).
quoted,
470
INDEX.
Knowing.
Konig
referred
Von:
Rries,
connected
to, 170
with, 260-262.
of, from
examples
(note)
.
Kruse
natural
on
human
signs,473.
"
beings, 262-263.
and
learningby
tation,
imi-
274.
G.
-LJADD,
T.
on
8.
principleof
on
ness,
conscious-
70, 72.
feeling of
on
distraction,
James
"
relation
222.
diverse
on
"
modalities
feeling-tone,223-224.
surplus excitation and
feeling-tone,226.
on
surplusexcitation,297.
on
part played by retina's
own
lightin dreams, 416.
"
referred
Charles:
Lamb,
quoted,
Language : and
of
analysis
to, 22.
"
459
"
synthesis,
of,
to
imitative
form
ideational
Helmholtz's
conventional.
of
criticism of
negative images
Hering's theory of, 169.
present conditions of theory
in
combination, 509.
of, 170.
ing
experiments on : as illustratextensity,336.
255.
meaning,
of
Light-waves
case
perceptual
of,256-
257.
Hering'stheory
and
contrast
256.
Bering'stheory
of, 167.
conventional,
acquirement
as
of, 166-167.
480.
acteristic
Learning by experience: as charof
perception,
"
of
statement
486.
and
theory of,
166.
[See
originof, 433.
advantages
ideal
Helmholtz's
signs.]
theories of
and
of
effects,165.
originof
"
criticism
failure of Helmholtz's
theory
for contrast
of, to account
462.
activity,
464.
origin of,
"
exposition of Helmholtz's
theory of, 162-163.
164-165.
relation
Natural
of,
seq.
seq.
natural
158-
conceptual
and
on,
physiologicaltheories
162
v.
intrument
as
contrast
159.
"
conception,Bk.
IV., ch.
effects of
"
503.
"
596.
of, to determinists,
614.
of
on
"
hypothesisof ,
on
"
nature
amplitude
and
of, 141.
length of,
142-143.
and
persistencewith
varied effort,257.
illustrated from
waves
rope, 142.
versing
tra-
INDEX.
C30
and
143.
colour-tone,
"
of:
length
Light-waves,
complexityof, 143.
Lights of different
327.
wave-lengths
mixture
effects of
of,
Marshall,
156
H.
R.
pleasant
perience,
disagreeable ex-
of
phase
mixing,
T.
Lipps, Dr.
of
his
158.
referred
(note).
signature:
and
method
best
differences
of,
and
of,
Matter:
"
jection,
pro-
357-358.
Localisation of
in
of
case
sight,
the
on
"
hatched
bodily
"
on
82.
ness,
242.
perception,
perience,
learning by ex-
and
animals,
453.
256.
of view
from
Logic : point
psychology,
Lotze
"
atomic
on
of,
guished
distin-
"
of
that
4.
in
"
"
primary
and
MACKENZIE,
impulse
in
prof
j. s.
on
children
on
animals, 615.
by,
in
Donative
263.
tinuity,
con-
primary
secondary,84.
89.
of a word, 461.
pointof view, 504 seq,
Mechanical
of, to
application
livingorganisms,506,
in
primitive
ideal of self-realisation
Mallery,Col.
in
occasional:
on
572.
"
apprehension of,
sight in lowly
organisms, 137.
Ludicrous
: feeling-tone of
the,
:
reproduction
perceptualprocess,
distinction between
506, 507.
Lubbock
of
81.
acting machinery
animated
organisms,
and
as
form
theories,505.
seft-
on
the
"
and
in
in
reproduction,87.
way
and primary retentive-
"faculty" fallacy,
(note).
comparison
chick, 85-86.
minimum
as
of
105
"
54.
"
on
immaterial
acquirement of : as
mode
of reproduction,84.
example from tune, 85.
newly
example from
of sense, 44.
organs
indefiniteness
of, 45.
Locke:
of, 52.
53.
of
system
agency,
functions,43.
correspondsto
"
nature
beings,
Meaning,
357.
non-existent
ultimate
phenomenon,
as
as
with
of,
conscious
50.
seq.
combination
part of
on
extensity,333.
"
extension, 332.
Localisation, 356
physiologicaltheory of
Materialism
to, 279
"
differences
"
on
218.
seq.
Local
pounded
ex-
615.
natural
and
definition
signs
savages,
"
i"
personal
435-436.
of, 435.
and
impersonal,
631
IXDEX.
of
marks
"
habit, 436.
and
Memory:
good, 437
of
"
by experience,256 scq.
James's
on
theoryof emotion,
good, 437.
"
of
mark
as
rapidity,
"
scq.
mark
as
serviceableiiCts,
"
good,
"
294-295.
438.
of
mark
as
recall,
439.
good,
experiment from,
"
Mosso
lapse of time,
decay of,with
Motives
improvement of,"bypractice,
"
attention
factor
as
597.
physiological
and
antecedents
of, 34
quents
conse-
Motor
seq.
"
411.
doctrine
Mill's
chemistry:
"
I mage
[See
S.
with,
on
of
law
causation,
of
doctrine
chemistry,"110
and
body
"mental
tendency
"
into
ch. iii.
Organism, etc.]
their
aptitude for
:
on
of
snail,
"
pass
ideas
into, 4C8.
volition and
passage
Movements
spatialsignificance
free, 350.
restriction
direction
persistency
example from,
251 -252.
with varied effort,
to
bodily,599.
"
138.
of
ideal,
between
relation
"
of
eye
of
actual, 467.
to pass
imitation, 275.
Morgan, Lloyd
sentation,
repre-
theory of tendency of
"
cess,
Pro-
Nervous
ideal
in
465.
between, one of
sciousness,
Con34.
\_See
interaction,
Monkeys
of,
revival
"
relation
"
in
seq.
Introd.
organic
perceptionof third
dimension, 358.
free
"
with
sensations,196.
Movement
: active, 337.
102.
his
"
191.
compared
"
of association-
: type
ism, 107.
Mill, J.
"
doctrine
.
Mill's
of
fallacies
image
Mill, James
examples of,190.
originof, 190-191.
experiments connected
sensations:
"
of, 110.
"
images to,
of
relation
"
ch. ii.
obstacles,
persistenceof, as
"
"
process
cessation
"
304.
Mental
acting,
587.
seq.
"
for
deciding and
for
"
and
"
self,
587.
increased
in
of deliberation
process
442.
"
fear,
as
441.
"
of
harmfulness
on
302-303.
of, 439.
"
parison
com-
on
in animals, 454.
of serviceableness
conditions
"
of
of power
duration
"
Mozart
memory
438,
442.
in
of
amount
and
free, 352.
INDEX.
G32
Miiller,G. E.
referred
(note),162,
Max
Muller,
on
to,
155
origin of language,
483-
and
noises, 171.
:
combination
of, from
sounds
Musical
"
different
174.
sources,
fundamental
tones
and
referred
Newton:
musical
and
OBJECT
language,
relation
"
of,
to
471-
for
in deaf-mutes.
472-474.
of, among
use
time,
as
of
32.
Obliviscence, 406.
24
Olfactometer,
Onchidium
distinguishedfrom
and
process,
organ
"
function
of
"
sub-cortical, as
of reflex action,37.
: correlation
of, and
process
conscious
process
process, 43 seq.
and the interaction
hypothesis,46 seq.
"
process
: no
and
view
tinguished
of, dis-
of
that
Organic craving
through,
as
idea
fixed
of
cause
voluntary
in-
action, 606.
"
sensations,95,
"
and
"
"
195
differences
m
"
seq.
between,
.'"r, 196.
of, 197.
accompanying
conscious
common
47.
point of
psychology,5.
36 seq.
-cortical,
:
descriptionof, 36.
system
system
hypothesisof,
[SeeMaterialism.]
:
from
sub
"
and,
-spotsof, 138.
conscious
35.
mechanism
eye
action
48 seq.
Ontology
482.
process
method
185.
One-sided
ventional,
con-
Nervous
seq.
26.
develop into
language,480.
conventional
of psychology,
method
as
experimental
conventional, 478.
not
ceptual
con-
of,
measurement
presented:
Observation
476.
existence, 13.
actual
understanding
instruments
construction,
ideal
an
savages,
spite of diversity,
in
of,
subjective
499.
"
mutual
and
498.
"
475.
"
and
its,58-59.
primitive
of,472-474.
spontaneous origin of,
word, in
cognition,56.
the
to
Objectivetime
strative,
demon-
nature
2-3.
an,
cognitive consciousness
"
"
evidence
with
of
meaning
471.
"
psychology
3.
psychological,
relation
theory of spatial
361-362.
perception,
signs:
far
how
is concerned
"
as
sounds, 17 1"
[SeeSelf.]
"
Natural
to, 498.
Not-self.
in, 178.
overtones
perceptual
process, 264.
Noises:
484.
in
of,
states
170 (note).
theories of the
of
revival
excitement:
Nervous
tions,
emo-
197.
cess
profactor tween,
be-
95,
reproducible,
easily
197.
INDEX.
Organic
sensations
thirst
55.
influence of, on
"
of, 55.
,
"pains,"
212.
and
feeling-toneof,
"
perception of 389.
Pathology : data supplied by, to
psychology, 13, 26.
of self -consciousness,
531*^.
Past:
called
when
"
xeq.
reasonforontological
ation
explan-
"
nervous
211.
system,
"
Paul
cognition,214.
feeling-tonedoes
not
Pendular
228.
Percept
emotion,
288
sensation, 229
far
how
"
perience
ex-
"
as
time-keeper, 388.
belonging to the self
"
as
like external
"
519.
objects,520.
Overtones, 178.
association
"
attention, 246
and
persistencywith
and
conditions, 253
and
sense
sensations
differences
of,21
varieties
of
determined
and
between,
able
incap-
analysis,213.
defeat,
external
61.
phenomena,
53.
of
in
II.,
nexion
con-
ty,
activi-
motor
:
reality
of
world
external
ditions
con-
and
manipulation,327.
not-self,329.
spatial,Bk.
idealistic view
to preformed
of, 326.
of the
metaphysicalexplanationof,
due
323.
of
51.
reality:
with
3.
"
material
varying
seq.
Bk.
of external
reality,
ch. ii.
div. ii.,
of external
originof, 214-217.
Parallelism : formula
of, 50.
not an
explanatory theory,
on
to
associations, 282.
word,
characteristics of sensations
based
varied
learning by experience,
"
"
seq.
seq.
adaptation
of
feeling-tone
of the
called,212.
""
to, 242.
and
tone
feelingby success
552.
212.
"
of, 241.
and reproduction
280.
restricted
of
definition
255.
PAINS, 186.
"
[See
reaction,
sensory
essential
"
Pain-
the
251
effort,
as
"
and
129.
touch
synthetic
"
"
image,
aggressivenessof, 402.
and
in, 354.
quoted,
between,
of, 355.
Ovid:
image,
Perception,Bk. III.
"
combined
"
"
spatialperceptionof
analyticand
differences
on, 230.
353.
"
179.
waves,
likeness
of, to
397 seq.
seq.
contributes to,2 29
Organism:
meaning
Image.]
pleasant
effect of alcohol
in
461.
396.
seq.
as
experiments on,
337.
illustrating
intensity,
welfare:
and feeling-tone
of
"
words,
and
"
variations
on
of
"
"
198.
as,
feeling-toneof, 210
"
Parallelism
and
hunger
633
ch.
iii.
III.,
div.
ii.,
[See Spatialperception.]
634
INDEX.
Perception: spatial,by
Bk.
.
"
Persistencywith
iv.
organism
352
358
of third
of
365
third
series,537 seq.
Perspective: aerial, as factor in
dimension,
dimension,
Phrenology :
time,
seq.
lapse of time, 385 seq.
of present, past,and future,
389
[See Temporal
seq.
384
of
"
"
of,
refuted
actual
and
Pitch, 172-173.
"
internal
continuity
of, 244.
"
of, 266
"
accompanying,
"
in
"
"
time
in,
in
process
518.
geometric
and
defeat
280
as
mining,
deter-
seq.
"
"
revival
revival
and
ideal
447
Position-sensations:
from
seq.
order in,
subjective
perceptual, 563.
varied
characteristic
251
seq.
effort:
of
ception,
per-
distinguished
movement-sensations,
192.
Present
Persistencywith
as
of
\_See
Feeling-tone.]
adjustment:
pre- arrangement,
"
external
278.
perception
success
384.
pre-
seq.
perception of
forms, 279.
seq.
consciousness:
to, 541.
attention, 276
in
movements,
process : pleasure-painin,
276 seq.
consciousness : categories
of,
Bk. III.,div. ii.,ch. i.
"
material
im-
ch. iii.
266.
ideational,
impulsivecharacter
process:
of
conception
soul due
and
process;
"
distinguishing
of, 173.
Pleasure-pain,Bk.
scq.
process : ideas
264 scq.
first
of,to idea-
tional,248-251.
process :
reproduction in,
2G3
of
power
differences
Plato
: relation
activity
distinguished
"
ch. i.
process
localisation of functions,
psychology, 4.
nature
:
insight into, how
acquired,494.
trating
Pillsbury: experiments by, illus98.
facilitation,
in animals, 243.
consciousness
tics
characteris:
Bk.
of
knowledge
from
of,
by
Physical sciences
490.
Perceptions: as series,243.
Perceptual process:
unity
'242
of.
continuity
scq.
"
of
44.
unification of data
process
localisation
as
cerebral functions,43.
44.
criticised,
"
perception.]
"
illustration of 258.
"
Personal
seq.
of
perience,
ex-
257.
scq.
visual
tion,
cona-
learningby
"
scq.
tactual
of,
effort
with
252.
extended,
as
varied
connection
[SeeTactual perception.]
spatial,
by sight,Bk. III.,
div. ii.,ch. v.
[SeeVisual
perception.]
of
"
touch,
perceptionof, 389.
fixed
starting-pointfor ideal
of time-order^
construction
496.
635
INDEX.
Presentation
of
definition
the
Psychologicalpoint of
and
"
object,59.
attends
:
Psychologist
seq.
constantlypresent,187.
Psychology ;
from
of
those
temperature,
"
of, Introd.
scope
point of
189.
of, that of
view
the
into account
takes
magic : dependent on
enlarged conception of
individual unity, 509.
belief.
Primitive
[SeeSavages,
well
object as
subject,2-3.
as
definition of, 4.
distinction
of, from
sciences,4
Belief.]
:
sations,
sen-
spectator, 2.
Primitive
Process
to
ch. i.
points
different
produced at
of
such, 123.
as
tinguishe
dis-
that
6.
aesthetics,
Pressure-sensations, 186
"
view
from
word, 57.
mental,
in
20
others,
data
"
seq.
methods
and
other
of,Introd.
ch. ii.
mental
of
difficulty
inter-
children,savages
preting,in
and
analogy between,
"
seq.
of, with
of
case
data
"
Psychical
distinguished
9.
importance
mental
of, 28-30.
as
of intensity
measurement
of, 30
"
imagination
as
of, 12.
of
philology and
14
seq.
tion
of dura-
states: measurement
states
development,
anthropologyto, 13.
method
in,
introspective
fact, 7,
psychological
from
of
works
524.
fact
logy,
geo-
10.
sight,358.
Projective stage of imitation,
in
of
science
as
localisation,357.
"
and
10-11.
connexion
intimate
of,
10 seq.
animals, 21.
356
Projection,
data
presentedobjectsas
"
"
"
scq.
states
measurement
states
measurement
conditions
of
methods
others
seq.
and
observation
of, 24
seq.
quantitativemethods
ternal
ex-
of, 31.
in,
28
seq.
of ob-
jectspresented by
of, 20
experiment
as
in
processes
data
of will
freedom
ately
ultim-
not
explicableby,
means
of, 31.
616.
Psychosis,71 (note).
pointof view
Psychological
from
that
tinguished
disof
physicalsciences,4.
from
distinguished
4.
logic,
"
that
of
from
distinguished
"
that
of
theory of
ledge,
know-
5.
from
distinguished
of ontology, 5.
from
distinguished
"
that
that
of ethics,6.
QUANTITATIVEmethods,
28
seq.
variations
comparison
of,
199.
Quantity :
difference
intensive and
attempt to
31.
measure
between
extensive,30.
intensive,
INDEX.
636
REACTION
of
forms
Reproductionof similars,423
[See Ideas.]
simple,
23.
taken
by
simple, 29.
measuring
simple, 29.
complications introduced in
compound, 30.
for
apparatus
"
"
relation
of, to
:
repetitive
of
similars,
reproduction
"
time
424.
sensory
"
effect
of sensory,
Reaction
experiments:
-time
chener
on,
external,
Retina
guished
physiological, distin-
reflex, 125
sensation-
act:
:
"
19.
defined, 125.
or unconscious,
conscious
on
own
spatial
body,
contact, 353.
learning of language by
on
centres,
children, 511.
given
39
of
scheme
on
"
with
knowledge
mother-tongue,
511.
far
they involve
consciousness,41.
when
inadequate, 42.
Rcgulus : mental conflict of, 598.
Relativity: principleof, 71 seq.
Reproduction: takes placethrough
how
"
Rote
[See
Meaning, acquirement of.]
association,
:
specific
mode
83.
complication
dependent
on
on
"
on
"
on
"
on
94-96.
as
of
on
436.
idea
involvingidea
of self
of relations
selves,522-523.
variations
in idea
of
self,
523-524.
self,527.
with
tendency conflicting
division
true
of total
self,529.
emotions
due to
cal
pathologi-
conditions, 533.
division
534.
nature
free
"
on
of ideal, 94.
sensations, 94-95.
to other
association,
90.
mode
Prof.
as
as
of, 90-91.
learningby,
Royce,
"
of
double
on
"
of, 37 seq.
organs
lack of spontaneity
in,
"
353.
sub-cortical
as
Groom.
Robertson,
of our
perception
descriptionof, 37.
experiments on a frog
37-38.
illustrating,
actions
: case
605.
125-126.
"
formation
of the
own
light of, 151.
Retrospection: and introspection,
Ribot, T.
act
89.
of, 145.
description
sation-reflex.]
[See Sen-
seq,
on,
of habit, 101.
from
the
78.
meaning to,
condition
"
ch. ii.
ii
III.,div.
Reduplication,406.
:
"
of
Bk.
Reflex
"
Tit-
28.
perceptionof
Reality:
130.
stimulus
primary, 81.
and reproduction,
83.
of
relation
:
ment
acquireprimary
"
instances
repetition of
of
same
129.
"
of progress,
condition
76.
perception,
and
differentiation,
134.
Retentiveness
128.
"
and
Restriction:
"
seq.
Russell, B.
specific,
two
31.
: on
difference
intensive
between
quantities,
637
INDEX.
Self:
SATURATION
organism
degree of, in
thought of :
thought of
colour, 143.
difference in, 150.
a
in interpreting
Savages : difficulty
on,
524
self
the
hallucinations
of
of,
the
unity
thing, 556.
of, on
unity
of,
views
views
"
on
jective
sub-
to
on
of
the
and
of, 583
signs
perceptual
process,
in
not-self
584.
social factor
aeq.
of, 608.
failure in, 608
definition
of
deficient
267-
of
freedom
321.
impulse to,
"
and
internal, 538.
seq.
268.
not-self
relation
in
Self-control
in, 615.
of
seq.
of
Self-consciousness
"
and
representation of
relation
534
primitiveview
of
internal, 541.
[See
Soul, Savages.]
conative aspect of conception
interpretin
natural
531.
internal,
and
of body and
survivals of
610.
Schmalz
relatingto,
primitiveviews
dividual
in-
of
personallife,559.
of personifying
560.
natural objects,
in self-control,
their deficiency
character
representation
internal, 536.
"
their modes
future
savage
of
terms
529.
"
world, 557.
tendency of,
conflicting
and
illusions
"
"
necessity,553.
"
many
seq.
with
objective
confuse
the
of, 530.
belief
554.
551,
among,
"
true
external
imaginationin, 547.
subjectivefactor of
"
and
tendency,
sympathetic
on
539.
"
of,
seq.
one
the
communion, 538.
views of, on impersonations,
"
in
importance of imitation
development of idea
536-537.
views
to
selves,527 seq.
influence
"
of
536.
by,
relations
selves,522.
of idea of, 523,
other
in, 515.
of internal
representation
involving
as
variation
of, 508.
view
ideal construction
belonging to,
as
519.
will
and,
614-
615.
perceptionof,
Self-realisation
with
328-329.
ideal
that of
of,
cident
coin-
freedom,
"
Bk.
contruction,
IV., chap. vii.
belonging to,an
experiences
not-self,517.
as
ideal
ideal construction
an
activity
615.
"
for, and
construction
order
of, 519.
of
534.
distinguished from
sensible quality,58.
Sensation
of, 518.
material
Selves
"
definition
and
INDEX.
638
Sensation
of, distinguished
: cause
from
object of
Sense-organs:
135
ception,
sense-per-
118.
"
antecedents
mere
"
as
of, 118-119.
arguments for
of, 120 seq.
as
seq.
"
II., ch.
[See Feeling-tone,
Light-sensation, Soundsensation, etc.]
"
logical
physio-
reflex,125.
"
"
instances
pre
"
"
and
ideational
aspect
for
as
perceptual
process,
in,
relative
Sensational
Sensations
purity of,
133.
reproduction of,
94-
"
elements,
as
such
119.
"
attended
to in psychology,
as
such
not
objects but
psychicalstates,124.
and
ment,
senti-
emotions
referring to
to
personal and
sonal
imper578-580.
objects,
example of fixed idea from,
606.
sense-organs,
sation,
[^Light-senVisual
perception,
etc.]
: differentiation
-experience
of, 134
seq.
in nature
variation
Sense-organs
in
to,
distinction
on
on
seq.
Sense
136-137.
seq.
and
good
time, 498.
emotion
of special,
217
feeling-tone
force
of
123.
"
as
576-577.
"
such
habits,311.
mark
437, 439.
between
as
memory,
402.
intensity,
by emotions,
associated
Shakespeare : on
Sharid, A. F.
132.
95.
"
Serviceable
volved
in-
physiologicalprocess
and
between,
as
tional
complex emo300.
dispositions,
Serviceableness
132.
word, as
systems,
ideal
constituted
578.
Sentiments
of, 131
seq.
contrasted
with
of the
use
576.
distinction
tual
percep-
hedonic
and
of
arising from,
reaction,
seq.
conative
antithesis
name
128.
distinguished from
with
perceptual,133.
Sentience,68 seq.
occupation,
seq.
ftcq.
131.
physiological in
mental
128
impulses:
Sentiment
of, 127.
becomes
210
impulses : in conflict
perceptual,129.
movements
distinguished from
seq.
Sensibility:
common,
Sensory elements, 119
viii.
"
of,
ence
exist-
of, Bk.
feeling-tone
"
"
differentiation
44
division
cortex
srq.
of, 134.
of
tion
func-
Significance. [SeeMeaning.]
of external,
Signs : interpretation
20.
external
corresponds
by
20.
and
means
tion
communicaof
language,
639
INDEX.
of, 382.
Signs : interpretation
Similarity: association
4'23.
by,
Ideas.]
\_Sce
sensation
Smell-
for,
stimulus
184.
"
extensive
"
of,
character
modified
with
mixture
of organismas extended,
"
352
337.
sensations
Smell-
350.
185.
animals,
in
"
by
other
to,
factor
"
in
development
of
of
of
Socrates
tion
imita-
"
red
"
tion
in forma-
Spencer,
to, 464.
Steinthal
difficulties
"
character
536
views
of
and
of
division
the,
conception
immaterial
functions
material
doctrine
Space
as
494
Stimulus-threshold,
Striving. \_SceConation, Cona-
last
attitude.]
sensation, 120.
mended,
Tonpsycholo.gie recom-
on
mere
tween,
be-
181
Subjective
and
(note).
objectivetime,
498.
survival
of
objective factors
and
belief, 550
construction,
of
seq.
68
Sub-consciousness,
Sub-cortical
seq.
origin of conception
of, 496.
his
of, 543.
ideal
Stumpf
542.
"
of, 117.
202.
material
370.
definition
tive
of
trated
perception illus-
by,
seq.
modification
"
about
"
11.
binocular
Stimulus:
primitive
ding-dong
"
14.
modern
to, 567.
the
illustrating
introspection,
as
"
of, 337.
:
animals, 308.
theory, 484.
as
Stereoscope:
psychological
Helmholtz'
in
"
and
datum,
Ilelmholtz'
'theoryof fear,
his
in
anger
Spinoza: referred
etc.]
Soul
on
"
"
"
151.
II.
303.
"
in,
of
in, 146.
colour-tones
self-
"
ception.]
per-
seq.
belief,555.
referred
Visual
determining
influence
[SeeTactual
v.
perception,
consciousness, 524.
"
III.,
Bk.
of self
with
connected
in
sight,
div. ii.,ch.
514.
reality,
consciousness, 520
"
of, 361.
-by
constitution
seq.
nativistic
and
genetic
theories
vidual
debt of indi-
510.
in
external
organism,
of the
originof, 360
"
sations,
sen"
Social
seq.
direct
"
184.
Snail:
general,
Bk.
sigiiS.]
Natural
in
Spatial perception:
["c
finity
in-
centres,
organs
37.
of
seq.
36 seq.
of reflex
action,
INDEX.
G40
Sub-cortical centres
almost
vholly
Tawney,
"
produced
"
on
on
"
on
"
the
on
children's
more"
"no
391.
sciousness,
con-
191.
Tennyson
dolls,430 (note).
Surplus excitation,222 seq.
"
energy
236
and
feeling-tone,
5.
theory
Marshall's
Thinghood
in ideational
TACTILE
:
ments
experisensibility
as
illustrating
on,
3
34-336.
extensity,
III.,
"
of the
352
504.
Thirst
358
free
ments,
move-
as
Time
seq.
"
presentation of
"
in, 359.
"
contrast
effect
own
lapse
of
lapse
of
periences,
ex-
mate
esti-
immediate
of, 387.
"
attention
estimate
past, present,
in, 183.
of
386.
182.
animals,
177 ft.
cumulative
Taste-sensation,182 seq.
by touch-sensations,
qualified
in
association
Timbre,
dimension,
(note), 314,
274
263.
tended,
ex-
seq.
on
by,
conducted
(note).
454
on
organism
free movement
Taine
experiments
259-262,
seq.
"
organic sensation,
an
as
198.
seq.
of the third
"
504
of,with causality,
342
yieldedby
350
thinking, 457.
seq.
Thorndike
:
blind,
seq.
animals
of
velopment,
dehigh stages
in the
345
application
construction,
connexion
"
as
ideal
as
"
in
seq.
purely practical,318.
"
"
our
of, 317.
451.
"
perception, Bk.
of
variability
"
449,
Synthesis: conceptual,
Tactual
quoted, 564.
guished
knowledge : distinfrom
psychology,
of
Theory
seq.
energy
processofattention,
tion.]
[See Time, Percep-
of
treatment
III.,
Tendons
390.
"
and
"
touch, 334-335
(note).
cast-shadows, 382.
on
189.
ii.,ch. vi.
div.
of
sense
of
those
to
association,282.
extensity in
from
skin
of the
points
different
at
pressure,
due
feeling-tone
seq.
of, 188.
classes
"
cortex, 42.
Sully,J.
188
Temperature-sensations,
of
G. A.
(note).
reflex,39.
independently
work
can
"
of,
function
at
and
as
terminin
de-
of, 388.
future
perceptuallevel,3C9.
641
INDEX.
Time:
ideal construction,406
as
Visual
organ
seq.
and objective,
498.
subjective
ideal
struction,
conan
:
objective
"
"
of, 384
E.
Titchener,
B.
363
perception,
perience
ex-
experience,364.
perimental
ex-
method, '11.
reaction-time
on
ments,
experi-
365
reactions,28.
29.
reactions,
sensory
compound reactions,30,
tendons, 191.
on
on
"
on
"
conflict of
on
"
Touch
:
synthetic
343
analytic,
"
of,
dependent
eyes, 368
with
horizon, 347.
Traces
in law
with
of third dimension
monocular, 375
on
to, 372
lines,
dimension
shade
factor
in, 381.
of
aerial
third
:
as
dimension
as
perspective
factor
in, 382.
Unconsciousness, 8.
s :
third
play of lightand
(note).
Uni versa!
curved
379 seq.
referred
lar,
binocu-
dimension
third
of
UPTHOFF:
conditions
and
andstraightor
natural
479.
"
as
377.
of
quoted,69.
signs,
:
on
seq.
secondary
positions,
[See DisEetentiVeness.]
B.
fixation-
of
in monocular
Tylor, E.
required for
pointin, 374.
Tucker,
dimension
distance
of retentiveness,
Abraham
tactual
to
76.
"
as
two
seq.
third
of
active vision
taste-sensations,182.
Touch
of
use
on
368.
seq., 346.
connected
by
dimension
of third
"
over
superiority
analytic,343 seq.
applied
analytic: as
346.
largerobjects,
Touch-sensatiomc
of,
tactual,366.
perception.]
union
"
by touch,
modification
"
synthetic,342-343.
"
365.
impulses,584.
[See Tactual
dimension
third
of
conditioned
as
spatial perceptionby.
dimension,
third
seq.
"
muscular
on
"
of
"
28.
"
analysis
of surface,363 seq.
relation of, to tactual
"
the
of
synthesisin, 363.
"
seq.
on
seq.
combination
"
and
499.
: immediate
Time-transience
"
: stages in
ment
developof, 137-138.
words
463.
Visualisation
as
expressing,
power
Voit
case
in
differences
of, 404.
bility
possiof, illustrating
of attention
without
images, 249-250.
on
forgetfulness, Volition:
as
Verification
and
of ideal
492.
Pysch.
-interpretation:
pre-arrangement,
re
definition of
a,
followingline of
589.
greatest
resistance, 596.
motives
obstacles
persisting
in
"hard,"
41
as
593.
INDEX.
642
Volition
599
individual
*eq.
"
opposed
to fixed
referred
idea, 604.
influenced
of
by
article
his
of
result
"
on
on
spontaneous
IV.
relation
ch.
of, to
of self,583
"
resolution,
on
of, 589
free-will in, 590
"
on
333.
extensity,
on
obliviscence
not
seq.
outcome
determined
"
of
on
on
by
comparison,452.
apprehension of
imagination and
on
on
desire
of
belief,
by aversion
irresolution.
594.
in
ideational
thought, 582.
referred
of
time-
feeling-toneof ideational
activity,569.
on
self,593.
state
images,
566.
perfect
impulsive: after im593.
deliberation,
to
cation,
redupli-
406-407.
of
unsteadiness
order, 497cessity
ne-
action, 592.
fixityof
and
409.
seq.
591.
deliberation,
"
tions,
sensa-
pleasure-painin attention,
of,
state
formation
for
duction,
repro-
134-135.
on
as
plication
com-
free
276-278.
of
state
when
between
of
copresentation
on
tion
concep-
589.
"
difference
94.
tion,
delibera-
analysis of
"
complication
92.
x.
587.
"
retentiveness,
and
586.
"
72.
continuity,
of
working
scq.
of
result
as
"
12.
immediate
on
cerebral
psychological
on
613.
deliberation,
decision, Bk.
as
J.
from,
tion,
atten-
612.
"
Dr.
of
77-78.
illustration of
by psychological
experiments, 611.
in
functions, 45-46.
reflex act, 125.
data,
illustrated
"
commended,
Physiology re37 (note).
on
tion
determina-
attend, 613.
attention,611 scq.
and
Human
localisation
Ward,
to
"
brain,
the
on
on
author
by
as
tion
concep-
on
sential
es-
35-36.
self,584.
an
"
as
:
distinguished
impulsive,583.
from
efficacynot
of, 599.
belief accompanying
of action,601.
cause
"Waller, Dr.
action
Voluntary
in,
to state
by
502.
differences
motor
"
"
to,
fixityof
595.
601.
movement,
Voltaire
followed
normally
why
decision
and
427
Wasmann,
(note),
(note).
E.
referred
to,
255
(note)
.
fixityof
"
that
595.
tion
through acfollows, 594n
:
Weber-Fechner
ch.
law.]
Law,
vii.
[See
Bk.
II.,
Weber's
G43
INDEX.
law
"Weber's
of,
facts
experimental
Wilbrand
"Will
199
of,
origin
412.
by,
described
case
583.
seq.
fact
fundamental
of,
freedom
true
614.
"
of
freedom
cernment,
dis-
of
threshold
stimulus-threshold,
of,
interpretation
psychology,
tary
Volun-
Volition,
[See
616.
202
ultimately
not
by
explicable
202.
on
615.
of
freedom
dependent
character,
201.
and
590.
derlying,
un-
200.
and
of,
freedom
"
Free-will.]
Decision,
seq.
of,
Wolff,
explanation
Fechner's
Words
203.
of,
explanation
seq.
asexpressinguniversals,463.
"Welton,
on
351,
visualising,
quoted,
302.
innervation-sense,
on
theory
his
sense
lation
articu-
194.
208.
405.
Whyte-Melville
over
466.
cerning,
con-
Wundt
of,
limitations
control
of,
207.
J.
461.
"
mental
questions
furthur
of,
meaning
"
204-205.
tested,
of,
meaning
460.
occasional
explanation
Fechner's
of,
203
in
(note).
248
to,
variations'
Fechner's
to
objections
referred
G.:
195.
compared
of
innervationwith
Bain'
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Times.
into
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