fire safety

Experience from smaller fires,

with an area of just a few
square metres of liquid fuel,
is that fuels containing a
high proportion of alcohol,
such as E85, radiate less
heat. This, therefore, has
less thermal effect on their
surroundings compared
to petroleum-based fires
of fuels, such as petrol.
However, the largescale tests that the SP
Swedish Technical Research
Institute performed in its
Etankfire project show
the circumstances are
the opposite in the case
of a fire the size of a fuel
storage tank. The thermal
radiation from ethanol fires
is several times higher than
that from petroleum fuels.
Ethanol has a lower calorific
value than, for example,

petrol. This means complete

combustion of ethanol releases
much less energy (about 27MJ/
kg) than complete combustion
of petrol (about 44MJ/kg).
A natural result of this is that
the thermal radiation from
pool fires burning ethanol is
less than that from similar fires
of petrol, which is confirmed
by test results from 2m pool
fires of fuels containing
varying ethanol contents.
The radiant intensity
(thermal power per unit of
area) of an E97 fire (a mixture
of 97% ethanol and 3% petrol) is
about half of that from burning
commercial petrol. Tests of the
combustion efficiency at this
scale give a value of about
80%, i.e. about 20% of the
theoretically possible power is
not released due to incomplete
combustion. One effect of

Radiant heat fluxes from the 254m pool fire

trial of ethanol (E97) [blue] and calculated
values for a corresponding petrol fire [green/
red lines]. For comparison, the diagram also
shows some experimental results from similar
petrol fires [grey symbols]

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

Radiant heat flux from 2m pool fires of ethanol/petrol mixtures at

two different distances from the pool edge
incomplete combustion is
the formation of soot.
Changing behaviours
The behaviour of fires of these
fuels changes when the
size of the fire alters. In the
case of a fire burning over
a considerably larger area,
diffusion of oxygen into it will
not be sufficient to maintain a
combustion efficiency of 80%.
Combustion is therefore less
complete, with more smoke
and soot being formed in the
plume. The smoke generally
shields large parts of the flame,
with the result that radiation
from the flame does not
penetrate through the smoke
to the surroundings. In the
case of large petrol or oil fires,
it is actually generally only a
zone of a few metres, closest
to the surface of the burning
fuel, where the flame can be
seen and from which radiation
is efficiently emitted. Further
up, above the fire, the smoke
tends to prevent radiation
to the surrounding area.

Combustion of ethanol,
on the other hand, is much
more efficient than that
of petroleum-based fuels.
One reason for this is that
ethanol does not need as
much oxygen for complete
combustion, and that it does
not consist of long hydrocarbon
chains that form soot particles.
Admittedly, the combustion
efficiency of burning ethanol
falls somewhat as the area of
the fire increases, but by no
means as much as for petrol.
The result is that the radiant
intensity from a large ethanol
fire can be as high as, or higher
than, that from a petrol fire.
Last year, SP investigated
the behaviour of ethanol fuels
in a 254m pool. The results
showed clearly that smoke
production is less than that from
fires of petroleum-based fuels.
The radiant intensity was
measured in all directions
and at several distances in
order to build up a complete
picture of the distribution of the
radiation in the surroundings.
The measured results were

71

fire safety
compared with corresponding
petrol fires evaluated using
two different established
simulation programmes. In
addition, a certain amount of
experimental data for petrol is
available for comparison. The
results are striking: close to the
fire, an ethanol fire radiates
two to three times as much
heat as a petrol fire, with the
radiant density still being about
twice as high further away.
The difference between
petrol and ethanol fires is
expected to increase further
for even larger fuel surface
areas, as ethanol seems to
be less dependent on the
size of the fuel surface area.
As present day fuel storage
tanks for ethanol often have a
considerably larger area than
the 250m that were used in
the trials, the results of this work
are definitely relevant for safety
assessments of the storage of
ethanol fuels. At present, these
risk assessments are generally

The flame from

an E97 pool fire

based on guide values for

petrol which, according to
these results, means there is
considerable underestimation

based fuels such as ethanol, a

better understanding of how
to reduce the risks of storing
the fuel is required. As ethanol
is water soluble, it is doubtful
whether a fire in an ethanol
tank could be suppressed using
the same methods as used
against petroleum-based fires,
i.e. by foam application from
high capacity foam monitors.
To date, SP has not been
able to find any example
of a successful suppression
operation against a burning
ethanol storage tank; instead,
all known fires of this type have
concluded with the total loss
of both the ethanol content
and the storage tank.
Further work on ethanol
tank fire fighting is planned
in the Etankfire project, see
www.sp.se/en/index/research/
etankfire/sidor/default.aspx
of the risks associated with
the storage of ethanol.
As storage is an important
link in the chain using bio-

For more information:

Contact henry.persson@sp.se

Memo from the CEO:

I am pleased to announce that Mesa Industries has

received national certication as a Womens Business Enterprise by the Womens
Business Enterprise National Council, the nations largest third-party certier of the
businesses owned and operated by women in the U.S. This means we can now help
our clients meet their vendor diversity goals.
Now clients have one more reason to choose Mesa Industries.
We appreciate your business.
Sincerely,

Terry Segerberg, CEO

An American-based company delivering American-made products for the petroleum
and aboveground storage tank industry since 1967. Mesa is proud to help our
customers achieve their supplier diversity goals.

Corporate Ofce Cincinnati, Ohio 513.321.4511

www.mesarubber.com/tanks

72

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

page header

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TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

75

page header

76

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

lightning protection

Handling
a stormy
situation
What you dont
know about tank
farm static and
lightning could
make your hair
stand on end

Pipeline and terminal operator Buckeye

Partners owns a large storage terminal
facility in the Bahamas known as BORCO.
As this terminal is located in the tropics
and semi-tropics, Buckeye is justifiably
concerned about the possibility of
lightning damage. Protecting against
lightning is costly. It does not make the
terminal work better or faster, or allow
the tanks to hold more product. In some
cases, lightning protection systems
may actually limit tank fill height.
Lightning protection has historically
been covered under API 2003. Several
years ago, it was broken out of 2003, and
API 545 was established to address this

roof (EFR) tank. These fixed conductors

equalise the potential and provide
a path for current flow between a
floating roof and the tank shell. For
years, shunts have been considered
adequate to perform this function.
However, research has shown otherwise.
Lightning is actually a multiple-part
event. It begins with a short duration,
high-energy current flow, followed by
a tail of lower-energy flowing over a
much longer time. As these two events
are electrically vastly different, different
types of conductors are needed.
Shunts are typically located at 10
intervals around the roof perimeter, and

Fixed bypass conductors run from the

perimeter of the floating roof to the rim
of the tank shell at 100 intervals around the
perimeter of the tank
subject. Since industry codes, standards
and practices have been based upon
historical subjective experience and not
upon empirical evidence, API set aside
funds to study the matter as related
to storage tanks. Culham Laboratories
was hired to test specific assumptions
and protection techniques in laboratory
simulations, and to make both general
and specific recommendations to the
newly formed API 545 committee.
One of the main lessons learned in
that research was the need for bypass
conductors located at intervals around
the perimeter of an external floating

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

are spring-loaded to press up against

the inside of the tank shell, providing
a sliding electrical connection. Shunts
provide short, direct low-impedance
paths. As such, they are more effective
at conducting the short duration, highenergy portion of the lightning discharge.
However, research has shown that it is
actually the long-duration, lower energy
component of the lightning strike that
is responsible for most ignitions. Since
the shunts are sliding contacts, they
may present a high-resistance between
the floating roof and the tank shell.
Current flow across resistance generates

75

lightning protection
heat. It is that heat that
causes most ignitions.
Therefore, it became
obvious that supplemental,
low-resistance conductors
are also required. Hence,
the introduction of bypass
conductors. These are fixed
conductors running from the
perimeter of the floating roof
to the rim of the tank shell
at 100 intervals around the
perimeter of the tank. Since
they must be of sufficient
length to accommodate
the range of motion of the
floating roof, they may present
a high-impedance and a
relatively long response time.
However, those limitations
are compensated for by the
shunts. The bypass conductors
supplement and complement
the performance of the shunts,
performing the tasks for which
the shunts are not suited.
When BORCO built two
new large, 583,000 barrel
EFR tanks at the Freeport,

the tanks, as that has been

a problem in the past, so it
also looked at the various
structural lightning protection
systems available.
In order to evaluate
structural lightning protection,
an accurate understanding
of the lightning ignition
mechanism is required. Most
lightning ignitions are not
caused by the heat of the
lightning channel directly
igniting flammable gas or
liquid. It is not like throwing
a burning cigarette on the
tank. The ignitions are actually
caused by incendive arcing
between the perimeter edge
of the floating roof and the
inside wall of the tank shell.
Therefore, Buckeye
ruled out conventional
lightning protection. Installing
Franklin-type lightning rods
on the tanks would have
provided no benefit. In
fact, according to National
Fire Protection Association

as it was designed to do and

lightning attached to the
lightning rod on the tank,
it would cause maximum
difference in potential
between the floating roof and
tank shell, thereby providing
the maximum opportunity
for arcing and ignition.
Buckeye also ruled out
early streamer emitting
(ESE) lightning rods, as
they are basically Franklin
rods on steroids. They are
designed to actively attract
lightning to themselves,
again exacerbating the
difference in potential and
likelihood of ignition.
The company also looked
at overhead wire systems. The
overhead wire is intended
to intercept any lightning
strike to the tank and convey
the energy to ground. This
would keep the heat of the
lightning channel from causing
ignitions. However, the heat
of the lightning channel is not
responsible
for most
ignitions.
It is the
arcing.
As the
overhead
wire system
brings the
lightning
energy to ground very near
to the tank shell, and the
grounding system is also
grounded to the tank shell,
it again makes the problem
of incendive arcing worse.
Attracting lightning to
the tank with any type of
system was unappealing.
Therefore, Buckeye elected
to install streamer-delaying
technology on its new EFRs.
During a lightning strike, the
breakdown of air begins with
the formation of steppedleaders branching downward
from the cloud in 150 steps.
When the stepped-leaders
reach to about 500 or so from
the ground, they begin to pull
streamers of ground charge
off structures on the surface of
the earth. Whichever streamer

Bypass conductors and air terminals have

been installed on tanks at Buckeye
Partners BORCO terminal for almost two
years with zero complaints
Bahamas terminal, a study of
best practices was conducted
based upon new knowledge,
terminal experiences, and
discussions with vendors.
Most recommended installing
bypass conductors. In the past,
Buckeye had had operational
problems with certain types
of bypass conductors, so
was looking for an effective
alternative. The company
was most interested in the
simplicity of gravity-powered
bypass conductors, and went
with them as opposed to
mechanical systems. Providing
lightning protection along with
a low maintenance alternative
were the key factors.
Buckeye was also
concerned with the possibility
of direct lightning strikes to

76

NFPA 780, the US lightning

protection standard, tanks are
considered to be inherently
self-protecting, so lightning
rods are not even required.
The theory is that the
tanks are of a sufficient metal
thickness that a direct lightning
attachment would cause no
physical damage. It is worth
noting that the lightning
protection standard was
originally written to protect
wooden buildings, such as
houses and barns, preventing
them from burning down. That
is why it is covered in a fire
protection document. Tanks
are not likely to burn down as
a result of current flow down
the shell of the tank. On the
down side, even if a lightning
rod system performed exactly

reaches a stepped leader first

determines which structure
or object is struck. This is one
reason the highest profile items
are the most likely to be struck.
Therefore, Buckeye
wanted a system designed
to reduce direct lightning
strikes by delaying the
formation of streamers from
our tanks. The company
was aware of two types of
systems: a rim array system
and a system employing
individual air terminals with
streamer-delaying properties.
Although the rim array system
did reduce the incidence
of lightning strikes, the
individual air terminal system
was equally effective, less
expensive and much easier
to install. Operations was also
ready for a change, as the
rim array system is not very
robust and requires a lot of
inspection and maintenance.
Buckeye has now had
these air terminals and bypass
conductors on its new tanks
for almost two years with zero
complaints. During the summer
of 2013, a storm passed
directly through the terminal
and a tank with the rim system
south of the new tanks was
struck by lightning creating a
seal fire. Minutes later a stack
north of the new tanks was
struck as well. The new tanks
located between the two
objects struck by lightning
were not. This may have been
coincidence, mother-nature,
or modern engineering. Either
way, Buckeye believe it made
the correct decision when it
chose the protection system
and the bypass conductors.

For more information:

This article was written by Nate

Werner, BORCO Operations at
Buckeye Partners and Bruce Kaiser,
president at Lightning Master

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

page header

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

79

fire safety

Fighting fire
against the odds
One fire expert
suggests a method
of ensuring effective,
environmentally safe
fire fighting technology
at a hydrocarbon
storage site in extreme
circumstances, such
as a lack of water, lack
of energy supply and
human resources or
extremely low ambient
temperature

ISO 14001 sets out the criteria for

an environmental management
system. It does not state requirements
for environmental performance,
but maps out a framework that a
company or organisation can follow
to set up an effective environmental
management system.
The standard can be applied to a
variety of levels in the business, from
organisational level, right down to
the product and service level (RMIT
university). Rather than focusing on exact
measures and goals of environmental
performance, the standard highlights
what an organisation needs to do
to meet these goals (IISD 2010).
Environmental impacts of fire
Environmental impacts due to
combustion and the use of extinguishing
agents can be successfully mitigated
by selecting the appropriate
extinguishing agent and technology.
The primary environmental impact is
caused by the fire itself. Not only is there
the value of the material destroyed
by the fire, but the condition of our
common asset - the environment - also
deteriorates. The resulting combustion
products are often extremely harmful
to health. The burning of fossil fuels
changes the composition of the
atmosphere; carbon stored under the
ground for millions of years now re-enters
the atmosphere in the form of carbon
dioxide, causing the greenhouse effect.
The secondary environmental
impact is caused by the extinguishing
agents getting into the environment.
Excessive use of water may cause
water damage, while the use of
extinguishing agents of artificial origin may
pollute the environment. The extent of the
pollution, in other words the secondary
environmental impact, largely depends

78

on the quality of the used extinguishing

agent and its application technology,
because the volume of the material
required for extinguishing a particular
fire is determined by these two factors.
Classification of extinguishing agents
Extinguishing agents of natural origin
Water (direct jet, spray, mist)
Mixtures of gas extracted from
the atmosphere (IG541, INERGEN,
ARGONITE, ARGOTEC, etc.)
Exploited gases (CO2)
Extinguishing agents of artificial origin
Extinguishing powders (BC, ABC, D)
Solid aerosols
Aqueous solutions (foam
solutions, P, FP, AFFF, AR)
Halogenated extinguishing
gases of zero ODP (FM-200,
FE-125, TRIIODIDE, NAF
S 125, NOVEC1230, etc.)
Successful prevention gives the highest
level of environmental safety. The
inertisation of confined spaces serves as
an example in the field of fire protection.
Environmental awareness in firefighting
The law clearly states that when
considering the environment, the best
available techniques (BAT) must be
used for the purpose of prevention.
In eliminating fire incidents,
the following depend on the
appropriate choice of technology:
Burning time (sum of the preparation
time and the extinguishing time),
that determines air pollution.
Specific extinguishing agent
need (total extinguishing agent
need), that determines the water
and soil contamination.
How to deal with 60,000m3+ tanks
Experiences unambiguously show that
the combustion of over 60,000m3 tanks

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

fire safety
cannot be extinguished with most of
the applied extinguishing methods.
At the present time, the fire
prevention strategy used by oil and
chemical companies is based on national
environment safety laws, the national
general and professional laws and
standards based on the said laws, and
the guidelines of professional associations,
and primarily relies on the use of mobile
and semi-stable extinguishing equipment.
In essence, the former
extinguishing strategy is that:
A person or a sensor detects the fire
Alarms the fire station
The fire brigade gets to the site
Assembles the devices
necessary for extinguishing
Starts and executes extinguishing.
In the case of fire in small-sized tanks,
ideally, the arrival time within the refinery

the foam jet pipes and foam

introduction devices on the tanks
The foam generation tools, the
foam generators are mounted on
the side of the storage tank, at a
place that is difficult to access
As a narrow nozzle is used,
foam generators often do not
work and get clogged
Traditional extinguishing devices
do not operate safely because of
the difficulty of maintaining them
A fire fighting water network is
necessary to operate this type
of extinguishing equipment
Devices compulsorily installed in
advance are put into operation
by the arriving fire brigade
Because of the need to call the
fire brigade and the time it takes to
arrive and assemble the necessary

During the combustion of a 80,000m3 tank,

14 tonnes of carbon black is given off into the
air every minute
is 10 minutes or less. After the assembly
of the light technology, extinguishing
can be started less than 15 minutes
from the outbreak of the fire.
In the case of large tanks, highcapacity extinguishing equipment must
be taken to and set up on the site. In this
case, the time taken to arrive is longer,
as are the assembly and set-up times.
During this, the fire will reach the
stationary combustion stage, and the
metal parts of the tank will start glowing.
During the combustion of a 80,000m3
tank, 14 tonnes of carbon black is
given off into the air every minute.
The problem with traditional semifixed extinguishing equipment
The drawbacks to the former known
extinguishing methods and the
essence of the problem are:
Tank fire prevention is principally
based on the fire prevention
standards, guidelines and semifixed extinguishing concept
formulated some 40-50 years ago
The operating parameters (foam
solution intensity, extinguishing
time) are prescribed in standards
which are constrained by the
technical possibilities of the time
The plant has the task of assembling

equipment, extinguishing is started

with considerable delay
The foam and pump necessary
for extinguishing is brought to
the site by the fire brigade
Any contamination of the fire
water network may cause
an operating failure
Because of the low application
intensity value prescribed in the
relevant standards, a large amount
of extinguishing agent is used and
the extinguishing time is long
As the fire continues for a
long time, the loss is big,
Environmental pollution is considerable
The fire endangers health,
life and technique.

No such thing as an eternal flame

International experience shows that
the combustion of 60,000-80,00m3 tanks
cannot be extinguished with most
applied extinguishing techniques.
The fire goes on for tens of hours until
there is no more combustible material,
and then it goes out. During this period,
there is enormous environmental pollution.
The repeated failure to put
out extensive fire has triggered
research to develop new, effective
fire prevention systems.

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

Tank fire fighting development at US

companies is based on the assumption
that in the case of fire, because of
the long preparation time, fire will
inevitably destroy the devices necessary
to conduct the built-in or semi-stable
extinguishing procedure, so they will
not function when extinguishing starts.
Therefore, the devices previously
built onto the tank by the plant in
accordance with the specifications
of the relevant standards should be
ignored, and purely mobile devices
should be used to extinguish the fire.
This idea can be realised with
high-capacity foam guns.
In some instances of tank fire in the
US, plants in an emergency leased the
equipment from the manufacturer of
the high-capacity mobile extinguisher,
and storage tank fire fighting was
carried out by the specialists of the
same company under contract.
Results are uncertain. It has been
reported in some cases that the team
arriving 17 hours after the ignition of the
fire at the site, started the extinguishing
only after four hours preparation.
After all of this, the fire was successfully
extinguished in just 65 minutes.
All together 22 hours and five minutes
burning. And a new world record.
The value of the material saved in
the tank was only a small portion of the
cost of the contracted extinguishing,
and even the tank was destroyed.
Tank fire fighting with foam guns
Drawbacks of high performance
mobile extinguishers:
It is not suitable for putting out the rim
seal fire of tanks with a floating roof
For its operation, a high-pressure and
high-output fire water system has to
be built, which is very costly in itself
This critical infrastructure is highly
vulnerable, the complete extinguishing
system is paralysed in the case of an
earthquake or a terrorist attack.
Despite these drawbacks, awareness of
this strategic solution is being increased
because of lthe ack of other solutions.
Main features of the latest tank
fire extinguishing systems
The amount of foaming agent
necessary for extinguishing is
less than 10% of the amount
used by former techniques
The foam is not produced at the

79

fire safety

place and time of fire fighting,

but well in advance, when the
extinguishing equipment is installed
Until the moment of starting the tank
fire extinguishing, the pre-mixed foam
is stored in a pressure vessel near the
flammable liquid tank to be protected
When calculating the foam amount
necessary for extinguishing, foam
intensity and the prescribed
foam cover thickness increases in
proportion to the fire surface, and
the total foam volume is calculated
with a 200-500% safety factor
The pipelines and nozzles used for
foam introduction are dimensioned
by hydraulic calculations in order to
comply with the prescribed foam
introduction time limit: the upper
time limit for introducing the entire
foam volume is two minutes
No pressure booster device is

(engine compartment of military

vehicles, generator motors, stores of
flammable chemicals, ammunition
and pyrotechnic substances).

The nearest fire service is at a distance

of several hundreds of kilometers,
but could not help anyway without
water and appropriate technology.

Impact of the new technology

on environmental safety

Extinguishing tank fire the

mission impossible

From the aspect of environmental safety,

this is unambiguously the best solution due
to the very short burning time. Additionally,
the small amount of extinguishing
agent used means air, soil and water
pollution can be practically avoided:
Its operation is not dependent
on any critical infrastructure
Individual independent systems
provide an increased level of safety
Time lost by preparations is avoided
by automatic operation
A small amount of agent is used
which ensures cost efficiency

Until now, no cost-effective solution was

found to protect tank farms against fire.
The lack of such solution increased the
economic risk of the operators, and
the fire authority was dissatisfied with
the level of safety. The environmental
authority and NGOs strongly opposed
to the construction of the pipelines, and
the lack of fire prevention made it even
more difficult to obtain their consent.
At last, they resigned themselves to the
operation of the unmanned storage sites
at a temperature of -40C, without fire
prevention for the lack of water supply.
The solution

Excessive use of water may cause water

damage, while extinguishing agents of artificial
origin may pollute the environment

80

necessary, the foam flow is driven by

the internal pressure of the foam tank.
No auxiliary energy is needed for the
operation of the fire alarm system
and the start of extinguishing
An independent extinguishing
apparatus is installed for each tank or
tank group, and these apparatuses
have no common elements
The response time of the fire sensors is
five to 10 seconds, the extinguishing
time is a maximum of two minutes.
The equipment only has one moving
part: a valve. Therefore, it offers
extremely high operation safety
Human error caused by
stress is excluded
Maintenance and periodical checks
are cheap and very simple
Foam pipes are simple devices
without any opening and
diminution in diameter
This system can even be deployed
at places without fire water
supply (military deployment sites,
provisional fuel tanks, storage sites
in a desert or in exposed places)
Besides tank protection, it is also
suitable for the protection of
other dangerous substance stores

Having understood the technical nature

of the FoamFatale technology, the
operator decided to request a bid for the
installation of the system, that will be able
extinguishing tank fire at a storage site
under construction. The designer team
prepared the plans for their evaluation.
Technical details

The technology has a simple

structure and thus a high level
of operating safety. During
experiments, the equipment was
able to put out petrol fire spread
over 500m2 in 25 and 46 seconds.
Extinguishing tank fire outline of the task
In the northern provinces of Canada,
oil pipelines run in a length of several
thousands of kilometers in uninhabited
areas. The pump stations that convey
the oil operate without an operator,
under remote supervision. Buffer storage
sites have been built next to the pump
stations; they are used as strategic stores
on the one part, and serve to equate
the varying oil reception capacity of the
pipeline terminal on the other. In the case
of maintenance, repair or technological
change-over, oil is moved to these
buffer stores with a capacity of a few
hundred thousands of m3. These stocks are
drawn when there is greater demand.
These unmanned sites have no
infrastructure at all. The environmental
temperature is far below zero in most
part of the year, the technical equipment
of the plant are designed for -40C.

In the first phase, three storage tanks

with an internal floating roof will be
built; one with a diameter of 49m
and two with a diameter of 36m.
Crude oil will be stored in them.
The main point of the fire prevention
concept is that in a heated room, a
pressure vessel will be placed in which
pre-mixed foam will be stored under
pressure, in the volume necessary for
the safe extinguishing of the maximum
potential fire surface. The foam
tank will be connected to the three
hydrocarbon tanks to be protected
with a closed carbon steel pipeline
of appropriate diameter. The foam
pipes will be connected to the foam
tank through pneumatically driven
valves opening when receiving
a signal from the fire sensor.
Design criteria
1. The first step is to determine the
foam cover thickness to be created.
This value increases with the size of
the fire surface, and the expected
higher degree of foam destruction

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

fire safety

2.

3.

4.

5.

will be taken into account. The

foam blanket thickness will be
calculated with a safety factor
of at least 300% compared to the
effective extinguishing thickness.
The second step is to calculate the
total foam volume, which is given by
the multiplication of the fire surface
and the foam blanket thickness.
The third step is to determine the
volume of the compressed foam
tank necessary for storing the foam
volume calculated above.
The last step is the hydraulic
dimensioning of the foam pipe in
order to meet the most important
criterion, namely, the upper
foam introduction time limit.
According to our specifications, at
extinguishing tank fire the entire foam
volume has to be introduced into the
burning tank within two minutes or
less in the case of liquids with a flash
point below 52C and within three
minutes or less in the case of liquids
with a flash point above 52C. The
volume flow rate of the foam, which
can be calculated from this, serves
as the basic data for the hydraulic
dimensioning of foam pipes.

Fire protection: how an environmental

aware system works

No more technical or technological

obstacles

In the case of fire in any of the A, B or

C storage tanks, its fire detector sends
an alarm signal to the pneumatically
operated foam valve control unit. This
valve opens without using any external
auxiliary energy, upon the pressure of
the foam stored in the T1 foam pressure
vessel. The foam flows into the burning
hydrocarbon tank. Inside the tank, a
ring-shaped nozzle conveys the foam to
the tank shell in a curtain-like manner,
and so the foam promptly cools the
shell and protects it from the effect of
the heat transported by convection
and radiation. Flowing down, the foam
reaches the floating roof and fills up the
seal area to reach the upper level of
the foam dam. Falling over the foam
dam, it covers the whole surface of the
floating roof. The process will be the
same when the floating roof submerges
for any reason. Now, flowing down, the
foam reaches the liquid surface and
there, taking a horizontal direction,
closes in the middle of the surface of the
burning liquid and thus puts out the fire.

Similar solutions can be used in a

desert where keeping water ready for
extinguishing tank fire is extremely costly.
In other areas where the traditional
fire prevention solutions cannot be used
because the object (e.g. the fuel depot
of a military unit) is constantly on the
move and the traditional fire fighting
infrastructure is completely missing, the
compacted foam technology is able to
provide the appropriate level of safety.
There are no longer technical or
technological obstacles to introducing
environmental awareness in the work
processes of disaster recovery. This is
now only a matter of resolution to enact
and comply with the relevant laws.

For more information:

This article was written by Dr. Istvn Szcs, an

international fire fighting expert, inventor and
scientist of storage tank fire protection
technologies, www.foamfatale.com

See Us at
Tank Storage
Conference &
Exhibition
Fluid Control Systems:
Systems:
Stand 55
Additive & Dye Injection

Bio Fuel & Chemical Blending

Fuel & Chemical Loading
Pump Sets & Pump Control

Vehicle & Plant Access Solutions:

Truck & Railcar Loading & Access
Portable Access Units (Rolling Ladders)
Modular Industrial Stairs & Platforms
Barge & Ship Loading & Access
Spill Containment
Control & Automation:
Electrical & Pneumatic Control Panels
PLC Systems and Services
HMI / SCADA / DCS

Superior solutions and services that

exceed customers expectations

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

For further details

please contact:
sales@FlotechPS.com
www.FlotechPS.com
Telephone: +44 (0) 1329 284145

81

fire safety

84

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

tank heating

Tank heating:

a new way of thinking

The rising number of
infrastructure projects around
the globe means higher
volumes of product such as
asphalt and bitumen. These
heavy oils need to be heated
to reduce the viscosity for
pumping and transportation.
Traditionally, heating
in these tanks had been
less important due to
factors such as:
- Smaller capacity tanks
- Tank heating being
part of the tank
manufacturers scope
- Changing ambient
temperatures leaving
heat calculations subject
to interpretation
- No accurate method
available to predict
performance.
Heavy oils need to be heated
at the final usage point for
performance and quality
purposes. However, it is also
important to heat these
products at intermediate
stages for transportation
and it is this type of heating
that must be reduced.
There are several direct
as well as indirect costs
associated with heating.
Direct heating can be easily
measured and optimised.
Indirect costs must also be
monitored and reduced
using efficient tank design.
Various petroleum
products are heated to
different temperatures. Factors

Large tank pipecoil arrangement

to be taken into consideration

for deciding heating options
include: ambient conditions,
storage duration, product
discharge condition (flow rate,
continuous or intermittent
discharge, frequency of
discharge), heating medium
and heating costs, etc.
Immersion heating
This heats the product to
the required temperature,
ranging from 50C to 150C.
The intention is to keep the
product ready (low enough
viscosity) for pumping
and transportation.
Traditional methods
involve laying a serpentine
pipe at the bottom of the tank
and passing steam through

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

Small tank pipecoil arrangement

it. This apparently simple

design was perceived as
acceptable in smaller tanks
owing to the easy availability
of the raw material. However,
this method is becoming
increasingly complicated
with large storage capacities.
Since steam or hot oil entering
the heating coil loop will
continue to lose heat on
its way, the heating inside
the tank is not uniform. To
improve this, the heating
coils are being made
increasingly complicated.
Inefficient heating
increases start-up time, and
surface and insulation losses
are greater over a longer
duration. Non-uniform heating
leads to non-uniform viscosity
and difficulty in pumping.

Inefficient heating also leads

to increased sedimentation
and additional maintenance.
Platecoil heating can
improve efficiency, internal
circulation and ensure
uniform product properties
inside the tank. The vertically
oriented heating coils situated
at the correct location
induce proper convection
currents inside the fluid and
ensure uniform heating.
Reduced hold-up volume
of the heating coil minimises
start-up time and reduces
the indirect heating costs.
By maintaining uniform
viscosity, pumping is
facilitated. This can also
ensure lower pumping
costs. Reduced sludge
sedimentation due to proper

83

tank heating

Simplified heating coil arrangement in a large tank

(40,000m3)

Improved convection due to Platecoil technology

circulation also minimises
maintenance costs.
Thus by using proper
heating techniques many
indirect heating costs
can be reduced.
Discharge/outflow heating:
Keeping the entire product
at elevated temperatures is
expensive. Instead, outflow
or suction heaters can be
installed in the discharge
line. With suction heaters
installed inside or outside
the tank, surface losses to
the atmosphere can be
reduced for the period
when the product is simply
stored inside the tank.
Consider a case where
HFO is being stored at 50C.
If this HFO is stored at 35C
and heated only at discharge
to the desired temperature,
the atmospheric heat loss

A green comparison
Outflow/
discharge heating

Full tank in
heated state

HFO volume

20m3

20m3

HFO flow at discharge

120m /hr

120m3/hr

Initial temperature

25C

25C

Maintenance temp

35C

50C

Discharge temperature

50C

50C

Heat for temperature maintenance (kcal/hr)

413,325

1,033,312

Heat for product temp increase (kcal/hr)

769,500

Total heat load (kcal/hr)

1,182,825

1,033,312

Fuel (diesel) consumption (lit/year)

81,044

202,610

Saving in fuel (diesel) consumption (lit/year)

121,566

can be reduced. The sample

calculation below shows how
a simple change in heating
philosophy can reduce the
heating costs significantly.
This saving in fuel
consumption will reduce
CO2 emissions and make
operations more eco friendly.
Operators are sometimes

Externally installed suction/outflow heater

84

wary of suction heaters due

to concerns over choking.
However, platecoil technology
can overcome this problem.
The concerns of choking
the suction heaters sometimes
deter the operators in using
suction heating technology.
However, with the help of
Platecoil technology internally

or externally installed suction

heaters can address the
concern about choking
while helping the customers
in the application.

For more information:

www.tranter.com

Internally installed suction/outflow heater

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

page header

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TANK STORAGE September/October 2014 Safe-Cut is a service of Mass Technology Corporation.

89

page header

At Vinotte we want to help guarantee the reputation of our

industrial and regular clients when it comes to quality, safety and
the environment.

CAN YOUR
REPUTATION
BECOME OUR
RESPONSIBILITY?

The GATE terminal off the coast of Rotterdam is the first LNGimportterminal in the Netherlands. Our involvement in this project
is a perfect example of the wide variety of Testing, Inspection
and Certification services we can offer your business.
The Vinotte group has an annual turnover of 201 million euros
and 17 offices worldwide. Our headquarters are situated in
Vilvoorde, Belgium.
Take a look at our services on

www.vincotte.com

YOUR REPUTATION IS MINE.

90

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

floating roofs

Why use a
floating roof
critical zone
survey?
A floating roof, as its name implies, floats
on the surface of the product in the
storage tank. As the liquid level changes,
during filling, emptying, or expansion and
contraction due to temperature changes,
the roof, by design, will move up and
down with the fluid level in the tank.
The floating roof was designed to
minimise the vapour space between it
and the liquid surface of the product in
the tank. The floating roof has support
legs hanging down into the liquid. At low
liquid levels the roof eventually lands and
a vapour space forms between the liquid
surface and the roof. The support legs are
usually retractable to increase the working
volume of the tank. Since there is no large
vapour space for the liquid to evaporate
into, vapour losses are kept to a minimum.
Types of floating roof designs include
flat pan, vapour mounted and peripheral
pontoon. In its simplest form, the floating
roof is merely a large flat pan, or disk,
slightly smaller in diameter than the tank
shell that floats on the product in the
tank. The circumference of the roof is
fitted with a system of flexible shoes to
close the space between the edge of
the floating roof and the tank shell to
minimise vapour loss. The shoe (seal) used
is generally comprised of a continuous
strip of flexible, special rubber material
which is attached to the roof and to the
seal ring around the inside circumference
of the tank shell. The complete seal unit
moves with the roof maintaining a virtually
vapour tight seal. In principle, the floating
roof eliminates losses by greatly reducing
the evaporative loss of the stored product.
Floating roofs, while effective at reducing
evaporative loss and emissions, depending
on the postion when the floating roof
lands on the bottom of the tank could
pose several potential environmental,
production and engineering issues.

The majority of floating roofs have

support legs, such as pinned, tabbed,
sleeved and cable suspended legs.
These leg designs affect how the high
and low leg positions are calculated with
respect to the elevation of the floating
roof for the flow of the tanks, clear of
any obstruction, hardwares below. It is
critical that low and high legs should
be trimmed to correct for the shape of
the bottom (cone up, cone down, etc),
with respect to the apperatures present
beneath the underside of the roof.

process of emptying the tanks, the ATGs

movement ceases with the roof and the
alarm fails to activate, resulting in the
potential damage to the floating roof,
seals, internal deadwood and other
hardware devices. The vacuum created
could also result in the cavitation of a
suction pump and could also potentially
damage the seals to the floating roof
requiring expensive repairs and loss of
revenue due to the inability for use of the
tank, not to mention the environmental
impact and the regulatory implications.
Importance
of FRCZS

Floating roof leg types

Floating roof issues
Recent tank surveys have revealed that
floating roofs do not always remain level
when landing on the tank bottom during
emptying or subsequent filling of tank
might have some remaining liquid in the
tank. If the vacuum breakers happen
to be placed on the low elevation of
the floating roof during these events,
the breaker may fail to open potentially
resulting in damage to the seals around
the floating roof. If the seal is broken then
the vapour that was being prevented
from entering the atmosphere will be
emitted, with possible environmental
and/or regulatory consequences.
Other potential issues that have been
identified include alarm tank gauges
(ATGs) that have been connected to
the floating roof and therefore stops
moving freely once the roof has landed
on its legs. In such a situation, during the

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

A Floating
Roof Critical
Zone Survey
(FRCZS) aids
in minimising
many potentially costly and hazardous
issues and damage that could occur.
FRCZS are performed during the outof-service inspection of a tank. This
inspection assists the tank manager in
calculating the appropriate floating roof
leg elevation in the landing position,
the correct positioning of the vacuum/
pressure relief valve and the proper
installation of the mechanical alarm
systems during the emptying of the tank.
There are currently no recommended
or required American Petroleum Industries
(API) methodologies to perform a FRCZS.
However, in API Chapter 2, Section 2A,
the use of the equipment (a laser level
and hand tape) and the certifications
required for each piece of equipment, are
commonly employed during the surveying
and calibration (strapping) of tanks.
Calculations performed should also follow
the best available engineering practices
recommended by API and its shareholders.

87

floating roofs
Safety and procedure
The FRCZS measurements are performed
on the interior of an out-of-service tank.
All appropriate safety regulations and
procedures should be strictly enforced,
specifically for permitted confined space
entry. Due to the use of a laser in the laser
level, access should be limited to only
personnel performing the survey and care
should be taken not to stare directly into the
beam during the operation of the laser.
Once the laser level has been set,
preferably in the centre of the tank, and,
if possible an unobstructed view to all
the roof legs is afforded, the instrument is
field calibrated to verify that it is working
correctly. When verification of the proper
operation/placement of the level has been
achieved, measurements are made on
each individual leg above the laser beam
(a positive measurement) and below
the beam (a negative measurement)
using a certified hand tape in 1/100th
of a foot demarcations. Measurements
should start at the outside leg closest to
the shell of the tank and the strike point,
and proceed in a clock-wise fashion
until all the legs have been measured.
It should also be noted what type
of roof leg is present in the tank. At the
conclusion of measuring the roof legs, the
vacuum breaker leg should be measured
in the same fashion and its location with
respect to the strike point noted. If an
ATG or other mechanical device is used,
its freedom of movement, independent
of the floating roof, should be verified.
At the conclusion of the measurements,
using the most recent capacity tables, it
should be determined what the current
alarm levels or levels of concern (LOC)
are being used during emptying of the
tank, and what the corresponding roof
leg, if applicable, position elevation, is
during normal operation. Measurement
of the internal deadwood should be
completed to confirm the lowest elevation
the floating roof can descend inside the
tank before damage would occur.
Once the current LOCs are
established they should be compared
with the measurements taken during
the survey. Because the underside of
the floating roof and the bottom of the
tank are not level surfaces, care should
be taken when analysing the data to
first determine where the floating roof
lands on its first leg and where the roof
rests in its final lowest elevation. This will
assist in the determination that the roof
and vacuum breaker leg lengths and
the corresponding LOCs have been

88

Empty tank: floating roof resting on out of level roof legs

Filling tank: product reaches low elevation of out of level floating roof. VB still open

Filling tank: roof legs still touching at high elevation. Floating roof starting to level out. VB
is closed. Emptying tank: ATG stops working

Roof floating on product: all legs no longer contacting bottom. Roof is level. VB closed.
ATG is working

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

floating roofs

HDS elevation snapshot of cone up bottom tank with floating roof following contour

HDS plan view of floating roof with high

and low elevation
accurately calculated and properly set.
Prior to the landing, the floating roof
is level, the roof and the closed vacuum
breaker (VB) legs are floating in product

and the ATG is moving with the roof. If

the length leg of the vacuum breaker is
set so that it opens (lands) when the first
roof leg sets on the tank bottom, then no
vacuum is created under the floating roof
and the ATG is activated even with an
uneven floating roof. If, however, the VB
leg does not touch when the first roof leg
is set on the bottom of the tank during the
removal of product, the air space created
beneath the floating roof has the potential
to create a vacuum. When the negative
pressure (vacuum) reaches a critical level,

that the apparatus necessary to prevent

damage to the tank, specifically the
floating roof legs, vacuum breakers and
the ATGs, are positioned properly to allow
for safe emptying of the tank and provide
maximum available tank capacity. The
FRCZS can be performed during outof-service inspections using standard
equipment, such as a certified laser level
and hand tape, with minimal cost and manpower. The FRCZS provides the operator
with confidence that when emptying the
tank, best available engineering practices

the tank will attempt to achieve equilibrium

with ambient conditions. This action could
potentially cause damage to floating roof
seals, cavitation or damage to the pumps.
In summary FRCZS provide the tank
manager verification and/or confirmation

were employed to calculate the safest

settings for landing the floating roof, and
the placement of the vacuum breaker.

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

For more information:

This article was written by Gauge Point

Calibration, Inc., www.gaugepoint.com

89

asset management

tank inspection
Tank inspection is an
important part of effective
asset management,
from both regulatory
and operating efficiency
perspectives. A failure of a
tank can be catastrophic,
but probably more likely
is degradation resulting in
slow loss of stored product
and possibly contamination
of the environment.
Any unscheduled
removal from service can
impact revenues from loss
of capacity, and potentially
lead to higher repair costs as
a faster response is required.
To manage this degradation,
inspections are carried out
on a regular basis and repair
work planned accordingly.
These inspections must
therefore inspire confidence
that they have identified
any degradation correctly
to avoid either unnecessary
repairs or unexpected failure.
A particular issue with any
tank floor inspection is that
once the tank is re-filled it
is very expensive to cross
check any inspection.
Inspections are often
carried out by experienced
third party inspection
companies which deliver a
report on condition. Careful
selection of these companies
will certainly improve
confidence in results, but
any asset operator should
be aware of the inspection
process and challenge the
inspection to deliver the
highest possible quality.
Training
Any task can be improved by
ensuring people are trained
to perform what is required
and this is no different in tank

90

inspection. There are very

tank for the as built condition,
verified for compliance by
good training programmes
or subsequently repaired state,
third party assessment such
for tank engineers and
to be different to that detailed
as ISO9000, or UKAS and
inspectors such as API 653
in design documentation.
international equivalents.
and EEMUA for understanding
Any procedures to be
tank assessment, and any
Procedures
used should be recorded for
inspection should be overseen
future reference as these will
by a qualified engineer. In
Assuming there are trained
be clear about what has, and
addition to these tank specific
technicians, the next
has not, been inspected.
engineering qualifications
important control is effective,
the inspection team should
detailed procedures. These
Capability of equipment
also be certified in the nonprocedures should cover every
destructive testing (NDT)
aspect of the inspection in
As with any task, having the
techniques applied. This should
detail so the asset owner can
best tools available will help
cover as a minimum ultrasonic
be sure of what will be done.
the technician to achieve
testing (UT), Magnetic particle
Any procedure should also be
best results. There are
testing (MPI), and preferably
signed off by an appropriate
continued advances in new
Magnetic Flux Leakage
Level III trained person. An
NDT technologies that can
(MFL), or other techniques
effective procedure will:
improve detection of defects
used to inspect the tank
Identify the required
and accuracy of sizing. The
floor. Certainly UT and MPI
preparation of the tank
better the inspection tools
training is widely available
Guide the technician to
the higher confidence in
through PCN or ASNT schemes.
ensure correct application
the results, assuming the
Specific technologies
of equipment.
aforementioned procedures
such as MFL are not so
Explain how to assess
are implemented correctly.
prevalent, but manufacturers
any indications
However, all systems
of this equipment can
How to record any
have some limitations and
provide bespoke training
indications
knowing which tool is best to
programmes which should be
Ensure safe working
apply for each measurement
completed as a minimum.
practices
is important. The actual
Alongside these technical
Apply the most efficient
condition of the tank being
programmes thought should
work methods.
inspected will also influence
also be given to simple visual
The inspection provider
measurement accuracy, and
testing as much can be
should also be able to
this should be considered.
identified from a trained eye
demonstrate the procedures
For example, a clean 6mm
before any measurement
it has are implemented
thick floor with no coating
tools are used. The technician
correctly and independently
will give very good results
should be
trained to
complete
an initial
assessment to
not only identify
any visual
defects, but
also to ensure
the tank to
be inspected
actually meets
the design
specifications.
It is not unusual
on an older
Example data archive with Silverwing C-map inspection management tool

September/October 2014 TANK STORAGE

asset management
in MFL, but a thick 15mm
annular plate with coating
will reduce the accuracy
and detection capability.
NDT techniques can be
complimentary, and in some
cases they may need to be
combined to give the best
result. Again this comes back
to the detailed procedure
to guide the technician,
and what assessment on site
should be done to decide
which approach to take.
Verification of results
As an inspection is performed,
verification of results should
be carried out to cross check
any indications, and also
ensure the procedures are
being followed. This is easier to
do with the latest inspection
tools such as the Silverwing
Floormap 3Di or Scorpion wall
crawlers as all calibration
data and measurements are
recorded digitally. It is entirely
possible for inspection results

to be sent off site for review by

a level III, who can see what
has been done and make an
assessment of the inspection.
For in tank inspection it is
very important to complete
the verification whilst tank
access is available, but for
external inspections these can
be carried out later. There
is at least one inspection
company in the US that
has embraced this and
can provide remote level III
assessment of its inspections
by sending live inspection
data to its assessment team.
Archiving of results
and data sharing
Traditionally an inspection
will deliver a paper copy of
the results with an assessment
that can be archived. This is
a very useful document but
does not give full access to
the inspection data, limiting
any future analysis of results.
When full data capture

of measurements and
calibrations is done this
data can be subsequently
reviewed to see what the
technicians carried out,
and also re-process with
new accept/reject limits
as requirements change.
By recording all
measurement data it also
gives the opportunity to reprocess with new analysis
techniques that can improve
the quality of measurements
without re-scanning. It is
therefore possible to improve
understanding of asset
condition, and potentially
extend working life as a result.
Companies such as
Silverwing are also developing
inspection database
management tools, such as
C-Map, that will provide easy
access to inspection results
across multiple sites, making
an inspection a live document
that can be shared between
engineers and sub-contractors
such as repair teams,

and also make historical

comparisons for risk based
inspection (RBI) much easier.
Conclusion
If an inspection is performed
with attention to training,
procedures employed, use
of the latest technologies,
verification and data analysis
it is possible to have a high
confidence in the inspection,
whilst remaining efficient and
cost effective. With improved
archiving through database
management tools, leading
to easy interpretation of data
with powerful analysis tools, it
will in future aid tank engineers
to make decisions based
on higher confidence in the
inspection, with potential to
reduce the operating safety
margins and therefore cost.

For more information:

This article was written by Wayne

Woodhead, CEO, Silverwing,
www.silverwingndt.com

0151 355 2685

www.fenelontanks.com
info@fenelontanks.com
Fenelon Storage Tanks offer customers a unique
one-stop shop service for all new build tank
projects and repair/refurbishment requirements.
Expertise from our in-house Design Department and
fully equipped workshop/fabrication facilities provide
support for our on-site construction teams.

Technical advice and support for clients.

Finite Element Analysis reports using the latest
Solidworks 3D modelling simulation software.

Calculations and drawings for all types of storage tanks.

All designs carried out to the latest British, European or
API tank codes.

Certified EEMUA and API 653 Storage Tank Inspectors.

Professional Project Management/HSQA Department.
Fully qualified & employed Site Management, experienced
Tank Erectors and Welders.

Employed Appointed Persons for the planning and

supervision of crane lifting operations.

TANK STORAGE September/October 2014

91