Galileo Galilei - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

10/29/2015
GalileoGalileiWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
GalileoGalilei
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
"Galileo"redirectshere.Forotherusesof"Galileo",seeGalileo(disambiguation).Forotherusesof
"GalileoGalilei",seeGalileoGalilei(disambiguation).
GalileoGalilei(Italianpronunciation:[aliloalili]
15February1564[3]8January1642),wasanItalian
astronomer,physicist,engineer,philosopher,and
mathematician[4]whoplayedamajorroleinthe
scientificrevolutionduringtheRenaissance.His
achievementsincludeimprovementstothetelescopeand
consequentastronomicalobservationsandsupportfor
heliocentrism.Galileohasbeencalledthe"fatherof
modernobservationalastronomy",[5]the"fatherof
modernphysics",[6][7]andthe"fatherofmodern
science".[8]
Hiscontributionstoobservationalastronomyincludethe
telescopicconfirmationofthephasesofVenus,the
discoveryofthefourlargestsatellitesofJupiter(named
theGalileanmoonsinhishonour),andtheobservation
andanalysisofsunspots.Galileoalsoworkedinapplied
scienceandtechnology,inventinganimprovedmilitary
compassandotherinstruments.
Galileo'schampioningofheliocentrismand
Copernicanismwascontroversialwithinhislifetime,
whenmostsubscribedtoeithergeocentrismorthe
Tychonicsystem.[9]Hemetwithoppositionfrom
astronomers,whodoubtedheliocentrismduetothe
absenceofanobservedstellarparallax.[9]Thematterwas
investigatedbytheRomanInquisitionin1615,andthey
concludedthatitcouldonlybesupportedasapossibility,
notasanestablishedfact.[9][10]Galileolaterdefendedhis
viewsinDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorld
Systems,whichappearedtoattackPopeUrbanVIIIand
thusalienatedhimandtheJesuits,whohadboth
supportedGalileoupuntilthispoint.[9]Hewastriedby
theInquisition,found"vehementlysuspectofheresy",
forcedtorecant,andspenttherestofhislifeunderhouse
arrest.[11][12]ItwaswhileGalileowasunderhousearrest
thathewroteoneofhisfinestworks,TwoNewSciences.
GalileoGalilei
PortraitofGalileoGalileibyGiustoSustermans
Born
15February1564
Pisa,DuchyofFlorence,Italy
Died
8January1642(aged77)
Arcetri,GrandDuchyofTuscany,
Italy
Residence
GrandDuchyofTuscany,Italy
Nationality Italian
Fields
Astronomy,physics,natural
philosophy,mathematics
Institutions UniversityofPisa
UniversityofPadua
Patrons
CardinaldelMonte
FraPaoloSarpi
PrinceFedericoCesi
CosimoIIdeMedici
FerdinandoIIdeMedici
MaffeoBarberini
Almamater UniversityofPisa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei
1/34
10/29/2015
Herehesummarizedtheworkhehaddonesomeforty
yearsearlier,onthetwosciencesnowcalledkinematics
andstrengthofmaterials.[13][14]
Contents
1Earlylifeandfamily
1.1Name
1.2Children
2Careerasascientist
2.1Galileo,Keplerandtheoriesoftides
2.2ControversyovercometsandThe
Assayer
2.3Controversyoverheliocentrism
3Death
4Scientificmethods
5Astronomy
5.1Kepler'ssupernova
5.2Jupiter
5.3Venus,Saturn,andNeptune
5.4Sunspots
5.5Moon
5.6MilkyWayandstars
6Engineering
7Physics
7.1Fallingbodies
8Mathematics
9Hiswritings
9.1SummaryofGalileo'spublished
writtenworks
10Legacy
10.1ChurchreassessmentsofGalileoin
latercenturies
10.2Impactonmodernscience
10.3Inartisticandpopularmedia
11Timeline
12Seealso
13Notes
14References
15Externallinks
15.1ByGalileo
15.2OnGalileo
15.2.1Biography
15.2.2GalileoandtheChurch
Academic
advisors
OstilioRicci[1]
Notable
students
BenedettoCastelli
MarioGuiducci
VincenzoViviani[2]
Knownfor
Kinematics
Dynamics
Telescopicobservationalastronomy
Heliocentrism
Signature
Notes
HisfatherwasthemusicianVincenzoGalilei.
GalileoGalilei'smistressMarinaGamba(157021
August1612?)borehimtwodaughters(Maria
Celeste(Virginia,16001634)andLivia(1601
1659),bothofwhombecamenuns)andason
Vincenzo(16061649),alutenist.
Earlylifeandfamily
2/34
10/29/2015
GalileowasborninPisa(thenpartoftheDuchyofFlorence),Italy,in1564,[15]thefirstofsixchildrenof
VincenzoGalilei,afamouslutenist,composer,andmusictheorist,andGiuliaAmmannati.Galileobecame
anaccomplishedlutenisthimselfandwouldhavelearnedearlyfromhisfatherahealthyscepticismfor
establishedauthority,[16]thevalueofwellmeasuredorquantifiedexperimentation,anappreciationfora
periodicormusicalmeasureoftimeorrhythm,aswellastheilluminativeprogenytoexpectfroma
marriageofmathematicsandexperiment.
ThreeofGalileo'sfivesiblingssurvivedinfancy.Theyoungest,Michelangelo(orMichelagnolo),also
becameanotedlutenistandcomposeralthoughhecontributedtofinancialburdensduringGalileo'syoung
adulthood.Michelangelowasunabletocontributehisfairshareoftheirfather'spromiseddowriestotheir
brothersinlaw,whowouldlaterattempttoseeklegalremediesforpaymentsdue.Michelangelowould
alsooccasionallyhavetoborrowfundsfromGalileotosupporthismusicalendeavoursandexcursions.
ThesefinancialburdensmayhavecontributedtoGalileo'searlyfiretodevelopinventionsthatwouldbring
himadditionalincome.
WhenGalileoGalileiwaseight,hisfamilymovedtoFlorence,buthewasleftwithJacopoBorghinifortwo
years.[15]HethenwaseducatedintheCamaldoleseMonasteryatVallombrosa,35kmsoutheastof
Florence.[15]
Name
Galileowasnamedafteranancestor,GalileoBonaiuti,aphysician,universityteacherandpoliticianwho
livedinFlorencefrom1370to1450atthattimeinthelate14thcentury,thefamily'ssurnameshiftedfrom
Bonaiuti(orBuonaiuti)toGalilei.GalileoBonaiutiwasburiedinthesamechurch,theBasilicaofSanta
CroceinFlorence,whereabout200yearslaterhismorefamousdescendantGalileoGalileiwasalsoburied.
Children
AlthoughagenuinelypiousRomanCatholic,[17]GalileofatheredthreechildrenoutofwedlockwithMarina
Gamba.Theyhadtwodaughters,Virginiain1600andLiviain1601,andoneson,Vincenzo,in1606.[18]
Becauseoftheirillegitimatebirth,theirfatherconsideredthegirlsunmarriageable,ifnotposingproblems
ofprohibitivelyexpensivesupportordowries,whichwouldhavebeensimilartoGalileo'sprevious
extensivefinancialproblemswithtwoofhissisters.[19]Theironlyworthyalternativewasthereligiouslife.
BothgirlswereacceptedbytheconventofSanMatteoinArcetriandremainedtherefortherestoftheir
lives.[20]VirginiatookthenameMariaCelesteuponenteringtheconvent.Shediedon2April1634,andis
buriedwithGalileoattheBasilicaofSantaCroce,Florence.LiviatookthenameSisterArcangelaandwas
illformostofherlife.VincenzowaslaterlegitimisedasthelegalheirofGalileoandmarriedSestilia
Bocchineri.[21]
Careerasascientist
AlthoughGalileoseriouslyconsideredthepriesthoodasayoungman,athisfather'surgingheinstead
enrolledattheUniversityofPisaforamedicaldegree.[22]In1581,whenhewasstudyingmedicine,he
noticedaswingingchandelier,whichaircurrentsshiftedabouttoswinginlargerandsmallerarcs.Tohim
3/34
10/29/2015
itseemed,bycomparisonwithhisheartbeat,thatthechandeliertookthe
sameamountoftimetoswingbackandforth,nomatterhowfaritwas
swinging.Whenhereturnedhome,hesetuptwopendulumsofequallength
andswungonewithalargesweepandtheotherwithasmallsweepand
foundthattheykepttimetogether.ItwasnotuntilChristiaanHuygens
almostonehundredyearslaterthatthetautochronenatureofaswinging
pendulumwasusedtocreateanaccuratetimepiece.[23]Uptothispoint,
Galileohaddeliberatelybeenkeptawayfrommathematics,sincea
physicianearnedahigherincomethanamathematician.However,after
accidentallyattendingalectureongeometry,hetalkedhisreluctantfather
intolettinghimstudymathematicsandnaturalphilosophyinsteadof
medicine.[23]Hecreatedathermoscope,aforerunnerofthethermometer,
andin1586publishedasmallbookonthedesignofahydrostaticbalance
hehadinvented(whichfirstbroughthimtotheattentionofthescholarly
world).Galileoalsostudieddisegno,atermencompassingfineart,andin
1588obtainedthepositionofinstructorintheAccademiadelleArtidel
DisegnoinFlorence,teachingperspectiveandchiaroscuro.Beinginspired
bytheartistictraditionofthecityandtheworksoftheRenaissanceartists,
Galileoacquiredanaestheticmentality.Whileayoungteacheratthe
Accademia,hebeganalifelongfriendshipwiththeFlorentinepainter
Cigoli,whoincludedGalileo'slunarobservationsinoneofhis
paintings.[24][25]
Galileo'sbelovedelder
daughter,Virginia(Sister
MariaCeleste),was
particularlydevotedtoher
father.Sheisburiedwith
himinhistombinthe
BasilicaofSantaCroce,
Florence.
In1589,hewasappointedtothechairofmathematicsinPisa.In1591,hisfatherdied,andhewasentrusted
withthecareofhisyoungerbrotherMichelagnolo.In1592,hemovedtotheUniversityofPaduawherehe
taughtgeometry,mechanics,andastronomyuntil1610.[26]Duringthisperiod,Galileomadesignificant
discoveriesinbothpurefundamentalscience(forexample,kinematicsofmotionandastronomy)aswellas
practicalappliedscience(forexample,strengthofmaterialsandimprovementofthetelescope).His
multipleinterestsincludedthestudyofastrology,whichatthetimewasadisciplinetiedtothestudiesof
mathematicsandastronomy.[27]
Galileo,Keplerandtheoriesoftides
CardinalBellarminehadwrittenin1615thattheCopernicansystemcouldnotbedefendedwithout"atrue
physicaldemonstrationthatthesundoesnotcircletheearthbuttheearthcirclesthesun".[28]Galileo
consideredhistheoryofthetidestoprovidetherequiredphysicalproofofthemotionoftheearth.This
theorywassoimportanttohimthatheoriginallyintendedtoentitlehisDialogueontheTwoChiefWorld
SystemstheDialogueontheEbbandFlowoftheSea.[29]Thereferencetotideswasremovedfromthetitle
byorderoftheInquisition.
ForGalileo,thetideswerecausedbythesloshingbackandforthofwaterintheseasasapointonthe
Earth'ssurfacespedupandsloweddownbecauseoftheEarth'srotationonitsaxisandrevolutionaround
theSun.Hecirculatedhisfirstaccountofthetidesin1616,addressedtoCardinalOrsini.[30]Histheory
gavethefirstinsightintotheimportanceoftheshapesofoceanbasinsinthesizeandtimingoftideshe
correctlyaccounted,forinstance,forthenegligibletideshalfwayalongtheAdriaticSeacomparedtothose
attheends.Asageneralaccountofthecauseoftides,however,histheorywasafailure.
4/34
10/29/2015
Ifthistheorywerecorrect,therewouldbeonlyonehightideperday.
Galileoandhiscontemporarieswereawareofthisinadequacybecausethere
aretwodailyhightidesatVeniceinsteadofone,abouttwelvehoursapart.
Galileodismissedthisanomalyastheresultofseveralsecondarycauses
includingtheshapeofthesea,itsdepth,andotherfactors.[31]Againstthe
assertionthatGalileowasdeceptiveinmakingthesearguments,Albert
EinsteinexpressedtheopinionthatGalileodevelopedhis"fascinating
arguments"andacceptedthemuncriticallyoutofadesireforphysicalproof
ofthemotionoftheEarth.[32]Galileodismissedtheidea,heldbyhis
contemporaryJohannesKepler,thatthemooncausedthetides.[33]Healso
refusedtoacceptKepler'sellipticalorbitsoftheplanets,[34]consideringthe
circlethe"perfect"shapeforplanetaryorbits.
ControversyovercometsandTheAssayer
GalileoGalilei.Portraitby
Leoni
Mainarticle:TheAssayer
In1619,GalileobecameembroiledinacontroversywithFatherOrazioGrassi,professorofmathematicsat
theJesuitCollegioRomano.Itbeganasadisputeoverthenatureofcomets,butbythetimeGalileohad
publishedTheAssayer(IlSaggiatore)in1623,hislastsalvointhedispute,ithadbecomeamuchwider
argumentovertheverynatureofscienceitself.ThetitlepageofthebookdescribesGalileoasphilosopher
and"MatematicoPrimario"oftheGrandDukeofTuscany.
BecauseTheAssayercontainssuchawealthofGalileo'sideasonhowscienceshouldbepractised,ithas
beenreferredtoashisscientificmanifesto.[35]Earlyin1619,FatherGrassihadanonymouslypublisheda
pamphlet,AnAstronomicalDisputationontheThreeCometsoftheYear1618,[36]whichdiscussedthe
natureofacometthathadappearedlateinNovemberofthepreviousyear.Grassiconcludedthatthecomet
wasafierybodywhichhadmovedalongasegmentofagreatcircleataconstantdistancefromthe
earth,[37]andsinceitmovedintheskymoreslowlythanthemoon,itmustbefartherawaythanthemoon.
Grassi'sargumentsandconclusionswerecriticisedinasubsequentarticle,DiscourseontheComets,[38]
publishedunderthenameofoneofGalileo'sdisciples,aFlorentinelawyernamedMarioGuiducci,
althoughithadbeenlargelywrittenbyGalileohimself.[39]GalileoandGuiducciofferednodefinitive
theoryoftheirownonthenatureofcomets[40]althoughtheydidpresentsometentativeconjecturesthatare
nowknowntobemistaken.Initsopeningpassage,GalileoandGuiducci'sDiscoursegratuitouslyinsulted
theJesuitChristopherScheiner,[41]andvariousuncomplimentaryremarksabouttheprofessorsofthe
CollegioRomanowerescatteredthroughoutthework.[42]TheJesuitswereoffended,[43]andGrassisoon
repliedwithapolemicaltractofhisown,TheAstronomicalandPhilosophicalBalance,[44]underthe
pseudonymLotharioSarsioSigensano,[45]purportingtobeoneofhisownpupils.
TheAssayerwasGalileo'sdevastatingreplytotheAstronomicalBalance.[46]Ithasbeenwidelyrecognized
asamasterpieceofpolemicalliterature,[47]inwhich"Sarsi's"argumentsaresubjectedtowithering
scorn.[48]Itwasgreetedwithwideacclaim,andparticularlypleasedthenewpope,UrbanVIII,towhomit
5/34
10/29/2015
hadbeendedicated.[49]InRome,inthepreviousdecade,Barberini,thefutureUrbanVIII,hadcomedown
onthesideofGalileoandtheLinceanAcademy.[50]
Galileo'sdisputewithGrassipermanentlyalienatedmanyoftheJesuitswhohadpreviouslybeen
sympathetictohisideas,[51]andGalileoandhisfriendswereconvincedthattheseJesuitswereresponsible
forbringingabouthislatercondemnation.[52]Theevidenceforthisisatbestequivocal,however.[53]
Controversyoverheliocentrism
Mainarticle:Galileoaffair
IntheCatholicworldpriortoGalileo'sconflictwiththeChurch,the
majorityofeducatedpeoplesubscribedeithertotheAristotelian
geocentricviewthattheearthwasthecenteroftheuniverseandthat
allheavenlybodiesrevolvedaroundtheEarth,[54]ortheTychonic
systemthatblendedgeocentricsmwithheliocentrism.[55]The
primaryproblemwithanytheoryofheliocentrismwasthat,ifit
weretrue,anannualstellarparallaxshouldbeobserved,butnone
was.Sincetheobservationofthestellarparallaxbecomesmore
difficultthelargerthe"universe"is,itwouldnotbeuntilthe19th
CristianoBanti's1857painting
centurythatinstrumentationwouldbesensitiveenoughtoobserveit
GalileofacingtheRomanInquisition
(thoughtheobservationofthestellaraberrationinthe18thcentury
wouldleadtowidespreadacceptanceofheliocentrism).Though
theoriesofheliocentrismhadbeencirculatingsinceantiquity,theyhadrecentlybeenrevivedbyNicolaus
Copernicus.Copernicushadpostulatedthatparallaxwasnegligiblebecausethestarsweresodistant.
However,TychoBrahehadarguedthat,sincestarshaveameasurableapparentsize,ifthestarswereas
distantasheliocentrismrequired,theywouldbegigantic,andinfactfarlargerthanthesunoranyother
celestialbody.Inhissystem,bycontrast,thestarswerejustbeyondSaturn,andthesunandstarswere
comparableinsize.[56]Therewasnooppositiontoheliocentrismfromanyinstitutionatthetime,andas
suchwasusedbyPopeGregoryXIIItoreformthecalendarin1582.[57]
IntheyearsafterCopernicus,heliocentrismwasarelativelyuncontroversial,thoughthelackofanobserved
StellarParallaxpreventedanyonefromacceptingitasphysicallytrue.[55]Moredangerous(atleastto
Italians),inthewakeoftheCounterReformationandtheconflictsthatwouldculminateinthe30Years
War,wasoppositiontopapalauthority.[55]Biblicalreferencessometimesusedtoattackheliocentrism
includedPsalm93:1(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Psalm&verse=93:1&src=KJV),
96:10(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Psalm&verse=96:10&src=KJV),and1Chronicles
16:30(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=1%20Chronicles&verse=16:30&src=KJV)include
textstatingthat"theworldisfirmlyestablished,itcannotbemoved."Inthesamemanner,Psalm104:5
(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Psalm&verse=104:5&src=NIV)says,"theLordsetthe
earthonitsfoundationsitcanneverbemoved."Further,Ecclesiastes1:5
(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/?book=Ecclesiastes&verse=1:5&src=1000)statesthat"Andthe
sunrisesandsetsandreturnstoitsplace."[58]Galileodefendedheliocentrism,andinhisLettertothe
GrandDuchessChristinaarguedthatitwasnotcontrarytobiblicaltexts.HetooktheAugustinianposition
6/34
10/29/2015
thatpoetry,songs,instructionsorhistoricalstatementsinbiblicaltextsneednotalwaysbeinterpreted
literally.Galileoarguedthattheauthorswrotefromtheperspectiveoftheterrestrialworldinwhichthesun
doesriseandset,anddiscussedadifferentkindof"movement"oftheearth,notrotations.[59]
By1615Galileo'swritingsonheliocentrismhadbeensubmittedtotheRomanInquisition,thoughhis
greateroffense[9]washisattempttoreinterprettheBible,whichwasseenasaviolationoftheCouncilof
TrentandlookeddangerouslylikeProtestantism.[60]GalileowenttoRometodefendhimselfandhis
Copernicanandbiblicalideas.Atthestartof1616,MonsignorFrancescoIngoliinitiatedadebatewith
Galileo,sendinghimanessaydisputingtheCopernicansystem.Galileolaterstatedthathebelievedthis
essaytohavebeeninstrumentalintheactionagainstCopernicanismthatfollowed.[61]Accordingto
MauriceFinocchiaro,IngolihadprobablybeencommissionedbytheInquisitiontowriteanexpertopinion
onthecontroversy,andtheessayprovidedthe"chiefdirectbasis"fortheInquisition'sactions.[62]Theessay
focusedoneighteenphysicalandmathematicalargumentsagainstheliocentrism.Itborrowedprimarily
fromtheargumentsofTychoBrahe,anditnotedlymentionedBrahe'sargumentthatheliocentrismrequired
thestarstobemuchlargerthanthesun.Ingoliwrotethatthegreatdistancetothestarsintheheliocentric
theory"clearlyproves...thefixedstarstobeofsuchsize,astheymaysurpassorequalthesizeoftheorbit
circleoftheEarthitself."[63]Theessayalsoincludedfourtheologicalarguments,butIngolisuggested
Galileofocusonthephysicalandmathematicalarguments,andhedidnotmentionGalileo'sbiblical
ideas.[64]InFebruary1616,anInquisitorialcommissiondeclaredheliocentrismtobe"foolishandabsurdin
philosophy,andformallyhereticalsinceitexplicitlycontradictsinmanyplacesthesenseofHoly
Scripture."TheInquisitionfoundthattheideaoftheEarth'smovement"receivesthesamejudgementin
philosophyand...inregardtotheologicaltruthitisatleasterroneousinfaith."[65](Theoriginaldocument
(http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1402/1402.6168.pdf)fromtheInquisitorialcommissionwasmadewidely
availablein2014.[66])
PopePaulVinstructedCardinalBellarminetodeliverthisfindingtoGalileo,andtoorderhimtoabandon
opinionthatheliocentrismwasphysicallytrue.On26February,GalileowascalledtoBellarmine's
residenceandordered
...toabandoncompletely...theopinionthatthesunstandsstillatthecenteroftheworldand
theearthmoves,andhenceforthnottohold,teach,ordefenditinanywaywhatever,either
orallyorinwriting.
TheInquisition'sinjunctionagainstGalileo,1616.[67]
ThedecreeoftheCongregationoftheIndexbannedCopernicus'sDeRevolutionibusandotherheliocentric
worksuntilcorrection.[67]Bellarmine'sinstructionsdidnotprohibitGalileofromdiscussingheliocentrism
asamathematicalandphilosophicidea,solongashedidnotadvocateforitsphysicaltruth.[9][68]
Forthenextdecade,Galileostayedwellawayfromthecontroversy.Herevivedhisprojectofwritinga
bookonthesubject,encouragedbytheelectionofCardinalMaffeoBarberiniasPopeUrbanVIIIin1623.
BarberiniwasafriendandadmirerofGalileo,andhadopposedthecondemnationofGalileoin1616.
Galileo'sresultingbook,DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems,waspublishedin1632,with
formalauthorizationfromtheInquisitionandpapalpermission.[69]
7/34
10/29/2015
Earlier,PopeUrbanVIIIhadpersonallyaskedGalileotogiveargumentsforandagainstheliocentrismin
thebook,andtobecarefulnottoadvocateheliocentrism.Hemadeanotherrequest,thathisownviewson
thematterbeincludedinGalileo'sbook.OnlythelatterofthoserequestswasfulfilledbyGalileo.
Whetherunknowinglyordeliberately,Simplicio,thedefenderoftheAristoteliangeocentricviewin
DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems,wasoftencaughtinhisownerrorsandsometimes
cameacrossasafool.Indeed,althoughGalileostatesintheprefaceofhisbookthatthecharacterisnamed
afterafamousAristotelianphilosopher(SimpliciusinLatin,SimplicioinItalian),thename"Simplicio"in
Italianalsohastheconnotationof"simpleton".[70]ThisportrayalofSimpliciomadeDialogueConcerning
theTwoChiefWorldSystemsappearasanadvocacybook:anattackonAristoteliangeocentrismand
defenceoftheCopernicantheory.UnfortunatelyforhisrelationshipwiththePope,Galileoputthewordsof
UrbanVIIIintothemouthofSimplicio.
MosthistoriansagreeGalileodidnotactoutofmaliceandfeltblindsidedbythereactiontohisbook.[71]
However,thePopedidnottakethesuspectedpublicridiculelightly,northeCopernicanadvocacy.
Galileohadalienatedoneofhisbiggestandmostpowerfulsupporters,thePope,andwascalledtoRometo
defendhiswritings[72]inSeptember1632.HefinallyarrivedinFebruary1633andwasbroughtbefore
inquisitorVincenzoMaculanitobecharged.ThroughouthistrialGalileosteadfastlymaintainedthatsince
1616hehadfaithfullykepthispromisenottoholdanyofthecondemnedopinions,andinitiallyhedenied
evendefendingthem.However,hewaseventuallypersuadedtoadmitthat,contrarytohistrueintention,a
readerofhisDialoguecouldwellhaveobtainedtheimpressionthatitwasintendedtobeadefenceof
Copernicanism.InviewofGalileo'sratherimplausibledenialthathehadeverheldCopernicanideasafter
1616oreverintendedtodefendthemintheDialogue,hisfinalinterrogation,inJuly1633,concludedwith
hisbeingthreatenedwithtortureifhedidnottellthetruth,buthemaintainedhisdenialdespitethe
threat.[73]
ThesentenceoftheInquisitionwasdeliveredon22June.Itwasinthreeessentialparts:
Galileowasfound"vehementlysuspectofheresy",namelyofhavingheldtheopinionsthattheSun
liesmotionlessatthecentreoftheuniverse,thattheEarthisnotatitscentreandmoves,andthatone
mayholdanddefendanopinionasprobableafterithasbeendeclaredcontrarytoHolyScripture.He
wasrequiredto"abjure,curseanddetest"thoseopinions.[74]
HewassentencedtoformalimprisonmentatthepleasureoftheInquisition.[75]Onthefollowingday
thiswascommutedtohousearrest,whichheremainedunderfortherestofhislife.
HisoffendingDialoguewasbannedandinanactionnotannouncedatthetrial,publicationofanyof
hisworkswasforbidden,includinganyhemightwriteinthefuture.[76]
Accordingtopopularlegend,afterrecantinghistheorythattheEarthmovedaroundtheSun,Galileo
allegedlymutteredtherebelliousphraseAndyetitmoves.A1640spaintingbytheSpanishpainter
BartolomEstebanMurillooranartistofhisschool,inwhichthewordswerehiddenuntilrestorationwork
in1911,depictsanimprisonedGalileoapparentlygazingatthewords"Epursimuove"writtenonthewall
ofhisdungeon.Theearliestknownwrittenaccountofthelegenddatestoacenturyafterhisdeath,but
StillmanDrakewrites"thereisnodoubtnowthatthefamouswordswerealreadyattributedtoGalileo
beforehisdeath".[77]
8/34
10/29/2015
AfteraperiodwiththefriendlyAscanioPiccolomini(theArchbishopofSiena),Galileowasallowedto
returntohisvillaatArcetrinearFlorencein1634,wherehespenttheremainderofhislifeunderhouse
arrest.Galileowasorderedtoreadthesevenpenitentialpsalmsonceaweekforthenextthreeyears.
However,hisdaughterMariaCelesterelievedhimoftheburdenaftersecuringecclesiasticalpermissionto
takeituponherself.[78]
ItwaswhileGalileowasunderhousearrestthathededicatedhistimetooneofhisfinestworks,TwoNew
Sciences.Herehesummarisedworkhehaddonesomefortyyearsearlier,onthetwosciencesnowcalled
kinematicsandstrengthofmaterials,publishedinHollandtoavoidthecensor.Thisbookhasreceivedhigh
praisefromAlbertEinstein.[79]Asaresultofthiswork,Galileois
oftencalledthe"fatherofmodernphysics".Hewentcompletely
blindin1638andwassufferingfromapainfulherniaandinsomnia,
sohewaspermittedtotraveltoFlorenceformedicaladvice.[13][14]
DavaSobelarguesthatpriortoGalileo's1633trialandjudgement
forheresy,PopeUrbanVIIIhadbecomepreoccupiedwithcourt
intrigueandproblemsofstate,andbegantofearpersecutionor
threatstohisownlife.Inthiscontext,Sobelarguesthattheproblem
ofGalileowaspresentedtothepopebycourtinsidersandenemies
ofGalileo.Havingbeenaccusedofweaknessindefendingthe
church,UrbanreactedagainstGalileooutofangerandfear.[80]
Death
Galileocontinuedtoreceivevisitorsuntil1642,when,after
sufferingfeverandheartpalpitations,hediedon8January1642,
aged77.[13][81]TheGrandDukeofTuscany,FerdinandoII,wished
toburyhiminthemainbodyoftheBasilicaofSantaCroce,nextto
thetombsofhisfatherandotherancestors,andtoerectamarble
mausoleuminhishonour.[82]
Theseplansweredropped,however,afterPopeUrbanVIIIandhis
nephew,CardinalFrancescoBarberini,protested,[83]because
GalileohadbeencondemnedbytheCatholicChurchfor"vehement
suspicionofheresy".[84]Hewasinsteadburiedinasmallroomnext
tothenovices'chapelattheendofacorridorfromthesouthern
transeptofthebasilicatothesacristy.[85]Hewasreburiedinthe
mainbodyofthebasilicain1737afteramonumenthadbeen
erectedthereinhishonour[86]duringthismove,threefingersanda
toothwereremovedfromhisremains.[87]Oneofthesefingers,the
middlefingerfromGalileo'srighthand,iscurrentlyonexhibitionat
theMuseoGalileoinFlorence,Italy.[88]
Portrait,attributedtoMurillo,of
Galileogazingatthewords"Epursi
muove"(notlegibleinthisimage)
scratchedonthewallofhisprison
cell
TombofGalileoGalilei,SantaCroce
Scientificmethods
9/34
10/29/2015
Galileomadeoriginalcontributionstothescienceofmotionthroughaninnovativecombinationof
experimentandmathematics.[89]MoretypicalofscienceatthetimewerethequalitativestudiesofWilliam
Gilbert,onmagnetismandelectricity.Galileo'sfather,VincenzoGalilei,alutenistandmusictheorist,had
performedexperimentsestablishingperhapstheoldestknownnonlinearrelationinphysics:forastretched
string,thepitchvariesasthesquarerootofthetension.[90]Theseobservationslaywithintheframeworkof
thePythagoreantraditionofmusic,wellknowntoinstrumentmakers,whichincludedthefactthat
subdividingastringbyawholenumberproducesaharmoniousscale.Thus,alimitedamountof
mathematicshadlongrelatedmusicandphysicalscience,andyoungGalileocouldseehisownfather's
observationsexpandonthattradition.[91]
Galileowasoneofthefirstmodernthinkerstoclearlystatethatthelawsofnaturearemathematical.InThe
Assayerhewrote"Philosophyiswritteninthisgrandbook,theuniverse...Itiswritteninthelanguageof
mathematics,anditscharactersaretriangles,circles,andothergeometricfigures...."[92]Hismathematical
analysesareafurtherdevelopmentofatraditionemployedbylatescholasticnaturalphilosophers,which
Galileolearnedwhenhestudiedphilosophy.[93]Hisworkmarkedanothersteptowardstheeventual
separationofsciencefrombothphilosophyandreligionamajordevelopmentinhumanthought.Hewas
oftenwillingtochangehisviewsinaccordancewithobservation.Inordertoperformhisexperiments,
Galileohadtosetupstandardsoflengthandtime,sothatmeasurementsmadeondifferentdaysandin
differentlaboratoriescouldbecomparedinareproduciblefashion.Thisprovidedareliablefoundationon
whichtoconfirmmathematicallawsusinginductivereasoning.
Galileoshowedamodernappreciationfortheproperrelationshipbetweenmathematics,theoreticalphysics,
andexperimentalphysics.Heunderstoodtheparabola,bothintermsofconicsectionsandintermsofthe
ordinate(y)varyingasthesquareoftheabscissa(x).Galileifurtherassertedthattheparabolawasthe
theoreticallyidealtrajectoryofauniformlyacceleratedprojectileintheabsenceoffrictionandother
disturbances.Heconcededthattherearelimitstothevalidityofthistheory,notingontheoreticalgrounds
thataprojectiletrajectoryofasizecomparabletothatoftheEarthcouldnotpossiblybeaparabola,[94]but
heneverthelessmaintainedthatfordistancesuptotherangeoftheartilleryofhisday,thedeviationofa
projectile'strajectoryfromaparabolawouldbeonlyveryslight.[95]
Astronomy
BasedonlyonuncertaindescriptionsofthefirstpracticaltelescopewhichHansLippersheytriedtopatent
intheNetherlandsin1608,[96]Galileo,inthefollowingyear,madeatelescopewithabout3xmagnification.
Helatermadeimprovedversionswithuptoabout30xmagnification.[97]WithaGalileantelescope,the
observercouldseemagnified,uprightimagesontheearthitwaswhatiscommonlyknownasaterrestrial
telescopeoraspyglass.Hecouldalsouseittoobservetheskyforatimehewasoneofthosewhocould
constructtelescopesgoodenoughforthatpurpose.On25August1609,hedemonstratedoneofhisearly
telescopes,withamagnificationofabout8or9,toVenetianlawmakers.Histelescopeswerealsoa
profitablesidelineforGalileo,whosoldthemtomerchantswhofoundthemusefulbothatseaandasitems
oftrade.HepublishedhisinitialtelescopicastronomicalobservationsinMarch1610inabrieftreatise
entitledSidereusNuncius(StarryMessenger).[98]
Kepler'ssupernova
10/34
10/29/2015
Tychoandothershadobservedthesupernovaof1572.Ottavio
Brenzoni'sletterof15January1605toGalileobroughtthe1572
supernovaandthelessbrightnovaof1601toGalileo'snotice.
GalileoobservedanddiscussedKepler'ssupernovain1604.Since
thesenewstarsdisplayednodetectablediurnalparallax,Galileo
concludedthattheyweredistantstars,andthereforedisprovedthe
Aristotelianbeliefintheimmutabilityoftheheavens.[99]
Jupiter
On7January1610,Galileoobservedwithhistelescopewhathe
describedatthetimeas"threefixedstars,totallyinvisible[100]by
theirsmallness",allclosetoJupiter,andlyingonastraightline
throughit.[101]Observationsonsubsequentnightsshowedthatthe
positionsofthese"stars"relativetoJupiterwerechanginginaway
thatwouldhavebeeninexplicableiftheyhadreallybeenfixedstars.
On10January,Galileonotedthatoneofthemhaddisappeared,an
observationwhichheattributedtoitsbeinghiddenbehindJupiter.
Withinafewdays,heconcludedthattheywereorbitingJupiter:[102]
hehaddiscoveredthreeofJupiter'sfourlargestsatellites(moons).
Hediscoveredthefourthon13January.Galileonamedthegroupof
fourtheMediceanstars,inhonourofhisfuturepatron,CosimoII
de'Medici,GrandDukeofTuscany,andCosimo'sthree
brothers.[103]Laterastronomers,however,renamedthemGalilean
satellitesinhonouroftheirdiscoverer.Thesesatellitesarenow
calledIo,Europa,Ganymede,andCallisto.
HisobservationsofthesatellitesofJupitercausedarevolutionin
astronomy:aplanetwithsmallerplanetsorbitingitdidnotconform
totheprinciplesofAristoteliancosmology,whichheldthatall
heavenlybodiesshouldcircletheEarth,[104]andmanyastronomers
andphilosophersinitiallyrefusedtobelievethatGalileocouldhave
discoveredsuchathing.[105]Hisobservationswereconfirmedbythe
observatoryofChristopherClaviusandhereceivedahero's
welcomewhenhevisitedRomein1611.[106]Galileocontinuedto
observethesatellitesoverthenexteighteenmonths,andbymid
1611,hehadobtainedremarkablyaccurateestimatesfortheir
periodsafeatwhichKeplerhadbelievedimpossible.[107]
Venus,Saturn,andNeptune
GalileoshowedtheDogeofVenice
howtousethetelescope(Frescoby
GiuseppeBertini)
ItwasonthispagethatGalileofirst
notedanobservationofthemoonsof
Jupiter.Thisobservationupsetthe
notionthatallcelestialbodiesmust
revolvearoundtheEarth.Galileo
publishedafulldescriptionin
SidereusNunciusinMarch1610
FromSeptember1610,GalileoobservedthatVenusexhibitedafullsetofphasessimilartothatofthe
Moon.TheheliocentricmodelofthesolarsystemdevelopedbyNicolausCopernicuspredictedthatall
phaseswouldbevisiblesincetheorbitofVenusaroundtheSunwouldcauseitsilluminatedhemisphereto
facetheEarthwhenitwasontheoppositesideoftheSunandtofaceawayfromtheEarthwhenitwason
theEarthsideoftheSun.Ontheotherhand,inPtolemy'sgeocentricmodelitwasimpossibleforanyofthe
11/34
10/29/2015
planets'orbitstointersectthesphericalshellcarryingtheSun.TraditionallytheorbitofVenuswasplaced
entirelyonthenearsideoftheSun,whereitcouldexhibitonlycrescentandnewphases.Itwas,however,
alsopossibletoplaceitentirelyonthefarsideoftheSun,whereitcouldexhibitonlygibbousandfull
phases.AfterGalileo'stelescopicobservationsofthecrescent,gibbousandfullphasesofVenus,therefore,
thisPtolemaicmodelbecameuntenable.Thusintheearly17th
centuryasaresultofhisdiscoverythegreatmajorityofastronomers
convertedtooneofthevariousgeoheliocentricplanetary
models,[108]suchastheTychonic,CapellanandExtendedCapellan
models,[109]eacheitherwithorwithoutadailyrotatingEarth.These
allhadthevirtueofexplainingthephasesofVenuswithoutthevice
ofthe'refutation'offullheliocentrism'spredictionofstellar
parallax.Galileo'sdiscoveryofthephasesofVenuswasthus
arguablyhismostempiricallypracticallyinfluentialcontributionto
thetwostagetransitionfromfullgeocentrismtofullheliocentrism
ThephasesofVenus,observedby
viageoheliocentrism.
Galileoin1610
GalileoobservedtheplanetSaturn,andatfirstmistookitsringsfor
planets,thinkingitwasathreebodiedsystem.Whenheobserved
theplanetlater,Saturn'sringsweredirectlyorientedatEarth,causinghimtothinkthattwoofthebodies
haddisappeared.Theringsreappearedwhenheobservedtheplanetin1616,furtherconfusinghim.[110]
GalileoalsoobservedtheplanetNeptunein1612.Itappearsinhisnotebooksasoneofmanyunremarkable
dimstars.Hedidnotrealisethatitwasaplanet,buthedidnoteitsmotionrelativetothestarsbeforelosing
trackofit.[111]
Sunspots
GalileowasoneofthefirstEuropeanstoobservesunspots,althoughKeplerhadunwittinglyobservedone
in1607,butmistookitforatransitofMercury.Healsoreinterpretedasunspotobservationfromthetimeof
Charlemagne,whichformerlyhadbeenattributed(impossibly)toatransitofMercury.Theveryexistence
ofsunspotsshowedanotherdifficultywiththeunchangingperfectionoftheheavensaspositedinorthodox
Aristoteliancelestialphysics.Andtheannualvariationsinsunspots'motions,discoveredbyFrancescoSizzi
andothersin16121613,[112]providedapowerfulargumentagainstboththePtolemaicsystemandthe
geoheliocentricsystemofTychoBrahe.[113]Adisputeoverpriorityinthediscoveryofsunspots,andin
theirinterpretation,ledGalileotoalongandbitterfeudwiththeJesuitChristophScheiner.
Infact,thereislittledoubtthatbothofthemwerebeatenbyDavidFabriciusandhissonJohannes.
ScheinerquicklyadoptedKepler's1615proposalofthemoderntelescopedesign,whichgavelarger
magnificationatthecostofinvertedimagesGalileoapparentlyneverchangedtoKepler'sdesign.
Moon
PriortoGalileo'sconstructionofhisversionofatelescope,ThomasHarriot,anEnglishmathematicianand
explorer,hadalreadyusedwhathedubbeda"perspectivetube"toobservethemoon.Reportinghis
observations,Harriotnotedonly"strangespottednesse"inthewaningofthecrescent,butwasignorantto
thecause.Galileo,dueinparttohisartistictraining[25]andtheknowledgeofchiaroscuro,[24]had
understoodthepatternsoflightandshadowwereinfacttopographicalmarkers.Whilenotbeingtheonly
12/34
10/29/2015
onetoobservethemoonthroughatelescope,Galileowasthefirsttodeducethecauseoftheuneven
waningaslightocclusionfromlunarmountainsandcraters.Inhisstudyhealsomadetopographicalcharts,
estimatingtheheightsofthemountains.Themoonwasnotwhatwaslongthoughttohavebeena
translucentandperfectsphere,asAristotleclaimed,andhardlythefirst"planet",an"eternalpearlto
magnificentlyascendintotheheavenlyempyrian",asputforthbyDante.
MilkyWayandstars
GalileoobservedtheMilkyWay,previouslybelievedtobenebulous,andfoundittobeamultitudeofstars
packedsodenselythattheyappearedfromEarthtobeclouds.Helocatedmanyotherstarstoodistanttobe
visiblewiththenakedeye.HeobservedthedoublestarMizarinUrsaMajorin1617.[114]
IntheStarryMessenger,Galileoreportedthatstarsappearedasmereblazesoflight,essentiallyunaltered
inappearancebythetelescope,andcontrastedthemtoplanets,whichthetelescoperevealedtobediscs.
Butshortlythereafter,inhislettersonsunspots,hereportedthatthetelescoperevealedtheshapesofboth
starsandplanetstobe"quiteround".Fromthatpointforward,hecontinuedtoreportthattelescopes
showedtheroundnessofstars,andthatstarsseenthroughthetelescopemeasuredafewsecondsofarcin
diameter.[115]Healsodevisedamethodformeasuringtheapparentsizeofastarwithoutatelescope.As
describedinhisDialogueConcerningthetwoChiefWorldSystems,hismethodwastohangathinropein
hislineofsighttothestarandmeasurethemaximumdistancefromwhichitwouldwhollyobscurethestar.
Fromhismeasurementsofthisdistanceandofthewidthoftherope,hecouldcalculatetheanglesubtended
bythestarathisviewingpoint.[116]InhisDialogue,hereportedthathehadfoundtheapparentdiameterof
astaroffirstmagnitudetobenomorethan5arcseconds,andthatofoneofsixthmagnitudetobeabout5/6
arcseconds.Likemostastronomersofhisday,Galileodidnotrecognisethattheapparentsizesofstarsthat
hemeasuredwerespurious,causedbydiffractionandatmosphericdistortion(seeseeingdiskorAirydisk),
anddidnotrepresentthetruesizesofstars.However,Galileo'svaluesweremuchsmallerthanprevious
estimatesoftheapparentsizesofthebrighteststars,suchasthosemadebyTychoBrahe(seeMagnitude)
andenabledGalileotocounterantiCopernicanargumentssuchasthosemadebyTychothatthesestars
wouldhavetobeabsurdlylargefortheirannualparallaxestobeundetectable.[117]Otherastronomerssuch
asSimonMarius,GiovanniBattistaRiccioli,andMartinusHortensiusmadesimilarmeasurementsofstars,
andMariusandRiccioliconcludedthesmallersizeswerenotsmallenoughtoanswerTycho's
argument.[118]
Engineering
Galileomadeanumberofcontributionstowhatisnowknownasengineering,asdistinctfrompure
physics.ThisisnotthesamedistinctionasmadebyAristotle,whowouldhaveconsideredallGalileo's
physicsastechneorusefulknowledge,asopposedtoepisteme,orphilosophicalinvestigationintothe
causesofthings.Between1595and1598,GalileodevisedandimprovedaGeometricandMilitary
Compasssuitableforusebygunnersandsurveyors.Thisexpandedonearlierinstrumentsdesignedby
NiccolTartagliaandGuidobaldodelMonte.Forgunners,itoffered,inadditiontoanewandsaferwayof
elevatingcannonsaccurately,awayofquicklycomputingthechargeofgunpowderforcannonballsof
differentsizesandmaterials.Asageometricinstrument,itenabledtheconstructionofanyregularpolygon,
computationoftheareaofanypolygonorcircularsector,andavarietyofothercalculations.Under
13/34
10/29/2015
Galileo'sdirection,instrumentmakerMarc'AntonioMazzoleni
producedmorethan100ofthesecompasses,whichGalileosold
(alongwithaninstructionmanualhewrote)for50lireandoffereda
courseofinstructionintheuseofthecompassesfor120lire.[119]
Inabout1593,Galileoconstructedathermometer,usingthe
expansionandcontractionofairinabulbtomovewaterinan
attachedtube.
Galileo'sgeometricalandmilitary
compass,thoughttohavebeenmade
c.1604byhispersonalinstrument
makerMarc'AntonioMazzoleni
In1609,Galileowas,along
withEnglishmanThomas
Harriotandothers,among
thefirsttousearefracting
telescopeasaninstrumenttoobservestars,planetsormoons.The
name"telescope"wascoinedforGalileo'sinstrumentbyaGreek
mathematician,GiovanniDemisiani,[120]atabanquetheldin1611
byPrinceFedericoCesitomakeGalileoamemberofhis
AccademiadeiLincei.[121]ThenamewasderivedfromtheGreek
tele='far'andskopein='tolookorsee'.In1610,heuseda
Areplicaoftheearliestsurviving
telescopeattributedtoGalileoGalilei,
telescopeatcloserangetomagnifythepartsofinsects.[122]By1624
ondisplayattheGriffith
Galileohadused[123]acompoundmicroscope.Hegaveoneofthese
Observatory.
instrumentstoCardinalZollerninMayofthatyearforpresentation
totheDukeofBavaria,[124]andinSeptemberhesentanotherto
PrinceCesi.[125]TheLinceansplayedaroleagaininnamingthe"microscope"ayearlaterwhenfellow
academymemberGiovanniFabercoinedthewordforGalileo'sinventionfromtheGreekwords
(micron)meaning"small",and(skopein)meaning"tolookat".Thewordwasmeanttobe
analogouswith"telescope".[126][127]IllustrationsofinsectsmadeusingoneofGalileo'smicroscopes,and
publishedin1625,appeartohavebeenthefirstcleardocumentationoftheuseofacompound
microscope.[128]
In1612,havingdeterminedtheorbitalperiodsofJupiter'ssatellites,Galileoproposedthatwithsufficiently
accurateknowledgeoftheirorbits,onecouldusetheirpositionsasauniversalclock,andthiswouldmake
possiblethedeterminationoflongitude.Heworkedonthisproblemfromtimetotimeduringtheremainder
ofhislifebutthepracticalproblemsweresevere.ThemethodwasfirstsuccessfullyappliedbyGiovanni
DomenicoCassiniin1681andwaslaterusedextensivelyforlargelandsurveysthismethod,forexample,
wasusedtosurveyFrance,andlaterbyZebulonPikeofthemidwesternUnitedStatesin1806.Forsea
navigation,wheredelicatetelescopicobservationsweremoredifficult,thelongitudeproblemeventually
requireddevelopmentofapracticalportablemarinechronometer,suchasthatofJohnHarrison.[129]Latein
hislife,whentotallyblind,Galileodesignedanescapementmechanismforapendulumclock(called
Galileo'sescapement),althoughnoclockusingthiswasbuiltuntilafterthefirstfullyoperationalpendulum
clockwasmadebyChristiaanHuygensinthe1650s.
Physics
14/34
10/29/2015
Galileo'stheoreticalandexperimentalworkonthemotionsofbodies,alongwiththelargelyindependent
workofKeplerandRenDescartes,wasaprecursoroftheclassical
mechanicsdevelopedbySirIsaacNewton.Galileoconducted
severalexperimentswithpendulums.Itispopularlybelieved
(thankstothebiographybyVincenzoViviani)thatthesebeganby
watchingtheswingsofthebronzechandelierinthecathedralof
Pisa,usinghispulseasatimer.Laterexperimentsaredescribedin
hisTwoNewSciences.Galileoclaimedthatasimplependulumis
isochronous,i.e.thatitsswingsalwaystakethesameamountof
time,independentlyoftheamplitude.Infact,thisisonly
approximatelytrue,[130]aswasdiscoveredbyChristiaanHuygens.
Galileoalsofoundthatthesquareoftheperiodvariesdirectlywith
GalileoeViviani,1892,TitoLessi
thelengthofthependulum.Galileo'sson,Vincenzo,sketcheda
clockbasedonhisfather'stheoriesin1642.Theclockwasnever
builtand,becauseofthelargeswingsrequiredbyitsvergeescapement,wouldhavebeenapoor
timekeeper.(SeeEngineeringabove.)
Galileoislesserknownfor,yetstillcreditedwith,beingoneofthefirsttounderstandsoundfrequency.By
scrapingachiselatdifferentspeeds,helinkedthepitchofthesoundproducedtothespacingofthechisel's
skips,ameasureoffrequency.In1638,Galileodescribedanexperimentalmethodtomeasurethespeedof
lightbyarrangingthattwoobservers,eachhavinglanternsequippedwithshutters,observeeachother's
lanternsatsomedistance.Thefirstobserveropenstheshutterofhislamp,and,thesecond,uponseeingthe
light,immediatelyopenstheshutterofhisownlantern.Thetimebetweenthefirstobserver'sopeninghis
shutterandseeingthelightfromthesecondobserver'slampindicatesthetimeittakeslighttotravelback
andforthbetweenthetwoobservers.Galileoreportedthatwhenhetriedthisatadistanceoflessthana
mile,hewasunabletodeterminewhetherornotthelightappearedinstantaneously.[131]Sometimebetween
Galileo'sdeathand1667,themembersoftheFlorentineAccademiadelCimentorepeatedtheexperiment
overadistanceofaboutamileandobtainedasimilarlyinconclusiveresult.[132]Wenowknowthatthe
speedoflightisfartoofasttobemeasuredbysuchmethods(withhumanshutteropenersonEarth).
Galileoputforwardthebasicprincipleofrelativity,thatthelawsofphysicsarethesameinanysystemthat
ismovingataconstantspeedinastraightline,regardlessofitsparticularspeedordirection.Hence,thereis
noabsolutemotionorabsoluterest.ThisprincipleprovidedthebasicframeworkforNewton'slawsof
motionandiscentraltoEinstein'sspecialtheoryofrelativity.
Fallingbodies
AbiographybyGalileo'spupilVincenzoVivianistatedthatGalileohaddroppedballsofthesamematerial,
butdifferentmasses,fromtheLeaningTowerofPisatodemonstratethattheirtimeofdescentwas
independentoftheirmass.[133]ThiswascontrarytowhatAristotlehadtaught:thatheavyobjectsfallfaster
thanlighterones,indirectproportiontoweight.[134]Whilethisstoryhasbeenretoldinpopularaccounts,
thereisnoaccountbyGalileohimselfofsuchanexperiment,anditisgenerallyacceptedbyhistoriansthat
itwasatmostathoughtexperimentwhichdidnotactuallytakeplace.[135]AnexceptionisDrake,[136]who
arguesthattheexperimentdidtakeplace,moreorlessasVivianidescribedit.Theexperimentdescribed
wasactuallyperformedbySimonStevin(commonlyknownasStevinus),[23]althoughthebuildingused
15/34
10/29/2015
wasactuallythechurchtowerinDelftin1586.[137]Howevermostofhisexperimentswithfallingbodies
werecarriedoutusinginclinedplaneswhereboththeissuesoftimingandwindresistanceweremuch
reduced.
Inhis1638Discorsi,Galileo'scharacterSalviati,widelyregardedasGalileo'sspokesman,heldthatall
unequalweightswouldfallwiththesamefinitespeedinavacuum.Butthishadpreviouslybeenproposed
byLucretius[138]andSimonStevin.[139]CristianoBanti'sSalviatialsohelditcouldbeexperimentally
demonstratedbythecomparisonofpendulummotionsinairwithbobsofleadandofcorkwhichhad
differentweightbutwhichwereotherwisesimilar.
Galileoproposedthatafallingbodywouldfallwithauniformacceleration,aslongastheresistanceofthe
mediumthroughwhichitwasfallingremainednegligible,orinthelimitingcaseofitsfallingthrougha
vacuum.[140]Healsoderivedthecorrectkinematicallawforthedistancetravelledduringauniform
accelerationstartingfromrestnamely,thatitisproportionaltothesquareoftheelapsedtime
(dt2).[141]PriortoGalileo,NicoleOresme,inthe14thcentury,hadderivedthetimessquaredlawfor
uniformlyacceleratedchange,[142]andDomingodeSotohadsuggestedinthe16thcenturythatbodies
fallingthroughahomogeneousmediumwouldbeuniformlyaccelerated.[143]Galileoexpressedthetime
squaredlawusinggeometricalconstructionsandmathematicallyprecisewords,adheringtothestandardsof
theday.(Itremainedforotherstoreexpressthelawinalgebraicterms).
Healsoconcludedthatobjectsretaintheirvelocityunlessaforceoftenfrictionactsuponthem,refuting
thegenerallyacceptedAristotelianhypothesisthatobjects"naturally"slowdownandstopunlessaforce
actsuponthem.PhilosophicalideasrelatingtoinertiahadbeenproposedbyJohnPhiloponuscenturies
earlier,ashadJeanBuridan,andaccordingtoJosephNeedham,MoTzuhadproposeditcenturiesbefore
eitherofthemnevertheless,Galileowasthefirsttoexpressitmathematically,verifyitexperimentally,and
introducetheideaoffrictionalforce,thekeybreakthroughinvalidatingtheconcept.Galileo'sPrincipleof
Inertiastated:"Abodymovingonalevelsurfacewillcontinueinthesamedirectionatconstantspeed
unlessdisturbed."ThisprinciplewasincorporatedintoNewton'slawsofmotion(firstlaw).
Seealso:Equationsforafallingbody
Mathematics
WhileGalileo'sapplicationofmathematicstoexperimentalphysics
wasinnovative,hismathematicalmethodswerethestandardonesof
theday,includingdozensofexamplesofaninverseproportion
squarerootmethodpasseddownfromFibonacciandArchimedes.
TheanalysisandproofsreliedheavilyontheEudoxiantheoryof
proportion,assetforthinthefifthbookofEuclid'sElements.This
theoryhadbecomeavailableonlyacenturybefore,thanksto
accuratetranslationsbyTartagliaandothersbutbytheendof
Galileo'slife,itwasbeingsupersededbythealgebraicmethodsof
Descartes.
DomeoftheCathedralofPisawith
the"lampofGalileo"
TheconceptnownamedGalileo'sparadoxwasnotoriginalwith
him.Hisproposedsolution,thatinfinitenumberscannotbe
compared,isnolongerconsidereduseful.
16/34
10/29/2015
Hiswritings
Galileo'searlyworksdescribingscientificinstrumentsincludethe1586tract
entitledTheLittleBalance(LaBillancetta)describinganaccuratebalance
toweighobjectsinairorwater[144]andthe1606printedmanualLe
OperazionidelCompassoGeometricoetMilitareontheoperationofa
geometricalandmilitarycompass.[145]
Hisearlyworksindynamics,thescienceofmotionandmechanicswerehis
1590PisanDeMotu(OnMotion)andhiscirca1600PaduanLe
Meccaniche(Mechanics).TheformerwasbasedonAristotelian
Archimedeanfluiddynamicsandheldthatthespeedofgravitationalfallin
afluidmediumwasproportionaltotheexcessofabody'sspecificweight
overthatofthemedium,wherebyinavacuum,bodieswouldfallwith
speedsinproportiontotheirspecificweights.Italsosubscribedtothe
Philoponanimpetusdynamicsinwhichimpetusisselfdissipatingandfree
fallinavacuumwouldhaveanessentialterminalspeedaccordingto
specificweightafteraninitialperiodofacceleration.
Galileo's1610TheStarryMessenger(SidereusNuncius)wasthefirst
scientifictreatisetobepublishedbasedonobservationsmadethrougha
telescope.Itreportedhisdiscoveriesof:
StatueoutsidetheUffizi,
Florence
theGalileanmoons
theroughnessoftheMoon'ssurface
theexistenceofalargenumberofstarsinvisibletothenakedeye,particularlythoseresponsiblefor
theappearanceoftheMilkyWayand
differencesbetweentheappearancesoftheplanetsandthoseofthefixedstarstheformerappearing
assmalldiscs,whilethelatterappearedasunmagnifiedpointsoflight.
Galileopublishedadescriptionofsunspotsin1613entitledLettersonSunspots[146]suggestingtheSunand
heavensarecorruptible.TheLettersonSunspotsalsoreportedhis1610telescopicobservationsofthefull
setofphasesofVenus,andhisdiscoveryofthepuzzling"appendages"ofSaturnandtheirevenmore
puzzlingsubsequentdisappearance.In1615GalileopreparedamanuscriptknownastheLettertothe
GrandDuchessChristinawhichwasnotpublishedinprintedformuntil1636.Thisletterwasarevised
versionoftheLettertoCastelli,whichwasdenouncedbytheInquisitionasanincursionupontheologyby
advocatingCopernicanismbothasphysicallytrueandasconsistentwithScripture.[147]In1616,afterthe
orderbytheinquisitionforGalileonottoholdordefendtheCopernicanposition,Galileowrotethe
DiscourseontheTides(Discorsosulflussoeilreflussodelmare)basedontheCopernicanearth,inthe
formofaprivatelettertoCardinalOrsini.[148]In1619,MarioGuiducci,apupilofGalileo's,publisheda
lecturewrittenlargelybyGalileounderthetitleDiscourseontheComets(DiscorsoDelleComete),arguing
againsttheJesuitinterpretationofcomets.[149]
In1623,GalileopublishedTheAssayerIlSaggiatore,whichattackedtheoriesbasedonAristotle's
authorityandpromotedexperimentationandthemathematicalformulationofscientificideas.Thebook
washighlysuccessfulandevenfoundsupportamongthehigherechelonsoftheChristianchurch.[150]
FollowingthesuccessofTheAssayer,GalileopublishedtheDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorld
17/34
10/29/2015
Systems(Dialogosopraiduemassimisistemidelmondo)in1632.Despitetakingcaretoadheretothe
Inquisition's1616instructions,theclaimsinthebookfavouringCopernicantheoryandanonGeocentric
modelofthesolarsystemledtoGalileobeingtriedandbannedonpublication.Despitethepublicationban,
GalileopublishedhisDiscoursesandMathematicalDemonstrationsRelatingtoTwoNewSciences
(DiscorsieDimostrazioniMatematiche,intornoaduenuovescienze)in1638inHolland,outsidethe
jurisdictionoftheInquisition.
SummaryofGalileo'spublishedwrittenworks
Galileo'smainwrittenworksareasfollows:
TheLittleBalance(1586)
OnMotion(1590)[151]
Mechanics(ca.1600)
TheStarryMessenger(1610inLatin,SidereusNuncius)
DiscourseonFloatingBodies(1612)
LettersonSunspots(1613)
LettertotheGrandDuchessChristina(1615publishedin1636)
DiscourseontheTides(1616inItalian,Discorsodelflussoereflussodelmare)
DiscourseontheComets(1619inItalian,DiscorsoDelleComete)
TheAssayer(1623inItalian,IlSaggiatore)
DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems(1632inItalianDialogodeiduemassimisistemi
delmondo)
DiscoursesandMathematicalDemonstrationsRelatingtoTwoNewSciences(1638inItalian,
DiscorsieDimostrazioniMatematiche,intornoaduenuovescienze)
Legacy
ChurchreassessmentsofGalileoinlatercenturies
TheGalileoaffairwaslargelyforgottenafterGalileo'sdeath,andthecontroversysubsided.The
Inquisition'sbanonreprintingGalileo'sworkswasliftedin1718whenpermissionwasgrantedtopublish
aneditionofhisworks(excludingthecondemnedDialogue)inFlorence.[152]In1741PopeBenedictXIV
authorisedthepublicationofaneditionofGalileo'scompletescientificworks[153]whichincludedamildly
censoredversionoftheDialogue.[154]In1758thegeneralprohibitionagainstworksadvocating
heliocentrismwasremovedfromtheIndexofprohibitedbooks,althoughthespecificbanonuncensored
versionsoftheDialogueandCopernicus'sDeRevolutionibusremained.[155]Alltracesofofficialopposition
toheliocentrismbythechurchdisappearedin1835whentheseworkswerefinallydroppedfromthe
Index.[156]
InterestintheGalileoaffairwasrevivedintheearly19thcentury,whenProtestantpolemicistsusedit(and
othereventssuchastheSpanishInquisitionandtheFlatEarthMyth)toattackRomanCatholicism.[9]
Interestinithaswaxedandwanedeversince.In1939PopePiusXII,inhisfirstspeechtothePontifical
AcademyofSciences,withinafewmonthsofhiselectiontothepapacy,describedGalileoasbeingamong
the"mostaudaciousheroesofresearch...notafraidofthestumblingblocksandtherisksontheway,nor
18/34
10/29/2015
fearfulofthefunerealmonuments".[157]Hiscloseadvisorof40years,ProfessorRobertLeiber,wrote:"Pius
XIIwasverycarefulnottocloseanydoors(toscience)prematurely.Hewasenergeticonthispointand
regrettedthatinthecaseofGalileo."[158]
On15February1990,inaspeechdeliveredattheSapienzaUniversityofRome,[159]CardinalRatzinger
(latertobecomePopeBenedictXVI)citedsomecurrentviewsontheGalileoaffairasformingwhathe
called"asymptomaticcasethatpermitsustoseehowdeeptheselfdoubtofthemodernage,ofscienceand
technologygoestoday".[160]SomeoftheviewshecitedwerethoseofthephilosopherPaulFeyerabend,
whomhequotedassaying"TheChurchatthetimeofGalileokeptmuchmorecloselytoreasonthandid
Galileohimself,andshetookintoconsiderationtheethicalandsocialconsequencesofGalileo'steaching
too.HerverdictagainstGalileowasrationalandjustandtherevisionofthisverdictcanbejustifiedonlyon
thegroundsofwhatispoliticallyopportune."[160]TheCardinaldidnotclearlyindicatewhetherheagreed
ordisagreedwithFeyerabend'sassertions.Hedid,however,say"Itwouldbefoolishtoconstructan
impulsiveapologeticonthebasisofsuchviews."[160]
On31October1992,PopeJohnPaulIIexpressedregretforhowtheGalileoaffairwashandled,andissued
adeclarationacknowledgingtheerrorscommittedbytheCatholicChurchtribunalthatjudgedthescientific
positionsofGalileoGalilei,astheresultofastudyconductedbythePontificalCouncilforCulture.[161][162]
InMarch2008theheadofthePontificalAcademyofSciences,NicolaCabibbo,announcedaplanto
honourGalileobyerectingastatueofhiminsidetheVaticanwalls.[163]InDecemberofthesameyear,
duringeventstomarkthe400thanniversaryofGalileo'searliesttelescopicobservations,PopeBenedict
XVIpraisedhiscontributionstoastronomy.[164]Amonthlater,however,theheadofthePontificalCouncil
forCulture,GianfrancoRavasi,revealedthattheplantoerectastatueofGalileointhegroundsofthe
Vaticanhadbeensuspended.[165]
Impactonmodernscience
AccordingtoStephenHawking,Galileoprobablybearsmoreoftheresponsibilityforthebirthofmodern
sciencethananybodyelse,[166]andAlbertEinsteincalledhimthefatherofmodernscience.[167][168]
Galileo'sastronomicaldiscoveriesandinvestigationsintotheCopernicantheoryhaveledtoalastinglegacy
whichincludesthecategorisationofthefourlargemoonsofJupiterdiscoveredbyGalileo(Io,Europa,
GanymedeandCallisto)astheGalileanmoons.Otherscientificendeavoursandprinciplesarenamedafter
GalileoincludingtheGalileospacecraft,[169]thefirstspacecrafttoenterorbitaroundJupiter,theproposed
Galileoglobalsatellitenavigationsystem,thetransformationbetweeninertialsystemsinclassical
mechanicsdenotedGalileantransformationandtheGal(unit),sometimesknownastheGalileo,whichisa
nonSIunitofacceleration.
Partlybecause2009wasthefourthcentenaryofGalileo'sfirstrecordedastronomicalobservationswiththe
telescope,theUnitedNationsscheduledittobetheInternationalYearofAstronomy.[170]Aglobalscheme
waslaidoutbytheInternationalAstronomicalUnion(IAU),alsoendorsedbyUNESCOtheUNbody
responsibleforeducational,scientificandculturalmatters.TheInternationalYearofAstronomy2009was
intendedtobeaglobalcelebrationofastronomyanditscontributionstosocietyandculture,stimulating
worldwideinterestnotonlyinastronomybutscienceingeneral,withaparticularslanttowardsyoung
people.
19/34
10/29/2015
Asteroid697Galileaisnamedinhishonour.
Inartisticandpopularmedia
Galileoismentionedseveraltimesinthe"opera"sectionoftheQueensong,"BohemianRhapsody".[171]He
featuresprominentlyinthesong"Galileo"performedbytheIndigoGirlsandAmyGrant'sGalileoonher
HeartinMotionalbum.
TwentiethcenturyplayshavebeenwrittenonGalileo'slife,includingLife
ofGalileo(1943)bytheGermanplaywrightBertoltBrecht,withafilm
adaptation(1975)ofit,andLampAtMidnight(1947)byBarrieStavis,[172]
aswellasthe2008play"GalileoGalilei".[173]
KimStanleyRobinsonwroteasciencefictionnovelentitledGalileo's
Dream(2009),inwhichGalileoisbroughtintothefuturetohelpresolvea
crisisofscientificphilosophythestorymovesbackandforthbetween
Galileo'sowntimeandahypotheticaldistantfuture,andcontainsagreat
dealofbiographicalinformation.[174]
InternationalYearof
Astronomycommemorative
coin
GalileoGalileiwasrecentlyselectedasamainmotifforahighvalue
collectors'coin:the25InternationalYearofAstronomycommemorative
coin,mintedin2009.Thiscoinalsocommemoratesthe400thanniversary
oftheinventionofGalileo'stelescope.Theobverseshowsaportionofhisportraitandhistelescope.The
backgroundshowsoneofhisfirstdrawingsofthesurfaceofthemoon.Inthesilverringothertelescopes
aredepicted:theIsaacNewtonTelescope,theobservatoryinKremsmnsterAbbey,amoderntelescope,a
radiotelescopeandaspacetelescope.In2009,theGalileoscopewasalsoreleased.Thisisamassproduced,
lowcosteducational2inch(51mm)telescopewithrelativelyhighquality.
Timeline
1543NicolausCopernicuspublishesDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestiumasanalternativeworld
systemtothePtolemy'sgeocentricmodelcausingsubsequentquestionstoberaisedabout
AristotelianphysicsfollowingCopernicus'death
1563ParentsVincenzoGalileiandGiuliaAmmannatimarry
1564BirthinPisa,Italy
~1570ThomasDiggespublishesPantometriadescribingatelescopebuiltbetween15401559by
hisfatherLeonardDigges
1573TychoBrahepublishesDenovastella(Onthenewstar)refutingAristotelianbeliefin
immutablecelestialspheresandaneternal,unchanging,moreperfectheavenlyrealmofcelestial
aetherabovethemoon
1576GiuseppeMoletti,Galileo'spredecessorinthemathematicschairatPadua,reportsfalling
bodiesofthesameshapefallatthesamespeed,regardlessofmaterial[175]
1581Hisfather,VincenzoGalileipublishesDialogodellamusicaanticaetmodernaformulating
musicaltheories[176]
1581EnrolsasmedicalstudentatUniversityofPisa
1582AttendsmathematicslecturebyOstilioRiccianddecidestostudymathandscience
1585LeavesUniversityofPisawithoutdegreeandworksastutor
20/34
10/29/2015
1586InventshydrostaticbalancewroteLaBalancitta(Thelittlebalance)
1586SimonStevinpublishesresultsfordroppingleadweightsfrom10meters
1588TychoBrahepublishesworkoncometscontainingadescriptionoftheTychonicsystemof
theworld[177]
1589AppointedtoMathematicsChair,UniversityofPisa
1590PartiallycompletesDeMotu(OnMotion),whichisneverpublished
1591Deathofhisfather,VicenzoGalilei
1592AppointedprofessorofmathematicsatUniversityofPadua,remains18years
~1593Inventsearlythermometerthatunfortunatelydependedonbothtemperatureandpressure
~1595Inventsimprovedballisticscalculationgeometricandmilitarycompass,whichhelater
improvesforsurveyingandgeneralcalculationsandearnsincomefromtutoringonitsuse
1597LettertoKeplerindicateshisbeliefintheCopernicanSystem
1600Firstchild,Virginiaisborn~1600LeMeccaniche(Mechanics)
1600WilliamGilbertpublishesOntheMagnetandMagneticBodies,andonThatGreatMagnet
theEarthwithargumentssupportingtheCopernicansystem
1600RomanInquisitionfindsGiordanoBruno,Copernicansystemsupporter,guiltyofheresyfor
opinionsonpantheismandtheeternalpluralityofworlds,andfordenialoftheTrinity,divinityof
Christ,virginityofMary,andTransubstantiationburnedatthestakebycivilauthorities
1601DaughterLiviaisborn
1604Measuressupernovapositionindicatingnoparallaxforthenewstar
1605Suedbybrothersinlawfornonpaymentofsisters'dowries
1606SonVincenzoborn
1606Publishesmanualforhiscalculatingcompass
1607RotilioOrlandiniattemptstoassassinateGalileo'sfriend,FriarPaoloSarpi
1608HansLippersheyinventsarefractingtelescope
1609IndependentlyinventsandimprovestelescopesbasedondescriptionofinventionbyHans
Lippershey
1609KeplerpublishesAstronomianovacontaininghisfirsttwolawsandforthefirsttime
demonstratestheCopernicanmodelismoreaccuratethanthePtolemaicforusessuchasnavigation
andprediction
1609ThomasHarriotsketchestheMoonfromtelescopicobservationsmadefourmonthsbefore
Galileo's
1610PublishesSidereusNuncius(StarryMessenger)viewsourmoon'smountainsandcratersand
brightest4ofJupiter'smoons
1610MartinHorkypublishesBrevissimaPeregrinatioContraNunciumSidereum,opposingGalileo
1610KeplerrequestsoneofGalileo'stelescopesorlenses,butGalileorepliesheistoobusyto
buildoneandhasnoextras[178]
1610LifetimeappointmenttomathematicspositionatUniversityofPadua,andasmathematician
andphilosopherforCosimoII,GrandDukeofTuscany
1611DiscoversphasesofVenusgrantedaudiencewithPopemadememberofLinceanAcademy
1611AwardedanhonorarydegreebytheJesuitCollegeinRome[179]
1611DavidFabriciuspublishesNarrationonSpotsObservedontheSunandtheirApparent
RotationwiththeSunpriortoChristophScheinerandGalileo'spublishedworksonthesubject
1612ProposedJupiter'smoonscouldbeusedasauniversalclockforpossibledeterminationof
longitude
~1612or1613FrancescoSizzidiscoversannualvariationsinsunspots'motions
1613LettersonSunspots
1615LettertoGrandDuchessChristina(notpublisheduntil1636)
1616OfficiallywarnedbytheChurchnottoholdordefendtheCopernicanSystem
1616TheCatholicChurchplacesDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestiumontheListofProhibited
21/34
10/29/2015
Books,pendingcorrection
1616PrivateletterDiscourseontheTides
1617MovesintoBellosguardo,westofFlorence,nearhisdaughters'conventobservesdoublestar
MizarinUrsaMajor
1619KeplerpublishesHarmonicesMundiwhichintroduceshisthirdlaw
1619DiscourseontheComets
1623MaffeoBarberinibecomesPopeUrbanVIII
1623PublishesTheAssayer
1624VisitsPopewhopraisesandhonourshim,leavingwithassumedpermissiontopublishwork
ontheCopernicanvs.PtolemaicSystemsusedacompoundmicroscope
1625IllustrationsofinsectsmadeusingoneofGalileo'smicroscopespublished
1630CompletesDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystemsandsubsequentlyreceives
approvalofChurchcensor
1632PublishesDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems
1633sentencedbytheInquisitiontoimprisonment,commutedtohousearrest,forvehement
suspicionofheresyinviolatingthe1616injunction
1633CatholicChurchplacesDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystemsontheListof
ProhibitedBooks
1638PublishesDialoguesConcerningTwoNewSciences
1642deathinArcetri,Italy
1668Newtonbuildshisreflectingtelescope
1687IsaacNewtonpublishesPhilosophiNaturalisPrincipiaMathematicaderivingKepler'slaws
fromtheUniversalLawofGravitationandtheLawsofMotion
Seealso
AristarchusofSamos
CatholicChurchandscience
DialogodeCeccodiRonchittidaBruzeneinperpuositodelastellaNuova
Galileoaffair
LettertotheGrandDuchessChristina
Philolaus
SeleucusofSeleucia
TribuneofGalileo(MemorialintheFlorenceScienceMuseum)
VillaIlGioiello(Galileo'smainhomeinFlorence)
Notes
1. F.Vinci,OstilioRiccidaFermo,MaestrodiGalileoGalilei,Fermo,1929.
2. "TheMathematicsGenealogyProjectGalileoGalilei".nodak.edu.
3. Drake(1978,p.1).ThedateofGalileo'sbirthisgivenaccordingtotheJuliancalendar,whichwastheninforce
throughoutthewholeofChristendom.In1582itwasreplacedinItalyandseveralotherCatholiccountrieswith
theGregoriancalendar.Unlessotherwiseindicated,datesinthisarticlearegivenaccordingtotheGregorian
calendar.
4. AmirAlexander(2014).Infinitesimal:HowaDangerousMathematicalTheoryShapedtheModernWorld.
ScientificAmerican/Farrar,StrausandGiroux.ISBN9780374176815.,p.8
5. Singer,Charles(1941)."AShortHistoryofSciencetotheNineteenthCentury".ClarendonPress.p.217.
6. Whitehouse,David(2009).RenaissanceGenius:GalileoGalilei&HisLegacytoModernScience.Sterling
PublishingCompany.p.219.ISBN1402769776.,Extractofpage219(http://books.google.com/books?
id=bGKrPVoQY8QC&pg=PA219)
22/34
10/29/2015
7. Weidhorn,Manfred(2005).ThePersonoftheMillennium:TheUniqueImpactofGalileoonWorldHistory.
iUniverse.p.155.ISBN0595368778.
8. Finocchiaro(2007).
9. Hannam,James."TheGenesisofScience".2011.p329344.
10. Sharratt(1994,pp.127131),McMullin(2005a).
11. Finocchiaro(1997),p.47(http://books.google.com.au/books?id=ewKMpRsF4Y8C&pg=PA47).
12. Hilliam(2005),p.96(http://books.google.com.au/books?id=KBKSyHOLzZAC&pg=PA96).
13. Carney,JoEldridge(2000).RenaissanceandReformation,15001620:a.GreenwoodPublishingGroup.
ISBN0313305749.
14. AllanOlney(1870)
15. O'Connor,J.J.Robertson,E.F."GalileoGalilei".TheMacTutorHistoryofMathematicsarchive.Universityof
StAndrews,Scotland.Retrieved20070724.
16. JohnGribbin.TheFellowship:Gilbert,Bacon,Harvey,Wren,NewtonandtheStoryoftheScientificRevolution.
TheOverlookPress,2008.p.26
17. Sharratt(1994,pp.17,213)
18. JoeRosenLisaQuinnGothard.EncyclopediaofPhysicalScience(http://books.google.com/books?
id=avyQ64LIJa0C).InfobasePublishing2009.ISBN9780816070114.p.268.
19. JohnGribbin.TheFellowship:Gilbert,Bacon,Harvey,Wren,NewtonandtheStoryoftheScientificRevolution.
TheOverlookPress,2008.p.42
20. Sobel(2000,p.5)Chapter1.(http://www.galileosdaughter.com/firstchapter.shtml)Retrievedon26August2007.
"ButbecausehenevermarriedVirginia'smother,hedeemedthegirlherselfunmarriageable.Soonafterher13th
birthday,heplacedherattheConventofSanMatteoinArcetri."
21. Pedersen,O.(2427May1984)."Galileo'sReligion".ProceedingsoftheCracowConference,TheGalileo
affair:Ameetingoffaithandscience.Cracow:Dordrecht,D.ReidelPublishingCo.pp.75102.
Bibcode:1985gamf.conf...75P.
22. Reston(2000,pp.314).
23. Asimov,Isaac(1964).Asimov'sBiographicalEncyclopediaofScienceandTechnology.ISBN9780385177719
24. Edgerton,SamuelY.TheMirror,theWindow,andtheTelescope,2009
25. Panofsky,Erwin(1956)."GalileoasaCriticoftheArts:AestheticAttitudeandScientificThought".Isis47(1):
315.doi:10.1086/348450.JSTOR227542.
26. Sharratt(1994,pp.4566).
27. Rutkin,H.Darrel."Galileo,Astrology,andtheScientificRevolution:AnotherLook".PrograminHistory&
PhilosophyofScience&Technology,StanfordUniversity.Retrieved20070415.
28. Finocchiaro(1989),pp.679.
29. Finocchiaro(1989),p.354,n.52
30. Finocchiaro(1989),pp.119133
31. Finocchiaro(1989),pp.127131andGalilei,(1953),pp.4326
32. Einstein(1953)p.xvii
33. Galilei,(1953),p.462.
34. Kusukawa,Sachiko."StarryMessenger:TheTelescope".DepartmentofHistoryandPhilosophyofScienceofthe
UniversityofCambridge.Retrieved20070310.
35. Drake(1960,pp.vii,xxiiixxiv),Sharratt(1994,pp.139140).
36. Grassi(1960a).
37. Drake(1978,p.268),Grassi(1960a,p.16).
38. Galilei&Guiducci(1960).
39. Drake(1960,p.xvi).
40. Drake(1957,p.222),Drake(1960,p.xvii).
41. Sharratt(1994,p.135),Drake(1960,p.xii),Galilei&Guiducci(1960,p.24).
42. Sharratt(1994,p.135).
43. Sharratt(1994,p.135),Drake(1960,p.xvii).
44. Grassi(1960b).
23/34
10/29/2015
45. Drake(1978,p.494),Favaro(1896,6:111)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?
VOL=6&VOLPAG=111).ThepseudonymwasaslightlyimperfectanagramofOratioGrasioSavonensis,a
latinisedversionofhisnameandhometown.
46. Galilei(1960).
47. Sharratt(1994,p.137),Drake(1957,p.227).
48. Sharratt(1994,p.138142).
49. Drake(1960,p.xix).
50. Alexander,Amir(2014).Infinitesimal:HowaDangerousMathematicalTheoryShapedtheModernWorld.
ScientificAmerican/Farrar,StrausandGiroux.p.131.ISBN9780374176815.
51. Drake(1960,p.vii).
52. Sharratt(1994,p.175).
53. Sharratt(1994,pp.17578),Blackwell(2006,p.30).
54. Blackwell,Richard(1991).Galileo,Bellarmine,andtheBible.NotreDame:UniversityofNotreDamePress.
p.25.ISBN0268010242.
55. Hannam,James."TheGenesisofScience".2011.p303316.
56. GraneyandDanielson(2014).
57. Kuhn,Thomas(1957),TheCopernicanRevolution,HarvardUniversityPress,p.125,"TheGregoriancalendar,
firstadoptedin1582,wasinfactbasedoncomputationsthatmadeuseofCopernicus'work"
58. Brodrick(1965,c1964,p.95)quotingCardinalBellarmine'slettertoFoscarini,dated12April1615.Translated
fromFavaro(1902,12:17172)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=12&VOLPAG=171)
(Italian) .
59. "GalileoGalilei",Halloffame,NewMexico:MuseumofSpaceHistory,retrieved26August2011.
60. Langford(1992),pp.5657
61. Graney(2015,pp.6869)Ingoli'sessaywaspublishedinEnglishtranslationforthefirsttimein2015.
62. Finocchiaro(2010,pp.72)
63. Graney(2015,pp.71)
64. Graney(2015,pp.6676,164175,187195)
65. Finocchiaro,Maurice."WestChesterUniversityHistoryofAstronomyLecturenotes:TextsfromTheGalileo
Affair:ADocumentaryHistory".WestChesterUniversity.ESS362/562.Retrieved18February2014.
66. "UnaerratareproducidadurantesigloscambialacensuradelaIglesiaaGalileo".Materia.
67. Heilbron(2010),p.218
68. Sharratt(1994,pp.12631)(http://books.google.com/books?
id=rB0rHzrpJOMC&pg=PA126#v=onepage&q&f=false).
69. "PopeUrbanVIIIBiography".GalileoProject.
70. Finocchiaro(1997),p.82(http://books.google.com/books?id=Li4eh7JIMtIC&pg=PA82)Moss&Wallace
(2003),p.11(http://books.google.com/books?id=Lw50esHmgacC&pg=PA11)
71. SeeLangford(1966,pp.13334),andSeeger(1966,p.30),forexample.Drake(1978,p.355)assertsthat
Simplicio'scharacterismodelledontheAristotelianphilosophersLodovicodelleColombeandCesare
Cremonini,ratherthanUrban.HealsoconsidersthatthedemandforGalileotoincludethePope'sargumentinthe
DialoguelefthimwithnooptionbuttoputitinthemouthofSimplicio(Drake,1953,p.491).EvenArthur
Koestler,whoisgenerallyquiteharshonGalileoinTheSleepwalkers(1959),afternotingthatUrbansuspected
GalileoofhavingintendedSimpliciotobeacaricatureofhim,says"thisofcourseisuntrue"(1959,p.483).
72. Lindberg,David."BeyondWarandPeace:AReappraisaloftheEncounterbetweenChristianityandScience".
73. Sharratt(1994,pp.17175)Heilbron(2010,pp.30817)Gingerich(1992,pp.11718).
74. Fantoli(2005,p.139),Finocchiaro(1989,pp.28893).Finocchiaro'stranslationoftheInquisition'sjudgement
againstGalileoisavailableonline
(https://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#
sentence)attheWaybackMachine(archived30September2007)."Vehementlysuspectofheresy"wasa
technicaltermofcanonlawanddidnotnecessarilyimplythattheInquisitionconsideredtheopinionsgivingrise
totheverdicttobeheretical.Thesameverdictwouldhavebeenpossibleeveniftheopinionshadbeensubjectto
onlythelessseriouscensureof"erroneousinfaith"(Fantoli,2005,p.140Heilbron,2005,pp.28284).
24/34
10/29/2015
75. Finocchiaro(1989,pp.38(http://books.google.com/books?
id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA38#v=onepage&f=false),291,306)(http://books.google.com/books?
id=wKCZFJuMCaQC&pg=PA306#v=onepage&f=false).Finocchiaro'stranslationoftheInquisition'sjudgement
againstGalileoisavailableonline
(https://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#
sentence)attheWaybackMachine(archived30September2007).
76. Drake(1978,p.367),Sharratt(1994,p.184),Favaro(1905,16:209
(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209),230)
(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230)(Italian) .SeeGalileoaffairfor
furtherdetails.
77. Drake(1978,p.3567).
78. Shea,William(January2006)."TheGalileoAffair"(unpublishedwork).GrupodeInvestigacinsobreCiencia,
RaznyFe(CRYF).Retrieved12September2010.
79. StephenHawking,ed.p.398,OntheShouldersofGiants:"Galileo...isthefatherofmodernphysicsindeedof
modernscience"AlbertEinstein.
80. Sobel(2000,pp.2324).
81. "GalileoGalilei"inthe1913CatholicEncyclopedia.byJohnGerard.Retrieved11August2007
82. Shea&Artigas(2003,p.199)Sobel(2000,p.378).
83. Shea&Artigas(2003,p.199)Sobel(2000,p.378)Sharratt(1994,p.207)Favaro(1906,18:37880)
(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=18&VOLPAG=378)(Italian) .
84. MonumentaltombofGalileo(http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=100359).InstituteandMuseum
oftheHistoryofScience,Florence,Italy.Retrieved20100215.
85. Shea&Artigas(2003,p.199)Sobel(2000,p.380).
86. Shea&Artigas(2003,p.200)Sobel(2000,pp.380384).
87. SectionofRoomVIIGalileaniconographyandrelics
(http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/section/GalileanIconographyRelics.html),MuseoGalileo.Accessedonline27
May2011.
88. MiddlefingerofGalileo'srighthand
(http://catalogue.museogalileo.it/object/MiddleFingerGalileosRightHand.html),MuseoGalileo.Accessedonline
27May2011.
89. Sharratt(1994,pp.20405)
90. Cohen,H.F.(1984).QuantifyingMusic:TheScienceofMusicat.Springer.pp.7884.ISBN9027716374.
91. Field,JudithVeronica(2005).PieroDellaFrancesca:AMathematician'sArt.YaleUniversityPress.pp.317
320.ISBN0300103425.
92. InDrake(1957,pp.237238)
93. Wallace,(1984).
94. Sharratt(1994,pp.20204),Galilei(1954,pp.25052),Favaro(1898),8:27475
(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=274)(Italian)
95. Sharratt(1994,pp.20204),Galilei(1954,pp.252),Favaro(1898),8:275
(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=275)(Italian)
96. King(2003,pp.3032(http://books.google.com.au/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA30)).TheNetherlands
StatesGeneralwouldnotgrantLippersheyhisrequestedpatent(King,2003,p.32
(http://books.google.com.au/books?id=KAWwzHlDVksC&pg=PA32)).
97. Drake(1990,pp.13334).
98. Sharratt(1994,pp.12(http://books.google.com/books?id=TgYAq3P0P8C&pg=PA1))
99. SeeNicholasKollerstrom,http://www.dioi.org/kn/NewStar.pdf
100. i.e.,invisibletothenakedeye.
101. Drake(1978,p.146).
102. InSidereusNuncius(Favaro,1892,3:81(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=3&VOLPAG=81)
(Latin) )Galileostatedthathehadreachedthisconclusionon11January.Drake(1978,p.152),however,after
studyingunpublishedmanuscriptrecordsofGalileo'sobservations,concludedthathedidnotdosountil15
January.
103. Sharratt(1994,p.17).
25/34
10/29/2015
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
Linton(2004,pp.98,205),Drake(1978,p.157).
Drake(1978,pp.15868),Sharratt(1994,pp.1819).
God'sPhilosophersjuJamesHannamOrion2009p313
Drake(1978,p.168),Sharratt(1994,p.93).
Thoren(1989),p.8Hoskin(1999)p.117.
IntheCapellanmodelonlyMercuryandVenusorbittheSun,whilstinitsextendedversionsuchasexpounded
byRiccioli,MarsalsoorbitstheSun,buttheorbitsofJupiterandSaturnarecentredontheEarth
Baalke,Ron.HistoricalBackgroundofSaturn'sRings.(http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/saturn/back.html)Jet
PropulsionLaboratory,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,NASA.Retrievedon20070311
Drake&Kowal(1980)
Drake(1978,p.209).Sizzireportedtheobservationsheandhiscompanionshadmadeoverthecourseofayear
toOrazioMorandiinaletterdated10April1613(Favaro,1901,11:491)
(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=11&VOLPAG=491)(Italian) .Morandisubsequently
forwardedacopytoGalileo.
Ingeostaticsystemstheapparentannualvariationinthemotionofsunspotscouldonlybeexplainedastheresult
ofanimplausiblycomplicatedprecessionoftheSun'saxisofrotation(Linton,2004,p.212Sharratt,1994,p.
166Drake,1970,pp.191196).Thisdidnotapply,however,tothemodifiedversionofTycho'ssystem
introducedbyhisproteg,Longomontanus,inwhichtheEarthwasassumedtorotate.Longomontanus'ssystem
couldaccountfortheapparentmotionsofsunspotsjustaswellastheCopernican.
Ondra(2004),p.7273
Graney(2010,p.455)Graney&Grayson(2011,p.353).
VanHelden,(1985,p.75(http://books.google.com/books?id=Lyb7GX9mQIC&pg=PA75))Chalmers,(1999,p.
25(http://books.google.com/books?id=WQh5wDlE8cwC&pg=PA25))Galilei(1953,pp.36162).
Finocchiaro(1989,pp.16776),Galilei(1953,pp.35960),Ondra(2004,pp.745).
Graney(2010,p.454462)Graney&Grayson(2011,p.352355).
Reston(2000,p.56).
Sobel(2000,p.43),Drake(1978,p.196).IntheStarryMessenger,writteninLatin,Galileohadusedtheterm
"perspicillum".
Rosen,Edward,TheNamingoftheTelescope(1947)
Drake(1978,pp.163164),Favaro(1892,3:163(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?
VOL=3&VOLPAG=163)164)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=3&VOLPAG=164)(Latin)
Probablyin1623,accordingtoDrake(1978,p.286).
Drake(1978,p.289),Favaro(1903,13:177)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?
VOL=13&VOLPAG=177)(Italian) .
Drake(1978,p.286),Favaro(1903,13:208)(http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?
VOL=13&VOLPAG=208)(Italian) .Theactualinventorsofthetelescopeandmicroscoperemaindebatable.A
generalviewonthiscanbefoundinthearticleHansLippershey
(http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/lippershey.html)(lastupdated20030801),19952007by
Davidson,MichaelW.andtheFloridaStateUniversity.Retrieved20070828
"brunelleschi.imss.fi.it"IlmicroscopiodiGalileo" "(PDF).
VanHelden,Al.GalileoTimeline(http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html)(lastupdated1995),TheGalileo
Project.Retrieved20070828.SeealsoTimelineofmicroscopetechnology.
Drake(1978,p.286).
Longitude:thetruestoryofalonegeniuswhosolvedthegreatestscientificproblemofhistime,DavaSobel
Penguin,1996ISBN0140258795,ISBN9780140258790
Newton,R.G.(2004).Galileo'sPendulum:FromtheRhythmofTimetotheMakingofMatter.Harvard
UniversityPress.p.51.ISBN067401331X.
GalileoGalilei,TwoNewSciences,(Madison:Univ.ofWisconsinPr.,1974)p.50.
I.BernardCohen,"RoemerandtheFirstDeterminationoftheVelocityofLight(1676)",Isis,31(1940):327
379,seepp.332333
26/34
10/29/2015
133. Drake(1978,pp.19,20).AtthetimewhenVivianiassertsthattheexperimenttookplace,Galileohadnotyet
formulatedthefinalversionofhislawoffreefall.Hehad,however,formulatedanearlierversionwhich
predictedthatbodiesofthesamematerialfallingthroughthesamemediumwouldfallatthesamespeed(Drake,
1978,p.20).
134. Drake(1978,p.9)Sharratt(1994,p.31).
135. Groleau,Rick."Galileo'sBattlefortheHeavens.July2002".Ball,Phil(20050630)."Sciencehistory:setting
therecordstraight.30June2005".TheHindu(Chennai,India).
136. Drake(1978,pp.1921,414416)
137. GalileoGalilei:TheFallingBodiesExperiment(http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/galileofallingbodies.html).
Lastaccessed26Dec2011.
138. Lucretius,DererumnaturaII,225229Relevantpassageappearsin:LaneCooper,Aristotle,Galileo,andthe
TowerofPisa(Ithaca,N.Y.:CornellUniversityPress,1935),p.49.
139. SimonStevin,DeBeghinselendesWaterwichts,AnvangderWaterwichtdaet,endeAnhangkomennade
BeghinselenderWeeghconstendeWeeghdaet[TheElementsofHydrostatics,PreambletothePracticeof
Hydrostatics,andAppendixtoTheElementsoftheStaticsandThePracticeofWeighing](Leiden,Netherlands:
ChristoffelPlantijn,1586)reportsanexperimentbyStevinandJanCornetsdeGrootinwhichtheydroppedlead
ballsfromachurchtowerinDelftrelevantpassageistranslatedin:E.J.Dijksterhuis,ed.,ThePrincipalWorks
ofSimonStevinAmsterdam,Netherlands:C.V.Swets&Zeitlinger,1955vol.1,pp.509,511.
140. Sharratt(1994,p.203),Galilei(1954,pp.25154)(http://oll.libertyfund.org/?
option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=753&chapter=109969&layout=html&Itemid=27#a_2289356).
141. Sharratt(1994,p.198),Galilei(1954,p.174)(http://oll.libertyfund.org/?
option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=753&chapter=109916&layout=html&Itemid=27#a_2289015).
142. Clagett(1968,p.561).Oresme,however,regardedthisdiscoveryasapurelyintellectualexercisehavingno
relevancetothedescriptionofanynaturalphenomena,andconsequentlyfailedtorecogniseanyconnectionwith
themotionoffallingbodies(Grant,1996,p.103(http://books.google.com.au/books?
id=YyvmEyX6rZgC&pg=PA103#v=onepage&q&f=false)).
143. Sharratt(1994,p.198),Wallace(2004,pp.II384,II400,III272)Soto,however,didnotanticipatemanyofthe
qualificationsandrefinementscontainedinGalileo'stheoryoffallingbodies.Hedidnot,forinstance,recognise,
asGalileodid,thatabodywouldfallwithastrictlyuniformaccelerationonlyinavacuum,andthatitwould
otherwiseeventuallyreachauniformterminalvelocity.
144. "Hydrostaticbalance".TheGalileoProject.Retrieved20080717.
145. "TheWorksofGalileo".TheUniversityofOklahoma,CollegeofArtsandSciences.Retrieved20080717.
146. "SunspotsandFloatingBodies".TheUniversityofOklahoma,CollegeofArtsandSciences.Retrieved
20080717.
147. "Galileo,LettertotheGrandDuchessChristina".TheUniversityofOklahoma,CollegeofArtsandSciences.
Retrieved20080717.
148. "Galileo'sTheoryoftheTides".TheGalileoProject.Retrieved20080717.
149. "GalileoTimeline".TheGalileoProject.Retrieved20080717.
150. "GalileoGalilei".TelAvivUniversity,ScienceandTechnologyEducationCenter.Retrieved20080717.
151. "CollectionofGalileoGalilei'sManuscriptsandRelatedTranslations".Retrieved20091204.
152. Heilbron(2005,p.299).
153. Twoofhisnonscientificworks,theletterstoCastelliandtheGrandDuchessChristina,wereexplicitlynot
allowedtobeincluded(Coyne2005,p.347).
154. Heilbron(2005,pp.30304)Coyne(2005,p.347).TheuncensoredversionoftheDialogueremainedonthe
Indexofprohibitedbooks,however(Heilbron2005,p.279).
155. Heilbron(2005,p.307)Coyne(2005,p.347)Thepracticaleffectofthebaninitslateryearsseemstohavebeen
thatclergycouldpublishdiscussionsofheliocentricphysicswithaformaldisclaimerassuringitshypothetical
characterandtheirobediencetothechurchdecreesagainstmotionoftheearth:seeforexamplethecommented
edition(1742)ofNewton's'Principia'byFathersLeSeurandJacquier,whichcontainssuchadisclaimer
('Declaratio')beforethethirdbook(Propositions25onwards)dealingwiththelunartheory.
27/34
10/29/2015
156. McMullin(2005,p.6)Coyne(2005,p.346).Infact,theChurch'soppositionhadeffectivelyendedin1820
whenaCatholiccanon,GiuseppeSettele,wasgivenpermissiontopublishaworkwhichtreatedheliocentrismas
aphysicalfactratherthanamathematicalfiction.The1835editionoftheIndexwasthefirsttobeissuedafter
thatyear.
157. DiscourseofHisHolinessPopePiusXIIgivenon3December1939attheSolemnAudiencegrantedtothe
PlenarySessionoftheAcademy,DiscoursesofthePopesfromPiusXItoJohnPaulIItothePontificalAcademy
oftheSciences19391986,VaticanCity,p.34
158. RobertLeiber,PiusXIIStimmenderZeit,November1958inPiusXII.Sagt,Frankfurt1959,p.411
159. Anearlierversionhadbeendeliveredon16December1989,inRieti,andalaterversioninMadridon24
February1990(Ratzinger,1994,p.81).AccordingtoFeyerabendhimself,Ratzingerhadalsomentionedhim"in
supportof"hisownviewsinaspeechinParmaaroundthesametime(Feyerabend,1995,p.178).
160. Ratzinger(1994,p.98).
161. "VaticanadmitsGalileowasright".NewScientist(1846).19921107.Retrieved20070809..
162. "Papalvisitscupperedbyscholars".BBCNews.20080115.Retrieved20080116.
163. Owen&Delaney(2008).
164. "PopepraisesGalileo'sastronomy".BBCNews.20081221.Retrieved20081222.
165. Owen(2009).
166. Hawking(1988,p.179).
167. Einstein(1954,p.271)."Propositionsarrivedatbypurelylogicalmeansarecompletelyemptyasregardsreality.
BecauseGalileorealisedthis,andparticularlybecausehedrummeditintothescientificworld,heisthefatherof
modernphysicsindeed,ofmodernsciencealtogether."
168. StephenHawking,GalileoandtheBirthofModernScience(http://www.medici.org/press/galileoandbirth
modernscience),AmericanHeritage'sInvention&Technology,Spring2009,Vol.24,No.1,p.36
169. Fischer,Daniel(2001).MissionJupiter:TheSpectacularJourneyoftheGalileoSpacecraft.Springer.pp.v.
ISBN0387987649.
170. UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(11August2005)."Proclamationof2009as
InternationalyearofAstronomy"(PDF).UNESCO.Retrieved20080610.
171. "BohemianRhapsody".everything2.Retrieved20100820.
172. Stavis,Barrie.LampatMidnight.SouthBrunswick,NewJersey:A.S.Barnes,1966.
173. Lalonde,Robert.GalileoGalilei/VesaliusandServetus
(https://archive.org/details/GalileoGalileivesaliusAndServetus).February2008.ISBN9780978390914.
174. Robinson,KimStanley(2009).Galileo'sDream.NewYork:BallantineBooks.ISBN9780553806595.
175. GiuseppeMoleti,WalterRoyLaird.TheunfinishedmechanicsofGiuseppeMoletti
(http://books.google.com/books?id=ZRoYMobkW6cC&).UniversityofTorontoPress,1999.p.5
176. RobertHenryHerman,VincenzoGalilei.DialogodellamusicaanticaetdellamodernaofVincenzoGalilei:
translationandcommentary,Part1.NorthTexasStateUniversity,1973.p.17
177. Adam,Mosley."TychoBrahe".StarryMessenger.History&PhilosophyofScienceDept,Universityof
Cambridge.Retrieved13January2012.
178. TimothyFerris.ComingofAgeintheMilkyWay.WilliamMorrow&Company,Inc.1988.p.95
179. http://www.unav.es/cryf/galileoaffair.html
References
AllanOlney,Mary(1870).ThePrivateLifeofGalileo:Compiledprimarilyfromhiscorrespondenceandthatof
hiseldestdaughter,SisterMariaCeleste.Boston:NicholsandNoyes.Retrieved20080609.
AltieriBiagiMariaLuisa(1965).Galileoelaterminologiatecnicoscientifica.Florence:L.S.Olschki.
LCCN71019084.IT\ICCU\SBL\0272939.
Biagioli,Mario(1993).Galileo,Courtier:ThePracticeofScienceintheCultureofAbsolutism.Chicago,IL:
UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN0226045595.
Blackwell,RichardJ.(2006).BehindtheScenesatGalileo'sTrial.NotreDame,IN:UniversityofNotreDame
Press.ISBN0268022011.
Brodrick,James,S.J.(1965).Galileo:theman,hiswork,hismisfortunes.London:G.Chapman.
28/34
10/29/2015
Chalmers,AlanFrancis(1999)[1976].WhatisthisthingcalledScience?(thirded.).UniversityofChicago
Press.ISBN9780702230936.
Clagett,Marshall(editor&translator)(1968).NicoleOresmeandtheMedievalGeometryofQualitiesand
MotionsatreatiseontheuniformityanddifformityofintensitiesknownasTractatusdeconfigurationibus
qualitatumetmotuum.Madison,WI:UniversityofWisconsinPress.ISBN0299048802.
Clavelin,Maurice(1974).TheNaturalPhilosophyofGalileo.MITPress.
Coffa,J.(1968)."Galileo'sConceptofInertia".PhysisRiv.Internaz.StoriaSci.10:261281.
Consolmagno,GuySchaefer,Marta(1994).WorldsApart,ATextbookinPlanetaryScience.Englewood,New
Jersey:PrenticeHall.ISBN0139641319.
Cooper,Lane(1935).Aristotle,Galileo,andtheTowerofPisa.Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress.ISBN1
406752630.
Coyne,GeorgeV.,S.J.(2005).TheChurch'sMostRecentAttempttoDispeltheGalileoMyth.InMcMullin
(2005,pp.340359).
Domnguez,Nuo(28Feb2014)."UnaerratareproducidadurantesigloscambialacensuradelaIglesiaa
Galileo".EsMateria.com.
Drabkin,IsraelDrake,Stillman,eds.(1960).OnMotionandOnMechanics.UniversityofWisconsinPress.
ISBN0299020304.
Drake,Stillman(1953).NotestoEnglishtranslationofGalileo'sDialogue.InGalilei(1953,pp.46791).
Drake,Stillman(1957).DiscoveriesandOpinionsofGalileo.NewYork:Doubleday&Company.ISBN0385
092393.
Drake,Stillman(1960).IntroductiontotheControversyontheCometsof1618.InDrake&O'Malley(1960,
pp.viixxv).
Drake,Stillman(1970).GalileoStudies.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress.ISBN0472082833.
Drake,Stillman(1973)."Galileo'sDiscoveryoftheLawofFreeFall".ScientificAmerican228(5):8492.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican057384.
Drake,Stillman(1978).GalileoAtWork.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN0226162265.
Drake,Stillman(1990).Galileo:PioneerScientist.Toronto:TheUniversityofTorontoPress.ISBN08020
27253.
Drake,StillmanKowal,C.T.(1980)."Galileo'sSightingofNeptune".ScientificAmerican243(6):7481.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican128074.
Dugas,Ren(1988)[1955].AHistoryofMechanics.DoverPublications.ISBN0486656322.
Duhem,Pierre(190613).tudessurLeonarddeVinci.
Duhem,Pierre(1913).LeSystmeduMonde.
Duhem,Pierre."HistoryofPhysics".CatholicEncyclopedia.
Einstein,Albert(1953)."Foreword".InDrake,Stillman.DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems.
Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN037575766X.
Einstein,Albert(1954).IdeasandOpinions.translatedbySonjaBargmann.London:CrownPublishers.ISBN0
285647245.
Fantoli,Annibale(2003).Galileo:ForCopernicanismandtheChurch(thirdEnglished.).VaticanObservatory
Publications.ISBN8820974274.
Fantoli,Annibale(2005).TheDisputedInjunctionanditsRoleinGalileo'sTrial.InMcMullin(2005,pp.117
149).
Favaro,Antonio,ed.(18901909).LeOperediGalileoGalilei,EdizioneNazionale[TheWorksofGalileo
Galilei,NationalEdition](inItalian).Florence:Barbera.ISBN8809208811.Reprinted19291939and1964
1966.AsearchableonlinecopyisavailableontheInstituteandMuseumoftheHistoryofScience
(http://www.imss.fi.it/istituto/index.html),Florence,andabriefoverviewofLeOpereisavailablehere
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110103231202/http://www.pacifier.com/~tpope/Additional_Info.htm)atthe
WaybackMachine(archived3January2011).
Feyerabend,Paul(1975).AgainatMethod.Verso.
Feyerabend,Paul(1995).KillingTime:TheAutobiographyofPaulFeyerabend.Chicago,MI:Universityof
ChicagoPress.ISBN0226245314.
Fillmore,Charles(July2004)[1931].MetaphysicalBibleDictionary(17thed.).UnityVillage,Missouri:Unity
House.ISBN0871590670.
29/34
10/29/2015
Finocchiaro,Maurice(2010).DefendingCopernicusandGalileo:CriticalReasoninginthetwoAffairs.
Springer.ISBN9789048132003.
Finocchiaro,MauriceA.(1997).Galileoontheworldsystems:anewabridgedtranslationandguide.Berkeley
andLosAngeles,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN0520205480.
Finocchiaro,MauriceA.(1989).TheGalileoAffair:ADocumentaryHistory.Berkeley,CA:Universityof
CaliforniaPress.ISBN0520066626.
Finocchiaro,MauriceA.(Fall2007)."BookReviewThePersonoftheMillennium:TheUniqueImpactof
GalileoonWorldHistory".TheHistorian69(3):601602.doi:10.1111/j.15406563.2007.00189_68.x.
Galilei,Galileo(1960)[1623].TheAssayer.TranslatedbyStillmanDrake.InDrake&O'Malley(1960,pp.151
336).ISBN115834578X.
Galilei,Galileo(1953)[1632].DialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystem.TranslatedbyStillmanDrake.
Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN0520004493.
Galilei,Galileo(1954)[1638,1914].Crew,HenrydeSalvio,Alfonso,eds.DialoguesConcerningTwoNew
Sciences.NewYork,NY:DoverPublicationsInc.ISBN0486600998.
Galilei,GalileoGalileo:TwoNewSciences(TranslationbyStillmanDrakeofGalileo's1638Discoursesand
mathematicaldemonstrationsconcerningtwonewsciences)UniversityofWisconsinPress1974ISBN0299
06400X
Galilei,Galileo&Guiducci,Mario(1960)[1619].DiscourseontheComets.TranslatedbyStillmanDrake.In
Drake&O'Malley(1960,pp.2165).
Galilei,GalileoScheiner,Christoph(2010).OnSunspots.TranslatedandwithandintroductionbyEileenReeves
andAlbertVanHelden.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN9780226707150.
vonGebler,Karl(1879).GalileoGalileiandtheRomanCuria.London:C.K.Paul&Co.ISBN0915172119.
Geymonat,Ludovico(1965),GalileoGalilei,Abiographyandinquiryintohisphilosophyandscience,
translationofthe1957Italianedition,withnotesandappendixbyStillmanDrake,McGrawHill
Gingerich,Owen(1992).TheGreatCopernicanChaseandotheradventuresinastronomicalhistory.
Cambridge,MA:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521326885.
Graney,Christopher(2015).SettingAsideAllAuthority:GiovanniBattistaRiccioliandtheScienceagainst
CopernicusintheAgeofGalileo.NotreDame,IN:UniversityofNotreDamePress.ISBN9780268029883.
Graney,ChristopherM.(2010)."TheTelescopeAgainstCopernicus:StarObservationsbyRiccioliSupportinga
GeocentricUniverse".JournalfortheHistoryofAstronomy41(4):453467.Bibcode:2010JHA....41..453G.
Graney,ChristopherM.Danielson,Dennis(2014),"TheCaseAgainstCopernicus",ScientificAmerican310(1):
7277
Graney,ChristopherM.Grayson,TimothyP.(2011)."OntheTelescopicDisksofStars:AReviewand
AnalysisofStellarObservationsfromtheEarlySeventeenththroughtheMiddleNineteenthCenturies".Annalsof
Science68(3):351373.doi:10.1080/00033790.2010.507472.
Grant,Edward(1996).TheFoundationsofModernScienceintheMiddleAges:TheirReligious,Institutional,
andIntellectualContexts.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521567629.
Grant,EdwardAristotle,Philoponus,Avempace,andGalileo'sPisanDynamicsCentaurus,11,19657
Grassi,Horatio(1960a)[1619].OntheThreeCometsoftheYearMDCXIII.translatedbyC.D.O'Malley.In
Grassi,Horatio(1960b)[1619].TheAstronomicalandPhilosophicalBalance.translatedbyC.D.O'Malley.In
Grassi,Horatio,Galilei,Galileo,Guiducci,Mario(1960)[1619,1623].TheControversyontheCometsof1618.
TranslatedbyStillmanDrake&C.D.O'Malley.Philadelphia,PA:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.
Grisar,Hartmann,S.J.,ProfessorofChurchhistoryattheUniversityofInnsbruck(1882).Historisch
theologischeUntersuchungenberdieUrtheilermischenCongregationenimGalileiprocess(Historico
theologicalDiscussionsconcerningtheDecisionsoftheRomanCongregationsinthecaseofGalileo)
(http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0790562294&id=aqMBAAAAQAAJ),Regensburg:Pustet.Google
BooksISBN0790562294.(LCC#QB36microfiche)(http://isbndb.com/d/book/galileistudien.html)
Reviewedhere(1883),pp.211213(http://books.google.com/books?id=aqMBAAAAQAAJ)
Hall,A.R.FromGalileotoNewton1963
Hall,A.R.GalileoandtheScienceofMotionin'BritishJournalofHistoryofScience',219645
30/34
10/29/2015
Hilliam,R.,GalileoGalilei:Fatherofmodernscience(http://books.google.com/books?
id=KBKSyHOLzZAC&pg=PA96),TheRosenPublishingGroup,2005,ISBN1404203141.
Hoskin,Michael(Ed)TheCambridgeconcisehistoryofastronomyCUP1999
Hawking,Stephen(1988).ABriefHistoryofTime.NewYork,NY:BantamBooks.ISBN0553346148.
Heilbron,JohnL.(2005).CensorshipofAstronomyinItalyafterGalileo.InMcMullin(2005,pp.279322).
Hellman,Hal(1988).GreatFeudsinScience.TenoftheLiveliestDisputesEver.NewYork:Wiley
Heilbron,JohnL.(2010).Galileo.NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780199583522.
Humphreys,W.C.Galileo,FallingBodiesandInclinedPlanes.AnAttemptatReconstructingGalileo's
DiscoveryoftheLawofSquares'BritishJournalfortheHistoryofScience'1967
Jarrel,RichardA.(1989).ThecontemporariesofTychoBrahe.InTatonandWilson(1989,pp.2232).
Kelter,IrvingA.(2005).TheRefusaltoAccommodate.JesuitExegetesandtheCopernicanSystem.InMcMullin
(2005,pp.3853).
King,CharlesC.(2003)[1955].TheHistoryoftheTelescope(Doverreprinted.).DoverPublications.ISBN0
486432653.
Koestler,Arthur(1990)[1959].TheSleepwalkers:AHistoryofMan'sChangingVisionoftheUniverse.
Penguin.ISBN0140192468.OriginaleditionpublishedbyHutchinson(1959,London).
Koyr,AlexandreADocumentaryHistoryoftheProblemofFallfromKeplertoNewtonTransactionsofthe
AmericanPhilosophicalSociety,1955
Koyr,AlexandreGalileanStudiesHarvesterPress1978
Kuhn,T.TheCopernicanRevolution1957
Kuhn,T.TheStructureofScientificRevolutions1962
Lattis,JamesM.(1994).BetweenCopernicusandGalileo:ChristopherClaviusandtheCollapseofPtolemaic
Cosmology,Chicago:theUniversityofChicagoPress
Langford,JeromeK.,O.P.(1998)[1966].Galileo,ScienceandtheChurch(thirded.).St.Augustine'sPress.
ISBN1890318256..OriginaleditionbyDesclee(NewYork,NY,1966)
Lessl,Thomas,"TheGalileoLegend(http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0138.html)".New
OxfordReview,2733(June2000).
Linton,ChristopherM.(2004).FromEudoxustoEinsteinAHistoryofMathematicalAstronomy.Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521827508.
Losee,J.Drake,Galileo,andtheLawofInertia,AmericanJournalofPhysics,34,1966,pp.4302
McMullin,Ernan,ed.(2005).TheChurchandGalileo.NotreDame,IN:UniversityofNotreDamePress.
ISBN0268034834.
McMullin,Ernan(2005a).TheChurch'sBanonCopernicanism,1616.InMcMullin(2005,pp.150190).
Mach,Ernst.TheScienceofMechanics1893
Machamer,Peter(Ed)TheCambridgeCompaniontoGalileoCambridgeUniversityPress1998
Moss,JeanDietzWallace,William(2003).Rhetoric&dialecticinthetimeofGalileo.WashingtonD.C.:CUA
Press.ISBN0813213312.
Naylor,RonaldH.(1990)."Galileo'sMethodofAnalysisandSynthesis",Isis,81:695707
Newall,Paul(2004)."TheGalileoAffair"(http://www.galileanlibrary.org/hps.html)
Ondra,Leos(July2004)."ANewViewofMizar".Sky&Telescope108:7275.Bibcode:2004S&T...108a..72O.
Owen,Richard(20090129)."CatholicChurchabandonsplantoerectstatueofGalileo".London:TimesOnline
News.Retrieved20110422.
Owen,RichardDelaney,Sarah(20080304)."VaticanrecantswithastatueofGalileo".London:TimesOnline
News.Retrieved20090302.
Remmert,VolkerR.(2005)."Galileo,God,andMathematics".InKoetsier,TeunBergmans,Luc.Mathematics
andtheDivine.AHistoricalStudy.Amsterdam:Elsevier.pp.347360.
Ratzinger,JosephCardinal(1994).TurningpointforEurope?TheChurchintheModernWorldAssessment
andForecast.translatedfromthe1991GermaneditionbyBrianMcNeil.SanFrancisco,CA:IgnatiusPress.
ISBN0898704618.OCLC60292876.
Reston,Jr.,James(2000).Galileo:ALife.BeardBooks.ISBN189312262X.
Seeger,RaymondJ.(1966).GalileoGalilei,hislifeandhisworks.Oxford:PergamonPress.ISBN008
0120253.
31/34
10/29/2015
Settle,ThomasB.(1961)."AnExperimentintheHistoryofScience".Science133(3445):1923.
Bibcode:1961Sci...133...19S.doi:10.1126/science.133.3445.19.PMID17759858.
Sharratt,Michael(1994).Galileo:DecisiveInnovator.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521
566711.
Shapere,DudleyGalileo,aPhilosophicalStudyUniversityofChicagoPress1974
Shea,WilliamR.&Artigas,Mario(2003).GalileoinRome:TheRiseandFallofaTroublesomeGenius.
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0195165985.
Sobel,Dava(2000)[1999].Galileo'sDaughter.London:FourthEstate.ISBN1857027124.
Taton,Ren,ed.(1964)[1958].TheBeginningsofModernSciencefrom1450to1800.London:Thamesand
Hudson.
Taton,RenWilson,Curtis,eds.(1989).PlanetaryastronomyfromtheRenaissancetotheriseofastrophysics
PartA:TychoBrahetoNewton.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521242541.
Thoren,VictorE.(1989).TychoBrahe.InTatonandWilson(1989,pp.321).ISBN0521351588.
VanHelden,Albert(1989).Galileo,telescopicastronomy,andtheCopernicansystem.InTatonandWilson
(1989,pp.81105).
VanHelden,Albert(1985).MeasuringtheUniverse:CosmicDimensionsfromAristarchustoHalley.University
ofChicagoPress.ISBN0226848817.
Wallace,WilliamA.(1984)GalileoandHisSources:TheHeritageoftheCollegioRomanoinGalileo'sScience,
(Princeton:PrincetonUniv.Pr.),ISBN069108355X
Wallace,WilliamA.(2004).DomingodeSotoandtheEarlyGalileo.Aldershot:AshgatePublishing.ISBN0
860789640.
Walusinsky,G.(1964)[1958].TheGoldenageofObservationalAstronomy.InTaton(1964,pp.268286).
White,AndrewDickson(1898).AHistoryoftheWarfareofSciencewithTheologyinChristendom.NewYork:
D.AppletonandCompany.ISBN079058168X.
White,Michael(2007).Galileo:Antichrist:ABiography.London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson.ISBN9780297
848684.
Wisan,WinifredLovell(1984)."GalileoandtheProcessofScientificCreation".Isis75(2):269286.
doi:10.1086/353480.
Zik,Yaakov(2001)."ScienceandInstruments:Thetelescopeasascientificinstrumentatthebeginningofthe
seventeenthcentury".PerspectivesonScience9(3):259284.doi:10.1162/10636140160176143.
Externallinks
ByGalileo
WorksbyGalileoGalilei(http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Galilei,+Galileo)atProjectGutenberg
WorksbyoraboutGalileoGalilei(https://archive.org/search.php?
query=%28subject%3A%22Galileo%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Galileo%22%20OR%20description%3A%22
Galileo%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Galileo%22%29%20OR%20%28%221564
1642%22%20AND%20Galileo%29)atInternetArchive
WorksbyGalileoGalilei(http://librivox.org/author/5427)atLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks)
ElectronicrepresentationofGalilei'snotesonmotion(MS.72)(http://www.mpiwg
berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN.HTM)
Galileo's1590DeMotutranslation(http://echo.mpiwgberlin.mpg.de/content/scientific_revolution/galileo)
WorksbyGalileoGalilei(http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT158.HTM):textwithconcordancesand
frequencies.
Galilei,Galileo.LeOperazionidelCompassoGeometricoetMilitare
(http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/galgal/index.html)1610Rome.FromtheRareBookandSpecial
CollectionsDivision(http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/)attheLibraryofCongress
Galilei,Galileo.IstoriaeDimostrazioniIntornoAlleMacchieSolar
(http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/galsol/index.html)1613Rome.FromtheRareBookandSpecial
CollectionsDivision(http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/)attheLibraryofCongress
32/34
10/29/2015
LindaHallLibraryfeaturesafirsteditionofSidereusNunciusMagna
(http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/classics,5292)aswellasapiratededitionfromthesameyear
(http://contentdm.lindahall.org/u?/classics,426),bothfullydigitised.
SidereusNuncius(http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/general.67904.1)FromtheCollectionsattheLibraryofCongress
OnGalileo
StarryMessenger:ObservingtheHeavensintheAgeofGalileo
(http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/exhibitions/starrymessenger/)anexhibitionattheBeineckeRareBookand
ManuscriptLibraryatYaleUniversity(http://www.library.yale.edu/beinecke/index.html)
MuseoGalileo(http://www.museogalileo.it/en/index.html)Florence,Italy
Galileo'smathgenealogy(http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=134975)
PortraitsofGalileo(http://wwwhistory.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Galileo.html)
TheGalileoProject(http://galileo.rice.edu/)atRiceUniversity
PBSdocumentary:400YearsoftheTelescope(http://www.pbs.org/400years/)
Feather&HammerDroponMoon(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5C5_dOEyAfk)onYouTube
articlebyUKjournalist(http://www.martinince.eu/journalist/galileostelescope/)onproposeddisintermentto
determineGalileo'seyesightproblems
"Galileo,TheStarryMessenger"(NYT,18January2013).(http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/19/opinion/galileo
thestarrymessenger.html)
Biography
Fulltextof Galileo.byWalterBryant(publicdomainbiography)
PBSNovaOnline:Galileo'sBattlefortheHeavens(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/)
StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophyentryonGalileo(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/)
AnimatedHeroClassics:Galileo(1997)(http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0956139/)attheInternetMovieDatabase
O'Connor,JohnJ.Robertson,EdmundF.,"GalileoGalilei",MacTutorHistoryofMathematicsarchive,
UniversityofStAndrews.
GalileoandtheChurch
GalileoGalilei,ScripturalExegete,andtheChurchofRome,AdvocateofScience
(http://www.thomasaquinas.edu/news/recent_events/DecaenGalileo.html)lecture(audiohere
(http://www.thomasaquinas.edu/news/recent_events/Galileo%20GalileiScripture%20Exegete.mp3))byThomas
AquinasCollegetutorDr.ChristopherDecaen
"TheEndoftheMythofGalileoGalilei(http://www.traditioninaction.org/History/A_003_Galileo.html)"byAtila
SinkeGuimares
GalileoandtheChurch(http://blog.oup.com/2011/01/galileo/),articlebyJohnHeilbron.
GalileoAffaircatholic.net
(https://web.archive.org/web/20071209222631/http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Issues/GalileoAffair.html)
attheWaybackMachine(archived9December2007)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Galileo_Galilei&oldid=687722665"
Categories: 1564births 1642deaths 16thcenturyItalianmathematicians
17thcenturyItalianmathematicians 17thcenturyastronomers 16thcenturyItalianwriters
17thcenturyItalianwriters 17thcenturyLatinlanguagewriters Ballisticsexperts Blindacademics
BlindpeoplefromItaly Christianastrologers Discoverersofmoons Experimentalphysicists
GalileoGalilei Italianastrologers Italianastronomers Italianinventors Italianphysicists
ItalianRomanCatholics Naturalphilosophers PeoplefromPisa Philosophersofscience
33/34
10/29/2015
Scientificinstrumentmakers Theoreticalphysicists UniversityofPisaalumni

UniversityofPisafaculty CopernicanRevolution BurialsatBasilicaofSantaCroce,Florence
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon27October2015,at10:11.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
34/34

Galileo Galilei - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Galileo Galilei - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

10/29/2015

Scientificinstrumentmakers Theoreticalphysicists UniversityofPisaalumni

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen