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Tectonophysics
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Subsurface fracture analysis and determination of in-situ stress direction using FMI
logs: An example from the Santonian carbonates (Ilam Formation) in the Abadan
Plain, Iran
Mojtaba Rajabi a,, Shahram Sherkati b, Bahman Bohloli a, Mark Tingay c
a
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 28 March 2010
Received in revised form 7 June 2010
Accepted 17 June 2010
Available online 25 June 2010
Keywords:
Borehole breakouts
FMI logs
Fractures
Ilam Formation
In-situ stress
SW Iran
a b s t r a c t
The relationship between the present-day stress eld and natural fractures can have signicant implications
for subsurface uid ow. In particular, fractures that are aligned in orientations favourable for reactivation by
either shear or tensile failure in the in-situ stress eld often exhibit higher hydraulic conductivities. The Ilam
Formation of southwestern Iran is an important hydrocarbon reservoir containing numerous natural
fractures. However, little is known about the state of stress in this region, or any of Iran's petroleum
provinces. We conducted analysis of the present-day maximum horizontal stress orientation and the density,
orientation and hydraulic conductivity of natural fractures in the Ilam carbonates using high resolution
Formation Micro Imager resistivity logs in two wells. A total of 51 breakouts with an overall length of 215 m
were observed in the two wells, indicating a maximum horizontal stress orientation of 68N (7.6) in well
A and 58N (6.3) in well B. Furthermore, the wellbore-derived stress orientations determined herein are
consistent with those inferred from nearby earthquake focal mechanism solutions, indicating that stresses in
the sedimentary cover are linked to the resistance forces generated by ArabiaEurasia collision. Furthermore,
the correlation between stress orientations estimated from earthquake focal mechanism solutions and
breakouts indicates that focal mechanism solution data, which is often considered to be unreliable for stress
eld analysis near transform margins, may provide reliable information on the stress orientation near
continental collision zones. The image log data also reveals three sets of open, and presumably hydraulically
conductive, fractures with strikes of (i) 160170N, (ii) 110140N and (iii) 070080N. Fracture set (iii) is
consistent with being formed and open in the present-day stress eld. However, fracture sets (i) and
(ii) strike at a high angle to the present-day maximum horizontal stress, and are interpreted herein to be the
result of either pre- or syn-folding related forces. The observation that different sets of open fractures in the
eld can be either sensitive or insensitive to the present-day stress is critical for improving hydrocarbon
recovery.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Knowledge of the present-day tectonic stress is an essential issue
in petroleum exploration and production, and, in particular, is a key
parameter in:
borehole stability;
reservoir drainage and ooding patterns;
uid ow in naturally-fractured reservoirs;
hydraulic fracture stimulation, and;
seal breach by fault reactivation (Tingay et al., 2009).
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +98 2166491623.
E-mail addresses: m.rajabi@hotmail.com, rajabigeo@yahoo.com (M. Rajabi).
0040-1951/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2010.06.014
193
2002; Nilforoushan et al., 2003; Vernant et al., 2004). The Zagros orogen
generally consists of three parallel belts (Fig. 1a). 1) To the northeast, the
UrumiehDokhtar magmatic assemblage (UDMA), 2) southwest of
UDMA, the Zagros imbricate zone (ZIZ) includes both the Sanandaj
Sirjan zone and the Zagros thrust zone of Stocklin (1968) and 3) The
Zagros foldthrust belt (ZFTB), (the Zagros simple folded zone of
Falcon, 1974), extends parallel and to the southwest of the ZIZ (Fig. 1;
Alavi, 2004, 2007). The Abadan Plain is located in the western end of the
Dezful Embayment and is positioned between the Precambrian Arabian
Shield to the southwest and the ZFTB to the northeast (Fig. 1; Abdollahie
Fard et al., 2006).
The Upper Cretaceous Ilam Formation of the Bangestan Group is
composed of light gray (locally buff to white) shallow-marine
Hippurites-bearing limestones (grainstone, pelletal packstone, dark
bioclastic wackestone) with intercalations of black ssile shale and
broken by several intraformational disconformities (Alavi, 2004). The
Ilam Formation is a proven Upper Cretaceous reservoir and is
stratigraphically positioned between the CampanianMaastrichtian
Gurpi Formation (marls to marly limestones) and Lafan Formation
(Coniacian shales; Fig. 2). The two wells examined in this study are
located in anticlines that have fold axes trending NWSE (well A;
Zagros mountain trend) and NS (well B; Arabian plate trend).
Differences and characteristics of these major trends in the Zagros
Mountains are described in detail by Abdollahie Fard et al. (2006).
3. Methodology: Determination of present-day maximum
horizontal stress orientation
The present-day SHmax orientation was determined herein from
borehole breakouts interpreted from Formation Micro Imager (FMI)
logs. When a borehole is drilled, the material removed from the
subsurface is no longer supporting the surrounding rock (the wellbore
wall). As a result, the stresses become concentrated in the wellbore wall
(Kirsch, 1898). Borehole breakouts are stress-induced elongations of the
wellbore and occur when the wellbore stress concentration (circumferential stress) exceeds that required to cause compressive failure of
intact rock (Bell and Gough, 1979). The elongation of the cross-sectional
shape of the wellbore is the result of compressive shear failure on
intersecting conjugate planes, which causes pieces of the borehole wall
to spall off (Bell and Gough, 1979). The maximum circumferential stress
around a vertical borehole occurs perpendicular to SHmax (Kirsch, 1898).
Hence, borehole breakouts are elongated perpendicular to the presentday SHmax direction (Bell and Gough, 1979).
The FMI is a resistivity imaging tool consisting of two perpendicular
pairs of caliper arms, with the end of each arm hosting a pad and
attached ap. The pads and aps contain a number of resistivity sensors
(typically 24 on each pad or ap), the data from which can be processed
to build up a picture of the wellbore wall based on resistivity contrasts
(Ekstrom et al., 1987). The FMI tool also collects information on the
shape of the wellbore cross-section and the hole geometry, in addition
to the resistivity image data. Breakouts appear on resistivity image logs
as broad, parallel, often poorly resolved conductive zones separated by
180 and exhibiting caliper enlargement in the direction of the
conductive zones (Fig. 3; Bell, 1996; Tingay et al., 2008). FMI images
can also be used to interpret drilling-induced fractures (DIFs) which are
oriented parallel to the in-situ SHmax orientation (Bell, 1996). However,
no DIFs were observed in this study and thus are not discussed further
herein.
The breakouts observed in each well are used to determine an
average SHmax orientation using standard circular statistical methods
(Mardia, 1972). The average SHmax direction is then given a qualityranking according to the World Stress Map criteria that takes into
account the standard deviation of breakout orientations in addition the
total length and number of breakouts observed (Heidbach et al., 2010).
The World Stress Map quality-ranking scheme assigns stress indicators
a ranking from A-quality (highest reliability, SHmax accurate to 12 and
194
195
Fig. 2. Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphy of the study area (modied from Motiei 1993, Alavi 2004, and Abdollahie Fard et al. 2006). The FMI image logs examined herein are
predominately collected within the Upper Cretaceous formations.
Fig. 1. (a) Subdivisions of the Zagros Belt (modied from Alavi, 2007). Abbreviations: AD Arak depression, DR Dezful recess, EAF East Anatolian Fault, FS Fars salient, GKD
Gav Khooni depression, KR Karkuk recess, LS Lorestan salient, MAC Makran accretionary complex, MFF Mountain front exure, MZT Main Zagros Thrust, OL Oman Line,
PTCCCS Paleo-Tethyan continentcontinent collisional suture, SD Sirjan depression, SRRB SavehRafsanjan retroforeland basin, SSZ SanandajSirjan zone, ZTZ Zagros
thrust zone, UDMA UrumiehDokhtar magmatic assemblage, ZDF Zagros deformational front, ZFTB Zagros foldthrust belt, ZIZ Zagros imbricate zone, ZS Zagros suture.
(b) Main structural subdivisions of the Simply Folded Zagros Belt (after Falcon 1961). The study area and wells (A and B) are located within the Abadan Plain region (inclined stripes).
196
Fig. 3. A typical breakout observed on an FMI log in well B. The breakout is identied as a pair of poorly resolved conductive zones observed on opposite sides of the borehole
(outlined in bold) and showing caliper enlargement in the same direction (note caliper 2 greater than caliper 1). The breakout pictured herein is oriented approximately NNWSSE
and thus indicates a present-day SHmax orientation of approximately ENEWSW.
motion (e.g. ridge push in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden) in addition to
resistance forces generated at the ArabiaIran continental collision
zone.
The correlation between SHmax orientations derived from breakouts
herein and earthquake focal mechanism solutions in the WSM project is
also scientically signicant. Earthquake focal mechanism solutions
make up 72% of the 2008 WSM database (Heidbach et al., 2010).
However, the reliability of using focal mechanism solutions near plate
boundaries as present-day stress indicators has recently been brought
into question (Heidbach et al., 2010). Stress orientations inferred from
focal mechanism solutions assume that the earthquake motion is along
faults that are sub-optimally oriented with the present-day stress
orientation. Yet, analysis of stress orientations from different methods
near plate boundaries has revealed that some plate boundaries, most
notably the San Andreas Fault Zone and Great Sumatran Fault, are
mechanically weak (low coefcient of friction) and may thus be
reactivated by non-optimal and highly-oblique stress elds (Zoback
et al., 1987; Mount and Suppe, 1992). Hence, there exists a higher
likelihood for errors in stress orientations derived from earthquake focal
mechanism solutions near plate boundaries and these data must be
197
Fig. 4. An example of an electrically resistive natural fracture (left; assumed to be hydraulically non-conductive or closed) and an electrically-conductive fracture (right; assumed
to be hydraulically conductive or open) in FMI logs from well A.
B), set (ii): 110140N (in well A) and set (iii) 070080N (in well A;
Fig. 6).
Several studies have been published on fractures in Iranian
carbonate reservoirs (e.g., McQuillan, 1973, 1974, Gholipour 1998,
Rezaie and Nogole-Sadat 2004, Ahmadhadi et al. 2007, 2008, Khoshbakht et al., 2009) but most of these studies are focused on Asmari
Formation; the most important oil reservoir in Iran. Based on
Ahmadhadi et al. (2007, 2008), regional fractures in the Asmari
Formation are mostly sub-vertical and interpreted to be initiated before
the main Mio-Pliocene folding phase of the sedimentary cover. Hence,
the fracturing observed in the Asmari Formation is interpreted to be a
consequence of reactivation of deep basement faults associated with the
continental collision of the Arabian plate with Central Iran plate.
The origin of the open fractures observed in the Ilam Formation
herein is uncertain. Only set (i) is observed in any statistically signicant
Table 1
Results of BOs analysis in well A. Most BOs examined herein are predominately
collected within the Upper Cretaceous Ilam, Lafan and Sarvak Formations.
Formation
Top
(m)
Bottom
(m)
Caliper1
(mm)
Caliper2
(mm)
Orientation
of BO
Ilam
2902.700
2907.000
2911.008
2914.726
2923.041
2929.001
2946.965
2964.576
2966.301
2968.304
2971.262
2974.020
3023.179
3046.345
3047.771
3053.360
3057.610
3064.983
3114.732
3145.358
3156.986
3186.945
2905.980
2907.500
2913.622
2918.631
2928.106
2934.490
2951.521
2965.443
2967.132
2968.743
2973.200
2977.100
3030.999
3047.248
3049.949
3054.510
3057.900
3078.730
3115.187
3145.982
3161.264
3188.244
303
307
308
304
307
303
306
311
308
308
307
307
308
305
305
305
305
309
306
304
306
308
313
319
336
310
330
359
331
329
329
319
332
338
340
340
329
327
353
358
338
332
351
368
168.0
160.0
168.4
153.0
165.4
165.4
157.4
164.9
159.0
165.4
163.9
135.1
150.9
157.0
154.0
140.4
157.0
158.0
154.0
162.0
157.0
155.0
Lafan
Sarvak
Table 2
Results of BOs analysis in well B. Most BOs examined herein are predominately
collected within the Upper Cretaceous formations.
Formation
Top
(m)
Bottom
(m)
Caliper1
(mm)
Caliper2
(mm)
Orientation
of BO
Ilam
2445.053
2550.921
2568.418
2661.633
3065.266
3400.292
3405.869
3415.336
3439.572
3443.887
3454.211
3460.213
3469.398
3625.082
3634.810
3641.237
3654.30
3669.362
3685.191
3694.621
3712.368
3723.028
3734.857
3737.593
3749.684
3768.246
3787.776
3798.519
3802.451
2447.220
2559.814
2597.577
2663.812
3072.343
3402.514
3409.269
3417.192
3441.540
3448.499
3456.481
3462.434
3471.443
3627.390
3638.409
3645.838
3658.410
3684.015
3691.248
3696.934
3715.262
3726.191
3736.411
3739.408
3752.174
3779.768
3791.706
3801.120
3814.820
228
231
260
215
247
220
219
242
268
265
222
224
258
260
218
218
258
255
250
238
220
245
249
242
213
216
245
245
276
238
211
310
260
270
232
250
221
216
217
239
250
220
219
265
272
217
216
215
215
266
215
220
220
248
230
215
220
216
151.3
149.7
145.1
164.8
151.2
142.2
144.1
148.3
157.2
145.0
149.7
140.2
153.2
152.8
124.2
159.7
149.0
155.7
148.7
140.0
155.0
154.2
145.2
143.1
144.2
143.5
143.2
154.2
148.2
Sarvak
Kazhdumi
Darian
Gadvan
198
Fig. 5. Maximum horizontal stress orientations in Iran from the World Stress Map database and from the wells analysed herein. Symbols and different colours indicate the method of
measurement (circles are focal mechanism solutions, inward-facing arrows are breakouts) and the stress regime (NF = normal faulting stress regime; SS = strikeslip faulting stress
regime; TF = thrust faulting stress regime; black = undened stress regime). Length of the lines indicates quality of data. Only earthquake focal mechanism solution data, typically
from 10 km or more depth was previously available for Iran (Heidbach et al., 2008). The NEENE SHmax orientations observed from borehole breakouts herein are consistent with the
focal mechanism solutions observed in the Zagros Mountain belt. A and B shows location of studied wells and heavy arrow shows motion of the Arabian plate relative to the Eurasia.
dominant in well A and is again interpreted herein to represent a prefolding (Arabian) fracture set. Fracture set (ii) is broadly parallel to
the axis of the NWSE (Zagros trend) anticline in which well A is
located, and thus this fracture set may represent axial-planar
fracturing associated with this folding. Fracture set (iii) is oriented
approximately sub-parallel or at a low-angle (b22) to the presentday SHmax orientation and is thus interpreted herein as being the
result of recent post-folding fracturing. We also suggest that the
increased open fracture density in well A is related to curvature of this
anticline during the main Zagros folding phase.
199
Fig. 6. (Upper) Orientation of open fractures in well A (Right) and B (Left). Three trends of natural fractures are observed in these wells striking in (i) 160170N, (ii) 110140N and
(iii) 070080N. (Lower) Comparison of present-day SHmax orientation (lower) with the strike of open fractures (upper) in the Ilam Formation. Only fracture set iii is oriented subparallel to the present-day stress orientation and is interpreted herein to genetically related to the recent stress state and to be hydraulically conductive in response to the presentday stress regime. Fracture sets i and ii are interpreted herein to have been formed by previous tectonic events and are likely to be stress-insensitive and be hydraulically
conductive due to other processes, such as partial mineralization.
200
SHmax orientation, conrms that both stress-sensitive and stressinsensitive fracture sets can occur and have signicant inuence on
hydraulic conductivity. We suggest that production wells in the
region should be drilled highly deviated towards the NE or SW to both
maximize the number of hydraulically conductive fractures intersected by the borehole and to reduce the likelihood of wellbore
instability problems.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank Petroleum Engineering and Development
Company (PEDEC) for sponsorship, data preparation and permission to
publish the data. We are grateful to M. Mohammadinia for his
cooperation. The authors also wish to thank Chris Morley and Oliver
Heidbach for their insightful and constructive reviews. Mark Tingay's
contribution forms TRaX record #108.
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