One reason for the overlap in the two approaches to the nomenclature is that compounds of

metals in higher oxidation states tend to be molecular rather than ionic. For example, SbCl4
{tin tetraklorida or tin(IV) chloride} is a colorless liquid that freezes at -33C and boils at
114C; Mn2O2 [dimanganese heptoxide or manganese (VII) oxide] is a green liquid that
freezes at 5.9C. Recall that ionic compounds are solids at room temperature. When we see the
formula of containing a metal in a high oxidation state (above +3), we should not be surprised
that it does not exhibit the general properties of ionic compounds. We will make wide use of
oxidation numbers in later chapters to explain trends in chemical behavior.

SAMPLE EXERCISE 8.13

In your reading, you encounter the following names: (a) chromium(IV) oxide, and (b)
phosphorus(V) sulfide. Give the chemical formula for these substances and suggest
alternative names.
SOLUTION (a) The name indicates that chromium has an oxidation states of +6. The
oxidation state of oxygen in oxides is -2. To have a charge balance the chemical formula must
be CrO3
(b) The name indicates that the phosphorus has an oxidation states of +5. The oxidation state
of sulfur in sulfides is -2. Thus the chemical formula is P2S5. This compound would more
properly be named disphosphorus pentasulfide
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Write the chemical formula for manganese dioxide, and give its name in terms of the
oxidation state of manganese. Answer MnO2 : manganese(IV) oxide

For Review
Summary
In this chapter, we have dealt with the interactions that lead to the formation of chemical
bonds. The tendencies of atoms to gain, lose or share their valence electrons to form bonds
can often be viewed in terms of attempts to achieve a noble-gas electron configuration (the
octet rule)
Ionic bonding results from the complete transfer of electron from one from to another, with
formation of a three-dimensional lattice of charged particles. The stabilities of ionic
substances result from the powerful electrostatic attractive forces between an ion and all the
surrounding ions of opposite charge. These interactions are measured by the lattice energy.
The magnitude of the lattice energy depends primarily on the charges and sizes of ions. In
general, lattice energies increase as the charges of the ions increase and as their sizes
decrease.
Cations are smaller than their parent atoms; anions are larger than their parent atoms. For ions
of the same charge, size increases going down a family. For an isoelectronic series, sizes
decreases with increasing nuclear charge (atomic number). Not all ions have noble-gas

configurations. Many transition metal ions do not. In forming transition metal ions. The atom
first loses its outer s electrons
Covalent bonding results from the sharing of electrons. The octet rule is useful in describing
this sharing. We can represent shared electron-pair structures of molecules by means of lewis
structures, which show the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The sharing of one pair
of electrons produces a single bond; the sharing of two or three pairs of electrons between
atoms produces double and triple bonds, respectively.
It is important to recognize that even in covalent bonding, electron may not be shared equally
between two atoms. Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom to compete with
other atoms for the electrons shared between them. Highly electronegative elements, which
show a regular periodic relationship, are an important guide to chemical behavior. We shall be
using the concept of electronegativity often throughout the text. The difference in
electronegativities of bonded atoms is used to determine the polarity of a bond.
Sometimes a single lewis structure is in .quate to represent a particular molecule, but an
average of two or more lewis structures does form a satisfactory representation.. In these
cases, the lewis structures are called resonance form.. Sometimes the octet rule is not obeyed;
this situation occurs mainly when a large atom is surrounded by small, electronegative atoms
like F, O or Cl. In such instances, the large atom has unfilled d orbitals in its valence shell to
accommodate more than an octet of electrons. Thus, expanded octets are observed for atoms
in the third period and beyond in the periodic table.
The strength of a covalent bond is measured by its bond energy. The strength of covalent
bond increase with the number of electron pairs shared between two atoms. We can use bond
energies to estimate the enthalpy changes during chemical reactions.
It is sometimes convenient to attribute charges to strong by assigning shared electrons to the
more electronegative atom. The resultant whole number charges, called oxidation numbers,
are of great value in helping us to organize chemical facts, to balance equations and to name
compounds.
Key Terms
Ionic bond
Covalent bond
Metallic bond
Valence electrons (Sec.8.1)
Electron-dot symbol (lewis symbol)
Octet rule (Sec.8.1)
Lattice energy
Borrn-Harber cycle
Isoeletric series
Covalent bond

Lewis structures
Single bond

Doeble bond
Triple bond
Multiple bond
Bond polarity
Nonpolar bond
Polar covalent bond
electronegativity
formal charge
resonance structures (forms)
bond-dissociation energy
bond energy
oxidation number (states)

Exercise
Lewis symbol and Ionic Bonding
8.1. (a) What are the valence electrons of an atom ? (b) Haow many valence electrons does a
nitrogen atom
8.2. (a) What is the octet rule? (b) How many electrons must a sulfur atom gain to archieve an
octet?
8.3. Write the lewis symbol for (a) silicon, Si; (b) sodium, Na; (c) selenium, Se; (d)
aluminum, Al
8.4. What is the lewis symbol for each of the following atoms or ions : (a) Br; (b) Mg; (c)
Ca2+; (d) F
8.5. Use lewis symbol to diagram the reaction that occurs between Li and F atoms to give LiF
8.6. Using lewis symbol, diagram the reaction that accurs between Mg and Cl
8.7. Predict the chemical formula of the ionic compound formed between the following pairs
of element
8.8. Indicate whether each of the following formulas is likely to represent a stable compound
and give an explanation for your answer

8.9. Write the electron configuration for each ion and state which possess a noble-gas
configuration
8.10. Write the electron configuration for each ion and state which possess a noble-gas
configuration