RECAP

Small oscillations in Bound System

Periodic motion
Simple Harmonic Motion
(Description, Examples of SHM)
Example Problem 4.15
Example Problem 10.1

Energy of an oscillator
Total energy (potential +kinetic) is a constant
for an undamped oscillator

1 2
1
E U K kx mv2
2
2

Total Energy

1
1 2 2
2 2
2
E m A cos t kA sin t
2
2

1
1
2 2
2
E m A cos t m 2 A2 sin 2 t
2
2

1
1 2
2 2
E m A kA
2
2

Expected

Work with harmonic oscillator :

Time average values of sin(wt) and sin2(wt)
over one cycle of oscillation
1.0

Sin ()

0.5

0.0

sin t 0

-0.5

-1.0
0

(radian)

Area above the axis equals the area below the axis

By symmetry

1.0

0.6

Sin ()

0.8

0.4

1
sin t
2
2

0.2
0.0
0

(radian)

Mathematically

2
sin t
2

cost 0

1
0 sin (t )dt 2

cos t
2

Question :
What is the time averaged value of P.E. or K.E.
over one period?

1 2
1 2
2
P.E kA cos t kA
2
4

Similarly
1 2
1 2
2
K .E kA sin t kA
2
4

K .E. P.E.

Next Topic

 Complex Numbers
Damped harmonic oscillator
Equation of motion and solution
Lightly damped
Heavily damped
Critically damped
Energy of the Damped Oscillator
Quality factor

Complex numbers are represented by

z = x + iy
x is the real part and y is the imaginary part
Graphical representation of complex numbers
Imaginary axis
z = x + iy = A (cos + i sin )
Real axis

A cos

A sin
x

z = x + iy = A (cos + i sin )

z = A ei
Geometrically
what is the
meaning?
xy - complex plane

y
A

vector of length A makes an angle with

the real axis

What is the use of complex numbers in

harmonic oscillator?
To simplify the calculations
Sol. of a SHM

x Acos(0t )
x A0 sin (0t )

x A0 cos(0t )
2

x Acos(0t )

How to represent in complex form ?

Consider the imaginary component
y A sin(0t )
Z A cos (0t ) i A sin(0t )
Z A e i (0t ) Calculation

Real part represents

the equ. of SHM

becomes
simpler

Z A e i (0t )

Z A i0 e i (0t )
Real part x A0 sin (0t )

Z A 02 e i (0t )
Real part x A 2 cos( t )
0
0

Harmonic Oscillator :
System is displaced from Equilibrium position
(Experiences a restoring force)
Damping :
Any effect that tends to reduce the amplitude
of oscillations
Mechanics :
Friction is one such damping effect

Damped harmonic oscillator

Consider the effect of friction on the harmonic oscillator

Special form of friction force : Viscous force

Forces arise : Object moves through a fluid

f bv
b depends on
Shape of the mass
Medium through which it is moving

Assuming a frictional force

Total force on the mass = Fspring+ f

F kx bv

mx kx bx
b
k
x
x
x0
m
m

b

m

k

m
2
0

x x 0 x 0
2

x x x 0
2
0

How to solve ?
Companion equation

y y y 0
2
0

In complex form z z z 0
2
0

z z z 0
2
0

z z0 e

Solution will be of the form

Substituting the solution into the original

equation:

z0e ( ) 0
t

2
0

z0e ( ) 0
t

2
0

2
0
4
2

Most general solution will be

z z Ae

1t

zBe

2 t

zA and zB are constants

1 and 2 are the two roots

z z Ae z B e
1t

2 t

0
2
4
2

1, 2

Three possibilities

Case (i)

2
o
4
2

Lightly damped and

Oscillatory damped SHM

Case (ii)

2
o
4
2

Heavily damped system

Case (iii)

2
o
4
2

Critically damped system

Case (i)
2
4

o2

Light Damping
or
Under Damping

2
o
4
2

is imaginary

0
2
4
2

1, 2

2
i o
i1
2
4
2
2

 General solution :

z z1e z 2e
1t

2t

2
i o
i1
2
4
2
2

z e

t/2

z e
1

i1t

z2 e

i1t

Solution to the differential equation :

z e

t/2

z e

i1t

z2 e

i1t

Real part of the solution is

x e

t/2

Bcos1t

Csin1t

or

t
2

x Ae cos 1t A(t)cos 1t
Solution is oscillatory, but with a reduced frequency
and time varying (exponentially decaying) amplitude

x Ae

t
2

cos1t A(t) cos1t

2
o

2
o
4
2

1 0

Case (ii)

Heavy Damping
or
Over Damping

2
o
4

2
o
4

is real

2 2

Both roots are negative

2
0
4
2

2
o

4
1 2

Solution is

z z1e

1 t

z2e

2 t

Real part of the solution is

x Ae

1 t

Be

2 t

Represents non-oscillatory behavior

Actual displacement : Initial conditions

Case (iii) o2
4
2

Critical Damping

2
0
4
2

Sol. is x Ce /2t

Sol. is x Ce

/2 t

Solution is incomplete.
Why?
Sol. for 2nd order differential eqn. should
have two independent constants which are
to be fixed by the initial conditions
Solution will be of the form

x A Bte( / 2)t

Energy considerations
Why the amplitude must decrease with time?

From work-energy theorem

E t E 0 W friction

Et K t U t
Wf

Work done by friction

Work done by friction

x (t )

Wf

x ( 0)

fdx

fvdt
0

bv dt
2

E(t) decreases with time

Frictional force dissipates energy

We can find how E(t) versus time

1 dx
K .E. m
2 dt

x Ae
dx
v 1 Ae
dt

t
2

t
2

cos1t

cos(1t )
sin(1t )
21

dx
v 1 Ae
dt

t
2

cos(1t )
sin(1t )
21

can be neglected

2
o
4
2

1 0

dx
v 1 Ae
dt

t
2

1
21

sin(1t )

Therefore

1 2 1
2 2 t
2
K t mv m1 A e sin (1t )
2
2

1 2 1 2 t
2
U t kx kA e cos (1t )
2
2
E t K t U t

1 2 t
2
2
2
A e m1 sin (1t ) k cos (1t )
2

E t K t U t

1 2 t
2
2
2
A e m1 sin (1t ) k cos (1t )
2
Again using

Light damping condition

1 0 k / m
2

1 2 t
E t kA e
2

1 2 t
E t kA e
2

At t = 0

In general

E t E0e

1 2
E0 kA
2
t

5
4

3
2
1
0
0

time(s)

Time constant () :
The decay is characterized by the time required for the
energy to drop to 1/e times its initial value :

Max Energy

E t E0e

Characteristic time

E0
E
0.368E0
e

When

m

b

Quality factor
The damping can be specified by a dimensionless
parameter Q

E(t)

energy stored in the oscillator

Q
energy dissipated per radian

Rate of change of energy

dE
E0 e t E
dt

Energy dissipated in a time T is

dE
T ET
dt

Time to oscillate thru 2 radians

Time to oscillate thru one radian

1
1

Energy dissipated per radian is E

1
0
E
1
Q

Q1 : Lightly damped
Q1 : Heavily damped

Example 10.2
A musicians tuning fork rings at A above middle C, 440 Hz. A
sound level meter indicates that the sound intensity
decreases by a factor of 5 in 4 s. What is the Q of the tuning
fork?
Note
Freq(Hz)

Musical note

Middle C

A3

220.00

157.

A#3/Bb3

233.08

148.

B3

246.94

140.

C4

261.63

132.

C#4/Db4

277.18

124.

D4

293.66

117.

D#4/Eb4

311.13

111.

E4

329.63

105.

F4

349.23

98.8

F#4/Gb4

369.99

93.2

G4

392.00

88.0

G#4/Ab4

415.30

83.1

A4

440.00

Sound Intensity Energy of oscillation

E t E0 e
0

E0 e
5
4
E0 e

e 5

1 2 440
Q

700

0.4

4 ln 5
ln 5

0.4 s 1
4