RESEARCH-

- -

ADAPTED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY QUARTERLY, 1992,9,249-260

Training Practices of Athletes

Who Participated in the National Wheelchair
Athletic Association Training Camps
Kimberly T. Watanabe, Rory A. Cooper, Annette J. Vosse,
Fred D. Baldini, and Rick N. Robertson
California State University, Sacramento
A survey designed to record training practices of athletes with disabilities
was administered to participants in the 1990 and 1991 National Wheelchair
Athletic Association Elite and Developmental Athlete Training Camp. Information on age, weight, nature and level of disability, the sport and experience
in it, sources of training information, dietary practices, and alcohol and
cigarette consumption was requested. The athletes were also asked to report
their weekly training practices by quarters for the previous year concerning
average number of workouts per week, number of hours per workout, number
of miles per week, percent of time spent on speed work and/or interval
training per week, number of weight training sessions per week, and the
number of competitions entered per quarter. Results indicate that most of the
athletes derived much of their training information from personal contact
with coaches, other athletes, and sport scientists. Many do not set goals in
developing training routines, training diets, or competition schedules.

The Development of Wheelchair Sports Training

During the past 40 years more persons with disabilities have begun to participate
in sports (Cooper, 1990). Though there are no exact numbers, recently a dramatic
increase has been noted. This is evidenced by the number of participants in major
events and the creation of numerous sports associations. Racing wheelchair
manufacturers estimate that over the last 5 years alone more than 10,000 racing
wheelchairs have been manufactured worldwide. The National Wheelchair Athletic Association (NWAA) has grown to approximately 1,500 members; there are
The authors are with the Human Engineering Laboratory, Depts. of Biomedical
Engineering and Health & Physical Education, California State University, Sacramento.
Request reprints from Dr. Rory A. Cooper, Biomedical Engineering Program, California
State University, Sacramento, 6000 J St., Sacramento, CA 95819-6019.

250

Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

35 other sport associations in the U.S. whose members include athletes with
disabilities.
With this dramatic increase in sport participation and competition of athletes
with disabilities comes a pressing need to know what are and what are not
effective training techniques. As with any sport, training technique can improve
performance as well as help prevent injuries. Unfortunately, proper training
techniques for various wheelchair sports have not been clearly defined. A recent
paper by Hedrick, Morse, and Figoni (1988) reported training practices of elite
wheelchair roadracers. The authors concluded that there was considerable inconsistency in the training behaviors of the participating roadracers. They also
noted that many athletes use asystematic empirical methods based on personal
experience and/or observation in designing their training program.
The current study attempts to extend and build upon the work of Hedrick
et al. (1988) by collecting additional information about training practices of
athletes from other sports as well as elite racers. Adding this information to
existing data will give coaches and athletes with disabilities a better grasp of
training effectiveness.
For the past 2 years California State University, Sacramento, has been the
site for athlete training camps sponsored by the U.S. Olympic Committee and the
NWAA. Athletes from across the United States were selected to participate. They
came from track and field, weight lifting, table tennis, archery, shooting, and
swimming. The principal purpose of these camps has been to improve the performance of members of the U.S. Disabled Sports Team in international competition,
particularly the Paralympics in Barcelona this summer. A second purpose has
been to develop a scientific basis for training programs and fitness evaluation of
athletes with disabilities. The camps have included sport-specific training, testing,
and education. An integral part of these camps has been the assessment of training
practices used by the athletes.

Methodology
Subjects
Participants in the 1990 and 1991 NWAA Developmental and Elite Athlete
Training Camp served as subjects. Prior to attending a training camp, each athlete
was asked to respond to a survey. Later when athletes anived at the camp, any
unanswered questions or incomplete answers were discussed in order to complete
the surveys.
Thirty-nine athletes participated in this survey, 9 females and 30 males. Of
these 39 athletes, 24 were classified as paraplegic, 11 as quadriplegic, 2 as blind,
and 2 as mentally impaired. With regard to disability etiology, 25 had spinal cord
injuries, 4 were postpolio, 2 had spina bifida, 2 had multiple sclerosis, 1 had
arteriovenal malformation, I had spinal tuberculosis, 2 were blind, and 2 were
mentally impaired. The athletes competed in a variety of sports: 14 in wheelchair
track, 6 in field events (two of these were pentathletes), 1 in weight lifting, 5 in
swimming, 5 in table tennis, 3 in archery, 3 in shooting, and 2 in Special Olympics
track.

Survey Categories
A survey1developed and modeled after one used by Hedrick et al. (1988) asked
athletes to provide information on age, weight, disability etiology and degree of

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes

251

impairment, number of years with disability, the sport they compete in, and
number of years experience in their sport. They were asked to rank sources of
training and technical information according to their perceived usefulness. The
source list included the following 11choices for ranking: coaches/trainers,training
camps/sports scientists, conferences and workshops, therapist, other athletes,
coaching manuals, scientific joumals/medical journals and publications, personal
trial and error/personal experience, competition videos, Sports 'n' Spokes, and
other magazines/newsletters.
Data were obtained on weekly training practices for each quarter of the
year preceding the training camp (April-June, July-September, OctoberDecember, and January-March). The survey was adapted as needed to the particular type of sport or disability etiology. Most athletes reported on their average
number of workouts per week, average number of hours per workout session,
average number of miles per week, average percent of time spent on speed work
and/or interval training per week, average number of weight training sessions per
week, and number of competitions entered per quarter. Athletes were also asked
to rate their perceived exertion during interval and nonintewal steady-state training using two scales: Percent of Maximal Effort and Borg's Perceived Exertion
Rating (Borg, 1970).
Data were gathered to assess the role of mental preparation in their training
programs. Athletes were asked whether they used mental preparation and, if so,
was it used as part of daily training only, on competition days only, or both?
Athletes were asked for information on when they performed stretching and
flexibility exercises: before training sessions, after training sessions, before competitions, after competitions, and/or daily (outside of training sessions). They
were also asked to report which body parts they stretched: shoulders, back, arms,
neck, chest, and/or legs.
The athletes were asked which dietary practices they employed to maintain
optimal performance weight and strength and whether they used protein and
carbohydrate supplements, stimulants, vitamins, diuretics, caloric manipulation,
or special diets including high carbohydrate, low fat, high protein, no red meat,
or high fiber diets. They were also asked to estimate the percent of carbohydrates,
protein, and fat in their diets and, finally, whether and to what degree they smoked
and/or consumed alcohol.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data collected were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with
Lotus and Excel software programs. The established level of significance was
p<.05. Characteristicsof athletes were analyzed as a single group and for various
subgroups. The analyses included separation by gender, by disability etiology
(paraplegia, quadriplegia, or other such as blind and mentally challenged), by
sport, and according to whether the sport is primarily aerobic or anaerobic.
Aerobic sports included wheelchair track, swimming, and Special Olympics track

' A copy of the survey is available upon written request from Dr. Rory Cooper,
Department of Biomedical Engineering, California State University, Sacramento, Sacramento, CA 95819-6019.

252

Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Roberfson

(all of the track and swimming athletes competed at long distance, even sprinters).
Anaerobic sports included table tennis, weight lifting, field events, archery, and
shooting. The two pentathletes, since they participated in track events, were
categorized in the aerobic group.

Results and Discussion

Athletes' Statistics
The athletes ranged from 17 to 51 years of age. Averages and standard deviations
for age, number of years disabled, number of years experience in their sport, and
body weight are given in Table 1. There was no significant difference between
men and women for age. Neither were there statistically significant differences
among ages and body weights by disability etiology. Analysis of age by sport
groups revealed that the archerylshooting group was the oldest, followed by the
weight liftingfield group, table tennis, track, and swimming. The Special Olympics track group was the youngest. There were no significant differences among
group means, however.
A significant difference, F(1,37)=6.46,was found between the average age
of athletes participating in anaerobic sports and those participating in aerobic
sports, the former being the older. This may indicate that athletes from aerobic
sports switch to anaerobic sports as they grow older and/or that older athletes in
anaerobic sports are more competitive at the elite level. The body weight of the
athletes ranged from 70 to 291 Ibs. No significant difference was observed when
athletes were grouped by degree of impairment or by sport. However, there was
Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations
of Athletes' Age, Years Disabled, Years Experience, and Body Weight

Subjects

All ( n = 39)
Men ( n = 30)
Women ( n = 9)
Paraplegic ( n = 24)
Quadriplegic ( n = 11)
Other (n = 4)
Track ( n = 14)
Swimming ( n = 5)
Archerylshooting ( n = 6)
Weight liftinglfield ( n = 7)
Table tennis ( n = 5)
Special Olympics track ( n = 2)
Aerobic sports ( n = 21)
Anaerobic sports ( n = 18)

Age
M
SD

31.1
33.5
36.3
35.7
32.7
29.8
32.3
30.6
41.5
36.4
33.6
27.0
31.4
37.3

7.8
8.0
7.1
8.4
5.7
8.8
6.9
6.2
7.5
6.0
6.0
14.1
7.2
7.4

Yrs. disabled
M
SD

Yrs. exper.
M
SD

16.6
12.8
24.9
15.1
14.06
23.3
12.7
5.2
20.5
14.4
25.3
27.0
12.3
19.4

7.4 5.9
6.0
4.2
12.0 8.1
6.9 5.3
7.2
5.5
10.8 10.0
5.0
3.5
10.0 7.9
3.6 2.4
8.1
5.7
1.6 3.4
15.1 14.1
7.1
6.5
7.8
5.2

11.9
10.5
12.1
11.9
11.3
13.8
10.2
2.8
14.6
8.8
13.3
14.1
10.2
12.4

Weight (Ibs)
M
SD

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes

253

a significant difference between the average weight of male athletes and female
athletes.
Analysis of variance revealed that average years with disability was significantly lower, F(1,37)=8.61, for male athletes than for female athletes, but there
was no significant difference among groups by level of disability. However, a
significant difference emerged between the average number of years with a
disability for different sport groups, F(5,33)=2.61. The Special Olympics track
athletes, the youngest group, were impaired since birth and thus had the highest
mean number of years disabled. The table tennis and archerylshooting athletes
also averaged over 20 years with a disability. The other groups, weight lifting
and field, the track athletes, and the swimmers, averaged less than 15 years with
a disability. Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference between
athletes participating in aerobic sports and those participating in anaerobic sports.
The women averaged twice as many years experience as the men. This may
be due in part to the fact that the women averaged approximately twice as many
years with a disability as compared to the men. No significant difference was
found in experience with regard to level of disability. Analysis by sport revealed
a statistically significant difference in the number of years experience, F(5,32)=
2.89. The Special Olympics track group averaged the most experience, followed
by the table tennis group, the swimmers, the weight lifters and field event athletes,
the track athletes, and the archery/shooting group. It is interesting to note that the
youngest group averaged the greatest number of years experience while the oldest
group averaged the least.

Further Breakdowns
Distribution by Medical Classification. There were seven Class 11, nine
Class 111, two Class IV, and five Class V athletes with paraplegia using the
NWAA medical classification system. With regard to the quadriplegic athletes,
there was one Class IA athlete, seven Class IB athletes, and four Class IC athletes,
again using the NWAA medical classification system. One of the two blind
athletes was classified as B1, the other as B2, using the U.S. Blind Athlete
Association classification system.
Diet, Alcohol, and Cigarette Consumption. Table 2, which lists the
proportion of athletes reporting each of the various dietary practices, also includes
dietary composition as estimated by the athletes. Thirty-eight of the 39 athletes
responded to inquiries about alcohol and cigarette consumption. Of the
respondents, 30 (79%) classified themselves as nonsmokers, 3 (8%) as occasional
smokers, 4 (10%) as frequent smokers, and 1 (3%) as a heavy smoker. With
regard to alcohol consumption, 23 (60%) reported no alcohol consumption, 13
(34%) averaged 1 to 2 drinks a week, 1 averaged 3 to 4 drinks a week, and 1
averaged more than 6 drinks a week. Overall, the average amount of alcohol
consumed per week was less than one drink per person (M=0.76, SD=1.22). Such
results are not unusual and indicate that the athletes participating in this study take
their training and competition seriously, as reflected in their lifestyles (Hedrick et
al., 1988).
Ranking Sources of Training Information. The order in which the 11
choices were ranked by the athletes is given in Table 3. The overall results showed
that the top four sources of training information, in terms of usefulness to the
athletes, were (a) coaches/trainers, (b) other athletes, (c) personal trial and error1

Wafanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

Table 2
Dietary Practices and Estimated Diet Composition for All Athletes
Dietary practices
Dietary practice

%who incorporate

Protein supplements
Carbohydrate supplements
Stimulants
Vitamins
Diuretics
Caloric manipulation
Special diets
High carbohydrate diets
Low fat diets
High protein diets
No red meat
High fiber diets
Estimated diet composition = 50.5% carbohydrates, 19.0% fat, and 30.5% protein.

Table 3
Usefulness of Information Sources as Ranked by All Athletes Surveyed
Sources

Rank

Mean

Coachesltrainers
Other athletes
Personal trial & errorlexperience
Training campslsport scientists/conf. & workshops
Coaching manuals
Competition videos
Therapists
Sports 'n Spokes
Other magazineslnewsletters
Scientific journals

personal experience, and (d) training campslsport scientists/conferences and

workshops, respectively. Scientificlmedical journals were ranked as the least
useful source of information, mainly because they were seldom read by most of
the athletes. Analysis by sport revealed that the same four sources were ranked
among the top four by all groups. Analysis by malelfemale groups and by
paraplegiclquadriplegic/other (Special Olympics and blind athletes) groups also
repeated the ranking of the top four found in the overall analysis. Although

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes

Table 4

Incorporation of Mental Preparation

Subjects

% who incorporate

All
Men
Women
Paraplegic
Quadriplegic
Other
Track
Swimming
Archerylshooting
Weight liftinglfield
Table tennis
Special Olympics track
*Of the 82%, 9.7% indicated using mental preparation as part of daily training only, 12.9%
reported using mental preparationon competition days only, and 77.4% reported incorporating
mental preparation techniques in both daily training and on competition days.

scientific journals were not ranked highly, several of the choices that were ranked
depend upon such journals for information. The results indicate that athletes are
benefiting, albeit indirectly, from scientific research and training methods.
Incorporation of Mental Preparation. The percentage of athletes who
reported using mental preparation is listed in Table 4. Of the entire group, 82%
reported incorporating mental preparation techniques. All of the women used
mental preparation techniques. Sport subgroups reporting 100% incorporation
were archery, shooting, weight lifting, field, and Special Olympics track. These
are primarily motor skill sports in which control is a critical factor in achieving
optimal performance. Strength, speed, and stamina sport athletes can also benefit
from mental preparation, although the role of mental preparation is not so distinct
in these sports.
Use of Stretching and Flexibility Exercises. The reports on stretching and
flexibility exercises revealed that although most of the athletes stretched at one
time or another, few had structured stretching routines. And two athletes, one
wheelchair track athlete and one archer, reported that they never stretched. Several
athletes who stretched before training did not stretch before competition. Of all
athletes surveyed, only three wheelchair track athletes reported stretching all body
parts listed as choices. Table 5 presents overall results as to when stretching and
flexibility exercises were performed and what body parts were stretched. Despite
the fact that stretching is critical to flexibility as well as to reduction of injury
due to sports participation, few of these athletes have regular stretching programs.
Given that coachesltrainers are their primary source of training information,
this should not be so. Apparently the importance of stretching is not being
communicated effectively.

Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

Table 5
Use of Stretching and Flexibility Exercises
When stretching is performed:

% athletes who reported

Before training sessions

After training sessions
Before competitions
After competitions
Daily (outside of training sessions)

Body parts stretched:

Shoulders
Back
Arms
Neck
Chest
Legs

Weekly Training Practices Across Quarters. Information on the weekly

training practices across yearly quarters is shown in Tables 6 and 7. Table 6 lists
combined results for all athletes surveyed, whereas Table 7 presents subgroup
results averaged over the year. Overall, the athletes reported performing 4.1
workouts per week, with a workout session averaging 2.1 hours. Weekly training
also included approximately 2 weight training sessions per week. The athletes
reported entering an average of 2.7 competitions per quarter.
As for average number of workouts per week, the male athletes averaged
approximately one more workout than their female counterparts. Analysis of
variance revealed no significant difference among athletes by level of impairment.
Except for swimmers, analysis across seasons for men, women, paraplegics,
quadriplegics, Special Olympics and blind athletes, and by sport revealed no
significant difference. Swimmers averaged only half as many workouts per week
during the fall and winter months compared to the spring and summer months.
However, part of this difference can be attributed to athletes' reduced training
while attending school or due to injuries. Analysis by sport also revealed that
athletes who participated in aerobic sports averaged almost twice as many
workouts per week as athletes participating in anaerobic sports.
Although no significant difference was found between male and female
athletes with regard to average number of hours per workout session, a significant
difference was found among levels of impairment, F(2,9)=58.61. The
nonwheelchair athletes (mentally impaired and blind) averaged only 1.3 hours
athletes and 2.3 hours for
ed a significant difference

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes

Table 6
Weekly Training Practices Across Yearly Quarters
as Reported by All Athletes
Quarter

Mean

SD

Workouts per week

AprilJ u n e
July-September
October-December
January-March
Hours per workout
AprilJ u n e
July-September
October-December
January-March
Miles per week
AprilJ u n e
July-September
October-December
January-March
% interval training per week
AprilJ u n e
July-September
October-December
January-March
Weight training sessions per week
AprilJ u n e
July-September
October-December
January-March
Competitions entered per quarter
AprilJ u n e
July-September
October-December
January-March

among aerobic and anaerobic sports, with the anaerobic sport athletes averaging
longer workouts, F(1,6)=47.22.
An average of 46 miles per week was reported for all athletes who could
characterize their training in terms of miles trained per week. At 63 miles a week,
the wheelchair track athletes had the highest average of all sports. Interestingly,
the wheelchair track athletes pushed twice as many miles as the Special Olympics
track runners ran (mean = 30 miles/week). However, there were only two Special
Olympics athletes. The weight training and field athletes had a surprisingly high
average number of miles per week (mean = 38 mileslweek). A further look at the
questionnaires revealed that several field event competitors also trained and
competed in track racing events. The swimmers reported an average of 22 miles

Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

Table 7
Weekly Training Practices Averaged Over the Year

Subjects

Workouts
Hours
Weight training sessions Competitions
per wk per workout
per week
per quarter

All athletes surveyed

Men
Women
Paraplegic
Quadriplegic
Other
Track
Swimming
Archerylshooting
Weight liftinglfield
Table tennis
Special Olympics track
Aerobic
Anaerobic

a week. However, we are not sure whether these were miles swum or pushed
since the survey failed to distinguish between pushing miles and swimming miles.
Athletes competing in table tennis, archery, and shooting indicated that this
question did not apply to their training practices.
As for average number of weight lifting sessions per week, 78% of the
athletes reported incorporating weight training during at least two of the yearly
quarters. Included in this was the 54% of all athletes who reported weight training
sessions during each quarter. The remaining 22% reported no weight training
sessions throughout the year. Analysis showed no significant difference between
men and women with respect to weight training.
The average number of competitions entered per quarter was 2.7. Usually
more competitions were entered during the first two quarters (April-June and
JulySept.) than during the last two quarters (0ct.-Dec. and Jan.-March). On the
average, male athletes entered more than twice as many competitions as female
athletes. Of the various sports, wheelchair track athletes averaged the greatest
number (over 5 per quarter) of competitions per quarter, with some racers entering
10 or more per quarter. The table tennis athletes averaged the smallest number,
only one competition per quarter.

Percentage of Perceived Maximal Effort

Athletes participating in aerobic sports perceived themselves as training at 82%
of maximal effort during interval training and at 67% of maximal effort during
noninterval, steady-state training. Using Borg's Perceived Exertion Rating (a

Training Practices of NWAA Athletes

259

and very hard during interval training, and between somewhat hard and hard
during noninterval, steady-state training. The Pearson product-moment correlation analysis of perceived effort during interval training revealed a significant
correlation between the percentage scale and Borg's scale (r=0.57, pc.005).
However, the correlation analysis of perceived effort during noninterval training
was not significant (-0.34, p>.05).
Athletes reported it was easier to rank perceived effort with the Borg Scale
than with a percentage scale. This was especially true for those competing in
anaerobic sports who wrote that the percentage scale ranking was not applicable
to their modes of training. Typical workout intensity as perceived by athletes
participating in anaerobic sports was between somewhat hard and hard (14) on
the Borg Scale.

Summary and Conclusions

The athletes who responded to this survey varied widely in age. Generally they
had begun participating in their sport as adults (average age 26). Since several of
the swimmers had swum competitively before being injured, it may be useful to
gather information on athletes' competitive participation in sports prior to injury/
impairment to identify a possible relationship (e.g., injured track runners now
competing in wheelchair track). The dietary section of the survey suggests that
some athletes might benefit from nutritional evaluation and guidance. When asked
to estimate their diet composition, many athletes admitted that their answers were
only guesses, and some, believing that performance in their sport was not related
to their weight, were not concerned with watching their diet.
The ranking of training and technical information sources indicate that
athletes are obtaining their most useful information from people/experts with
whom they are in contact rather than from published materials. The widespread
incorporation of mental preparation techniques reported by the athletes suggests
that this area might be investigated in greater detail. Information on specific
methods employed and whether any methods are sport-specific may be beneficial
to athletes who are new to the sport or to those seeking improvement. Weekly
training practices, classified by quarters, varied considerably. Investigation of
perceived maximal effort revealed little difference between effort during interval
and noninterval training. This suggests that some of the athletes may not be
training properly (e.g., overtraining on recovery days) and might benefit from
learning techniques for perceiving effort levels and perhaps how to use the Borg
Scale.
This was the second year in which the survey was conducted at the training
camp. Improved survey techniques such as premailing the survey, investigator
review of the survey with the athlete during the camp, and the use of multiplechoice questions instead of open-ended questions proved effective at eliciting
greater response (less skipped questions). However, it is still a challenge to
construct a survey/questionnairethat can be applied to athletes who represent a
broad spectrum of sports, classifications, training types, and so forth. It should
be recognized that the conclusions drawn in this study are limited by the small
sample size, particularly where analysis was applied to subgroups. Nevertheless,
it is hoped that this will serve to create a data base on the training practices of
these athletes and encourage further research.

Watanabe, Cooper, Vosse, Baldini, and Robertson

260

Most of the athletes surveyed began competing in sports for persons with
disabilities after they reached adulthood. Because of this, they may not have had
the benefit of organized training. This may explain why they seemed to have
some knowledge of the various facets of preparation and training required of elite
athletes but their programs lacked structure and planning. Some of the athletes
were coached through correspondence. However, there may have been issues of
compliance and comprehension of training programs. Many did not seem to have
specific training goals. Athletes need to be taught to understand training principles.

References
Borg, G. (1970). Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress. Scandinavian Journal
of Rehabilitation Medicine, 2, 92-98.
Cooper, R. (1990). Wheelchair racing sports science: A review. Journal of Rehabilitation
Research and Development, 27, 295-312.
Hedrick, B.H., Morse, M.I., & Figoni, S.F. (1988). Training practices of elite wheelchair
roadracers. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 5, 140-153.

Upcoming Congresses in IsraelThe Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport will host three
international congresses beginning in November:
November 4-6, 1992
The Process of Training and Competition in View of the Performances
at the '92 Barcelona Games
March 28-April 2, 1993
The 1993 FIEP World Congress, Courses and General Assembly
"Physical Activity and the Life Cycle"
June 30-July 4, 1993
2nd Maccabiah-Wingate International Congress on Sport Sciences
and Coaching
For further information, contact Hony Tenenbaum, Intemational Congress,
Wingate Institute for Physical Education & Sport, Wingate Post Office,
Netanya, 42902 Israel.
Tel:

+972-53-639 548

Fax: +972-53-653 070