Introductory Physics

Introductory Physics
Michael T. Kovarik
March 22, 2010

(Dedication Page)
2
Preface
3
Contents
1. Prelude: Units and Dimensions 7

1.1. Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2. Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
I. Classical Mechanics 14
2. Motion in 1-space 17
2.1. Position and Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2. Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3. Constant Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4. Some Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5. Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3. Motion in N-space 31
3.1. Axioms of Vectors in N-Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4. Newton’s Laws of Motion 35
5. Applications of Newton’s Laws 36
6. Conservation of Energy 37
7. Mechanical Systems 38
8. Rotational Dynamics 39
9. Classical Gravity 40
10.Statics and Elasticity 41
11.Relativity Theory 42
12.Modern Physics: Canonical Mechanics 43
II. Oscillations and Acoustics 44
13.Simple Harmonic Motion 45
4
Contents
14.Damped Oscillations 46
15.Transverse Waves 47
16.Longitudinal Waves 48
17.Transverse Waves 49
18.Pulses 50
19.Modern Physics: Wave Mechanics 51
III. Quantum Physics 52
20.The Problem 53
21.Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 54
22.Quantum Potential Energy 55
23.Quantum-Mechanical Systems 56
24.Quantum Mechanics in 3-space 57
25.Angular Momentum 58
26.Spin 59
27.Applications to Chemistry 60
28.Modern Physics: Quantum Gravity 61
IV. Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 62
29.Fluid Mechanics 63
30.First Law of Thermodynamics 64
31.Second Law of Thermodynamics 65
32.Modern Physics: Statistical Mechanics 66
V. Electromagnetism and Optics 67
33.The Electric Field 68
5
Contents
34.Gauss’s Law 69
35.Capacitance 70
36.Electric Currents 71
37.The Magnetic Field 72
38.Magnetic Induction 73
39.Inductance 74
40.Maxwell’s Equations 75
41.Optics 76
42.Modern Physics: General Relativity and Cosmology 77
A. Math Reference 78
B. Unit Conversion 79
C. Astronomical Data 80
D. The Periodic Table 81
E. Where do I go now? 82
6
1. Prelude: Units and Dimensions
1.1. Units
All physical measurements are comparative. For example, if I ask you for the flag pole’s
height, and you answered three, then I would think you are mad. Three what? Yards,
meters, feet, miles? Simply saying three will not suffice, it is too ambiguous. In order to
make sense, you need to specify exactly what your unit is.
A unit is a specific measure of a physical quantity used to compare the measures of
the physical quantity of other objects. For example, by specifying that the pole is three
meters, you mean that the pole was three times as large as a meter stick(so that three
meter sticks can be stacked up upon one another and equal the height of the pole). When
you do this, there is no ambiguity except in the deeper question of, “what is a meter?”
Example Compare the height of a dog that is 3.5 feet tall to a cat that is 1 foot tall.
Solution We have
Dog0 sHeight 3.5[f t] 3.5 7

0
= = =
Cat sHeight 1[f t] 1 2
♣
SI Units The most accepted system of units is the International System of Units or
the SI unit system as it is called. The most important SI units are the SI base units and
they are:
SI unit abbr. Measures what

kilogram kg mass
meter m length
second s time
ampere A electric current
kelvin K temperature
candela cd brightness
mole mol amount of substance
Table 1.1.: SI base units
In this book, all units will be put into brackets, for example
7
3[meter] = 3[m]
The reason these seven units are called SI base units is because that every other unit
can defined in the form of
(number)[kg]a [m]b [s]c [A]d [K]e [cd]f [mol]g
Where a, b, c, d, e, f, g are all rational numbers. For example, the Joule, the SI unit for
energy is defined as
[J] = 1[kg]1 [m]2 [t]−2
Converting Units For a physical quantity, there can be multiple units of measures.
This may lead to a problem. Luckily, we can covert units easily with a unit conversion
equation which are equations that are usually in the form of
[a] = x[b]
Where x is a real number.(Note: This does not true for all units, but it is true for most.
A more general UCE equation will not be discussed in order to preserve simplicity).
For example,
[yard] = .9144[m]
Example Convert 3[m][s]−1 into terms of [yard][min]−1 .
Solution
[yard] [min] −1
3[m][s]−1 = 3( )( ) = 196.85[yard][min]−1
.9144 60
♣
Units derived by SI units Here is a table
8
Figure 1.1.: SI prefixes, retrieved from http://www.unitarium.com/si-prefixes on March

20, 2010
One example should be enough
[decagram] == [dag] = 10[gram]
1.2. Dimensional Analysis

Base and Derived Dimensions Every physical measurement has a corresponding di-
mension. A dimension is basically what the measurement measures. However, it should
also be thought of as a unit whose exact value is unknown. The following is a list of base
dimensions
9
Symbol Measures What SI unit

[M] Mass [kilogram]
[L] Length [meter]
[T] Time [second]
[θ] Temperature [kelvin]
[I] Electric Current [ampere]
1 Angles, dimensionless radian
Table 1.2.: Base Dimensions
These are called base dimensions because, like base units, all other dimensions can be
written as
[M ]a [L]b [T ]c [θ]d [I]e
Where a, b, c, d, e are rational numbers. For example,
Dimension Measures What

[L][T ]−1 Velocity/Speed
[L][T ]−2 Acceleration
[L]3 Volume
[M ][L][T ]−2 Force
[M ][L]2 [T ]−2 Energy/Work
[M ][L]2 [T ]−2 [θ]−1 Entropy
[T ][I] Charge
Table 1.3.: Derived Dimensions
How to find dimensions of an expression You can find the dimensions of an algebraic
expression by replacing each physical quantity by its corresponding dimension. For
example if v has the dimension [L][T ]−1 and t has the dimension of [T ] then v 2 t3 has the
dimension
([L][T ]−1 )2 ([T ])3 = [L]2 [T ]
Example What is the SI unit of entropy?
Solution Replace the dimensions of entropy in Table 1.3 with the respective units to
get
[kg][m]2 [s]−2 [K]−1 = [J][K]−1
So that the SI unit of entropy is Joules-per-Kelvin. ♣
10
Example Show that the equation E = mc2 (Energy is equal to mass times the speed
of light squared) is dimensionally consistent.
Solution The dimension of E (energy) is [M ][L]2 [T ]−2 The dimension of mc2 is
[M ]([L][T ]−1 )2 = [M ][L]2 [T ]−2
Since E and mc2 share the same dimension, then the equation E = mc2 is dimen-
sionally consistent. If the equation was dimensionally inconsistent (having different
dimensions), then it the equation is automatically wrong and no further verification is
needed.
Adding/Subtracting Dimensions As we see, we can multiply and divide units and

dimensions together. However, can we add and subtract dimensions. Does [L] + [T ]
make sense? No, it is like adding apples to oranges. You can divide [L] and [T ] and
get an expression for speed. However, you can add and subtract dimensions assuming
that it is the same dimension. Remember that, since the exact value of the dimension
is arbitrary, we have
[L] + [L] = [L]
Which is untrue for units, since
[m] + [m] = 2[m]
We also would say that

[L] − [L] = [L]
The reason is because we are replacing physical quantities with their corresponding
dimensions. For example, if we want to find the dimensions of
5[s] − 2[s]
Then clearly the resultant dimension is [T ] since 3[s] has the dimensions of [T ]. How-
ever, if we use our systematic method of replacing the individual quantities by their
dimension, we get
[T ] − [T ]
Clearly, this is a problem, so we say that [T ] − [T ] = [T ] + [T ] = 500[T ] = [T ]. This is

true because, as we saw before, the resultant quantity has a dimensions. This is because
we ignore the magnitudes in dimensional analysis.
Example In the equation v = C1 t2 + C2 , where v has the dimension [L][T ]−1 and t
has the dimension [T ] , find the dimensions of C1 and C2 in order for the equation to be
dimensionally consistent. What is their SI units?
11
Solution Since we are adding quantities, the dimensions of C1 t2 and C2 must have the
same dimension as v. Immediately, we get the dimensions of C1 to be [L][T ]−1 and it’s SI
unit is meters-per-second. The dimension of C1 t2 is also [L][T ]−1 so that the dimension
of C1 is
[L][T ]−1
= [L][T ]−3
[T ]2
So that it’s SI unit is [m][s]−3 . ♣
Transcendental Functions An angle is a dimensionless quantity, that means that any

angle could be measured without specifying a quantity. You are probably thinking, but
what about degrees, radians, gradians, etc? Well, these units are dimensionless. In other
words, they are not truly units but they are just numbers. The standard “unit” of an
1
angle is a radian, which is 2π of a revolution. This is because, mathematically,
1rad = 1
180 ◦
Therefore the, “rad unit” is redundant. Since 1rad = π , we have
π
1◦ = ≈ 0.0174532925
180
Perhaps you are unconvinced. Let me show you some proof that angles are dimen-
sionless. In calculus, one can show that
x3 x5 x7 x9
sin(x) = x − + − + − ...
3! 5! 7! 9!
If x, an angle, had a dimension, say [α], then the first term of the series would have
the dimension [α], the second would have the dimension [α]3 , the third would have the
dimension [α]5 , and so on. However, each term must have the same dimension if sin(x)
is to make sense. Therefore, we have
[α] = [α]3 = [α]5 = ...
The only way this equation is true is if [α] = 1([α] = 0 would be nonsensical).
A transcendental function are those functions which are weird(technically, not ex-
pressible using a finite number of algebraic operations). They include the trigonometric
functions, the hyperbolic functions(cosh(x), sinh(x), tanh(x)), exponential and logarith-
mic functions, as well as functions like f (x) = xx , and f (x) = xπ .
There are two rules for transcendental functions:
1. The arguments(“x-value” or impute) must be dimensionless.
2. The value of the function itself must be dimensionless.
The proof of these rules are technical and is left for a more rigorous course in dimensional
analysis.
12
Example Let x have the dimension [L],and h have the dimension [M ][L]2 and that
x = C1 cos(C2 h2 )
Find the dimensions of C1 , and C2 .
Solution cos(C2 h2 ) must be dimensionless since it is a transcendental function. There-

fore, the dimension of C1 is the same as x, which is [L]. Since cos(C2 h2 ) is transcen-
dental, its argument, C2 h2 must be dimensionless so that, plugging in the dimensions,
we have [C2 ]([M ][L]2 )2 = 1 where [C2 ] is the dimension of C2 . Therefore, we have
[C2 ] = [M ]−2 [L]−4
13
Part I.
Classical Mechanics
14
Classical Mechanics is the study of the motion and interactions of “macroscopically

small” objects that we call classical particles. These are objects that are small enough
such that its internal substructure is too small to affect its motion, but is large enough to
ignore any quantum mechanical effects. As you can see, a classical particle is a subjective
term. For example, we could take the planet Jupiter and the Sun to be classical particles
when we want to analyze Jupiter’s orbit. Of course, they are by no means “small,” but
what the motion of gasses in Jupiter does not effect its orbit a whole lot. However, if we
want a more detailed description of Jupiter, we need to consider it as a large collection
of other classical particles. So the more classical particles we use for calculation would
make the work more tedious, but would give us a deeper level of analysis. However, if
we want to discuss the chemical reactions going on in Jupiter, then we must take into
considerations of Quantum Mechanics seems Classical Mechanics looses validity when
the system we consider is small.
Sir Issac Newton, in 1687, published the Principia Mathematica which discusses the
three most basic properties of classical particles this expanded on Galileo’s theory of
Relativity. His ideas were expanded by his rival Leibniz, where he first proposed the
possibility of energy. Later mathematicians, such as Euler and Laplace mathematically
expanded on Newtonian Mechanics.
Joseph-Louis Lagrange, William Rowan Hamilton, and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi
completely reformulated mechanics, and provided an alternative formulation of classical
mechanics which all rivaled Newtonian Mechanics. Lagrange proposed that each classical
system has a Lagrangian function which is a function of position, velocity, and time, and
this equation satisfies the Euler-Lagrange Equation which is coordinate invariant. This
formulation is Lagrangian Mechanics. Hamilton and Jacobi came up with Hamiltonian
Mechanics which is based on a general form of the Conservation of Energy, and the
Hamilton’s Equations of Motion shows a deep symplectic structures.
Research in Mathematical Classical Mechanics boomed during the 20th century. Al-
bert Einstein shown that Galilean Relativity only worked for low velocities and came up
with his own theories of relativity which united Classical Mechanics with Macroscopic
Electrodynamics. Emmy Noether was probably the smartest woman of her time and
came up with Noether’s Theorem which related symmetry and dynamical conservation
in Lagrangian Mechanics. The Soviet Union fostered a genius known as Vladamir Arnold
who proved KAM theory, which was about stability of motions in integrable systems in
Hamiltonian mechanics. He also formulated Vakonomic Mechanics. Yoichiro Nambu,
who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2008, generalized Hamiltonian Mechanics by
using multiple Hamiltonians. This is known as Nambu Mechanics.
Research in Classical Mechanics still continues. Of course, it is mostly taken by
mathematical physicists. Although this is the most fundamental field of physics, it is
the most complicated, mathematically. In this book, you will barely be introduced to the
main concepts of Newtonian Mechanics. If you decide to do research in this expanding
field, a lot more learning must be done. Also, even if you plan to be a chemist, engineer,
experimental physicist, or doing high level research in biology, you should be acquainted
with Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Mechanics. Some books for further reading would
include:
15
Classical Dynamics: A Contemporary Approach - Jorge V. José and Eugene J. Saletan

Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics- Vladamir Arnold(yes, THE Vladamir
Arnold)
16
2. Motion in 1-space
2.1. Position and Velocity
1-Space 1-Space is simply a line with the dimension of [L].
Figure 2.1.: A line
It is possible to make this line the real number line by:
1. Choose an origin of the line, denote it by “0.”
2. Choose a scaling factor, this is the distance between two integral values of the line.
Usually we would choose the meter, since it is an SI unit.
3. Denote which side of the origin will be positive and which is negative.
The result may look something like this
ͲϵͲϴͲϳͲϲͲϱͲϰͲϯͲϮͲϭϬϭϮϯϰϱϲϳϴϵ
Figure 2.2.: A real number line
Now we can describe each point on the line with a number and a unit. For example,
if P is at 3[m] and if Q is at 7[m] then the distance between P and Q is
|3[m] − 7[m]| = 4[m]
Displacements Time, is also a line, but with the dimension of [T ], so that an interval
in time in incomparable to an interval in space. We measure time in seconds. A classical
particle is an object which occupies a point in space which is based on a point in time.
This means that position is a function of time, so we write it as x(t). The change in
time between two points in time is represented by 4t (“delta t”)
4t = t2 − t1
Where t1 and t2 are points in time and t2 > t1 so that 4t > 0. The corresponding
change in position is given as
17
4x = x(t2 ) − x(t1 )
It should be noted that, even though 4t is positive, 4x could be positive or negative.

It would be negative if x(t1 ) < x(t2 ) which would mean that the particle is moving
backwards. It would be zero if the particle is stationary.
Example The motion of a particle is given by x(t) = 8t, find 4x if 4t = 3. Also, graph
the motion.
Solution 4t = t2 − t1 = 3 so that t2 = 3 + t1 which means that
4x = x(3 + t1 ) − x(t1 ) = 8(3 + t1 ) − 8(t1 ) = 8(3) = 24[m]
(Note: The units will be assumed to be SI and will be omitted except for the last
step.)
The graph of this is
Figure 2.3.: The graph of x(t)=8t
Where the horizontal axis is the time-axis and the vertical axis is the space-axis. ♣
Example Let t1 = 1 and x = 2t2 , find 4x in terms of 4t. Find 4x/4t, what happens
to it when 4t is really small?
Solution (notice that, in this case, 4t = t2 − 1)
18
Average Speed and Velocity
4x = x(4t + 1) − x(1) = 2(4t + 1)2 − 2 = 2(4t)2 + 4(4t)
Also,
4x
= 24t + 4
4t
If 4t is really small, then
4x
≈ 4[m][s]−1
4t
♣
We define the average velocity on the time interval from t1 to t2 to be the quantity
4x x(t2 ) − x(t1 )
vav = =
4t t2 − t1
Notice that vav could be positive, negative, or zero. Positive if the particle is going
forward overall, negative if it going backwards overall, and stationary if, overall, it was
stationary.
The average speed is the quantity
distance going forward+distance going backwards total distance traveled
sav = =
total time taken 4t
Example The shuttle run is where an athlete goes back and forth from point A to point
B, then go back to A, then repeat the process to end up back in A, if AB = 27.4[m]
and John does the entire run in nine seconds. What is his average velocity for the first
of the four parts of the sprint if he did it in two seconds? What is his average velocity
for the entire run? What is his average speed?
Solution We have
27.4[m]
vav = = 13.7[m][s]−1
2[s]
for the first part of the sprint.
Full the full part of the shuttle run, we have
vav = 0
This is because 4x = 0 since his starting point is the same as his ending point.
His average speed for the entire course is
4(27.4)
sav = = 23.28[m][s]−1
9
♣
19
Example In a ten mile run, Alex ran the first part with the average velocity for
4[m][s]−1 , his leg got cramped so he ran the last lap with the average velocity of 2[m][s]−1 .
What is his average velocity for the entire course?
Solution We have(Noting that ten miles is 16093.4 meters)

8046.7
v1 = =4
4t1
and that
8046.7
v2 = =2
4t2
So that 4t1 = 2011.7[s] and that 4t2 = 4023.4 So that the average velocity for the
entire run is
16093.4
vav = = 2.6666[m][s]−1
2011.7 + 4023.4
Notice that the average velocity is not the average of the velocities for the two halves
which you may have, wrongly, thought. ♣
Instantaneous Velocity Instantaneous velocity or simply, velocity, is the quantity
dx ∆x x(t) − x(t0 )
v(t) = = lim = lim
dt t→0 ∆t t0 →t t − t0
The notation
dx
dt
stands for the derivative of x(t) with respect to time. If you have never seen it before,
I suggest you start learning.
Example Let x(t) = t3 . Find the average velocity for the time intervals a) (3.5,4.5), b)
(3.9,4.1) c) (3.99,4.01) and d) find the instantaneous velocity at t = 4[s]
3 3
−3.5 3 3 3 3
Solution a) 4.5 −1 b) 4.1 −3.9 = 48.01[m][s]−1 c) 4.01 −3.99 =
4.5−3.5 = 48.25[m][s] 4.1−3.9 4.01−3.99
48.0001[m][s]−1 d) As you see, as the interval of time closes in on t = 4[s] we intu-
itively have vav → 48[m][s]−1 so that we would have v(4) = 48[m][s]−1 . This could also
be accomplished by using the “power rule” which states that, given a real number, n, we
have
d n
(t ) = ntn−1
dt
So that v(4) = 3(4)3−1 = 48[m][s]−1
20
Graphical Interpretation of Velocity As we have seen from the last example,
v(t0 ) = lim vav

∆t→0
Where t0 ∈ (t1 , t2 ) and 4t = t2 − t1 . It is clear vav is the slope of the line connecting
the space time points (t1 , x(t1 )) and (t2 , x(t2 )). Therefore, it is intuitively clear that
the velocity at t0 is the slope of the line connecting (t0 , x(t0 )) and a point on the graph
of x(t) which is “infinitely close” to (t0 , x(t0 )). Graphically speaking, this describes the
slope of the line tangent to x(t) and t0 . The tangent line at t0 is basically a line that
intersects the point (t0 , x(t0 )) and lies “tangent” to the curve.
Example In the figure below, the dotted line is tangent to the graph of x(t) at the
point (2.5, 3) and it intersects the x-axis at (0, 3.8), find v(2.5).
Figure 2.4.:
Solution v(2.5) is equal to the slope of the tangent line at t = 2.5[s] which happens to
be that dotted. Since we know two points on the tangent line, finding its slope is trivial.
2.5 − 3.8
v(2.5) = = −.433[m][s]−1
3−0
This means that the particle is going backwards at t = 2.5[s]
Example The equation of the dotted line below is 3[s]. When is the particle going
forward, backwards, and when is it stationary?
21
Figure 2.5.:
Solution By drawing the tangent lines we obtain this figure
Figure 2.6.:
We see that the the tangent line at t = 3[s] is horizontal, which means that v(3) = 0
so that the particle is stationary at that time. At t < 3[s] we see that the slope of the
tangent lines are positive so that v would be negative there so that the particle is moving
forward at t < 3[s]. At t > 3[s], the tangent lines are negative so that the particle is
moving backwards on this interval.
22
Instantaneous speed We define the instantaneous speed by
s = lim sav
∆t→0
We will rewrite this as

dxf dxy
s= +
dt dt
Where xf is the distance going forward along the interval (t1 , t2 ) and xb is the distance
going backwards. But remember, that we are taking t2 − t1 → 0 so that the interval
is getting smaller. This would mean that we MUST have xb xf = 0 along this interval.
The reason is because as (t1 , t2 ) gets smaller and tightens towards t0 , we would expect
vav to converge to a number assuming v(t0 ) exists(which we will assume). There are two
possibilities
1. There exists an interval (t2 , t1 ) which contains t0 such that either the particle is
moving forwards, backwards, or is stationary throughout the ENTIRE interval.
This would mean that xb xf = 0 along this interval. Obviously, if we make the
interval smaller, then the resultant would be the same, either the particle is moving
forward or moving backwards or is stationary, but not any combination of these. If
the particle is moving forwards(v > 0), then dx = dxf so that v = s. If the particle
is moving backwards(v < 0), then dxb = −dx so that s = −v. Clearly, this would
mean that s = |v|.
2. There exists no interval containing t0 such that it is only moving forwards, back-
wards, or stationary throughout the interval. In this case there exists NO velocity.
The reason for this is because at the immediate right and left of t0 , we would have
the average velocities have different signs. This means that it will not converge to
any instantaneous velocity. Since we will always assume that velocity exists, this
is nonsense.
In conclusion, we have the instantaneous speed to be
s(t) = |v(t)|
2.2. Acceleration
Average Acceleration The average acceleration of a particle along the time interval of
(t1 , t2 ) is defined as
v(t2 ) − v(t1 ) 4v
aav = =
t2 − t1 4t
Example A car accelerates from 0[mi]/[hr] to 60[mi][hr] in 5 seconds, assuming con-

stant acceleration, how long would it take the car to move at a billion miles-per-hour?
23
Solution We have
60 − 0
aav = = 60([mi][hr]−1 )[s]−1 = 216000[mi][hr]−2
5
So that
1000000000 − 60
216000 =
4t
4t = 4629.6[hr] ≈ 193[days]
Example Look at the below figure, The blue and red lines intersect x(t) at (−1, 2) and
(5, 1), respectively, and has the x-axis intercepts of (0, 2.5) and (0, 5) respectively, what
is the average acceleration between t = −1[s] and t = 5[s]?
Figure 2.7.:
Solution We have v(−1) = 2.5−2

0−(−1) = .5[m][s]−1 and v(5) = 5−1
0−5 = −.8[m][s]−1 so that
−.8 − .5
aav = = −.217[m][s]−2
5 − (−1)
♣
Instantaneous Acceleration We define acceleration to be

dv d2 x
a(t) = = 2
dt dt
24
Example The position of a block connected to a spring is given by x(t) = 3cos(2t), find
its acceleration at t = 2[s].
Solution
d
v(t) = (3cos(2t)) = −6sin(2t)
dx
d
a(t) = (−6sin(2t)) = −12sin(2t)
dx
a(s) = −12sin(4) = 9.082[m][s]−2
Example Look at the figure below, describe the acceleration.
Figure 2.8.:
Solution Where the graph is cuped downwards(“concave down”) on the left, a < 0.
Where the graph is cuped upwards(“concave up”), a > 0. The point between the concaves
where the graph is strait, a = 0. ♣
2.3. Constant Acceleration

Suppose acceleration is constant for example, a = 3[m][s]−2 , it is easy to see that
a = 3 = aav
In this section, we explore equations in which acceleration is constant. For the follow-
ing sections, this notation will be used:
25
1. Acceleration, Average Acceleration: a
2. Velocity: v = v(t)
3. Initial Velocity v0 = v(0)
4. Position: x(t)
5. Initial Position: x0 = x(0)
6. Change in Velocity: 4v = v − v0
7. Change in Position: 4x = x − x0
4x
8. Average velocity: vav = t
Velocity, Initial Velocity, Acceleration, Time The equation that relates these quanti-
ties is
v = v0 + at
The proof is simple, since constant acceleration equals average acceleration, we have
v − v0
a=
t
And the equation follows immediately.
Position, Initial Position, Time, Acceleration, Initial Velocity The equation for relat-
ing these quantities during constant acceleration is
1
4x = x − x0 = v0 t + at2
2
The proof is less simple, but is doable. If you differentiate with respect to time, you
get
dx
= v0 + at
dt
which is the first equation, also x0 and v0 t appeared due to integration. This is because
Z Z
dx
dt = (v0 + at)dt
dt
1
x − x0 = v0 t + at2
2
26
Velocity, Average Velocity, Initial Velocity For constant acceleration, the equation
relating these quantities is
1
vav = (v0 + v)
2
The proof is simple this time, start with the last equation
1
4x = x − x0 = v0 t + at2
2
Then divide by t ,
4x 1 1 1
= vav = v0 + at = v0 + (v − v0 ) = (v + v0 )
t 2 2 2
Velocity, Initial Velocity, Acceleration, Position, Initial Position The equation relat-
ing these quantities is
v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 ) = v02 + 2a4x

The proof is easy. From the last equation and the very first equation
1 1 v − v0 v 2 − v02
4x = vav t = (v0 + v)t = (v0 + v) =
2 2 2a 2a
In which our equation follows
2.4. Some Examples

A Note on Gravity Near Earth we find that there is a constant vertically downwards
acceleration due to gravity. So that
a = −g
g is Earth’s Gravitational Constant.
Experimentally, it has been found that
g = −9.8[m][s]−2
Example John Roberts is a hardy cowboy, trying to drive the Indians out of the county.
During a battle between the Indians, Roberts, and several of his fellow cowboys, Roberts
was shot in the leg with an arrow which lodged five centimeters into the flesh of his thigh.
If the deceleration of the arrow was at a constant 18, 000[m][s]−2 , how fast was the arrow
the moment it pierced Robert’s thigh? How long did it take?
Solution We have
02 = v02 − 18000(.05)
so that
v0 = 30[m][s]−1
♣
27
Example Alice threw a ball strait up at the speed of 25[m][s]−1 , what is its maximum
height? How long does it take to get to the maximum height?
Solution Notice that, on the ball’s maximum height, the velocity would be zero since
it is the moment between when the ball is moving up and when it is moving down
−v02 −625
4x = = = 31.9[m]
2a 2(−9.8)
0 − 25
t= = 2.55[s]
−g
♣
Example A ball is released from a building, how long does it take for it to fall h meters?
Solution
1
−h = − gt2
2
s
2h √
t= = .451754 h
g
Example A car is speeding at 100 mi/hr. A police car spots him, he accelerates at a
constant rate of 4[m][s]−2 and his car has a max speed of 120[mi][hr], if it takes the
policeman 8 seconds to react to the speeder, how long would it take to catch him after
he his car starts moving?
Solution We have
2
xs = + 100t
9
And
1
xp = (15)t2 = 7.5t2
2
However, since v < 120 , we have
v − v0 v
t= = < .0149[hr]
8053 8053
28
So that xp (.0149) = .0016651. However, xs (.01491) = 1.712222 So that the speeder is

1.711[mi] ahead. The new equations of motion becomes
xs = 1.711 + 100t0
xp = 120t0
so that t0 = .08555[hr] so that
t = .10045[hr] = 6.03[min]
♣
2.5. Integration
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that if
dF (t)
f (t) =
dt
Then Z t2
f (t)dt = F (t2 ) − F (t1 ) = F (t)|tt21
t1
WhereR
t
What t12 f (t)dt can be thought of is the area enclosed t = t1 , t = t2 ,f = 0, and f (t)
on any interval in [t1 , t2 ] where f (t) > 0 minus the area enclosed by t = t1 ,t = t2 , f = 0,
and f (t) on any interval in [t1 , t2 ] where f (t) < 0
This can be applied to Physics, because it would mean that 4x = x(t2 ) − x(t1 ) is the
quantity
Z t2
v(t)dt
t1
It would also mean that Z t2

4v = a(t)dt
t1
Example The velocity of a particle is given by

v = t3 + 2cos(t)
Find 4x for the interval [1, 6]. (All in SI units)
Solution
Z 6 6
3 1 4
4x = (t + 2cos(t))dt = t + 2sin(t) = 320.76[m]
1 4 1
29
Example Let a particle move at constant speed, v, show that t 4x = v4t using
integration
Solution
Z t2
4x = vdt = (vt)|tt21 = v(t2 − t1 )
t1
Example Look at the figure below, compute 4x = x(a) − x(−a) for all times a.
Figure 2.9.:
Solution It seems that the function, v(t), has “odd symmetry.” In otherwords, v(−t) =
−v(t). Therefore, we have
Z a Z a Z 0 Z a Z 0 Z a Z a
4x = v(t)dt = v(t)dt− −v(t)dt = v(t)dt− v(−t)dt = v(t)dt− v(−t)d(−t) = 0
−a 0 −a 0 −a 0 0
30
3. Motion in N-space
3.1. Axioms of Vectors in N-Space
Definition of N-Space We denote N-space by RN where N is a natural number. RN
is a set of ordered N-tuples of real numbers. In other words, every element in RN can
be represented by the quantity (x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) where x1 , x2 , ..., xN are all numbers. It
should be noted that order does matter. So that the equation
(x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) = (y1 , y2 , ..., yN )
implies that x1 = y1 , x2 = y2 , ..., xN = yN It should be noted that no point in N-space

could possibly be equal to any point in M-space unless, possibly, if N = M . Points in
N-space are known as N-vectors.
Representing Vectors In mathematics, shorthand is useful. There are two main ways
to write a vector quantity. One way is to write it as a bold number. Therefore, when
you see something like x or J then you know that they are vectors(or matricies, but we
will not get into that). Another wat of writing vectors is putting an arrow above the
→
−
quantity so that you know that →−x or J are both vectors, most physics books chooses
this as the standard. One can, if he likes, to do both so that there is no ambiguidy, so
→
−
that →
−x and J are both vectors. In this book, vectors will be denoted by bold letters.
Addition and Subtraction in N-Space Like real numbers, vectors of RN can be added
or subtracted, this is done by adding each component of the vector. Thus,
(x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) + (y1 , y2 , ..., yN ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ..., xN + yN )
It should be noted that many properties of addition carry into RN , for example,
commutativity is preserved so that x + y = y + x. Also, associativity is also preserved
so that (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
Vector subtraction is similarly defined. We have
(x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) − (y1 , y2 , ..., yN ) = (x1 − y1 , x2 − y2 , ..., xN − yN )
Example Find the zero vector for N-space. In other words, find the vector, 0, such
that x + 0 = x for all x in RN .
31
Solution It is not hard at all to show that
0 = (0, ..., 0)
| {z }
N
Scaler Multiplication in N-Space Let c be a real number, which we call a scaler,

and x = (x1 , ..., xN ) be a vector, we can multiply them togather which is equivalent to
multiplying each component of x by c so that
cx = (cx1 , ..., cxN )
Vector Bases Let us define N vectors in N-space by e1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, ..., 0) , e2 =

(0, 1, 0, 0, ..., 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1, 0, ..., 0),...,eN = (0, 0, 0, ...0, 1). These vectors are known
as a basis for RN , it also known as vector components. Any vector in N-space, such as
x = (x1 , ..., xN ), can be written in terms of the N basis vectors.
x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + ...xN eN
In 2-space, we often use different notation , having i = e1 (not to be confused with the
imaginary unit), and j = e2 . In 3-space we also have k = e3
Example Write 3(2, 1, 0) + (1, 0, −4) in terms of vector components.
Solution We have
(3(2) + 1)i + (3(1) + 0)j + (3(0) − 4)k = 7i + 3j − 4k
The Dot Product and the Norm of Vectors Let x = (x1 , ..., xN ) and y = (y1 , ..., yN ),
then the dot product the vectors is defined by
x · y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + ...xN yN
Please note that the dot product of two vectors is a scaler. The Norm of a vector,
x = (x1 , ..., xN ), is
√ q
|x| = x · x = x21 + x22 + ...x2N
The norm of a vector is also a scaler. If x · y = 0, then x and y are said to be

orthogonal vectors.
Example Let x = (3, 7) and y = (5, −2), find |x|(x · y)
32
√ √
Solution We √ have |x| = 32 + 7 2 = 58 and x · y = (3)(5) + (7)(−2) = 1 so that
|x|(x · y) = 58♣
Properties of the Dot Product These are a list of properties of the dot product and
norms. There are unproven, however, you should know enough to be able to prove all of
them.
1. x · x ≥ 0
2. x · y = y · x
3. z · (x + y) = z · x + z · y
4. (cx) · y = c(x · y) = x · (cy)
The Cross Product The cross product, x × y, between two 3-vectors, x = (x1 , x2 , x3 )
and y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) is defined to be the vector
x × y = (x2 y3 − y2 x3 )i + (x1 y3 − y1 x3 )j + (x1 y2 − y1 x2 )k
You do not need to memorize this formula if you know a thing or two about the deter-
minants of matricies, it is true that
 
i j k
x × y = det  x1 x2 x3 
y1 y2 y3
Properties of the Cross Product

1. x × y = −x × y
2. x × (y + z) = x × y + x × z
3. (x + y) × z = x × z + y × z
4. c(x × y) = (cx) × y = x×(cy)
Vector Valued Functions Let R denote the real number line. Most functions we have
encountered has a domain(set of imputs) of I , a subset of R, and have the corrosponding
range to be K, another subset of R. However, what if K was a subset of RN ? We would
habe the imput of the function be a real number and the output of a function be a
vector. Every vector valued function can be written as(in 3-space)
f (t) = fx (t)i + fy (t)j + fz (t)k

Where fx , fy , fz are the component functions of f . We can differentiate f with respect
to t , this is defined as
df dfx dfy dfz
= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt dt
33
Example Let f (x) = x3 i + 2x2 j + 5k and g(x) = x6 i + cos(x)j, find
d
(f (x) × g(x))
dx
Solution We have
f ×g = ((2x2 )(0)−5cos(x), (x3 )(0)−5x6 , (x3 )(cos(x))−x6 (2x2 )) = (−5cos(x), −5x6 , x3 cos(x)−2x16 )
So that
d
(f (x) × g(x)) = 5sin(x)i − 30x5 j + (3x2 cos(x) − x3 sin(x) − 32x15 )k
dx
♣
Differentiation of Cross and Dot Products The following rules are true
d df dg
1. dt (f · g) = dt ·g+f · dt
d df dg
2. dt (f × g) = dt ×g +f × dt
34
4. Newton’s Laws of Motion
35
5. Applications of Newton’s Laws
36
6. Conservation of Energy
37
7. Mechanical Systems
38
8. Rotational Dynamics
39
9. Classical Gravity
40
10. Statics and Elasticity
41
11. Relativity Theory
42
12. Modern Physics: Canonical Mechanics
43
Part II.
Oscillations and Acoustics
44
13. Simple Harmonic Motion
45
14. Damped Oscillations
46
15. Transverse Waves
47
16. Longitudinal Waves
48
17. Transverse Waves
49
18. Pulses
50
19. Modern Physics: Wave Mechanics
51
Part III.
Quantum Physics
52
20. The Problem
53
21. Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
54
22. Quantum Potential Energy
55
23. Quantum-Mechanical Systems
56
24. Quantum Mechanics in 3-space
57
25. Angular Momentum
58
26. Spin
59
27. Applications to Chemistry
60
28. Modern Physics: Quantum Gravity
61
Part IV.
Fluid Mechanics and

Thermodynamics
62
29. Fluid Mechanics
63
30. First Law of Thermodynamics
64
31. Second Law of Thermodynamics
65
32. Modern Physics: Statistical Mechanics
66
Part V.
Electromagnetism and Optics
67
33. The Electric Field
68
34. Gauss’s Law
69
35. Capacitance
70
36. Electric Currents
71
37. The Magnetic Field
72
38. Magnetic Induction
73
39. Inductance
74
40. Maxwell’s Equations
75
41. Optics
76
42. Modern Physics: General Relativity and
Cosmology
77
A. Math Reference
78
B. Unit Conversion
79
C. Astronomical Data
80
D. The Periodic Table
81
E. Where do I go now?
82
Index
1-Space, 17
acceleration, 24
average acceleration, 23
Average Speed, 19
Average Velocity, 19
Classical Mechanics, 15
dimension, 9
International System of Units, 7
unit, 7
velocity, 20
83

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Introductory Physics

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Introductory Physics

March 22, 2010

1. Prelude: Units and Dimensions 7

4. Newton’s Laws of Motion 35

5. Applications of Newton’s Laws 36

10.Statics and Elasticity 41

12.Modern Physics: Canonical Mechanics 43

II. Oscillations and Acoustics 44

13.Simple Harmonic Motion 45

19.Modern Physics: Wave Mechanics 51

III. Quantum Physics 52

21.Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 54

22.Quantum Potential Energy 55

24.Quantum Mechanics in 3-space 57

28.Modern Physics: Quantum Gravity 61

IV. Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 62

30.First Law of Thermodynamics 64

31.Second Law of Thermodynamics 65

32.Modern Physics: Statistical Mechanics 66

V. Electromagnetism and Optics 67

33.The Electric Field 68

37.The Magnetic Field 72

42.Modern Physics: General Relativity and Cosmology 77

D. The Periodic Table 81

Dog0 sHeight 3.5[f t] 3.5 7

SI unit abbr. Measures what

Table 1.1.: SI base units

(number)[kg]a [m]b [s]c [A]d [K]e [cd]f [mol]g

[J] = 1[kg]1 [m]2 [t]−2

Example Convert 3[m][s]−1 into terms of [yard][min]−1 .

Units derived by SI units Here is a table

Figure 1.1.: SI prefixes, retrieved from http://www.unitarium.com/si-prefixes on March

One example should be enough

[decagram] == [dag] = 10[gram]

1.2. Dimensional Analysis

Symbol Measures What SI unit

Table 1.2.: Base Dimensions

[M ]a [L]b [T ]c [θ]d [I]e

Where a, b, c, d, e are rational numbers. For example,

Dimension Measures What

Table 1.3.: Derived Dimensions

([L][T ]−1 )2 ([T ])3 = [L]2 [T ]

Example What is the SI unit of entropy?

[kg][m]2 [s]−2 [K]−1 = [J][K]−1

So that the SI unit of entropy is Joules-per-Kelvin. ♣

Solution The dimension of E (energy) is [M ][L]2 [T ]−2 The dimension of mc2 is

[M ]([L][T ]−1 )2 = [M ][L]2 [T ]−2

Adding/Subtracting Dimensions As we see, we can multiply and divide units and

[L] + [L] = [L]

Which is untrue for units, since

[m] + [m] = 2[m]

We also would say that

Clearly, this is a problem, so we say that [T ] − [T ] = [T ] + [T ] = 500[T ] = [T ]. This is

Transcendental Functions An angle is a dimensionless quantity, that means that any

[α] = [α]3 = [α]5 = ...

1. The arguments(“x-value” or impute) must be dimensionless.

2. The value of the function itself must be dimensionless.

Find the dimensions of C1 , and C2 .

Solution cos(C2 h2 ) must be dimensionless since it is a transcendental function. There-

Classical Mechanics is the study of the motion and interactions of “macroscopically

Classical Dynamics: A Contemporary Approach - Jorge V. José and Eugene J. Saletan

Figure 2.1.: A line

It is possible to make this line the real number line by:

1. Choose an origin of the line, denote it by “0.”