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COVER STORY:

Going Beneath the Surface of

Surface Finishes
Don Cullen

POSTED: 11/01/2002

Surface Mount. No-Clean Assembly. Pb-Free.

Optoelectronics. Surface Finishes. The topic of PCB
surface finishes has become one of the most widely discussed transitions in
electronics manufacturing. Want proof? Look to the number of magazine
articles. Look at any trade show's technical proceedings. Look at the
industry conferences held specifically on the topic. Why the enormous
interest in surface finishes? The Pb-Free transition partly explains the level
of interest. High-profile failures such as black-line nickel also draw
attention. Perhaps most importantly, OEMs are inordinately sensitive to the
solderable exterior of the PCB.

Figure 1. A PCB manufacturing process sequence.

Today's predominant PCB surface finishes include: Hot Air Solder Level
(HASL), Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP), Electroless Nickel
Immersion Gold (ENIG), Immersion Silver (ImmAg), Immersion Tin
(ImmSn), Reflowed Tin/Lead, Electrolytic Nickel Gold, and Electroless
Palladium.

Hot Air Solder Level (HASL) is by far

the most widely used board finish since
the transition to solder mask on bare
copper (SMOBC.) The previous finish of
choice, reflowed tin lead, was not
compatible with an overlay of
permanent mask. Even considering its
processing difficulties, HASL was ideal
Figure 2. Use of PCB surface finishes 2002
for the technology of the day. It est. (Source: IPC TMRC).
provided a durable protective coating.

However, times have changed. Now, with shrinking artwork and sensitive

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PCB substrates, many are looking to HASL alternatives. Why? Simply put,
HASL is widely despised. Operators of HASL live with a deafening set of
hellishly hot steel equipment that spews smoke and threatens to catch
aflame. The terrible conditions needed to attach a somewhat flattened blob
of molten solder to the board's surface wreak havoc on the equipment,
necessitating continuous maintenance.

Figure 3. HASL Presentation. (Photo A, B, C, D, E) and Blue Table.

Not that the production engineers are especially fond of sending their
precious boards through HASL. Those engineers have done their best to
manufacture an amazingly complex agglomeration of plastic and metal: the
bare PCB. Now they must submit their progeny to HASL, a process seeking
to delaminate innerlayers, lift off precariously adhered soldermask, and blow
apart that 0.001 inch of PTH copper. The board, if it survives, exits HASL
visibly scarred. The flat rectangular board may now be a cupped trapezoid;
its dimensions forever altered due to forces of hot air and metal above the
glass-transition temperature. Furthermore, the PCB will now pose an ionic
cleanliness challenge-that is, if the board avoided solder bridging at all.

Assembly engineers have mixed feelings about HASL boards. On the one
hand, they like the shelf-life of HASL parts. No special storage conditions
are required, and they're not especially sensitive to poor handling. In a
comment worthy of Yogi Berra, one assembly expert once quipped, "Nothing
solders like solder." The qualifier to this, of course, is that the solder has to
get to the correct part of the board. Plugged holes and solderpaste misprints
are decidedly unpleasant companions to HASL. We ask a lot of our precisely
manufactured stencils to gasket to bumpy HASL. It's like trying to wallpaper
a rough stucco.

The Rise and Fall of OSPs

Enough complaining. What can we do? Well, in the late 1980s and early
1990s, many engineers investigated the use of Organic Solder Preservatives
(OSP). Why use HASL to solder copper pads when the part is just going to
be soldered after component placement? The original idea behind OSP was
short-term protection of copper with an anti-tarnish. The nice, flat
organic-coated copper would then be ready for wave solder or SMT. Captive
manufactures such as AT&T and IBM had great success with the simple
monomolecular coatings imidazole and benzotriazole. At captive
manufacturing, the time between board fab and assembly was more easily
controlled. It was not unusual for a board manufactured in the morning to
be completely assembled in a nitrogen environment that same afternoon.

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Figure 4. OSP Presentation (Photos A, B, C, D, E) and Blue Table.

To extend the success of OSPs into longer storage requirements and

multiple-pass reflow, some clever chemists decided to combine the
functionality of imidazole and benzotriazole into a more durable material
called benzimidazole. This coating, the standard modern OSP, was thicker
and more tolerant of heat. The fabrication guys loved the process: simple,
fast, cheap and automated. By 1995, about one out of four PCBs was
finished with OSP.

Not all was happy in OSP-land, however. The chief reason was that
everyone demanded functions from OSP for which it was not designed. OSP
will not serve well as a contact surface, so the poor chemical suppliers were
inundated with requests to provide electrical testing without gumming up
the probes. Also, newly out-sourced fabricators were asked to provide
copper protection for a board that would be wrapped-up, shipped, handled,
and sit on a shelf for six months or more. Remember, original OSPs were
just anti-tarnishes for between processes at a captive OEM. Interest in OSP
peaked several years ago. OSP is still a major surface finish today, but other
HASL alternatives have taken market share. 2001 data shows OSP use
dropping below 10% of manufactured boards.

The Facts About Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold

The darling of the 1990s became electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG).
It's is a magical process. A tough layer of phosphorous-enriched
microcrystalline nickel, ten times thinner than a human hair, is miraculously
deposited on copper, all from a gurgling witches brew of misty green
wonderment. In apparent violation of nature's electromotive series, the
clever chemists trick the nickel by seeding the copper with scant bits of
catalyst, either palladium or ruthenium. And in the final triumph of alchemy,
the base metal nickel is transformed with two or so millionths of an inch of
gold. Somehow, this unimaginably tiny layer of gold provides nice protection
for the eager-to-oxidize nickel. As with all magic, this surface comes with a
price: it has taken teams of overworked engineers to tame the ENIG
processes for high-yield production.

Figure 5. ENIG Presentation (Photos A, B, C, D, E) and Blue Table.

Due to valiant efforts of suppliers and fabrication engineers, the ENIG

chemical process has matured and stabilized. And let's face it, there's
nothing prettier than gold circuitry on deep green soldermask. That is, as
long as the soldermask isn't falling off at post-ENIG tape testing. Yes, even
with major improvements, ENIG is a harsh, complicated process. There are
at least six main chemical steps in the ENIG deposition process. Each step

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requires two, three or four chemical concentrates each consisting of up to

twenty chemical ingredients. Murphy's Law predicts that this kind of
complexity will lead to problems. Boy is he right.

The failure modes associated with ENIG are numerous and frequent.
Soldermask lifting was the initial showstopper. Overplating can result in
shorts, impedance problems, and pieces of metal drifting around the
assembly. Hey, just stabilize the nickel and catalysis to decrease
overplating, right? Skip plating. The interaction complexity of catalysis,
rinsing, nickel stability and gold adhesion could fill volumes. The only
answer is process control. True, fabricators can ensure a good functional
ENIG coating with painstaking process control. What the industry has not
been able to ensure is the eradication of the mother of all PCB failure
modes: black-line nickel. This insidious corrosion of weak nickel by
aggressive gold results in BGAs popping off high-density, expensive
boards-sometimes after they are in service. One final ENIG problem worthy
of mention: studies have demonstrated that solderjoints formed with nickel
are not as tolerant of physical shock. For this reason, manufacturers of
devices that are frequently dropped, such as mobile phones and PDAs, will
prefer to solder to OSP, HASL, silver or tin.

The story is not all grim for ENIG. By some measures, it now commands
more market share than OSP. ENIG is the surface of choice for any board
that requires repeated surface contact functionality. ENIG is used for
touchpads, spring connectors, wiping contacts, and aluminum wirebonding.
Only the most difficult plug-in connectors will require electrolytic nickel gold.
However, there are signs that ENIG's popularity is waning. New immersion
metal finishes are appearing in mass-production. Silver and tin are the
industry's answer to the combined demands of fabricators, assemblers and
OEMs. Before discussing the details of the immersion processes, let's look to
what the industry demands from the "ideal surface finish."

The Ideal Finish? Industry's Demands

Fabricators have spoken, and they demand an automated, simple,
inexpensive process. Cost savings at fab is the key in today's market of
unprecedented competition. Immersion metal processing is cheaper not only
in chemical consumables, but in engineering support, equipment
amortization, utility and waste costs. On top of all these advantages are the
often-underestimated advantages of yield and reliability improvement. For
example, yield loss due to HASL bridging and ENIG skip-plating are entirely
eliminated. Simple, automated processes have fewer failure modes and
thereby provide a more predictable PCB. Murphy's law in action.

Assemblers have their own set of requirements. Perhaps most important to

an assembler is the ease of integration. Any new finish should be
"plug-n-play." SMT line operators do not have the luxury to track the
surface finish on incoming boards and react to its unique assembly
parameters. Any finish should be interchangeable with any other without
swapping out flux media, stencil apertures, nor thermal profiles. Beyond
ease of integration, assemblers are also most sensitive to surface flatness.
The amount of misprints associated with the poor gasketing of the stencil on
bumpy HASL pads is a reason for switching surface finish. Electrical contact
is yet another requirement of assembly. In-Circuit Test probes are not fond
of OSP due to organic insulation, while ENIG's underlying nickel may
actually be too hard for compliant pins.

Silver's flatness as well as its distinction as the most contact-conductive

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element provides appeal to assembly engineers. It achieves excellent ICT

results. Flux selection with silver, like ENIG, is not very important. Other
than providing heat-transfer, flux is intended to remove surface oxides.
Gold and silver do not form stable oxides. Thermal profiles are essentially
identical between all the flat finishes. There is some truth to the need for a
higher thermal profile when soldering ENIG due to the sluggish formation of
the Ni-Sn intermetallic. Silver and tin finishes have no such restrictions.
Most surface finishes have good compatibility with Pb-free pastes and
solders, as proven in the excellent work by Auburn University for PMTEC.

The topic of stencil selection does have a complication, however. When

switching from HASL to any of the flat finishes, some assemblers have
decided to create new stencils. Flat finishes do not contribute a mass of bulk
solder to the bare board. We have to make up for that lack of incoming
solder somehow. Wider apertures and/or thicker stencils may be needed to
allow for appropriate solder volume. Beware, however, of those inspectors
quick to claim that the flat finishes do not have as much solder spread.
Careful inspection of their HASL product may show that their paste spread
was not as complete as they imagined. New finishes simply allow for better
inspectability of OSP, ENIG, white tin or silver due to color contrasting with
shiny solder. Inspectability is a key concern of the assemblers. Soldermask
contamination on an OSP board is undetectable, and will lead to incomplete
soldering. Mask residue on HASL, ENIG, silver or tin will show up as
non-plated copper pads. These parts may then be rejected prior to
expensive component assembly.

Cost is King
Of course, the OEMs' demands rule. With OEM
procurement, cost is king. However, in the area
of PCB surface finishes, cost has little meaning.
Surface finishes represent a tiny portion of the
board cost. Some fabricators will attempt to
charge a premium for new board finishes; this is
mainly an effort to pay for any new equipment
needed. There are exceptions. The cost benefit
of OSP or immersion metal finishes over
electrolytic gold or selective finishes is
dramatic. For example, many mobile phone
parts are finished with OSP on soldered areas
and ENIG on touchpad surfaces. Use of a single
finish that provides a copper-tin solderjoint and is functional with keypad
contacts will save major processing dollars. Silver, in particular, has
demonstrated the ability to serve this purpose.

Reliability is a principal concern with equipment manufacturers. In the world

of surface finish soldering, there are two camps: copper-tin solderjoints and
nickel-tin intermetallic solderjoints. Much has been written on the
brittleness of the nickel-tin intermetallic and its lower tolerance to drop
tests. ENIG and electrolytic NiAu suffer from this limitation. Another
ailment, gold embrittlement (Au > 0.3%) does not typically occur with
ENIG, but does lower reliability of electrolytic (hard or soft) gold platings.
Other recent studies hypothesize that immersion gold may also embrittle
solderjoints once the gold migrates under long-term power application.

The distribution of metals within the solderjoint also hinders the OEMs
acceptance of electroless palladium. Palladium, applied as CuPd, NiPd,
CuPdAu or NiPdAu, appeared hugely promising in the mid-1990s. The latter

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finish, electroless nickel electroless palladium immersion gold, has been

termed "the universal finish." It offered all the advantages of ENIG with the
additional promise of gold wirebonding and the possibility for black-line
nickel prevention. Changes in the volatile palladium metal market have
priced this finish out of contention; it has nearly vanished from the face of
the earth. To add insult to injury, stories from the few unlucky engineers
who actually ran electroless palladium have deterred new volunteers.
Without wide production experience, we may never know the real limitations
of dissolving the palladium layer into the solderjoint and whether solderjoint
embrittlement concerns are justified.

The copper-tin solderjoint, consisting of Cu3Sn and Cu6Sn5, has triumphed

time and time again. This is borne out in solderball shear, tensile testing,
thermal cycling Weibull plots, high temperature operating life, drop testing,
vibration studies, among others. The surface finishes that deliver a
copper-tin solderjoint are HASL, OSP, immersion silver and immersion tin.
In strenuous testing, there is no significant difference between solderjoints
formed with these finishes, if correctly deposited and assembled.

OEMs also demand reliability in the surface contact functionality of any

exposed board finish. In many PCB assemblies, surface areas are
intentionally left unsoldered for various reasons. Touchpad contact surfaces
are the most obvious. Electrical test points, whether for in-circuit assembly
test or for long-term troubleshooting, are ubiquitous on today's designs. The
industry has witnessed a surge in solderless connectors. These may be
single-use or multiple mating. Some designs will call on the PCB finish to
make electrical contact with external enclosures for grounding or EMI
shielding. Press-fit compliant pins and wirebonds are other examples of the
increasing demand on surface finishes for added functionality. While ENIG is
the benchmark for many of these, the decision may be application specific.
For example, immersion tin provides superior compliant pin insertion and
retention characteristics, but may fail electrical test if the surface oxidizes.

One more high-profile issue with respect to electrical reliability:

electrochemical migration. Questions of electrochemical migration were
raised with the recent revival of silver as a PCB surface finish. By now, many
are familiar with the stories decades ago of dendrite formation on thick,
electrolytic silver used in high voltage switching apparatus. Acutely aware of
this experience, the industry has exhaustively tested the new immersion
silver finishes. Hundreds of studies conducted by the chemical suppliers,
fabricators, assemblers, OEMs, and independent labs have tested the heck
out of the new finishes. Telcordia's GR-78-CORE and IPC's TM-6502.6.14.1
detail the procedures. Even with such a reference list of migration studies,
some engineers remain reluctant to specify silver. The added burden of a UL
test specific to high-voltage devices may have slowed silver's penetration of
the surface finish market. UL recently provided some relief with
documentation changes.

Immersion Coating Process Details

The new immersion metal finishes were intended to answer the industry's
demands. They are especially attractive to PCB makers. Immersion metal
systems typically employ four chemical steps. Immersion metal baths also
rely on alchemy-like magic. If you take a piece of copper and dip it into an
aqueous solution of silver ions: Presto Chango! Within seconds the copper
will be coated with silver. Of course, there is some additional magic required
to provide bath stability and consistency; this is the realm of the patent
office. The tin bath is a bit more complicated due to the electromotive

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series. Tin is less noble than copper, so the chemists use thiourea
compounds to rearrange this troublesome roadblock. Significant amounts of
thiourea are needed. Besides other malodorous properties, thiourea is
accused of some deleterious health affects. On top of all this, it can attack
soldermask and poses a waste treatment concern. The chemical supply
industry works night and day to come up with a usable alternative for
thiourea compounds.

Figure 6. Immersion Tin (Photos A, B, C, D, E) and Blue Table.

Users of immersion tin need to understand two other widely discussed

limitations: whiskers and intermetallics. Copper-tin intermetallics form
simply due to the solid contact of these metals. The intermetallic layer is the
glue that allows for the relatively low temperature "welding" of the two
metals during soldering. An immersion tin surface on copper begins to form
intermetallics immediately after plating. The rate of formation appears to
follow a square-root function dependant solely on time and temperature.
There is absolutely no problem with the coating until intermetallics have
reached the surface and oxidize. A 1.0 micron coating of immersion tin will
last between six months and one year before multi-pass soldering becomes
a challenge.

The bizarre phenomenon called whiskering is linked to intermetallic

formation. The latest theories have it that intermetallics induce stress in
between the tin crystals. Stress causes movement, and as the grains slide,
they force single-crystal whiskers up to 200+ microns from the surface. The
concern is that broken whiskers can act to short-circuit closely spaced
conductors, change impedance values, or act as RF antennas. While
chemical and process changes have minimized immersion tin whiskers, no
one is ready to proclaim a completely whisker-free deposit. Certainly, the
industry appears able to work around the whisker and intermetallic
limitations. Immersion tin represents a small but quickly growing segment
of the market. Its advantages for flatness, quick wetting, process cost and
compliant pin functionality are compelling.

Figure 7. Immersion Silver (Photos A, B, C, D, E) and Blue Table.

Immersion Silver is a more direct chemical process, thereby avoiding some

of the problems of thiourea. The silver process is nearly identical to an OSP

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cycle and employs similar equipment. Some processes may be run in

vertical as well as conveyorized equipment, rendering it an easily installed
process. Chemical control and analysis is simple. The bath has nearly
indefinite life; drag-out of the low chemical concentrations quickly attain
steady-state operation. Surprisingly tolerant of routing and electrical test,
some care should be taken of silver in handling. It is more durable than OSP
but not quite as rugged as HASL or ENIG. Silver will be especially sensitive
to the appearance of tarnish if processing and handling procedures are not
followed.

Tarnish is a concern with users of the immersion silver

finishes. While a board received into assembly should not
exhibit tarnish, exposure to environments high in sulfur
or chloride will discolor the surface over time. Some
yellowing during the assembly process may occur
depending on air quality and handling materials. As
expected, there has been intense investigation of the
effects of tarnish on functionality. Tarnish as thin as 5
nanometers is visible, but solderability is not affected
until a blackish layer reaches about 50 nanometers. Other functions, such as
touchpads or solderless connectors are much more tolerant of tarnish.
Expect more widespread publication of these studies in the future. Silver
tarnish is strictly a surface phenomenon. Unlike with immersion tin, there is
no silver-copper intermetallic phase. Immersion silver coatings are
unaffected by temperature and have withstood four years of shelf-life
without a change in solderability.

It's the OEMs that create the pull-though for immersion silver. Many
designers have specified silver simply due to its cost and flatness benefits.
Others have changed from OSP for inspectability reasons. The Lead-free
transition has inspired others. Some OEMs have more complicated
reasoning. For example, silver, the most conductive metal, allows for
superior signal integrity on RF transmission line designs (think
Bluetooth-type applications.) Several transitions from ENIG to silver are due
to the unresolved problems with black-line nickel. The OEM designers are
requesting immersion silver as a flat, low cost, surface conductive,
environmentally-friendly coating that provides long shelf life and a reliable
copper-tin solderjoint.

Nobody's perfect. This adage is particularly appropriate in the realm of

circuit board surface finishes. Each of the finishes has its own strengths and
weaknesses. For this reason, fabricators have been forced to deal with the
part-specific specifications by installing multiple finishing processes. The
chemical vendors continue in their quest for the ideal finish. This ideal does
not yet exist. Meanwhile, circuitry designers are slaves to the idiosyncrasies
of each finish. Perhaps immersion silver, as the most recently evolved of the
finishes, represents the closest to perfection.

References
1. IPC Technology Market Research Council, 2002 Program Volume 1, June
2002.

2. B. Houghton, et al, "Alternative Metallic PWB Finishes; An Update on the

ITRI/October Project," IPC Expo Proceedings, March 1998.

3. W. Johnson, et al, "Evaluation of Solderability of Pb-Free PWB Finishes

with Pb-Free Solders," Auburn University/ PMTEC, June 2001.

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4. R. Iman, et al, "Screening Test Results for Developing Guidelines for

Conformal Coat Usage and for Evaluating Alternative Surface Finishes,"
CCAMTF Report, June 1998.

5. D. Singh, et al, US EPA Design for the Environment - Pb Free Surface

Finishes, Cleaner Technologies Substitutes Assessment; IPC Expo 2000
Proceedings.

6. D. Cullen, "New Generation Metallic Solderability Preservatives:

Immersion Silver Performance Results," IPC Works September, 1999.

7. G. Wenger, R. Furrow, "Immersion Silver Surface Finish: Usage

Requirement Test Results & Production Experience," AESF SurFin
Proceedings, June 2000.

8. S. Chaikin, "Silver Migration in Printed Wiring." Industrial and

Engineering Chemistry, March 1959.

9. D. Cullen, et al, "Effects of Surface Finish on High Frequency Signal Loss

using various Substrate Materials," IPC Expo 2001 Proceedings.

10. G. Brist, et al, "Reduction of High-Frequency Signal Loss through the

Control of Conductor Geometry and Surface Metallization," SMTA Int'l 2002
Proceedings.

11. D. Cullen, et al, "A Study on Interfacial Fracture Phenomena of

Solderjoints Formed using Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold Surface
Finish," ITRI Core Team, IPC Works September 2000.

12. R. Michalkiewicz, "Report 48991 Bellcore GR-78 Core 13.2.7," Trace

Laboratories East, March 2001.

13. M. Peel, "Report 201274 Probe Test" Contech Research, May 2001.

14. R. Gordon, et al, "Evaluation of Immersion Silver Finish for Automotive

Applications," SMTA Int'l 2000 Proceedings.

15. D. Hillman, "An Investigation of the Effects of Printed Wiring Board

Surface Finish and Conformal Coating for BGA Assembly," APEX 2000
Proceedings.

16. J. Reed, "Risk Assessment of PCB Alternative Finishes," PC Fab, July,

2000.

17. J. Zhou, et al, "A Reliability Study of Flip Chip Assembly with Nickel Gold
and Silver Surface Finishes," IPC APEX 2002 Proceedings.

18. D. Cullen, "Silver and Change: A Tale of Silver, Copper, Nickel and
Gold," The Board Authority, April 2002.

J. Roepsch, et al, "Case Study: The Effect of Severe Black-Pad Defect on

Solder Bonds on Ball Grid Array Components."

Author
Don Cullen is the Director of OEM and Assembly
Applications at MacDermid Inc. (Waterbury, CT).
Starting in MacDermid's Central R&D group 13 years
ago, Don holds two patents and has been published in
over 30 magazines, journals, and industry technical
conferences. He has a B.S. degree in Chemistry from
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and is in the process of

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obtaining a degree in Management of Technology from

RPI.

Copyright © 2005 by BNP Media

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