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List and describe the functions of the human skeletal system.

Support, Protection, Movement, Mineral Homeostasis, Blood cell production (Red marrow),
Triglyceride storage (Yellow Marrow).
List the general shapes of human bones and give examples of each. (Fig. 7.2)
Long bone: Humerus
Flat bone: Sternum
Short Bone: Wrist bones
Irregular bone: Vertebra
Sesamoid Bone: Patella.
Define each of the bone marking/surface features terms listed in Table 7.2. (You have
already done most of these, or you soon will in Lab.)
Fissure: Narrow slit between parts of bones, nerves or blood vessels pass through.
Foramen: Opening. Blood vessels, nerves and ligaments pass through.
Sulcus: Furrow along bone surface, accommodates BV, Nerve, or Tendon.
Meatus: tube like opening.
Condyle: Large, round protuberance, smooth articular surface at end of bone.
Facet: Smooth, flat, slightly concave or convex articular surface.
Head: Usually rounded articular projection, on neck of bone.
Crest: Prominent Ridge or elongated projection
Epicondyle: Roughened projection above condyle.
Line: Long narrow ridge or border, less prominent than crest.
Spinous process: Sharp, slender projection.
Trochanter: Very large projection
Tubercle: Variably sized rounded projection
Tuberosity: Variably sized projection that has a rough surface.

Diagram and describe the gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy of a long bone.
(Figs. 6.1, 6.3)

Epiphysis: the ends of the bone. Proximal and distal depending on which end.
Metaphysis: The transitional area between epiphysis and diaphysis. Where the growth
plate/epiphyseal line is.
Diaphysis: Skinny body of the bone.
Endosteum: Membrane that lines Medullary cavity. Single layer of bone forming cells
and small amount of connective tissue.
Medullary cavity: Cavity in bone shaft where the yellow marrow is.
Periosteum: Membrane around the bone. Osteogenic layer inside. Let bone grow in
thickness. Nourishes bone, provides attachment point for ligaments and tendons.
Attached to bone via Sharpey's fibers.
Compact bone: The bone shell around the rest of the bone.
Spongy bone: The porous bone inside the bone.
Articular Cartilage: The cartilage on the articulating surface of the bone.
Explain the composition of human bony matrix.
Crystallized mineral salts make it hard and brittle, Collagen fibers provide tensile strength that
reduces the brittleness. If you so a bone in acid to remove the minerals it becomes rubbery.

Describe the microscopic structure of both compact and spongy/cancellous bone. (Fig. 6.3)

Compact bone: Osteons, Central canals, Lamellae, Lacunae, Osteocytes, Canaliculi. All
that stuff you should already know because this is like the 3rd time we've gone over it
between the first chapters, lab and this lecture. All the osteons run in the same direction,
parallel to the length of the diaphysis. Circumferential lamellae line the outer and inner
limits of compact bone.
Spongy Bone: Doesn't have osteons. Instead it has layers of lamellae in irregular
patterned columns called trabeculae. Between these columns are spaces filled with red or
yellow bone marrow. The marrow is highly vascular, provides nourishment to osteocytes.
Each trabeculae contains concentric lamellae, osteocytes in lacunae and canuliculi like
compact bone. Although it looks random, the trabeculae actually orient themselves along
stress lines to strengthen the bone. This orientation depends on stresses and can change.
The spongy bone is basically identical to compact bone except that it forms trabeculae
instead of osteons, and it's only found inside bones, with compact bone around it. It's not
as strong, but it is lighter.
Compare and contrast red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow with regard to location
and function.
Red marrow produces blood cells and is found in the spongy bone, yellow marrow stores
triglycerides (Fats) and is found in the Medullary cavity.
Compare and contrast the different types of human bone cells in terms of their origin,
location and function.
There are four kinds of bone cells that the notes cover:
Osteoprogenitor Cells: Unspecialized bone stem cell derived from Mesenchyme. The
only bone cells that divide and form osteoblasts
Osteoblast: Bone building cells. Create collagen fibers and organic components for
Extracellular Matrix. Initiate calcification of bone, causing themselves to be trapped and
become osteocytes.
Osteocytes: Primary bone cell. Maintain bone functions. Exchange nutrients & wastes,
perform other metabolic activities.
Osteoclasts: Huge cells derived from the fusion of many monocytes (White blood cells)
Found in the Endosteum, facing the bone. Ruffled membrane to stick to bone and release
digestive enzymes to break down the bone's Extracellular matrix. Breakdown is called
Resorption and is part of normal bone maintenance.
Describe the processes of intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
These are the two ways that bones form.
Intermembranous is the simpler of the two and forms the flat bones of the skull and
most facial bones. Has Four steps.
1: Ossification center
At the site of bone development, chemical signals cause Mesenchymal cells to cluster
and differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells, that then differentiate into osteoblasts. The
osteoblasts begin secreting extracellular matrix until they are surrounded by it.

2. Calcification
Once surrounded by Extracellular matrix, the osteoblasts stop secreting and differentiate
into osteocytes. They extend their processes into canaliculi as calcium and other minerals
are deposited in the extracellular matrix. In a few days, the matrix has hardened.
3. Formation of Trabeculae
The Matrix develops into trabeculae that fuse together to form spongy bone around
blood vessels. Connective tissue associated with the blood vessels differentiates into red
marrow.
4. Development of the Periosteum.
The mesenchyme at the periphery of the bone condenses and changes into periosteum.
Eventually, a thin layer of compact bone replaces the surface of the spongy bone.
Endochondral Ossification forms most of the bones of the body. Has 6 steps.
1. Cartilage model
Chemical messages cause mesenchymal cells to gather and form the general shape of the
bone. They then differentiate into chondroblasts that secrete a cartilage framework of
hyline cartilage. A thin covering called a Perichondrium develops around the cartilage
model.
2. Growth of Cartilage Model
Grows both in length and width. Chondroblasts buried in the extracellular matrix are
called chondrocytes. Grows in length via continual division of Chondrocytes and the
depositing of more extracellular matrix. Called Interstitial or endogenous growth.
Growth in width done by deposition of new extracellular matrix on the surface. This
matrix is formed by chondroblasts that come from the perichondrium. Called appositional
or exogenous growth.
As the model grows, the chondrocytes in the mid-region hypertrophy (Grow in size) and
the surrounding Matrix starts to calcify. Chondrocytes in the calcified area die from lack
of nutrients, forming Lacunae.
3. Development of the primary ossification center.
Ossification moves from outside in. A nutrient artry penetrates the Perichondrium and the
calcifying cartilage model via a Foramen. It stimulates Osteoprogenitor cells in the
perichondrium to become osteoblasts and the perichondrium turns into periosteum. Near
the middle of the cartilage model periosteal capillaries grow into the model, inducing the
formation of the primary calcification center. Osteoblasts deposit extracellular matrix
over the calcified cartilage, forming spongy bone trabeculae. Ossification spreads from
center towards both ends.

4. Medullary Cavity Forms.

As ossification works towards the end of the bones, osteoclasts break down some of the
newly formed spongy bone, creating the medullary cavity.
5. Development of secondary Ossification centers.
When branches of the epiphyseal arteries enter the epiphyses, secondary ossification
centers develop. Usually around time of birth. Similar to primary ossification center
except spongy bone remains in the center -no cavity is formed- and the ossification
proceeds from the inside, out.
6. Formation of Articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plate.
Hyaline cartilage that covers the epiphyses becomes articular cartilage. Prior to
adulthood, hyaline cartilage remains between the diaphysis and the epiphysis as the
epiphyseal plate. Used for growth.
Describe how bones grow in length and width (Fig. 6.7 and 6.8).
Length: Happens in the Epiphysial plate. Chondrocytes in the zone of proliferating
cartilage divide and secrete matrix. The new cells are pushed down and form the zone of
hypertrophic cartilage. These cells are pushed along by the division below them until they
reach the zone of calcifying cartilage. Here they die as the matrix around them calcifies.
Osteoclasts disolve the calcified area and osteoblasts and blood vessels move into the
area and lay down bone matrix, replacing the cartilage. This is sort of like what the skin
does: the division of the cells on a bottom layer pushes the cells above them away,
lengthening the bone.
Width: Done by appositional growth. 4 steps.
1. Cells of the periosteum (Periosteal cells) differentiate into osteoblasts and
secrete bone extracellular matrix, becoming trapped and differentiating
into osteocytes. The process creates ridges around blood vessels in the
periosteum.
2. The ridges eventually grow to encase the blood vessel and the periosteum
becomes the endosteum. This forms the central canal of an osteon
3. Osteoblasts in the endosteum secrete secrete bone extracellular matrix and
form new lamellae. They form inward, toward the blood vessel,
completing the new osteon.
4. Osteoblasts under the periosteum form the circumferential lamellae.

Describe the effects of stress and nutrition on human bone.

Large amounts of calcium and phosphorus are needed while the bones are growing, along
with small amounts of magnesium, fluoride, and manganese. These are also needed for
remodeling.
Vitamin A: Stimulates Osteoblasts
Vitamin C: Needed to synthesize collagen
Vitamin D: Helps absorb calcium from food
Vitamin K and B12: Needed for Sythesis of bone proteins.
Moderate stress on bones will strengthen them over time, while a lack of stresses will
cause them to weaken.
Compare and contrast the terms bone remodeling and bone repair.
Bone remodeling is the breakdown and replacement of old bone with new bone. Bone
resorption is done by osteoclasts while osteoblasts handle deposition of minerals and
fibers to create new bone. Done constantly, about 5% of bone mass being remodeled at
any time. Replaces injured bone, lets new bone be subjected to stress and grow stronger
and thicker than old bone, and new bone is more resistant to fracture.
Bone Repair is when a bone that has actually broken or been damaged is fixed. Done
only when such damage occurs.
List in order and describe each of the steps involved in the repair of a fracture.
Reactive Phase: Inflammatory phase. Blood vessels along fracture are torn, releasing
blood that clots around the fracture. Called a fracture hematoma, forms 6-8 hours after
the break. Cells around fracture die from lack of blood supply. Swelling and
inflammation as response to damaged and dead cells. Phagocytes and osteoclasts remove
dead and damaged tissue in and around hematoma. Can last for several weeks.
Formation of Fibrocartilaginous Callus AKA soft Callus.
Blood vessels grow into the fracture hematoma. Phagocytes continue to clean. Fibroblasts
from the periosteum invade fracture site and produce collagen fibers. Chondrocytes
derived from the periosteum enter and produce fibrocartilage. Creates Soft callus
bridging ends of the broken bone. Takes about 3 weeks.
Formation of Bony Callus
In well vascularized healthy bone, osteoprogenitor cells develop into osteoblasts. They
produce spongy bone trabeculae that join the living and dead bone portions together.
Over time, the fibrocartilage is turned into bone. Called a bony or hard callus. 3-4 months
to complete.
Remodeling phase:
Dead portions of original bone fragments are resorbed by osteoclasts. Compact bone
replaces spongy bone in periphery of fracture. Thickened area on bone surface is
evidence of break.
Describe how calcitonin and PTH regulate the calcium levels of the human body.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) is secreted by the thyroid gland and is the most important
for regulating calcium. It increases blood calcium levels via a negative feedback loop.
When a drop in calcium is detected, Parathyroid gland cells increase cyclic AMP (cAMP)
production. The gene for PTH detects this increase of cAMP and PTH production
increases. PTH increases the activities of the Osteoclasts, which increases the calcium in
the blood. It also causes the kidneys to not filter as much calcium out of the body and
stimulates the formation of Calcitriol (Active vitamin d) which helps absorb calcium
from foods.
Calcitonin lowers calcium levels. It is secreted by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland
and inhibits the activity of osteoclasts, speeds update of calcium by bones, and accerates
calcium deposition into bones. Exact role is uncertain however, because it can be
removed from host without causing damage. Harvested from salmon and used as a
supplement to fight osteoporosis.
Define and be able to recognize each of the fracture types listed and illustrated in Table 6.1.
There are 6 listed in the notes:
Open/Compound facture: Broken ends of the bone protrude through the skin. A closed
(simple) fracture doesn't break the skin.
Comminuted: Bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces.
Greenstick: Only in children. One side of bone is broken, and the other bends.
Impacted: One end of fractured bone is driven into the other end.
Pott: Fracture of distal end of fibia. With serious injury to distal tibial articulation.
Colles: Fracture of the distal end of the radius. Distal fragment is displaced posteriorly.
Be able to identify any bone listed as coming from the axial or appendicular skeleton.
(you can probably already do this if you have been attending lab)
Axial skeleton
Skull, ribs and vertebral column. Includes Hyoid bone.
Appendicular skeleton
Clavicle, Scapula, Bones of the upper and lower limbs, and the hip.
Describe the normal curvatures of the vertebral column and explain the three abnormal
curvatures. (Fig. 7.16 and pgs. 227-228)
There are 4 normal curves: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral. They curve in, out, in and
out, respectively.
Scoliosis: Abnormal Lateral (side to side) bending. Most common form of abnormal
bend. May be congenital deformation, or come from chronic sciatica, paralysis of
muscles on one side of the body, poor posture or one leg being shorter than the other.
Kyphosis: Increase in thoracic curve, creating hunchback appearance. Caused by
tuberculosis in spine, degeneration of intervertebral disks in the elderly, rickets,
osteoporosis or poor posture.

Lordosis: Also called hollow back. Caused by increased lumbar curve. Caused by
increase weight on the abdomen, such as during pregnancy, extreme obesity, poor
posture, rickets, osteoporosis, tuberculosis in the spine, etc.
Compare and contrast the structure of the male and female pelvis, and be able to recognize
each. (Table 8.1)
The easiest way is to look at the pubic arch. If it's more then 90 degrees, it's female.
Define osteoporosis and explain the role of estrogen in the development of the disease.
It's where the bones become porous due to resorption outpacing deposition. Makes bones
easier to fracture. It happens more in women because their major sex hormone, estrogen,
drops dramatically after menopause. The lack of the hormone inhibits osteoblast activity.
Define: Pagets disease
achondroplasia acromegaly osteomalacia rickets
osteomyelitis Osteopenia
pelvimetry TMJ syndrome
Paget's disease: Excessive production of osteoclasts. Too much bone resorption. Bones
become enlarged, hard and brittle.
Rickets: Called osteomalacia in adults. Vitamin D deficiency. Bones become soft and
rubbery. Bowed legs, skull, ribcage and pelvic deformations.
Osteopenia: Reduced bone mass due to decreased rate of bone synthesis.
Achondroplasia: Inherited condition where the conversion of cartilage to bone is
abnormal. Most common type of dwarfism. Achondroplastic dwarfism.
Acromegaly: Over secretion of hGH, thickening of bones, especially in hands feet and
jaw. Often enlargement of eyelids, lips tongue and nose.
Osteomeylitis: Infection of bone.
TMJ (Temporomandibular Joint) Syndrome: Pain around ear, tenderness and popping of
jaw. Caused by improperly alligned teeth, tooth grinding, or trauma.
Pelvimetry: Measurement of inlet and outlet of birth canal, usually by ultrasound. To see
if the child can be born normally.

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