Chapter 4:

Advanced machining
Ref: Manufacturing Engineering &
Technology,
S. Kalpakjian, Pearson

Chapter Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Introduction
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Electrical discharge Machining (EDM)
Electron-beam Machining (EBM)
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

4.1 Introduction

Machining processes that involve chip

formation have a number of limitations:

Large amounts of energy

Unwanted distortion
Residual stresses
Burrs
Delicate or complex geometries may be difficult or
impossible

4.1 Introduction

Non-traditional machining (NTM) processes have

several advantages

Complex geometries are possible

Extreme surface finish
Tight tolerances
Delicate components
Little or no burring or residual stresses
Brittle materials with high hardness can be machined
Microelectronic or integrated circuits are possible to mass
produce

NTM Processes

Four basic groups of material removal using

NTM processes

Mechanical
Chemical
Electrochemical
Thermal

Conventional End Milling vs. NTM

Typical machining parameters

Feed rate
Surface finish
Dimensional accuracy
Workpiece/feature size

NTM processes typically have lower feed

rates and require more power consumption
The feed rate in NTM is independent of the
material being processed

4.1 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

ECM removes material by

an electrochemical
process
The tool is the cathode
and the workpiece is the
anode
Shape of workpiece is the
mirror image of tool

Figure Schematic diagram of

electrochemical machining process
(ECM).

Electrochemical Machining
Process

cathode (tool): electrolyte & water molecules ionize:

H2O H+ + OHNAClNa+ + Cl+ve ions move towards the tool & negative ions move
towards the workpiece:
2H+ + 2e H2

Anode (workpiece): metal molecules ionize break free

from the workpiece & travel to the tool
Fe Fe 2+ + 2e
FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 precipated in the form of sludge

4.2 Electrochemical Machining

Process

p - density

Electrochemical Machining
Application

Used to machine complex cavities and

shapes in high-strength materials
ECM process leaves a burr-free (deburring
process)
Excellent surface finish, thermal free &
stress free

Electrochemical Machining
Application

Electrochemical Machining
Application

Burr free edges & smooth finishes

in medical devices

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Electrochemical Machining

Advantages

ECM is well suited for the

machining of complex
two-dimensional shapes
Poorly machinable
materials may be
processed
Little or no tool wear
No burr & no distortion of
the holes

Disadvantages

Initial tooling can be

timely and costly
Environmentally harmful
by-products

Electrochemical Machining

4.3 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Electrical energy is used to generate electrical spark

Materials removal occurred due to the thermal energy of
spark
Two different types of EDM exist based on the shape of
the tool electrode
Ram EDM/sinker EDM
Wire EDM

EDM Processes

Examples of EDM workpieces

Graphite electrode & product

Electrical-discharge Machining
Process

Figure 4.2 EDM or spark erosion machining of metal, using pulse

DC. The table can make X-Y movements.

Electrical-discharge Machining
Working Principle

Electrical-discharge Machining
Working Principle

EDM system consists of a electrode and the workpiece,

connected to a power supply (pulse DC) and placed in
a dielectric fluid.
The gap is filled by a die-electric fluid, which ionized
after collision with accelerated electron from tool at
inter electrode gap.
The ionization of die electric fluid creates a conduction
path (plasma channel) and produced spark.
The spark produces tiny crater in the workpiece by
melting & vaporization
High temperature also melt & vaporize the tool (wear)

Electrical-discharge Machining
Principle of Operation

Fig. Formation of plasma channel

& spark at inter electrode gap

Fig. Plasma channel collapse &

die electric fluid flushes the chips

Electrical-discharge Machining
Principle of Operation

Electrical energy is dissipated as the thermal energy of

the spark.
Heat flux leads to extreme rise in temp. (>10,000deg C)
Material removal occurs due to instant vaporization of
the material & melting
The material-removal rate can be estimated from
MRR 4 104 ITw1.23

I = current in amperes
Tw = melting temp of work piece

Electrical-discharge Machining
Dielectric Fluids

The functions of the dielectric fluid are to:

1. Act as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high
2. Provide a cooling medium
3. Act as a flushing medium and carry away the debris in
the gap
i.e. kerosene, distilled and deionized water

Electrical-discharge Machining
Electrodes

Electrodes are made of graphite, brass, copper or

coppertungsten alloys

Can be shaped by forming, casting, powder metallurgy,

or CNC machining techniques

Tool wear is related to the melting points of the

materials involved

Lower the melting point of the electrode, the higher is

the wear rate

Electrical-discharge Machining:
Wire EDM

Similar to contour cutting with a band saw

A slowly moving wire travels along a prescribed path
will cut the workpiece
Wire is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum,
zinc- or brass-coated or multicoated

Advantages and Disadvantages of EDM

Advantages
Applicable to all
materials that are fairly
good electrical
conductors
Hardness, toughness,
or brittleness of the
material imposes no
limitations
Fragile and delicate
parts

Disadvantages
Produces a hard recast
(resolidify) surface
Surface may contain
fine cracks caused by
thermal stress
Fumes can be toxic

Electrical-discharge Machining

4.4 Electron-beam Machining

The energy source is high-velocity electrons, which strike the

workpiece surface and generate heat
Used for very accurate cutting of a wide variety of metals
Surface finish is better and kerf width is narrower than in other
thermal cutting processes
Requires vacuum condition

4.5 Laser-beam Machining

The source of energy is a laser which focuses optical

energy on the surface of the workpiece
The highly focused, high-density energy source melts
and evaporates portions of the workpiece in a
controlled manner

Laser-beam Machining
Process Capabilities

It is used for drilling and cutting metals, nonmetallic

materials, ceramics, and composite materials

Laser-beam machining is being used increasingly in

the electronics and automotive industries

Also used for welding, small-scale and localized heat

treating of metals and ceramics, and marking of parts

4.6 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

In ultrasonic machining (USM), also called ultrasonic grinding, high-frequency

vibrations delivered to a tool tip, embedded in an abrasive slurry, by a booster,
create accurate cavities of virtually any shape; that are, negatives of the tool.
Since this method is non-thermal, non-electrical, and non-chemical, it
produces virtually stress-free shapes even in hard and brittle work-pieces.
Ultrasonic drilling is most effective for hard and brittle materials; soft materials
absorb too much sound energy and make the process less efficient.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

The tool, typically vibrating at a low

amplitude of 0.025 mm at a frequency
of 20 to 100 kHz, is gradually fed into
the work-piece to form a cavity
corresponding to the tool shape.
The vibration transmits a high velocity
force to fine abrasive grains between
the tool and the surface of the workpiece. In the process material is
removed by micro-chipping or erosion
with the abrasive particles.
The grains are in a water slurry which
also serves to remove debris from the
cutting area. The high-frequency
power supply for the magneto-strictive
or piezoelectric transducer stack that
Channels and holes ultrasonically machined
drives the tool is typically rated
in a polycrystalline silicon wafer.
between 0.1 and 40 kW.

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

The abrasive particles (SiC, Al2O3) are

suspended in water or oil.
The particle size determines the roughness or
surface finish and the speed of the cut.
Material removal rates are quite low, usually
less than 50 mm3/min.

Coin with grooving carried out with USM

graphite electrodes with intricate shape machined by USM

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Advantages and disadvantages of ultrasonic
machining.
Advantages
Machining of any material regardless of conductivity

Disadvantages
Low material removal rate

Precision machining of brittle hard materials

Does not produce electric, thermal or chemical defe cts at
the surfa ce
Can drill circular or non-circular holes in very hard
materials

Tool wears fast

Machining area and depth are quite restricted

Less stress because of its non-thermal nature