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Slide 2
S
f.d.p=P/S
f.d.p:Cantidad de energa
convertida en trabajo
LN
= 3 S
3 V
LL
= P + jQ
retraso
L
Lagging
i Power
P
Factor
F t
L di Power
Leading
P
Factor
F t
C
Current
t and
dV
Voltage
lt
(adelanto)
(atraso)
Cargas capacitivas,(condensadores)
Cargas inductivas (motores, transformadores)
Dependiendo de la craga el cos puede estar adelantado, retrasado o igual a 1 (ejm. cargas resistivas donde la
tension y corriente estan en fase),
1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 3
(Adelanto -)
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative
negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
percent
Q
j
Lagging
Power
Factor
Leading
Power
Factor
P - jQ
P + jQ
Slide 4
S = 3VI
V = 3ZI
SB
I
=
B
3VB
2
V
Z = B
B SB
I actual
I pu = t l
IB
Vactual
Vpu = t l
VB
Zactual
Z pu =
ZB
Sactual
Spu =
SB
selects
ects for
o LF:
ETAP se
100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
g of reference p
point is
The kV rating
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
y
system.
Slide 5
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and
d th
the X/R = 12.14
12 14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied starting
f
from
the
th utility
tilit kV rating.
ti
kVB1
N1
kV =
kVB2
N2
1
B
kVB2
X pu
X
Z pu
R
=
2
X
1+
R
R pu
x pu
=
X
R
Slide 6
X pu =
0.065(12.14)
1 + (12.14) 2
= 0.06478
R pu =
0.06478
= 0.005336
12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
o
n
o VB
Zpu = Zpu n
VB
SnB
13.8 100
o = (5.33103 + j0.06478)
= (0.1115+ j1.3538)
13.5 5
SB
2
kVutility 13.5
VB =
=
= 4.0695
N1 3.31
N2
1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
VB2
(4.0695) 2
ZB =
=
= 0.165608
MVA
100
Slide 7
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Slide 8
Slide 9
Basic
B i R
Requirement
i
t
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Slide 10
Slide 11
Slide 12
Optimize Operating
C diti
Conditions
estn dentro
Bus Voltages
g are Within Acceptable
p
Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
off Equipment
E i
t
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
perdidas son determinadas
Slide 13
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
V lt
Voltage
(I
(Initial
iti l C
Conditions)
diti
)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Assume VR
C l I = Sload / VR
Calc:
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Slide 14
2.
3.
Fast-Decoupled Method
Newton-Raphson Method
Better for
f radial systems and
systems with long lines.
Slide 15
kWRated
HP 0.7457
kVARated =
=
PF Eff
PF Eff
kVARated
FLA3 =
3 kV
kVARated
R t d
FLA1 =
kV
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %
loading conditions
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
I1 = 1000
kV
I3 = 1000
Slide 16
Slide 17
Slide 18
Slide 19
Slide 20
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Slide 21
Feedback Voltage
g
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
((no AVR action))
Slide 22
Slide 23
Isochronous Mode
Slide 24
Droop Mode
Slide 25
Droop Mode
Slide 26
Droop Mode
Slide 27
Slide 28
Adjusting Excitation
Slide 29
Slide 30
In
I the
th Swing
S i
Mode,
M d the
th voltage
lt
is
i kept
k t fixed.
fi d P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
i d
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
Slide 31
Slide 32
Slide 33
Slide 34
Slide 35
Machine
M
hi Rating
R ti
(Power Factor
Point)
Slide 36
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Slide 37
Power Flow
V1 = V1 1
V 2 = V2 2
S = V* I = P + jQ
V *V
= 1 2 *SIN ( 1 2 ) +
X
2
V1*V 2
V2
j
*COS ( 1 2 )
X
X
V1*V
V2
*SIN ( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V 2
V2
Q=
*COS(
COS( 1 2 )
X
X
P=
Slide 38
I=
Slide 39
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a g
generator supplying
pp y g real p
power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
( V E)
sin
X
( )
Power Flow
1
( V E)
V
cos
X
X
( )
2
2
Slide 40
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent
P
t off Nominal
N i lB
Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated = 4.03
V% =
kVCalculated
100 = 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 41
Slide 42
Slide 43
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 44
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Slide 45
Slide 46
Slide 47
Slide 48
Slide 49
Cable
Reactor
Line
Transformer
f
UPS/Panel
Generator
Slide 50
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
OverLoad
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
OverLoad
Slide 51
Slide 52
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Slide 53
Slide 54
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap
p Adjustment
j
1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 55
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Bus Voltage
g Comes within
specified limits
Run LF
Slide 56
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run LF
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Slide 57
Panel Systems
y
Slide 58
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
Slide 59
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Slide 60
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Slide 61
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1
1-Phase
Phase load is connected to a 3
3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
lt
1996-2010 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 62
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin (
Q
( - 30))
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin
C C
( + 30))
Slide 63
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
Slide 64
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase p
panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type
is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Slide 65
Schedule Page
Ci
Circuit
it Numbers
N b
with
ith
Standard Layout
Slide 66
Description Tab
Firstt 14 load
Fi
l d items
it
in
i the
th list
li t are based
b
d on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
p
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Slide 67
Rating Tab
Slide 68
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Slide 69
Slide 70
Feeder Tab
Slide 71
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
copied
Slide 72
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Slide 73
Output Report
Slide 74
Slide 75