BLOCKS

negatetheresolved:Resolved:Adolescentsoughttohavetherighttomakeautonomous
medicalchoices.
Definitions:
Medical:Oforrelatingtothescienceofmedicine,ortothe
treatment
ofillnessandinjuries
Oxforddictionary

valueismoralitybecauseoughtinvokesmoralsignificance

ObjectiveMoralityexists.
ShaferLandau2004:
somemoralviewsarebetterthanothers,despitethesincerityoftheindividuals
,cultures,and
societies
thatendorsethem.Somemoralviewsaretrue,othersfalse,andmythinkingthemso
doesntmakethemso.
Mysocietysendorsementofthemdoesntprovetheirtruth.
Individuals,
andwholesocieties,canbeseriouslymistakenwhenitcomestomorality.

Thebest
explanationofthisisthattherearemoralstandardsnotofourownmaking.
[
24]

Objectivismcannotbereplacedbyacoherentmoralphilosophy,sorefutingobjectivismtriggers
skepticism
Levin2001:
Eventheenemiesofobjectivityrelyonit.
T
heskepticstatesapositionthatcannotpossibly
besustainedorrationallybelieved[because]heis
ineffect
askingyounottoapplyhis
assertiontohisownposition,withoutgivinganyreasonforexemptinghisownwordsfrom
hisowngeneralclaim.
H
ispositionisfutileandselfrefuting
itcanbestated,butitcannot
convinceanyonewhorecognizesitsimplications.
[19]

AsMoziconfirms,objectivemorallawsarederivedfrom
tian
,
translatedasnatureorheaven,
Mou2001:

Textreadinspeech:
Mozididappealtoareality.for
someof

hisargumentsinfavoroftranscendingsocialritual.
Itwas
tian.Tian
wastheauthorofthemoralstandard
,
utility
,
towhichMoziappealsinhis
moralreform
.
Mozistressedthat
tian
wasuniversal,notboundedinthewayscultures,
states,andsocietieswere.Itwas

constantwhereculturesandconventionscould
change.

Theseclaimsdonotentailthat
tian
istheChinesenamefortheWesternGod,
Elohim.Nordoesitconflictwiththeassumptionthat
tian
isapartofnature..Itessentially
gavea"naturalistic'basisfor[Mozis]
t
he

moralnorm[s]
o
fmaximizingutility.
Itgroundeda
conceptionofanaturalvalueasopposedtoasocialone,butnotnecessarilyofa
transcendent,supernatural,orspookyvalue
..Infact,the
Mozis
useof
tian's
standardapproximatestheuse
pragmatistsmakeofnatureintheirargumentsforextractingnormsfromnatureandsocialpractice.Mozididnotfindhowthe
standardworkedbyrevelationorbyhearingaboomingvoicecommanditorseeingafingeroffirewriteit.

Toeliminatesocialdisorder,everyonemustfollowobjectivemorals

Mozi1stmillenniumBCE

Mozisaid:
Inthebeginningofhumanlife,whentherewasyetnolawandgovernment,thecustom
was"everybodyaccordingtohisownidea."

Accordinglyeachmanhadhisownidea,twomen
hadtwodifferentideasandtenmenhadtendifferentideasthemorepeoplethemoredifferent
notions.Andeverybodyapprovedofhisownviewanddisapprovedtheviewsofothers,andso
arosemutualdisapprovalamongmen.Asaresult,fatherandsonandelderandyoungerbrothers
becameenemiesandwereestrangedfromeachother,
sincetheywereunabletoreachany
agreement.
Everybodyworkedforthedisadvantageoftheotherswithwater,fire,andpoison.
Surplusenergywasnotspentformutualaidsurplusgoodswereallowedtorotwithoutsharingexcellent
teachings(Dao)werekeptsecretandnotrevealed.
Thedisorderinthe(human)worldcouldbe
comparedtothatamongbirdsandbeasts.

Fraser2010
TheconceptionofactionIhavebeensketchingisillustratedbytheMohistshypothetical
accountofthestateofnaturethatobtainedbeforetheadventofpoliticalsociety.10
According
totheMohists,peopleinthestateofnaturearestrongly,evenobstinatelycommittedto
theirpersonalconceptionofy,orwhatisright.Sincedifferentpeoplesconceptions
ofydisagree,however,thiscommitmentleadstoconflictandeventuallyviolent
disorder.
TheMohistsdescribepeoplesattitudesbysayingthattheyshtheiryandonthat
basisfiothersy,andthusfieachother(11/2).Thatis,theyeachdeemtheirytobesh,on
thosegroundsdeemothersfi,andthusfallintoacycleofreciprocalcondemnation.
Akey
observationisthatpeoplesattitudeofdeemingtheirytobesh[orright]andothersfi
[orwrong]isaccompaniedbyastrongmotivationtoactontheirconvictions,which
ultimatelyleadstosocialturmoil.
Thiscorrelationbetweenshfiattitudesandconductis
underscoredbythetightlinkMohistpoliticaltheorydrawsbetweenemulatingtheshfi
attitudesandstatements(yn)ofpoliticalsuperiors,whoserveasmoralrolemodels,and
emulatingtheirconduct(xng).

Tianrequiresthatweprioritizethestrengthofthestate,because
naturerewardsorder
Frazer2014(replace!)
ThiscommunitarianfocusisamajorpointofcontrastwithWesternsocialcontract
theoriesandutilitarianpoliticaltheory.
Utilitariansandsocialcontracttheorists(excepting
perhapsRousseau)typicallytreatindividuals'interestsasprimaryandconstructsocialgood
outofindividualgood.
[Forwesterntheorists],thestateisjustifiedbecauseitpromotes
individuals'rightsandinterestsbetterthananyalternative.FortheMohists,by
contrast,thestateisinstrumentallyjustifiedbecausesocialorder(
zhi
)isanintrinsic
good,soughtbyall,andgovernmentbyahierarchyofmoralleadersisneededto
achieveit.
Indeed,aswemightexpectfromtheircommunitarianism,
theMohists'conceptionof
zhi
(order)containsthe
seedsofan
argumentthatthestateisintrinsicallyjustifiedaswell.
TheMohistsmostoftenuse
zhi
inanarrowsense,torefertoharmoniousfamilyandsocial
relations.Butsome
Mohisttexts
mainlythetriaddevotedtothedoctrineofHeaven's
intention
use
zhi
inabroadersense,inwhichitisidentifiedwith
yi
(right,moral)and
zheng
(goodgovernance),whichinturnistakentorequireahierarchicalpolitical
systemadministeredbythenobleandwise.ThetextsthusimplythattheMohist
politicalsystemisnotmerelyaninstrumentforproducingutility,butisitselfa
componentofthegoodsthatconstitutemoralrightandthusisintrinsicallyjustified.


Mozi1stmilleniumBCfurthers
Mozisaid:Aswelookbacktothetimewhentherewasyetnoruler,itseemsthecustomwas
"everybodyintheworldaccordingtohisownstandard."
Accordinglyeachmanhadhisownstandard,
tenmenhadtendifferentstandards,ahundredmenhadahundreddifferentstandardsthemorepeople
themorestandards.Andeverybodyapprovedofhisownviewanddisapprovedthoseofothers,andso
arosemutualdisapproval.Evenfatherandsonandbrothersbecameenemies,sincetheywereunableto
reachanyagreement.
Surplusenergywasnotemployedformutualhelpexcellentteachings(Dao)
werekeptsecretsurplusgoodswereallowedtorotwithoutsharing
.Thedisorderinthe(human)
worldcouldbecomparedwiththatamongbirdsandbeasts.
Thelackofregulations
governingthe
relationshipsbetweenrulerandsubject,betweensuperiorandsubordinate,andbetweenelderandyounger
andtheabsenceofrulesgoverningtherelationshipsbetweenfatherandsonandbetweenolderand
youngerbrothers,
resultedindisorderintheworld.
Knowingthecauseoftheconfusiontobeintheabsenceofarulerwhocouldunifythestandards
intheworld,(Heaven)chosethevirtuous,sagacious,andwiseintheworldand
crownedhim
emperor,charging
[charged]himwiththedutyofunifyingthewillsintheempire
.Havingbeen
crowned,theemperor,realizingtheimpossibilityofunifyingtheworldjustbyhisownsensesofhearingand
sight,chosetheunderstanding,virtuous,sagacious,andwiseoftheworldandinstalledthemasthethree
ministers,sharingwiththemthedutyofunifyingthestandardsintheempire.Theemperorandthethree
ministersbeinginoffice,theyfeltthevastnessoftheempireandthedifficultyofunifyingallthepeoplesin
mountainsandwoodsandthosefardistant.Thereforetheysystematicallydivideduptheempire,and
appointednumerousfeudallords,chargingthesewiththedutyofunifyingthestandardsineachstate.The
feudallordsinturnfeltthedifficultyofunifyingthestandardsintheirstatesjustbytheirownsensesof
hearingandsight.Thereforetheychosethevirtuousofthestatetobetheirministersandsecretariesandall
thewaydowntotheheadsofdistrictsandvillages,sharingwiththemthedutyofunifyingthestandardsin
thestate.
Whenthelordsofthecountryandtheheadsofthepeoplehadbeenappointed,theemperorissued
mandates,instructingthepeople:"Discoveringgoodyoumustreportittoyoursuperior,discoveringevilyou
mustreportittoyoursuperior.
Whatthesuperiorthinkstoberightallshallthinktoberightwhatthe
superiorthinkstobewrongallshallthinktobewrong.

Whenthereisvirtueamongthepeople
thereshallbepopularrecommendationwhenthesuperiorisatfaultthereshallbegoodcounsel.
Youshallidentifyyourselfwiththesuperior
andnotassociatewithyoursubordinates.
Sodoing,one
deservesencouragementfromhissuperiorsandpraisefromthepeople."Ontheotherhand,
if
upondiscoveringgoodyoushouldnotreportitandupondiscoveringevilyoushouldnotreportit
ifyou
shouldnotthinktoberightwhatthesuperiorthinkstoberight,andwrongwhatthesuperior
thinkstobewrong
ifthereshouldbenorecommendationwhenthereisvirtueamongthepeopleandno
goodcounselwhenthesuperiorisatfaultandifyoushouldunitewiththesubordinatesbutdifferfromthe
superior
youdeserve
heavypunishmentfromyoursuperiorsand
condemnationfromthepeople.
"
Thereforethesagekingsofoldwereveryjudiciousandfaithfulintheirpunishmentsandrewards

Thus,mycriterionismaximizingthestrengthofthevirtuousstate

Todoso,maximizewealth,order,andpopulation
Mozi:

(readall)
Epps:

Contenton1:medicalautonomyreducesthepopulationofthestate

Fagan2009:http://journalofethics.amaassn.org/2009/08/msoc10908.html
ThemoralidealsoftheHippocraticOatharenotuniversallysharedandespoused.
Forsome
patients,physicalsufferingorevendyingfromamedicallypreventabledeathisnottheworstthing
thatcanhappen.
Somepatientshaverefusedtoconsenttorudimentarymedicaltreatmentin

fullknowledgethattheinevitableconsequenceoftheirrefusalwouldbetheirprematureand,
inclinicalterms,unnecessarydeath.
Themostcommonlycitedexampleofthisphenomenonis
theJehovahsWitnessrefusaltoreceiveabloodtransfusion.U.S.courtshavetendedtouphold
decisionsmadebycompetentadultpatientsinsuchinstancesandhavedeniedmedicalauthorities
requeststoadministertreatmentagainstpatientswishes.
Thus,clinicianshavebeenpreventedfromsavinglivesinthenameofpatientautonomy
[1].
Theapplicationoflifesavingmedicalexpertiseisrefusedinthenameofpatientscommitmenttothe
tenetsoftheirreligion,recognisingthewilloftheirGod.Whiletheliteratureinthisareaofmedical
ethicsmightsuggestotherwise,JehovahsWitnessesbynomeansexhaustthelistofreligiousand
culturalcommunitieswhohave,orarelikelyto,refusemedicaltreatmentonmoralgrounds.
The
ChurchofChrist,Scientisthaslongprohibitedtheuseofvaccinationsandinoculations
amongstitsmembers.Similarly,astrictadherencetoveganidealsisincompatiblewith
receivingmedicaltreatmentthatinvolvesorhasfundamentallybenefitedfrom
xenotransplantation

Byallowingpeopletodie,medicalautonomysapsthehumancapitalofthevirtuousstateand
weakensitspower.

Contention2:MedicalAutonomywastesthemoneyofthestate
Peopleopttospendbillionsofdollarsonplasticsurgery,wastingtheresourcesofthestate

ASAPS2015:

T
he
AmericanSocietyforAestheticPlasticSurgery
(ASAPS)releaseditscomplete18th
annualmultispecialtystatisticaldatatoday
showinganaesthetic
plasticsurgery
spend
consistentwiththefiguresfor2013,
withAmericansspendingmorethan12billiondollarson
surgicalandnonsurgicalproceduresforthesecondyearinarow.Withmorethan10million
cosmeticprocedures
performedin2014,thosethatshowedthelargestgrowthinvolumeona
yearoveryearbasisincludedbuttockaugmentation(up86%),labiaplasty(up49%),and
nonsurgicalfatreduction(up42%).
Additionally,moremenareturningtoaesthetic
cosmetic
procedures
,withdramaticincreasesseeninbothsurgicalandnonsurgicaloptionsoverthepast5
yearsanda43%increaseoverall.
many of these are adolescents
ASPS2014

Common [operations]
physical characteristics or concerns a teen may wish to correct
include a
misshapen nose, protruding ears, overly large breasts, asymmetrical breasts, or
severe
acne
and scarring.

Teens frequently gain self-esteem and confidence when their physical problems are corrected. In
fact, successful plastic surgery may reverse the social withdrawal that so often accompanies teens
who feel different.
According to American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) statistics, 63,623
cosmetic surgical procedures were performed on people age 13-19 in 2013, while 155,941
cosmetic minimally-invasive procedures were performed.
[Even though] not every teenager seeking plastic surgery is well suited for an operation.
Teens must demonstrate emotional maturity and an understanding of the limitations of plastic
surgery. The ASPS cautions teenagers and parents to keep in mind that plastic surgery is real
surgery, with great benefits, but also carries some risks. Teens should have realistic expectations
about plastic surgery and what it can do for them.

In addition, certain milestones in growth and

physical maturity must be achieved before undergoing plastic surgery.

Although health insurance does not pay for cosmetic plastic surgery, coverage is often provided
when a procedure alleviates physical symptoms or improves a body function. Such is usually the
case, for instance, when breast reduction eliminates severe back and neck pain. It should be noted;
however, that health insurance coverage varies greatly between health plans.
Kapp 2000

DEMANDSFORFUMEMEDICALCARE

textread:
newkindof"righttodilemmahasemergedonthesceneinthepastdecade(Fins,19941.This
istheproblemofpatientsortheirfamiliesdemandingthathealthcarethepmvidethemwith
formsofLSI.that,intheopinionofMehealthcareprofessionals,are"futileor"nonber,eficial,
Suchdemandsforaggressivemedicalinterventionsoccuroften,eveninthefaceofdismal
survivalandqualityofhfeprospectsgevinsky,1996,0'Brienetal.,1997)andmaycreakael...
Me...Pa..autonomy(useftedpersonallyorthroughaproxy)andtheprofessional'sown
cam:deem0.0,1994SomehavesuggestedthatMisclashmaybeavoidedorsoftenedifthe
issueischaracterizedasoneof'appropriatenss"ofspecifictreatments(Prendergast1995
SharpePoad.,1996).Additionally,althoughtheyarenotthesameMing,theconceptsoffutility
andeconorricwasteoverlapconsiderablywastefultreaftrumtoffendsMeet.,notion
ofdistributiveorsodaljuatice/fairness(Luce,1994).Inthesamevein,theconceptoffutilitymust
notheusedasaPayMjustifyhealthrarerationingindisguiseReckon81Schneiderman.
1992:Lantos.19941.

BLOCKS

Autonomydefinition:

in
bioethics
,selfdeterminationthatisfreefrom
both
controlling
interferencesbyothers
andpersonallimitationspreventingmeaningfulchoice(suchasinadequate
understandingorfaultyreasoning).Havingthecapacitytoactwithautonomydoesnotguarantee
thatapersonwillactuallydosowithfullunderstandingandwithoutexternalcontrollinginfluences.
adj.,adjautonomous.FarlexMedicalDictionary
Preferthisdefinitionbecauseitistopicspecific,beingspecificallyinthecontextofbioethicsand
sourcedfromareputablemedicinespecificdictionary.
Theautonomynecessaryforconceivingofmoralityisplacedinthesocietaldao
Mou2001

MozisutilitarianismdiffersfromitsWesterncounterpartsinotherinter
estingwaysthatbearonthetranscendenceissue.Hismeasureofutilityisnot
mental,private,orsubjective.
Thesubjectofthemoralautonomyhisargu
mentvouehsafesisnottheindividual.Heseemingl_vsharestheConfucian
notionthata
dao
isasocialguide.Asamoralrefonner,hequestionswhat
socialduowe(thesociety)oughttouseinguidingourbehavior.Thenhe

urgeswemakeasocialchoicetofollowapathofmoralreformthatwillnatu
rallyresultintheindividualsinsocietyfollowingadilferentpathfromtheone
theynowfollow.Thelocusoftheautonomynecessaryforconceivingofmoral
refomiisnotplacedinindividuals,butinthenomiativeorguidingdiscourse
(dao)
itself.

Cosmeticsurgeryismedicine
AmericanAcademyofCosmeticsurgery(http://www.cosmeticsurgery.org/?page=CosmeticSurgery)

A.Cosmeticsurgeryisauniquedisciplineofmedicinefocusedonenhancingappearancethrough
surgicalandmedicaltechniques.Cosmeticsurgerycanbeperformedonallareasofthehead,
neckandbody.Becausetreatedareasfunctionproperlybutlackaestheticappeal,cosmetic
surgeryiselective.

Mohismbelievesinafterlife:
Fulford2008
FewpeopleintheWestareawarethat500yearsbefore
Christ
wasborn,therelivedasageinChina
whoseteachingsareuncannilysimilartothoseof
Jesus
.Hisnamewas
Mozi
(originalnameMoDi)or
the"tattooedone."

Inhistimehewasaseriousrivalto
Confucius
.Healsohadamillionmanarmyathisdisposal.

Mozipreachedthatallmenarecreatedequal.UnlikeConfucius,whosaidrelativeshadfirstpriority,he
preacheduniversalloveandcaringforthepoorestandweakestinsociety.
Mozialsosaidtherewasa
Heaven
andanafterlifeandthatpeoplewhobecamerichthroughunrighteousmeanswould
notbeabletogothere.

Justas
Jesus
saiditwasbettertoteachamantofishandfeedhimforalifetimethanitwasgogivehim
afish,sodidMoziemphasizeteachingthepoortheskillstheyneededtocareforthemselves.

ThemostimportantteachingofMozi,however,wastheconceptof"Gi"whichhasbeentranslatedas
"righteousness"butwouldbebettertranslatedas"life"or"love."Theideaistodrawalineandfight
wheneverGiorlifeisbeingharmed.

Evidencefor
tian
basedmetaethics
Mozi1stmilleniumBC

Allstatesintheworld,largeorsmall,arecitiesofHeaven,andallpeople,youngorold,honourableor
humble,areitssubjectsfortheyallgrazeoxenandsheep,feeddogsandpigs,andpreparecleanwineand
cakestosacrificetoHeaven.DoesthisnotmeanthatHeavenclaimsallandacceptsofferingsfromall?
SinceHeavendoesclaimallandacceptsofferingsfromall,whatthencanmakeussaythatitdoesnot
desirementoloveandbenefitoneanother?HencethosewholoveandbenefitothersHeavenwillbless.
ThosewhohateandharmothersHeavenwillcurse,foritissaidthathewhomurderstheinnocentwillbe
visitedbymisfortune.Howelsecanweexplainthefactthatmen,murderingeachother,willbecursedby
Heaven?ThuswearecertainthatHeavendesirestohavemenloveandbenefitoneanotherand
abominatestohavethemhateandharmoneanother.

Theancientsagekings,Yu,Tang,Wen,andWulovedthepeopleoftheworlduniversally,leading
themtoreverenceHeavenandworshipthespirits.Manyweretheirbenefitstothepeople.And,
thereuponHeavenblessedthem,establishingthememperorsandallthefeudallordsofthe
empireshowedthemrespect.(Ontheotherhand)thewickedkings,Jie,Zhou,You,andLi,hated
allthepeopleintheworld,seducingthepeopletocurseHeavenandridiculethespirits.Great
weretheirinjuriestothepeople.
ThereuponHeavenbroughtthemcalamity,deprivingthemoftheir
empireandtheirlivesandposteritycondemnedthemtothisday.Jie,Zhou,You,andLi,then,arethose
thatcommittedevilandwerevisitedbycalamities.AndYu,Tang,Wen,andWuarethosethatlovedand
benefitedthepeopleandobtainedblessings.Thuswehavethosewhoobtainedblessingsbecausethey
lovedandbenefitedthepeopleaswellasthosewhowerevisitedbycalamitiesbecausetheyhatedand
harmedthepeople.

Faareobjectiveparadigms: