W RITING L AW E XAMINATIONS

JOHN H. LANGBEIN
STERLING PROFESSOR OF LAW AND LEGAL HISTORY
YALE LAW SCHOOL

Reproduced by permission of West Publishing Company

1978, revised 1991, 2010

Jun 08, 2010


AuthorsNote:SomeyearsagoIpreparedthislittleessayfortheguidanceofmy
students.Whentheessaybegantocirculateelsewhere,WestPublishingvolunteeredto
publishitinthesepageswiththethoughtthatitmightbeofhelptoawideraudience.I
hopeitis.

Lawexaminationsshareagooddealincommonwithotherstockformsoflegal
writing,suchasthebrief,thelawofficememorandum,andthejudicialopinion.
Developingproperskillsofexamwritingwillhave,therefore,permanentreturns.

Ideally,agoodlawexaminationtestshowwellastudenthasmasteredthecourse
material,andtheabilitytoapplythisknowledgetonewsituations.Thereare,
however,somerecurrentmistakes,oversightsandunwisepracticesthatprevent
studentsfromdoingaswellastheymight.Ifyouarealerttoavoidingthesepitfalls,
youwillimproveyourexaminationresults.

LackofOrganization.Themostcostlymistakeanexamineecanmakeistofailto
organizeananswerwell.Ananswerwhichflailsattheexaminationquestion
withoutaplanwilloverlookissuesandconnectionsbetweenissues.Thereisno
universalschemeoforganization.Dependinguponthelayoutofthequestion,itmay
beconvenienttoorganizebypartiesorbylegalissues.Whenthefactssetouta
substantialnumberoftransactionsoreventsextendingovertime,itmaybebestto
organizebydates,beginningwiththeearliestfactsandworkingforward,explaining
whatissuesandargumentschangeastheplotthickens.Especiallyinpropertyand
taxcourses,itissometimesquitesensibletokeyyouranswertothetreatmentof
particularassetsorgroupsofassets.Regardlessofthemodeoforganization,
organize.Youarenotwastingtimewhenyousitinanexaminationroomthinking
abouthowtobestapproachandarguetheissues.Carefulorganizationcanalso
spareyoutheseriouserrorofinconsistencyinyourtreatmentofissues.Idoubtthat
amentalchecklistisenoughIthinkyouneedtojotdownalittleoutlinetowhich
toreferasyouwriteyouranswer.

Ofcourse,virtuecanbecarriedtoexcess:Itispossibletooverorganize,tosplinter
youressayintouselesssubheadingsthatlosecontinuityandconcealinterrelations.
Onemodeoforganizationthatisusuallyunwiseistosegregatetheprosandconsof
agreatnumberofissues(Plaintiffmakesthefollowingeightarguments.
Defendantoffersthefollowingnineresponses).Usually,thetimetosaywhats
wrongwithanargument,orwhatdifficultiesmayensueifacertainruleisapplied,is
rightafteryoustatethecasefortheargumentorrule.Irecommendthatyoutryto
addressliabilitycreatingfactorsbeforeyoudiscussdefensiveones.Defensive
considerationsaredifficulttoevaluateintheabstract.

Yougetthecartbeforethehorsewhenyouraisethedefensivepositioninadvance
ofthenotionaltheoryofliabilitythatwouldbringitintoplay.

Readingthefacts.Beforeyoucanorganize,youmustknowwhatyouare
organizing.Itistheworstsortoffalseeconomytohurrythroughthefactsinorder
tostartwritingbilge.

Examinationquestionsaredense:Everysentence,everywordmayhave
significance.Youshouldreadaquestionthroughtogetitsgeneraldrift,thenreread
itwithcare.Youmustquestionthequestion.Whyisthisfactbeingtoldme,why
thisdate,whytheseparties?Aboveall,getthefactsright.Itiseasytoconfuse
partiesandplacesonanexaminationbecauseyouhavenothadlongfamiliaritywith
thefacts.Onlyyourowncommitmenttoavoidcarelessnesscansaveyoufromdoing
it.

Heretooexcessispossible.Someanswersdisplayapreposteroussuspicionofthe
facts,e.g.,theexamineewhohasbeentoldthatMr.Corpseisdead,butinsistson
recitingthatMr.Corpseappearstobedead,orIfMr.Corpseisintruthdead

Theimportanceofrole.Payattentiontotheroletheexaminerhasassignedyou.If
youaretoldtobeanadvocate,youwillnecessarilyapproachaquestiondifferently
thanifyouareputintheshoesofanimpartialjudgeorlegislativedrafter.Bealertto
thecommontendencyofexaminerstochangeroleassignmentswhentheychange
questions.Besensitivetothesignificanceofyourrolewhenlookingatthestateof
thefactsintheexaminationquestion:Havethefactsbeenfoundbelowinthelower
court,orareyoubeingaskedtoshapethemforargumenttoatrier,andifsoto
whom,aprofessionalorajuryoflaypersons?

Readtheinstructions.Iamsurprisedathowmanystudentsmisallocatetheirtime,
eventhoughtheexaminationdeclarestherelativeweightofthequestions.You
shouldgointoanexaminationwithaschedule.Whenyouhavebeentoldthatthere
arethreequestionsofequalweightandthatyouwillhavetwoandonehalfhours
beginningat9:00towritetheexamination,youshouldworkoutbeforehandthatat
9:45youwillmoveontoQuestionTwo,andat10:30toQuestionThree.Thestudent
whowritesatotaloffoursentencesonthelastquestion,concludingwiththe
breathlessreport,Time!,isdisplayingaselfinflictedwoundwhoseconsequenceis
deserved.

Padding.Noexaminergivescreditforquantityofwordswritten.Nonetheless,a
hugeproportionofexaminationpaperscontainmanyparagraphsthatshouldnot
havebeenwrittenandforwhichnocreditcanbegiven.Thetwomostcommon
varietiesofpaddingareregurgitatingthefacts,andwhatIcallwindups(lengthy
preliminarydiscussionsofissueswhichmightbeinvolved,orofgeneralpoliciesor
valueslikeenforcingintention,oroftheschemeoforganizationtheessayisgoingto
utilize).Theexaminerhaswrittenthequestionandknowswhatthefactsare.You
willnevergetcreditforsummarizingthemalloveragain,evenifyourrolein
answeringthequestionisthatofthejudge.

Goimmediatelytotheissues,thenmentionthosefactsthatarerelevantwhenthey
arerelevant.Aparticularvarietyofpaddingistowriteoutquotationsfrom
casebookmaterialsorstatutesinanopenbookexam.Citeit,dontcopyit.

Inventingfacts.Anespeciallymaddeningtraitofsomeexamineesisthe
manufactureoffacts.Usuallytheseareveryconvenientfactsthatletissuesbe
avoided.Typical:Thelawinthisjurisdictionis.OrItwasarguedinthis
matter.Neveraddtowhattheexaminerhastoldyouaboutthefacts.Ifyoudont
knowwhatpositionsweretakenintocourt,dealwiththemaspossibilitiesrather
thanattributingthemtoparticularparties.Iftheexaminerhasnttoldyouwhat
jurisdictionyouarein,andyouknowthatthereisaconflictofauthorityonthe
issue,talkabouttheconflict,donttrytoweaseloutbyassigningthegoverningrule.
Itmaysometimesbeinordertotelltheexaminerthatparticularadditionalfacts,if
present,wouldaffectyouranalysisinsomeparticularaspect,butdonotdwellon
suchmatters.

Authority.Therearetwooppositeextremestobeavoidedincitingstatutesand
cases.Ifyouaretakinganopenbookexamination,especiallyinastatutorycourse,
dontneglecttomentionthestatutesectionnumbersyouarereferringto.Thatisto
say,whenrelevantauthorityisclosetohand,takeadvantageoftheopportunityto
makeyouranswermorepreciseandlawyerlybycitingthestatutesorcasesyouare
discussing.Thegreaterfailing,however,issenselessreferencetoauthority.It
weakensratherthanstrengthensyourargumentwhenyoucitecasenameswhose
relevanceyoudonotexplain.

Negativeissuespotting.Itisusuallyquiteappropriatetosaythatonthesefacts,a
particularissuethatmighthavearisendoesnotarise,havingbeenforeclosedby
suchandsuchfactorfactor.Butthisshadesintoaflagranterrorthatwillcostyou
points.IfyouhavecomepreparedtotalkabouttheABCissue,andaredisappointed
tofindnoABCissueontheexamination,itisnotasolutiontowriteanessayabout
thesubjectofyourdisappointment.(SinceIdontfindanABCissueonthesefacts,
IlltellyouthatthereisnoABCissuehere,andthenIllspendapagetellingyou
aboutABC.)Theexaminerknowswhatsontheexam.

Knowledge.Acommonfailinginaneedlesslyweakexaminationessayisthe
tendencytotrytobarfbackthecontentsofclassnotesorcoursematerials.Whatthe
examinerlooksforisnotmemorizedknowledge,butabilitytousetheknowledgeof
thecourse.Tobesure,youhavetohavetheknowledge.Thatstheessential
precondition.Butwhatdistinguishesstrongworkisthatthestudentbringsthat
knowledgetobearonanewproblem,orthat(inresponsetoaquestion)thestudent
usesthatknowledgeasabasisforthinkingaboutnewfactsorissues.

Anotherwaytomakethispointistosaythatyoumustnotexpecttoemploy
everythingyouknowaboutacourseontheexamination.Oftenacoursestartswith
basicconcepts,thenaddsmoreadvancedknowledge,andinthesecircumstances
theexaminerislikelytoprobefortheadvancedknowledge.Youhavenotwasted

youreffortslearningthebasicsthatarenotcalledforontheexamination.Without
thebasics,youcouldntdealwiththefrontier.Itisamajorblunderinsuch
circumstancestoinsistonemphasizingtherudimentswhenthequestioninvitesyou
tohigherground.

Procedureandremedy.Commonproceduralissuescutacrossmostsubstantive
issues:Doesaparticularpartyhavesufficientinteresttohavestanding;whatarethe
remedyimplicationsofthesubstantivelegalrightsyouthinkpertinent;hasthere
beendelaysuchastoraiselachesorstatuteoflimitationproblems?Remedyis
especiallyimportant.Itwillbearareexaminationthatdoesnotposeproblemsof
remedy.Consequently,tospeakintortterms,getinthehabitofaskingyourself:
NowthatIseetherehasbeenawrong,whichofthemanyconceivablethingsa
courtcandoaboutthewrongseemappropriatehereandwhy?

Questionbegging.Themostrecurrenterrorthatweallmakeinlegalanalysisis
failingtojustifyourconclusions.Thearthasmanyforms.Bewaretheadverb
clearlyorthephrase,Itisclearthat.Examinerstendnottosetquestionsthat
canberesolvedbysentencesthatproperlybeginwiththewordclearly.Idonot
meantosuggestthattherearenoeasyissuesonlawexams.Thereare.Onething
yourexamineristestingforisyourabilitytodistinguishstraightforwardproblems
fromcomplicatedones:Ahallmarkofaweakansweristhatthestudentspendstime
trashinganeasypointtodeathratherthanfacinguptothehardproblems.Because
legalissuesdonotinvolvethesamedegreesofdoubt,youshouldsignalyour
awarenessofhowopenaparticularissueis.

Undertheheadingofquestionbegging,thebasicfailingIamtalkingaboutisthe
practiceofstatinglegalconclusionswithoutgivingthereasoning.Youwillgetlittle
creditforsaying,Bloggscommittedfraudandsohislegacyfails.Youhavetoshow
whytheissueinheresinthefacts(whatconductamountedtofraudandwhy),why
yourresultfollowsfromthefactsandthelaw.Therightanswerisntrightunless
youshowwhy.

Issuespottingisnotenough.Weemphasizeissuespottingonlawexaminations
becauseitissocentraltothelawyersjob.Yourclientisnotgoingtocomeinand
say,IhaveaSection1983actionIdlikeyoutobring.Insteadyouwillhear
somethingofwhathappened,orwhattheclientwantstoachieve,anditisyourjob
(afterprobingthefacts)toseewhatlegalissuesmayariseonthosefacts.

Howeverimportantissuespottingis,youneedtodomore.Itisnotenoughtohitthe
sideofthebarn.Onceyouseethatanissueisinquestion,thatadoctrineora
statutorysectionapplies,continuetoaskyourself:Whatareitsimplications,its
ramificationsforthevariousparties,thedifficultiesitraises?Haveyouindeed
spottedtheapplicablerule,orcantherulebedistinguished?Theexaminerwill
commonlysetaquestionwhosefactssuggest,butdonotquitefit,some
conventionalruleoflaw.Thestudentwhodisplayssensitivitytodistinguishingthe

particularcaseaccordingtothepurposesoftheseeminglyapplicableruleisonthe
waytoanA.

Ifyouaregoingtogetbeyondissuespotting,youmustrefrainfromdealingwith
issuesingeneralizedtermsthatpreventyoufromdevelopingyouranalysis.
Abstractdiscussionsoflegaldoctrineareseldomjustified.Theexaminerwantsto
knowwhichfactsraisetheissueandhowtheissueaffectstherightsofparties.

Theotherside.Thehardestpartoflegalanalysis,Ithink,istokeeponesmind
opentoallsidesofanissue.Wetend,especiallyintheadversaryprocess,toblotout
opposingpositions.Wetakeastandandjustifyit.Butthereisalmostalways
anotherside,orseveral.Andyoucantbesurethatyourviewis(a)corrector(b)
properlyarticulatedanddefended,unlessyouhaveaskedyourself:Whatcanbe
saidagainstmyinterpretationofthefactsandthelaw,whatwouldtheotherside
argue?Areallygoodexaminationanswernotonlysuggeststhepreferredsolution,
butitdevelopsbothsidesoftheproblem.

Youshouldmasterthetechniqueofarguinginthealternative.Ifyoudealwithan
issueandresolveit,andyouareawarethathadyouresolvedittheotherwayyou
wouldhavehadtodealwithotherissuesconsequenttotheothersolution,arguethe
pointinthealternative.Dontduckissuesthatthefactsdoinviteyoutodiscuss.

Irresolution.Itisusuallybesttoreachresults.Lawyersarepaidtoadviseand
judgestodecide.Henceyouarenotdoingyourjobonthetypicalexamination
questionsifyousayonlythatsuchandsuchdoctrinesmayapply.Dothey?Whyand
how?Astrongessayconstantlysignalstheweightbeingattachedtovariousissues,
rulesandarguments,anditsuggestsinareasonedfashiontheprobablyoutcome(s).

Inspiration.Itsometimeshappensthattheexaminerputsanissueontheexam
aboutwhichyouhavethoughtlongandhard,orindeed,aboutwhichyoufind
yourselfwithsomethingdaringtosayeventhoughyouhavenotthoughtlongand
hard.Youhaveananalysisthatnopriorlegalthinkerhaseversuggested,oryou
thinktherelevantdoctrinestobequitewrongforsuchandsuchreason.Itisquite
properforyoutoputsuchobservationsonyourexaminationanswer,theyarethe
stufffromwhichAplusgradescanbemade.Butbeforeyoureachthe
unconventional,beprudent.Setouttheordinaryanalysisthatwouldgovernthe
problemincasethecourtortheexaminerweretothinklessofyourinspiration
thanyoudo.

Theseamlessweb.Instatutorycoursesstudentshaveatendencytooverlook
considerationsnotdirectlytiedtocodenumbers.Statutesdonotworkinisolation
inourlegalsystem.Thecodemaynotreachallaspectsoftheproblem.Furthermore,
dontletcoursetitlesbecomeblinders.Dontbeafraidtouseyourknowledgefrom
onecourseinanother.Itmaybequiteappropriatetopointoutonatortsexamthat
aproblemwouldalsobesusceptibletocontractanalysis.Ontheotherhand,dont

getcarriedawaywithsuchefforts.Ititsatortsexam,thebetisgoodthatthe
examinerhassuppliedyouwithlotsoftortsissuestowriteabout.

Writing.Nomatterwhatthelevelofyourwritingskills,therearesomemechanical
thingsyoucandotopresentyourworkatitsbest.Breakupthemainschemeof
youranswerintoparagraphs.Usecompletesentencesandavoidabbreviating
ordinarywords.Avoidslang;expressionsliketothrowoutofcourtcanconceal
distinctionsthatyourexaminerregardsasimportant.Ifyouhandwrite,write
legibly;ifyouhaveadifficulthandwriting,skipalinebetweeneachwrittenline.
Leaveaconventionallefthandmarginforyourexaminersnotations.Remember
thatifyourexaminerissparedhavingtodecipheryourscript,moretimewillbe
availabletoconcentrateonthenuancesofyourmeaning.

Format.Irecommendtostudentsthattheyconsiderwordprocessingexamination
answerswheneveritisallowed.Evenahuntandpecktypistisnotataparticular
disadvantage,becauseitwillnotbenecessarytodocopytypingontheexam.My
hunchisthatformoststudentswordprocessingfacilitatesclarity.

Avoidjocularity.Yourexaminertakesseriouslythequestionspropoundedonthe
examination.IdontsupposethatImeantorecommendagainstalllevity,butrather
tosaythatinmyexperiencemostattemptsseemedstrainedandcloying,andseem
needlesslytohavepreoccupiedtheexaminee.Myimpressionisthateffortsat
humorareassociatedwitherrorandbadexamwritinginasurprisinglyhigh
correlation.(Somestudentsthinkthatjocularityisinvitedbecausetheexaminer
usesbizarrenamesforthepartiesandplacesinsettingaquestion.Thisisdonein
ordertohelpstudentsavoidconfusingtheparties.Evenwhentheexamineruses
veryawkwardnames,someexamineesstillconfusethem.Youhavenoreasonto
imitatetheexaminersartinthismanner.)

Panic.Somehowithappensthatafewstudentsgetallthewaytolawschoolwithout
learningtosteelthemselvesagainstpanicpsychologyinexamtaking.Thethought
processmustbesomethinglikethis:Becausethisexamisimportanttome,Ihave
toabandonmyanalyticalgoodsenseinaracetoslopsomethingonpaper.Ialso
havetojettisonmyusualattentiontogrammar,spelling,andpunctuation.
Moreover,Ishalladoptstreamofconsciousnessprosestyleinordertoshowthe
examinerhowdesperatelyurgentIthoughtitallwas.Nomatterhowimportantthe
exam,panicwillnothelp.Itonlyrendersyoulesscapableandlesspersuasivethen
youotherwisewouldbe.