Teaching Using Discussion

William Ewens
In literature on teaching, the term "discussion" usually refers to a diverse body of
teaching techniques, which emphasize participation, dialogue, and two-way
communication. The discussion method is one in which the instructor and a group of
students consider a topic, issue, or problem and exchange information, experiences, ideas,
opinions, reactions, and conclusions with one another.
For many of us in higher education, our image of college education involves more than
the mere transfer of information. We want students to formulate applications of abstract
principles, to gain practice in logic and thinking, to give us prompt feedback, and to
develop the appetite for further learning. In short, our images of effective teaching
involve the exchange of ideas between instructor and student, the Socratic model of
"Mark Hopkins and a student at two ends of a log" (Goldsmid and Wilson, 1980).
Available research evidence also supports the general effectiveness of discussion
techniques. Compared with the traditional lecture method, discussions elicit higher levels
of reflective thinking and creative problem solving, including synthesis, application, and
evaluation. There is also evidence that information learned through active discussion is
generally retained better than material learned through lecture. Moreover, students often
prefer to participate in discussions rather than to be passive learners in a lecture
(McKeachie, l978).
Summarizing the advice of educational authorities (including those listed in the
references below), below are several strategies for teaching using discussion. Discussion
sessions vary widely across topics, cases, and instructors, and there are few general truths
that apply to all teaching situations. With these qualifications in mind, however, here are
some of the main points emphasized by experts on college teaching.
Proper Discussion Techniques
Classroom discussions, as typically practiced, are a middle-of-the-road teaching
technique for instructors wanting moderate levels of student participation (Zander, l979).
If one's primary purpose as a teacher is to communicate specific information, perhaps the
lecture method would be more successful. And, if one desires extensive participation by
all members of the class, perhaps the class should be broken into smaller groups (dyads,
triads, or larger "buzz groups") for part of the period.
Starting Classroom Discussions
Discussion implies involvement. Ideally, the students and instructor collaborate to meet
mutual goals. Here are some ideas for starting discussions (Goldsmid and Wilson, l980;
Bergquist and Phillips, l975):

Start the discussion by posing a broad, open-ended question, one that has no obvious
right or wrong answer but which will stimulate thought
Begin with a concrete, common experience, a newspaper story, a film, a slide, a
demonstration, or a role-play
Analyze a specific problem; ask students to identify all possible aspects of the topic or
issue under consideration
Be benignly disruptive; start the discussion with a controversy by either causing
disagreement among students over an issue or by stating objectively both sides of a
controversial topic
Eighteen Discussion Suggestions
Below are some further suggestions for promoting useful classroom discussions.
1. Discussion requires preparation. For thought-provoking issues, allow students time to
get prepared. Give the questions ahead of time or at least allow students time for
reflection before they talk. Also, remember to give yourself plenty of preparation time
before the class begins.
2. Break large problems into smaller, more specific ones. Discussions often appear
disorganized because different students are working on different parts of the problem and
thus become frustrated by what seem irrelevant comments by other students. You should
break the discussion problem into smaller parts, so that all students are working on the
same part of the problem at the same time. You can then attempt to keep the students
aware of the discussion problem that is the current focus. For many problems, typical
steps might include formulating the problem, suggesting propositions or hypotheses,
getting relevant data, and evaluating alternative solutions (Maier, l963).
3. Ask questions at different levels of abstraction. Don't get stuck at some particular level
of analysis, stay at the factual level. Also, ask questions that require analysis, application,
synthesis, and evaluation.
4. Provide encouragement and praise for correct answers and risk-taking. Be positive,
non-judgmental, and supportive. Encourage participation by at least a smile, a verbal or
nonverbal acknowledgment, or a few words of encouragement. Avoid moralizing,
preaching, threats, warnings, judging, ridicule, or blaming. Such practices tend to stifle
effective discussion.
5. Don't use unnecessary jargon. Explain your terminology. Phrase your questions
carefully so that they will not confuse students.
6. Adopt the 10-second rule. Learn to be patient and to tolerate silence. Silence, after all,
can be a powerful motivator for speaking. Practice waiting as long as 8 to 10 seconds for
responses to difficult and thought-provoking questions.

7. Learn to paraphrase. Paraphrasing, sometimes called "active listening," involves

interpreting what students say, reformulating it, and presenting your interpretation back
to the student in your own words. It is a method of communicating understanding and
involvement which, if practiced conscientiously, involves more than merely repeating or
"parroting" the student's comment (Gordon, l974).
8. Allow students to answer. Resist the temptation to answer your own questions.
9. Learn students' names. Learning their names displays your concern and lets students
know you care about them as individuals. Although simple, it is one of the most
important techniques to promote discussion. If you have trouble remembering, use
devices such as assigned seating or name tags during the first two weeks to help you and
students learn each other's names.
10. Seat students facing one another. Seating students in rows may reduce discussion
among them. Seat them in a circle to promote classroom interaction.
11. Adopt the role of troubleshooter. Reduce ambiguity by presenting facts or requesting
the discussion, by summarizing, or by preventing premature closure of the discussion.
12. Creatively handle disagreements. List the pros and cons of an issue on the
blackboard, allow representatives to offer points of view to debate, make people
temporarily argue from a perspective opposite from their own, or employ other
techniques to reduce destructive classroom conflict.
13. Promote openness and honesty. Try not to be defensive. Don't be afraid to admit
ignorance and learn to say, "I don't know." Use alternative views as teaching resources
and try to promote a friendly atmosphere in the classroom.
14. Promote student self-help. Help students learn to evaluate their own progress and to
identify discussion problems and barriers that have developed. Encourage good thought
habits and help students identify their own mistakes.
15. Encourage student interaction. Encourage students not only to ask you questions, but
also to react to one another's ideas. Promote the idea of education as a democratic
endeavor in which people learn together. Ask students to comment on each other's
remarks and ask them to respond directly to one another.
16. Be a positive role model. Actions are often more important than words. Be careful to
provide an example through your actions of your most important values.
17. Draw on student skills. Draw on the tremendous reservoir of existing skills and
practical life experiences already present in the class. Get individual class members to
contribute to problem areas where they have special knowledge or experience.

18. Summarize, summarize, summarize. Periodically, and at the end of the class period,
appraise the progress of the class by summarizing the main points of the discussion.
Restate issues, point out diversions and barriers, and praise classroom successes.
References
Bergquist, William H., and Phillips, Steven R. A Handbook for Faculty Development.
Washington, D.C.: Council for the Advancement of Small Colleges, l975.
Eble, Kenneth E. "Discussion." The Craft of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, l976.
Goldsmid, C., and E. Wilson. "Discussion." Passing on Sociology. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, l980.
Gordon, T. Teacher Effectiveness Training. New York: Wyden, 1974.
Hill, W. Learning through Discussion. Beverly Hills: Sage Productions, l962.
McKeachie, Wilbert J. "Organizing Effective Discussion." Teaching Tips (7th ed.).
Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, l978.
Maier, N. Problem-solving: Discussions and Conferences: Leadership Methods and
Skills. New York: McGraw-Hill, l963.
Thompson, G. Discussion Groups in University Courses: Introduction. Cincinnati:
University of Cincinnati Faculty Resource Center, l974. Distributed by ASA Teaching
Resources Center.
Zander, A. "The Discussion Period in a College Classroom." Memo to the Faculty, 62.
Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Research on Learning and Teaching,