PLASTIC COLLAPSE MECHANISMS

INTRODUCTION
In order to develop the concepts of plastic collapse mechanisms, we need first of all to go
back to a bit of Theory of structures theory, and remind ourselves of the stress-strain
relationship for most construction materials.

U
y

Steel is unique in that it has a "strength reserve" in the form of a strain hardening effect.
However this effect is ignored in design, and so for all materials we only consider the two
zones discussed in the lecture - ie the elastic and plastic zones.
We can take the relationship from this curve, and apply it to bending moment stress
distributions.
Recall that for a given moment applied to a given cross section, the stress distribution
looks as follows

My
I

N.A.

At any infinitesimal area A, a distance y from the Neutral Axis, let the value of stress be
. The force on this area is then A.
The total force on the section = A =
A

M
y A
A A

but net force on the section =0 y A =0, i.e. the N.A. is the centroid of the section
A

ELASTIC DESIGN
The foregoing theory is the basis for elastic design.
In this approach to design:
a) the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section
My
b) the stress at any point is given by
I
c) the section is considered to be on the point of failure when the highest stress on
the section reaches the yield stress y.
d) to provide safeguard against failure, a factor of is applied to the yield stress to
ensure that in normal circumstances the maximum stress reached does not some
working stress w.
For example, for a rectangular beam, the maximum moment carried in the beam at failure
can be assessed as follows
b

yb d

2
d
3

yb d

y bd 2
. d
4 3
y bd 2

My

The section Modulus Z, which we shall denote Ze to indicate it is the modulus for the
elastic condition, can be obtained in either of two ways:
bd 3
I
bd 2
Z E 12
d
Y
6
2
or sin ce

2
M
My y bd
bd 2
ZE

y
Z
6y
6

PLASTIC DESIGN
What happens if we increase the moment on the section above that which produces a
maximum stress of ay on the section?
The following strain and stress distributions "elastic failure" indicate the response
y

>y

y
Strain

Strain

Stress

Stress

Partially plastic

at failure (first yield) M=My

It is seen that the section does not in fact fail, but that the outermost fibres, which reached
a stress level of y at "elastic failure", continue to strain at the same stress level of y.
As the moment is increased even further, successive layers of the section will reach yield
until, eventually the entire section is at yield.
The whole progression can be pictured as follows:w
y
y

section

(2)
limit of elastic
design

(1)
working
stress

(3)
intermediate
stage

(4)
fully
plastic

Once the whole section has reached yield the section has reached its maximum moment
carrying capacity, and whilst it will continue to carry this amount of moment, it can no
longer carry any more. The tiniest increment of moment applied beyond this point will
cause the beam to deform continuously at this section.
M

Since free rotation at a point in a structure without taking any moment is associated with
a hinge at that point, we say that a "plastic hinge" has formed at this point. Consider the
following stress distribution:
y
x

d-x
y
At any infinitesimal area dA, a distance y from the Neutral Axis, the value of stress is y
.The force on this area is then y A.
The total force on the section

y A

( d x )

y A y A

x
( d x )

y A A
0
0

the net force on the section 0

( d x )

A A

i.e. the neutral (plastic) axis is the axis that divides the section in half by area
In this approach to design;
1. the neutral axis passes through the equal area axis of the section
2. the stress at all points is y
3. the moment of resistance corresponding to this state of stress on the section is
called the ultimate moment of resistance or the plastic moment - at this point a
plastic hinge is formed
4. to provide safeguard against failure, a factor of safety in the form of a "load
factor" is applied to the failure moment to ensure that in normal circumstances the
beam does not collapse.
Note the interpretation of the safety factors for elastic and plastic design with regard to
the stress distribution progression above.
Elastic design:
factor of safety =
loads (or moments) giving (2)
loads (or moments) giving (1)
Plastic design:
load factor =
loads (or moments) giving (4)
loads (or moments) giving (1)
The load factor used in plastic theory is usually in the vicinity of 2. A typical value is 1,8.
(Modern design codes for specific materials, however, apply a slightly different approach
in that they apply factors of safety to both material strengths and to applied
loads.)Referring again to the plastic stress distribution above, we can evaluate the
moment of resistance for a rectangular beam.

The maximum moment carried in the beam is

y
A
C Y
2
yc
d/2
yt
A
y
T Y
2

Mp

A
d bd
d
bd 2
Y
Y Y
2
2 2
2
4

Shape factor
The ratio between the plastic and elastic modulus is known as the "shape factor". This is
the same ratio as that between plastic moment and maximum elastic moment.
Zp
MP

also
where MY = elastic moment at first yield = Ze.y
Ze
MY
bd 2
for a rectangular beam 4

=1.5
bd 2
6
For I beams, the shape factor is usually about 1,15.

Note on composite beams

For uniform beams having a definite material yield point, the plastic moment is always as
developed above; ie MP= y ZP.
For composite beams, the value of MP is dependent upon the theory relating to the
materials used and the methods of connection of those materials.
eg. reinforced concrete section:

U (=fcu)
C

Mp=Asy(d-x/2)

x
d

y (=fy)

T= Asy

PLASTIC MODULI
For the symmetrical steel I- section shown below, determine:
1. the elastic moment
2. plastic moment
3. shape factor
100
10 flange
6 web

200

10 flange

flange
web
Elastic

B=
tw=

plastic

part
flange
web
total

100
6
I=

tf=
D=
20982667

10
200
Ze=

A
1000
540
1540

y
95
45

Ay
95000
24300
119300

Shape factor=Zp/Ze= 1.1371291

fy=

300

209827

Me=

62.948

y'=
Zp=

77.46753
238600

Mp=

71.58

Axial force
Columns may have to carry significant axial forces in addition to bending moment. The
axial force will have the effect of moving the axis of zero strain.
y

Due to F

Due to M

Total stress

+
Strain

Consider the rectangular section

F= y*Z*B
Mpc=(B*D2/4 - B*Z2/4)*y
Py=y*B*D
Let n=F/Py=y*Z*B / y*B*D =Z/D so that Z=nD
Mpc=(B*D2/4 - B*(nD)2/4)*y
Mpc=(B*D2/4 n2*B* D2/4)*y
Mpc= BD2/4(1-n2)y
Mpc=Mp(1-n2)

For an I section, S.J.Moy (Plastic methods for steel and concrete structures) gives the
following
(1)with the zero strain axis in the web:
Mp=Mp-(A2/4t)n2y (2.17)

where A is total area, n P/PP

This equation is valid for P/Pp<=1-2BT/A (2.18) T is flange thickness
(2) With the zero strain axis in the flange:
Mp=[(A2/4B)*(1-n)*(2BD/A-1+n)]y (2.19)

Shear
Reduction is negligible in low rise structures (Refer to 2.6.2 Book by
Moy)
8

Plastic analysis of structures

Thus far we have been concerned with the development of formulations relating to the
Plastic Design of sections. In other words, we have looked at an isolated cross section of
a beam which is subjected to a moment, and we have looked at a method of calculating
the maximum plastic moment that can be carried by the section.
However, we must now turn our attention. to look at the broader context of the whole (or
at least the local part of the) structure in which this cross section finds itself, and what
effect the development of this plastic moment might have on the overall structure. This is
the field of Plastic Analysis.

Behaviour of a statically determinate beam

Consider a simple determinate structure such as a simply supported beam loaded with a
point load at some location
b

a
A
bending
moment
diagram

e=2, r=2 and D=r-e =0 determinate

B
a

b
deflected shape

Mmax=Pab/L

Notice two things:

1. Points A and B are pinned supports. Therefore they do not develop moments at
any time. The beam is free to rotate at these points, and it does so.
2. The maximum working moment in the beam occurs at the point of application of
P. This is due to the nature of the geometry of the structure (the beam) and the
loads. Therefore as the load P increases so the moment at all points in the beam
increase, and the cross section of the beam at P reaches the value of Mp first.
At this point a plastic hinge forms at P and the structure becomes unstable and collapses
bending moment diagram
Mmax=Pab/L
r=2, e=2 and c=1
D=r-e-c =-1 unstable, collapses

structure

Behaviour of a statically indeterminate beam

Now consider the following simple
indeterminate beam loaded with a
uniform load

From elastic theory we know the value of

the bending moment at the fixed ends, and
we can calculate the value of the moment at
midspan. The maximum moments in the
beam occur at the ends

wl2
12
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2

8
12
24

As the value of w is increased so the

moments along the beam also do. Since the
maximum moments occur at the ends these
will be the sections where the plastic moment
capacity of the beam, Mp will be reached first
Since the plastic moment has been reached at
the supports, plastic hinges form at these
points. The beam does not collapse because a
beam on hinged supports at its ends is a
simply supported beam, which is a stable and
determinate structure.

If the load w is further increased, the beam

now acts as a simply supported beam, but
with a non-increasing moment at the hinges
of MP

At some higher value of w, the moment at the

centre also reaches the plastic value MP

wl2
12

Mp

Mp
wl 2 =M /2
p
24
w

Mpwl2
12

D=0

Mp
wl 2
M
M P (M M P )
8

Mp

Mp

Mp
We now have the situation of a simply
supported beam with an internal hinge - an
unstable condition - and the beam collapses.

10

r=2, e=3and c=1 D=-1

The collapse mechanism

We have seen that for a statically determinate structure (D=0), the insertion of a hinge
leads to the formation of a mechanism and the collapse of the structure (ie D = -1, an
unstable structure).
We have also seen that for an indeterminate structure (D=2), the insertion of two hinges
leads to a determinate one (D=0), and the insertion of a further hinge leads to collapse
(D= -1).
In general, if a structure is indeterminate to the n'th degree, then a mechanism is formed
when n+l plastic hinges are developed.
This rule must be applied not only to the whole structure, however, but also to elements
of it, because local collapse of the structure is also considered to be a failure of the
structure.

or

or

D=

n=

n=

n= (hinges)

or

D=

n=

n=

D=

n=

n=

for frames: D=3m-3j+r-c

11

n=

From the above we can see that, for a given structure, a number of different collapse
mechanisms are possible depending on the applied loading system. For each loading
system only one of the possible mechanisms can be the first to form.
Plastic analysis is concerned with establishing
i) given the structural strength, which of these possible mechanisms is the true
collapse mechanism, and what are the associated collapse loads
or, conversely
ii) given the actual loads, what are the required collapse
moment capacities of the structure
Consider the previous statically indeterminate beam:
MP

wL2/8 = 2MP

MP
MP

16M P
L
or
2) Given the applied load to the structure of wu, the required structural strength to
w L2
avoid collapse is MP= u
16
[compare beam capacity by elastic analysis (but plastic depth MP not MY)- limit of
12M P
wL2
i.e. w e
elastic analysis occurs when support moment reaches MP M e
12
L2
w
16
u
1.33 i.e. w u 1.33w e ]
w e 12

1) Given the structural strength MP, the collapse occurs at a load of wu=

12

Collapse mechanisms for simple beams

Since we have established that for collapse mechanism to form we need a sufficient
number of plastic hinges to develop, which in turn means that at each of these hinge
locations the bending moment diagram has peaks of value MP, we can carry out the
analysis by a graphical trial-and-error procedure, or by inspection.

Example 1
Simply supported Bending Moment: (notes P10)
Mmax=PxL/3x2L/3/L=2PL/9
P

2Mp/3

MP
L/3

2L/3
MP

MP+2/3 MP=2PL/9
5/3 MP=2PL/9
P=7.5 MP/L

or

MP=2PL/15

Alternatively:
+

Graphically
Method:
1. Draw the s.s. bmd first to scale
2. Superimpose end moment bmd graphically so that 1 = 2
3. Measure MP to scale
2PL/9
MP

13

2PL/9

Example 2 108

72

A
C
B
Free bending moment diagram:

84 kN

96 kN
288

252

There are 2 possibilities:

a)
Graphically:

MP

MP

MP

MP
MP+2/3 MP=288
MP=172.8 kNm
b)
Graphically:
MP

MP

MP

MP
MP+1/3 MP=252
MP=189 kNm
From the previous example where more than one mechanism is a possibility, we can see
that having considered all the candidate mechanisms, the one that requires the largest MP
to resist it is the critical one. In other words, given a certain load system, the mechanism
14

which requires the highest structural strength to resist failure, ie the highest MP, will be
the correct mechanism.
Conversely, given the member capacity MP, the mechanism requiring the lowest load to
cause failure will occur first, and is the correct mechanism.
We can see from the above that one way to find the correct mechanism is to exhaustively
try every possibility. But what if the system has many possible mechanisms (this would
create a huge amount of work), or what if we overlooked some possibilities (if we
overlooked the correct mechanism we would get an erroneous result)?
It would be useful to have a set of conditions, which, if satisfied, would confirm whether
or not a selected mechanism is the correct one.
General collapse conditions
A structure is just on the point of collapse when the following three conditions apply
a) Equilibrium condition
The system of bending moments must be in equilibrium with the external loads.
b) Yield condition
The bending moments may nowhere exceed the plastic moment values of the
members.
c) Mechanism condition
There must be sufficient plastic hinges to form a collapse mechanism.
If a system of bending moments can be found which satisfies these three
conditions, then that system defines the true collapse load.

Example 2 continued
a) MC= 252-MP/3 = 252-172.8/3 = 194.4 > MP this is not the correct solution ,
yield condition is not satisfied
b) MB= 288-2MP/3 = 288-2*189/3 = 162 < MP all collapse conditions satisfied
this is the correct mechanism

15

Equilibrium Method (also called Statical method)

Examples 1 & 2 which were presented earlier in this course (P14), made use of
Equilibrium. We saw how equilibrium must be satisfied at every stage of loading (P10
Behavior of a statically indeterminate beam). In this method, a moment diagram is drawn
that satisfies equilibrium conditions. When a sufficient no of plastic hinges have been
developed to allow instantaneous hinge rotations without developing increased resistance,
a mechanism is said to have occurred1. If a mechanism is obtained and the moment at
any point does not exceed Mp then the load calculated is the true load.
The aim of this method is to find an equilibrium moment diagram in which no moment
exceeds Mp.
The following approach may be used:
1. Select redundant forces / moments
2. Draw the bending moment diagram for the determinate structure
3. Draw the bending moment diagram at failure due to the redundancies
4. Superimpose the two moment diagrams so that a mechanism forms. Sketch the
mechanism
5. Calculate the value of the ultimate load by solving the equilibrium equation
6. Check that M Mp at any point, if this is the case then the true ultimate load is
obtained. If M Mp at any point then repeat steps 3 to 6 so that a plastic hinge is
formed at the section of maximum moment, and continue until the three basic
conditions are satisfied (p15)
Example 1 Pin based rectangular frame:
W

+
H
L

C.J.Salmon and J.E.Johnson

16

Mechanism method application of virtual Work

The graphical method, while convenient for simple beams, becomes complicated and
unwieldy when applied to more complex structures. The mechanism method provides a
much simpler alternative in these circumstances. In this approach the system is assumed
to act as a rigid bar mechanism. Any flexure of the members is ignored.
Use is made of the principle that;
External work done by applied forces = Internal work absorbed in plastic hinge
rotation
Remember that work is done by an action moving through a certain displacement
i.e. Work done = Force x distance travelled through
or Work done = Moment x angle rotated through in radians
A number of examples will be given in lectures to demonstrate this approach.
Reading
study chapter 9 of Solving Problems in Structures volume 2 (PCL Croxton & LH Martin)
Tutorial exercises Do problems 1, 4, 5, 8 and 9 from the text.

Plastic analysis Mechanism method

Example 1
W

L/2

L/2

17

Example 2
W

L/4

3L/4

Example 3
W

3L/4

L/4

18

Example 4
w

L/2

L/2

Example 5
w

L-x

19