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Social Segmentation and Linguistic Variation: Class and Race

The field of sociolinguistics continuously explains the causes and occurrence of
linguistic variation. Variation is the change of any variant in a language. A variant is the
realization of a variable in terms of differences in pronunciation or phonetic
realization.1 Variation can be caused by geography, education, occupation, religion and
social networks, amongst others. Gender, ethnicity and socio-economic status cause
variation as women use standard forms to elicit prestige, groups use specific variation to
highlight cultural identity and lower socio-economic brackets shift toward the language
of those above them.
Variation occurs within a specific speech community that has interaction with
others and develops, consciously or not, due to factors such a gender, ethnicity and
socio-economic status. A speech community is a complex interlocking network of
communication whose members share knowledge about and attitudes towards the
language use patterns of others as well as themselves. This knowledge encompasses
the realities of gender, ethnicity and socio-economic status thereby resulting in a
particular linguistic shift.2
Language reflects how a particular ethnic group views itself and others. A study
conducted in Boston in 1979 amongst three ethnic groups: Irish, Italian and Jewish. The
result showed that the dialect variant has become a valued trait of Irish and Italians
in Boston. It is clearly their linguistic feature- a mark of identity for them. A group utilizes
a variant to maintain cultural identity, especially in cosmopolitan societies. 3 A case study
done Belize shows that variation occurs as a means of distinctiveness and portraying a
particular group as linguistically elite and advanced. Belize has four speech
communities, two being Creole and Carib or Garifuna speakers. While both speak the
individual varieties in homogenous communities, interaction requires the use of Creole
or Belize Standard English. The result is that socially ambitious speakers strive towards
achieving a varieties distinct as possible from the stigmatised, and as close as possible
to the prestige model, through two main processes: elimination of marked Creole
features, and saturation of marked English forms 4 . This situation can be explained in
1

Meyerhoff, Miriam. Introducing Sociolinguistics New York: Routledge, 2008

2 Spolsky, Bernard. Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998

3 Laferriere, Martha. Ethnicity in Phonological Variation and Change., 1979
4 Giles, Howard & Saint-Jacques, Bernard. Language and Ethnic Relations. Pergamon Press, 1998.

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light of Winfords 1972 study in Trinidad, in which it was believed that unity in a
community produces linguistic fusion. The different speech communities have little unity
hence the existence of four distinct varieties in Belize and the manipulation of the
standard being used as a yardstick of linguistic competence.
Socio-economic class proves difficult to examine due to the different criteria used
for determining the class an individual belongs to. There exists varying positions on
what to use as a measure of socio-economic status. Some criteria used were
employment, fathers employment and in the case of women, husbands education,
employment. In 1966, a case study interviewing people of English, Portuguese and
Native American backgrounds. The results showed that different segments of each
group displayed the same type of centralization of diphthongs /ay/ and /aw/.
Centralization was shown by those who laid claim to native status as Vineyarders. 5
However, there were not just cases of centralization but hypercorrection in which the
variant was applied to phonological areas it would not appear. The centralization is
viewed as more desirable and linked to Marthas Vineyard. The study inferred that the
hypercorrect pattern is more characteristic of upward mobility that of membership in any
particular socio-economic group. It was believed that the lower middle class (LCM)
hypercorrects its language; it copies features of the middle class (MC), whose
language behavior is more standard, in order to gain social prestige. 6 The upward
mobility and social prestige referred was the fact that desired group of the interviewees
or the group that identification is most sought with. Socio-economic history of a group
would cause variation towards a higher group. After investigation in the Lower East Side
of New York, the study states, a group of speakers with a past history of upward
mobility is more apt to resemble the next higher socio-economic group in their linguistic
behavior. This mention of socio-economic history has drawn criticism as it determines
class on an individuals parents etc. and does not take into account factors such as
education.
Despite variation being a topic of constant research, several facts have been
discovered through studies spanning decades. Ethnicity causes speech communities to
choose varieties that best represent the group. Socio-economic class causes a
conscious shift to the variety to the desired group in society. Through these finding
variation is understood better and the foundation for future studies are laid.

Labov, William. The effect of Social Mobility on Linguistic Behaviour. Sociological Inquiry, 1966

6 Wodak, Ruth and Benke, Gertraud. Gender as a Sociolinguistic Variable: New Perspectives on Variation Studies. The Handbook of
Sociolinguistics. Ed. Coulmas, Florian. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1997.

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Social Stratification: Caste, Class, Race

Social inequality is a universal phenomenon in all societies. It can exist either in form of
a hierarchy of groups or individuals or it may exist without the creation of a hierarchy. In
almost all societies men and women are treated unequally. If social inequality shows
itself in the form of a hierarchy involving ranking of groups then it is known as social
stratification.
Throughout the mankind history, the society always has different groups/classes
on different basis; occupation, caste, education, sources of income, prestige and
political power, especially on economic resources. At the beginning the resources are in
abandoned than the need of the people, so the people are living together. But as time
passed, the population increases some of the people felt that there may a timell come
when available responses are ended. They try to make hold on them. As time passed
they became dominant in the society and try to rule on others. By this way the society is
divided in classes.
Stratification systems
1. Caste system: This is an example of a rigid or closed stratification system
where an individuals position and status are determined at birth (social mobility is not
possible). It is traditionally associated with India where the basis of the system is
determined by religion, more specifically the Hindu religion. Other examples of a caste
system are the Apartheid movement in south Africa and the American South before the
Civil Rights Movement.
In the Hindu caste system there are four castes or varnas, which are ranked in terms of
ritual purity) and a fifth group called the untouchables. The castes are:

Brahmins: This is the highest caste and consisted of the priests, and religious
people who are considered to be the embodiment of purity and holiness

Kshatryia: This group consists of the rulers, warriors and administrators

Vaisya: This group consists of the merchants, the traders and the farmers.

Sudras: These are the manual workers.

The Untouchables: These are the outcastes of this system. They are
considered to be the unclean and impure group who perform the unclean and

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degrading jobs. They tend to live on the periphery the villages and have their own
communities. (Haralambos and Holborn).
2. Slavery system: This is another example of a closed stratification system.
Unlike the Hindu Caste system, it was legitimized by the ideology that one groups of
individuals existed to serve another group. The members of this system did not have
equal rights and an individuals social position was based on race and status. The
system had three strata:

The Upper stratum: This stratum consisted of the white plantation owners,
overseers and skilled workers. This group tended to be of the same race, colour
and status within the society.

The Middle stratum: This consisted of Freed slaves and free-born mulattos.
Because of their lighter skin the mulattos had a higher social status.

The Lower stratum: This consisted of the slaves and was further subdivided into
the house slaves (who had a higher social status) and the field slaves. The field
slaves were further divided into gangs .The first gang was made up of the strongest
slaves, the second gang consisted of the women and younger children while the
third gang consisted of the older and more delicate slaves.

3. Class system: This stratification system is more open and social mobility can
in fact occur. Many scholars state that this system began during the industrial revolution
and is defined by the industrial productive system. In this system people are often
separated their job. Classes are ranked in hierarchical order, have conflicting interests
and are often defined in relation to one another. 7
Concepts of Stratification in a Comparative Perspective:
1. Class: Class or Social Class is often referred to as the hierarchical distinction which
exists between individuals or groupings within a society. Within the stratification system
this position could be middle class, working class or upper class. An individuals class
may be determined by his/her occupation, income or wealth
2. Race: This term is often used to describe a group of people who share the
same biological traits. Social scientists now distinguish race as a socially constructed
characterization which specifies rules for identification of a given group
3. Ethnicity: the properties of people who share a similar culture, particularly
language, customs, religion and history that is distinct from that of other groups in
society.
4. Caste: This is form of social stratification which is based on ascribed status.
The system is closed, that is, social mobility is impossible, contact between groups is
restricted and economic inequalities are a reflection of non-economic criteria
7 Anthony Giddens. Sociology, 2001

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5. Gender: Gender refers to the social and socio-psychological attributes used to

categorize human beings as masculine and feminine. These categories are culturally
defined and are accompanied by culturally imposed behavioral traits which are deemed
socially appropriate.8
Principles of Stratification
There are four fundamental principles of stratification:
Social stratification is a characteristic of society
o not just due to individual differences
Social stratification persists over generations
o Yet, most societies allow some sort of social mobility or changes in
people's position in a system of social stratification
o Social mobility may be upward, downward, or horizontal
Social stratification is universal but variable (it changes)
Social stratification involves both inequality and beliefs
Kinds of Stratification
Closed Society System
The society in which power, class and status are ascribed. Individuals are
born into a specific stratum and therefore ones position is determined by
family affiliation (caste system in India).
Open Society System
Open society is frequently found in industrial societies where people have
several options to improve their socio-economic status.9
Determinants of Social Stratification
There are three elements for social stratification: Economic resources, prestige and
political power. 10In Pakistani society, the following factors determine social stratification.
Economic resources

8 David Jary & Julia Jary. Collins Dictionary of Sociology, 2000

9 Margaret Andersen. Race, Class and Gender , 1992
10 Max Weber. "The distribution of power within the community: Classes, Stnde, Parties",2010

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The level of income from all resources is an important indicator of ones place in society.
The size of landholding in rural areas is an important measure. Those who tenets and
those who belong to serving class like carpenter, blacksmith, cobbler, barber, washer
man and others can be placed in lower class.
In urban areas the big industrialists, whole sale and big businessmen, high class
officials belonging to government and other agencies , high class technicians and other
professionals like advocates, medical practitioners and other belongs to upper class.
Occupations
Occupation is also an important indicator of stratification in every society. In
Pakistani society the high class professionals are owners landlords, owner cultivators,
industrialists , big whole sale businessmen and high class government and semi
government officials. In middle class, come the small owned cultivators, middleclass
servicemen and small partners in industrial units. The skilled and semi-skilled labor also
come in this category; whether their income exceeds that of this class. In lower class all
manual workers like cobblers, carpenters, blacksmith, washer man, peon, sweeper and
unskilled labor etc.
Prestige
If individual has high prestige in social life, he is regarded most respectful person.
The social prestige in a community in our society depends upon the following factors.
Nobility of individual
Free from social evils ( drinking , adultery , gambling , deceiving , robbery and
fraud)
Participating generally in welfare works within the community( sharing in school,
dispensary, Masjid, Maddrassa , road and other projects of public welfare)
He is true to his words ( it means he never goes back upon his promise)
An individual in Pakistani society claiming these traits enjoys high prestige in the
community. Here the prestige is attained by spending the economic resources in their
social life,
Power
Power is one of the important factors of social stratification in Pakistani society.
Those who attain more power are given more respect in society.
Cast
Some costs are believed to high status like Sayyad, rajput, mughal and awan etc.
And some are generally placed in lower class menials and laborers etc.

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Education
The illiterate persons belong to lower class. Those who receive professional
education and get a suitable job are placed in middle class.

Social Classes
In the current era the society has three main classes as on the base of economic
resources, education, family background etc. These are as:
Upper class
Middle class
Lower class

Upper Class

o
o

business owners
politicians
corporate leaders
successful executives
Skill Professional
Well Educated
Unskilled workers
Temporary
unemployed

Middle Class

Lower Class

Upper Class
It is the highest class in the society. It mostly influence the whole society. Most of
the resources in the society are held by this class. They are the business owners,
politicians, corporate leaders and successful executives. The most of the wealth they
get through inheritance.
Middle Class
The people of this class are skilled and educated. This class is actually the
functional class of the society. It has very important role in the society, all the progress
of the society is based on this class. Basically it creates linkage between the upper and
the lower class people.
Lower Class
It is the poor class of the society. Most of them havent the basic facilities of the
life. To get the basic need of life they become criminal. They are not educated nor have
the working skills to do something. The most of them depend on other society.
Effects of Social Class to other factors
Family life

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Child rearing
Education
Political outlook
Health
poverty