F

A Survey of New Techniques

in Insulation Monitoring of
Power Transformers
Key Words: DGA, GSU, EHV, ageing, assessment tools, incipient faults

here is an increasing need for electric utilities to employ assets to their fullest while maintaining system
reliability. Substantial benefits can be obtained by operating power transformers beyond current practices that
are based on nameplate ratings and thermal algorithms that
are general in nature and usually conservative. However,
since many of these transformers have already exceeded
their design life, and, one would assume, are approaching
the end of their operating life, it would be absurd to operate
them in this manner blindly. This is especially so since the
ageing infrastructure of large Generator Step-Up (GSU) and
EHV power transformers built in the 60s and 70s poses a
serious strategic issue for users worldwide. Catastrophic failures are escalating both in number and cost including environmental impacts. Extension of the useful life of power
transformers is the single most important strategy for extending the life of power transmission and distribution infrastructures starting with the GSU at the power plant itself.
Fortunately, there are many tools now available or currently under development that can be used to assist in performing transformer condition assessment. For example,
inception of combustible gases from excessive heating from
leakage flux or a bad joint, or the inception of moisture vapor bubbles, can be a precursor of true short-term and continuous loading limits. Inception or increase in partial
discharge activity is usually a precursor to incipient dielectric
faults, and knowledge of changes to the mechanical integrity
of the windings, due to through faults, can be gained by
monitoring other parameters such as mechanical vibration
and electrical transfer function. Monitoring chemical and
physical properties of the oil and paper can lead to diagnoses
of other abnormal conditions or just general deterioration
and an indication of the transformers true operating condition, not just its physical age. It is essential that some form of
diagnostic analysis of these parameters be performed, be it
either periodic or continuous monitoring, in order to operate this ageing population of power transformers safely.

16

Barry H. Ward
EPRI

Extension of the useful life of power

transformers is the single most important
strategy for extending the life of power
transmission and distribution
infrastructures.
It should be emphasized that tests, in themselves, are not
sufficient for reliable condition evaluation. Field experience
and learning are vital in order to understand more fully the
dynamic relationship between on-line gas analysis and the
changing condition of the transformer insulation structure
under all operating conditions. This paper presents a survey
of new monitoring and diagnostic technologies and applications, including laboratory experimental work, in power
transformer insulation monitoring for the purpose of condition assessment.

Power Transformer Diagnostics

The list of possibilities for parameter monitoring and the
technologies that can be applied is enormous. Following, is a
brief description of several of the newer technologies, parametric analyses, and applications under development for use
in power transformer condition assessment both on and off
line. These techniques are presented from the point of view
of condition assessment, but they are equally suitable as input into a life assessment and extension program. However,
this paper is limited to a discussion of the condition assessment techniques only and does not discuss the other aspects
of a life assessment and analysis program such as operating
and maintenance practices. In addition, this paper does not
include descriptions of commercially available equipment

0883-7554/01/$10.002001IEEE

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Although analyzing fault gases to diagnose problems in

power transformers has been universally used for many
years, the introduction of in-situ on-line analysis brings new
possibilities. Real-time gassing, including trends, can be associated with specific events, even on a daily basis, and yield
information more closely related to transformer problems.
Dynamic experience gained from a population of on-line
monitors could evolve criteria for loading families of transformers beyond nameplate rating in addition to establishing
specific limits for individual units.
On-line gas analysis offers the potential for doing a much
more revealing assessment of the dynamic conditions inside
important transformers than possible through laboratory
DGA. Field experience is needed to augment laboratory experimental work studying the dynamic behavior of gases,
and their movement between the oil and gas phase, in transformer insulation systems. Knowledge developed can be
used in the development of fuzzy logic expert-system diagnostic modules with the ability to make an assessment of the
transformers operating condition in near real time.
For example, consider Fig. 1. This is a plot of the daily
variations in the concentration of CO2 in the head space of a
large transmission autotransformer. Similar variations are
seen for all fault gases.
If a spot check of the concentrations of gases in either the
head space or in the oil were taken from one day to the next
and variations such as seen here were encountered, possible
wrong conclusions could be drawn if all of the other variables such as load, temperature, pressure, etc. are not taken
into account. To further complicate the picture, recent EPRI
experiments have shown that it takes in the order of 15
hours for gases to equilibrate between the gas and oil phases.
Add to this the more rapid changes that can be experienced
with the other parameters and it can be seen that the process
of gases moving between the phases is extremely complicated and interpretation of the data difficult.
The use of DGA testing over the years has built a huge volume of knowledge and experience based on the equilibrium
characteristics of the various gases in transformer oil. However, temperature, pressure, oil circulation, pumps or no
pumps, nitrogen-venting, conservator-breathing, membrane
leaks, and gasket leaks are all factors involved that make
equilibrium conditions rare in an operating transformer.
The levels and lag times of fault gas concentrations depend
not only upon the transformer conditions as mentioned
above, but also on the location, nature, and severity of the
fault. There is little chance to really see gas inception or true
trending from periodic DGAs. When it has been established
that a transformer is gassingfrom abnormal DGA resultsmost transformer owners will implement a program
of more frequent testingweekly or even dailyto try to
May/June 2001 Vol. 17, No. 3

3000 - 4000 ppm of CO2

Fault Gas Analysis

understand what is happening inside the transformer and to

prevent a catastrophic failure. Anyone who has attempted to
interpret this data will probably agree that it is one of the
more difficult analyses to perform, and often times the result
of the exercise is inconclusive.
Another new development in this area that will assist in
the interpretation of such data will provide DGA data much
closer to real time. The system, shown schematically in Fig.
2, comprises many specially treated hollow fiber membranes
with a high surface area to volume ratio to allow fast equilibrium times. When the system is placed in the cooling loop,
monitoring the shell side continuously will give an indication of gas concentrations, and therefore trends, as near to
real time as is possible.
The equilibrium times for gas concentrations in the shell
side of the hollow fiber module are shown in Fig. 3.

Time in Days
Fig. 1. Daily fluctuations of gas in the head space over a one-month period.

Hollow Fibers

Gases, Moisture
and Volatiles

Oil
Outlet

Oil Inlet
(Lumen Side)

Gas
Outlet
(Shell Side)

Fig. 2. Hollow Fiber Module.

2
1.8
1.6

Concentration (%)

that use existing well known techniques, nor does it compare

the relative merits and effectiveness of the various techniques for condition assessment.

1.4

CO2
C2H4
C2H6
C2H2
CH4
Poly. (C2H2)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

20

40

60
80
100
Time (min.)

120

140

Fig. 3. Gas permeation times for hollow fiber module.

17

Any transformer insulation system comprises several different grades and various thicknesses of cellulose insulation and types, grades, and physical
60.00
condition of oil vary considerable from one unit to
50.00
another. Even without this complication, it has been
shown that moisture migration between the cellulose
40.00
ppm top
ppm bot.
and oil is a very complicated process. It is very tem30.00
KF
perature dependent, time constants for moisture
moving between the cellulose and oil are different for
20.00
each direction, moisture in the cellulose is not evenly
10.00
distributed, and not all of the moisture in the cellulose is available for transfer to the oil. In addition, dis0.00
solved moisture in oil can precipitate out during
rapid cool down periods and become free water,
Fig. 4. Example of water content in oil at different locations.
which may or may not re-dissolve. Therefore any
method of moisture determination that gives a single
On-line monitoring of gases will be a new experience.
value for the moisture content of the cellulose is by definiThe dynamic behavior of various gases has the potential to
tion global in nature and cannot give any indication of the
reveal much more about what is happening inside a transnon-linearity of the distribution of moisture and may give a
former than previously possible; however, the knowledge
false impression of the integrity of the insulation. This is parmust be developed along with field experience. This will
ticularly true in transformers that have load profiles that are
take time, effort, money, and ingenuity. But, dependable
cyclical and have periods of rapid change. It is recommended
on-line continuous condition assessment will be an inexpenthat if one of the global methods is used, such as RVM or
sive way to keep new transformers in pristine condition and
power factor, that, if possible, the transformer be first held at
get the most out of the old ones.
a constant temperature for several days. If this is not possible, the most effective use of these techniques is for trending
Moisture Analysis
purposes only and not for an indication of absolute wetness.
That water is bad for power transformers is well accepted,
A new technique is being developed [1] which uses a
however the specific effects of moisture are not so simple or
fuzzy-logic based identification technique to detect the wawidely known. In addition to accelerated paper aging over the
ter-in-paper activitywhich takes into account the moisture
long term, evolution of vapor bubbles or free water from paavailable for transfer to the oilfrom on-line measurements
per insulation can cause a transformer to fail in the short term.
of relative saturation of oil, top and bottom oil temperaIncreasingly stringent dryness criteria have evolved over the
tures, and load. In addition, some knowledge of the design
years with improved factory and field dryout processes, parcharacteristics of the transformer is required. Initial field triticularly for higher voltage and capacity ratings. Moisture
als are under way and initial results look promising. Figure 4
equilibrium characteristics between oil and paper insulation
are well established and often used. However, the dynamics of
is an example of the non-linearity of moisture distribution in
moisture movement back and forth between the paper and
the oil over space and time and Fig. 5 shows the evaluation of
the oil during temperature cycling is much more significant.
the moisture content in paper at two different places.
ppm

70.00

Dielectric Monitoring

5
0

4.5

20
40

4
3.5

60

80

2.5

100

2
1.5
1
0.5
0

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18

Fig. 5. Evaluation of the water content of paper.

18

0.2

The most effective technique for signaling imminent failure in electrical apparatus is the detection and measurement
of partial discharges (PD). Quality assurance testing, during
design and manufacture, is by far the largest application for
PD measurement in transformers. PD measurements are
used for the purpose of identifying defects and are normally
only made on insulation systems that are subject to a high
electrical stress and in a laboratory environment. Unfortunately, from an electrical standpoint, industrial and substation environments can be extremely harsh. Since PD signals
are extremely smallin the microvolt rangeelectrical interference can limit the sensitivity of the system and render
field testing using laboratory techniques, ineffective. After
installation and during their years of service, transformers
are subjected to many extreme conditions such as:

overloads resulting in above normal temperatures

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

through faults which can cause mechanical movement in

the insulation system

lightning and switching surges which cause internal localized overvoltages and

contamination from moisture, metallic particles, acids, etc.

All of these conditions can create problems in the insulation
system that can eventually lead to failure. Most incipient dielectric failures generate PD prior to complete failure. Sometimes the failure occurs within a matter of minutes or hours
after the inception of PD but in other cases PD activity can be
present for years. Abnormal levels of PD may indicate conditions such as:

voids in the insulation

de-lamination at insulation interfaces

cracking or fissures in brittle insulation

contamination in the insulation

electrical trees in the insulation

abnormal electrical stress areas due to improper manufacture or application.

It is therefore vital that PD measurements be made in the
field in order to predict these abnormal conditions. Considerable research has been expended in the development of
field techniques for PD detection and measurement. To date,
few commercially available systems are in existence and research into new techniques continues. The following are examples of current research.

time arcing that occurs during the operation of switchgear

connected directly to the transformer. By relating these measurements to the timing of control signals, it may be possible
to monitor other parameters of interest, such as contact wear
or tap changing operations. A three-year project has now
been instigated with the aim of exploring the potential of this
new technique.

Acoustic Sensors
Partial discharges occurring under oil produce a pressure
wave that is transmitted throughout the transformer via the
oil medium. Techniques exist and commercial equipment
available in which piezoelectric sensors are connected to the
outside of the tank to measure the acoustic wave impinging on
the tank either directly or via wave guides. These systems can
become ineffective in high noise environments unless steps
are taken to enhance the signal to noise ratio by, for example,
advanced signal processing techniques. Bengtsson, et al. [4],
give a more in depth discussion of this diagnostic technique.

UHF Sensors
Discharges can be detected in several ways. Because of the
broad frequency content of the actual discharge, capacitive
coupling in the UHF region has been shown to be an effective technique under certain conditions [2]. ScottishPower
and Strathclyde University have developed a diagnostic tool
for transformers which uses UHF couplers operating in the
300-1500 MHz band [3]. Figure 6 is a photograph of one of
the couplers fitted to the top of a transformer.
The approach taken was to adapt technologies that were
Fig. 6. UHF coupler fitted to the top of a transformer.
developed for continuous partial discharge monitoring in gas insulated substations (GIS). Principles such
Light
as pattern recognition and time-of-flight measureSource
ments are well known in relation to GIS, but involve
greater challenges when applied to transformers.
External screened UHF couplers have been deSensor
3 dB Coupler
Single Mode Fiber
signed using broadband antenna principles, ensuring
that their sensitivity matches the best GIS couplers.
These sensors look through dielectric windows
Anti-Reflection
(170 mm diameter) on the transformer tank. CouTermination
Silica Tube
Photo
Detector
plers can therefore be removed or replaced without
Silica Diaphragm
compromising the integrity of the transformer seals.
Initial tests have revealed that substantial discharges
High Speed
occur during transformer energizing, but diminish
Signal
Lead-in Fiber
Processing
over a period of several minutes. On one particular
1000 MVA unit, a low-level intermittent discharge
Sealed Cavity
signal remained and its development is being moniFerrule
tored. In addition to monitoring discharges, the wide
bandwidth of the UHF system allows it to accurately Fig. 7. Illustration of the principle of the fiber optic acoustic sensor.
May/June 2001 Vol. 17, No. 3

19

A new technique is under development by Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University which uses a fiber optic
sensor [5] that allows for the detection of the discharges
from within the transformer. The basic principle of the developed fiber sensor is illustrated in Fig. 7. The system involves a sensor probe, optoelectronic signal processing and
an optical fiber linking the sensor head and signal processing
unit. The light from a laser diode is launched into a
two-by-two fiber coupler and propagates along the optical
fiber to the sensor head. As shown in the enlarged view of the
sensor head, the lead-in fiber and the silica glass diaphragm
are bonded to form a cylindrical sensor housing element.
The incident light is first partially reflected (~4%) at the
endface of the lead-in fiber. The remainder of the light propagates across the air gap to the inner surface of the diaphragm. The inner surface of the diaphragm is coated with
gold that reflects all the incident light (96%), preventing any
reflection from the outer surface; the fiber sensor is thus optically self-contained in any environment. This means that
the optical signal is only a function of the length of the sealed
cavity; and it is immune to the diaphragm outer surface contamination resulting from the contact with transformer oil.
As indicated in the enlarged view of the sensor head, the diaphragm is tilted at an angle with respect to the lead-in fiber
endface so that only about 4% of the second reflection is captured by the fiber. The two reflections travel back along the
same lead-in fiber through the same fiber coupler to the
photodetection end. The interference of these two reflections produces sinusoidal intensity variations, referred to as
interference fringes, as the air gap is continuously changed.
One period of fringe variation corresponds to an air gap
change of one-half of the optical wavelength. Figure 8 shows
the relative small size of the prototype fiber optic acoustic
sensor compared with a dime.

Off-Line, On-Site PD Testing

Off-line measurement is another technique used to solve
the problem of the corruption of PD results by high amplitude wide band disturbances due to galvanic coupling to the

high-voltage system. Hssig, et al. [6] have described a technique that uses a mobile noise free ac-source for the excitation of the transformer.
PD signals are measured at the tap of the transformer bushings. Galvanic isolation with high frequency transformers, narrow band filtering and digital discrimination methods as well as
statistical phase resolved presentation of the data lead to a satisfactory suppression of noise. An additional important measure
for the success of the elimination of noise is the application of a
test voltage frequency that differs from the operation frequency of the power grid. With an optimized technique, background noise figures of 20 to 50 pC can be achieved in most
cases. Thirteen large power transformers (60 MVA to 600
MVA, 110 kV to 400 kV) have been investigated in Switzerland, where six PD occurrences were revealed. The accuracy of
the interpretation of the PD results was shown with several examples where the assumed PD sources have been confirmed
during the repair of the transformer.

Dielectric Response Measurements

Most insulation systems are complex in nature.

Physically they contain several different dielectric materials
with associated interfaces. They are subjected to multiple
stresses that cause the insulation to change chemically. Furthermore, since these stresses act differently at various locations throughout the system, the entire insulation system
is non-linear. Electrically they are complex ladder networks of capacitance, inductance and resistance. In order
to assess the condition of these complex systems it seems
obvious that several different stimuli would be required to
get responses that could completely characterize the condition of the system.
The newer diagnostic measurement techniques use this
principle by analyzing the response of the dielectric system
across multiple frequencies. These techniques are known as
dielectric response measurements or dielectric spectroscopy [7].
If the insulation system is modeled as an admittance then
the measurement can readily be described using Laplace
transforms. A current transient induced by applying a voltage across the specimen is described by:

I ( s ) = Y ( s )V ( s )

(1)

where V(s) is the excitation waveform and Y(s) is the admittance of the specimen under test. If a step voltage of magnitude V0 is used then the resulting current is:

I (s ) =

V 0Y (s )
s

(2)

For an ideal capacitor, C, the resulting current is proportional to the capacitance.

Fig. 8. Epoxy-based fiber optic pressure sensor.

20

I ( s ) = Y ( s )V ( s ) =

V0
Cs = C V 0 .
s

(3)

IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

The mathematical property that the current is proportional

to the capacitance is the basis for dielectric response measurements. This property readily extends to the case of the
complex capacitances with losses.

Time Domain Dielectric Spectroscopy

In Time Domain Dielectric Spectroscopy (TDDS) the insulation system is excited by a step voltage and the current
transient is measured. A highly stable voltage source is
needed to make accurate measurements. The measured current is directly proportional to the capacitance as discussed
previously. Various numerical manipulations can be used to
analyze the data. For example, the numerical Laplace transform of the current can be calculated. The real part is the capacitance as a function of frequency and the imaginary part
is the dielectric loss as a function of frequency.

{i(t )} = C g ( ) + j ( )

(4)

where Cg is the geometric (high frequency) capacitance.

Using these components the figure of merit Tan can be calculated as a function of frequency.
Tan( ) =

( )
( )

.
(5)

Dielectric Discharge Method

In the dielectric discharge method or depolarization
method, the sample is charged to a dc voltage, allowed to remain at that voltage for a specified time and then discharged.
The current transient is measured while the sample is discharging. This method is nearly identical to TDDS; it has
many of the same advantages and disadvantages. The main
difference is the absence of the dc conduction term that can be
measured during dc voltage application. The advantage of
this method is in the implementation. With TDDS, a highly
stable voltage source is needed to eliminate self-generated
noise in the measurement. Small variations in the waveform
(step voltage) can have a significant impact with large capacitance specimens. In fact, for low loss, large capacitance specimens it may be difficult to obtain the necessary stability in the
supply to make an accurate measurement. Another advantage
of the depolarization method is the easy control of the fall
time during discharge. It is difficult to control the rise time of
an electronic power supply. Any overshoot or slow rise to its
peak may introduce artifacts into the current response of the
specimen. It is possible to compensate for these artifacts, however, the analysis of the current is simplified if a perfect step
voltage is used. It is much less expensive and more accurate to
use a discharge step than to use a step that charges the specimen. Furthermore, a much simpler, lower power dc supply
can be used for the discharge method since the rate of charge
is not as significant to the accuracy of the measurement.
May/June 2001 Vol. 17, No. 3

Return Voltage Measurement

The return voltage measurement (RVM) is another variation on the discharge method. In this method the specimen is
charged to a specified voltage, held at that voltage for a specified time, discharged through a low impedance for a specified
time and then the voltage waveform that returns after removal of the low impedance is recorded. In principle, it is possible to mathematically relate the current transients obtained
during charging or discharging to the return voltage transient,
however, it is an extremely difficult exercise. Both the current
and voltage transients are a form of dielectric response. However, because of the difficulty associated with translating the
return voltage measurement into the equivalent current transient measurement, results are usually compared with other
similar voltage return measurements in a database.
Interpretation of Measurements
Testing the dielectric response of an insulation system is as
simple as measuring the insulation resistance. The difficulty
again comes when trying to interpret the results. As is the
case with the other diagnostic tests, historical data is important. However, the required historical data goes beyond that
needed for simple trend analysis. The dielectric response
contains an enormous amount of information and records
are no where near sufficient to begin to describe the physical
mechanisms associated with each of the various responses.
Literature suggests that each insulation type and even insulation structure may have its own signature and proper interpretation of the dielectric response may require a complete
knowledge of the details of the insulation system including;
construction, temperature, type of insulation, age, and history of measurements [8].
Since this method is relatively new and so complex to interpret, it is only possible to speculate on the future effectiveness of the method. With this knowledge, it is suggested that
the measurements could indicate deterioration due to time
and temperature, contamination due to dirt or moisture ingress, and the mechanical state such as the presence of cracks
and voids.
Transfer Function Analysis
The transfer function of a transformer is a unique signature that can be used for diagnostic purposes. The transfer
function can be expressed in several ways, for example:
voltage-voltage, current-current or voltage-current. To determine the transfer function it is necessary to excite one
winding with a broad-band sourcefrequencies up to several MHzand measure the resulting voltage or current
signals on another winding, or, measure the attenuation in
voltage from one end of the winding to the other. Examination of any frequency dependent parameter of the transformer and comparison with a previous measurement on
the same transformer or from a transformer of identical design and rating has been shown to be a valid diagnostic technique [9]. Changes in magnitude and phase at these
frequencies can be indicative of transformer problems such
21

as winding looseness due to loss of clamping pressure, or

winding deformation due to large through faults. The most
sensitive parameter has been shown to be admittance, derived from measurements of applied voltage and capaci-

Admittance Magnitude [l(f)/V(f)]

0.3
Loose Winding Clamping
Tight Winding Clamping

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

0.5

1.5
1
2
Frequency (MHz)

2.5

Fig. 9. Comparison of the transfer function of a transformer measured

off-line before and after re-clamping.
1.8
1.6
1.4

Amplitude

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

3
Time (mS)

Fig. 10. Restriking voltage from disconnect reclosure.

Fig. 11. Diagnostic module of the expert system.

22

tively coupled current, at frequencies up to 3 MHz. Figure

9 is an example of the transfer functionexpressed as an
admittancemeasured before and after re-clamping showing the sensitivity of the technique.
Unfortunately, the test requires that the transformer be
de-energized and disconnected; and laboratory instrumentation used to determine the transfer function. A simple on-line monitoring system using the transfer function
technique to give early warning of winding damage or
looseness is under development by EPRI. Their research
has demonstrated the feasibility of providing an early
warning of winding damage or looseness with a non-intrusive, on-line technique [10]. The technique is based on the
off-line method but uses naturally occurring switching
surges as excitation signals on an operating transformer.
The research has shown that it is possible to use the transients generated by a disconnect switch closure as the excitation signal for the determination of a transformer
transfer function on line. Figure 10 shows the transient
signals available at the transformer terminals generated
during a disconnect reclosure.

Expert System Diagnostic Software

The reasons for monitoring the condition and maintaining the health of transformers have been discussed; however, the use of tools and techniques such as presented in
this paper, and the interpretation of the results, require the
knowledge of specialists. Unfortunately these specialists
are becoming rarer and OEM support for transformers is
reducing. In addition, more tests, monitors, and specialized
test equipment are becoming available, requiring an even
higher level of skill to interpret test results and predict
transformer condition.
An expert system has been developed [11] that will enable utilities to assess the condition of their transformers.
The diagnosis it performs is based on expert knowledge
contained within the program and on the results of tests
and other information provided to it, such as operating
data and repairs and replacements that have been
made. Contained within the programknown as
XVisoris the knowledge of the various transformer failure mechanisms. In its diagnosis, XVisor
quantifies its belief in the existence of each failure
mechanism. These beliefs are mathematically
combined to determine the overall risk of failure for
the transformer and for its components. Figure 11 is
an example of the diagnostic module of XVisor. It
shows the transformer and its components with
their individual risks of failure expressed as a percentage, the particular failure mode(s), the reasons
for the belief in that failure mode, and the specific
test results used in the analysis.
Conclusion
On-line monitoring of power transformers is the
future of insulation condition assessment and preIEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

dictive maintenance. New techniques are being developed constantly; only a few examples of current research
have been cited here.

Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the contributions
of researchers at the following institutions for providing
material for this paper: Monash University, Australia;
Micromonitors Inc., Bend, OR; Powertech Laboratories,
B.C. Canada; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg,
VA; University of Strathclyde, Scotland; FKH,
Fachkommission fr Hochspannungsfragen, Switzerland.
Barry H. Ward is Project Manager for
Power Transformers and High Voltage Instrument Transformers in the Transmission
& Substations Business Area of the Science
& Technology Development Division of
EPRI in Palo Alto, CA. Before joining EPRI
in 1997, he was employed by AVO International, Blue Bell, PA for nineteen years.
Starting there as a Design Engineer, he held several positions, and ended his career there as Vice President of Engineering. He was responsible for the development of
portable test and measurement instrumentation for use in
the electric utility industry. Prior to AVO International, he
was a Transformer Design Engineer with Ferranti-Packard,
St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, responsible for the design
of small and medium power transformers. He received a
B.S. degree in Electrical Engineering in 1969, awarded by
The University of Bradford, England. He is a registered
professional engineer and is a member of the Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers serving on the Power
System Instrumentation and Measurements Committee
and the Transformers Committee of the Power Engineering
Society.

May/June 2001 Vol. 17, No. 3

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10. A.J. Vandermaar and M. Keresztesy, On-line transformer winding and
dielectric monitoringFRA laboratory and field test results, Report
TR-113650, September, 1999.
11. R.F. Cameron, T.P. Traub, and B.H. Ward, Update on EPRI
transformer expert system (XVisor), EPRI Substation Equipment
Diagnostics Conference VII, February 1999.

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