FOLLY AND WISDOM:

THE DICKENSIAN HOLY INNOCENT

Robert Michael McCarron

B.A. Hons. Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 4

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS

i n t h e Department
of
English

ROBERT MICHAEL McCARRON 1977

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY

A p r i l , 19 77

A l l r i g h t s reserved. This work may not

be reproduced i n whole o r i n p a r t by
photocopy o r o t h e r means, without
permission of t h e author.

APPROVAL

Name:
Degree:

Robert Michael McCarron

Master of Arts (English)

T i t l e of Thesis:

F o l l y and Wisdom:

The Dickensian Holy Innocent

Examining Commit t e e :
Chairman :

Robert H . Dunham

,
c

I '

Michael S t e i g
Senior Supervisor

Mason Harris

---.-

,- ,

Ann Messenger

Masrgre t B 1om
External Examiner
Assistant Professor
University of B r i t i s h Columbia

Date Approved :

5 A P r I r )997

PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE

I h e r e b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l e n d

my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e o f which i s shown below) t o u s e r e

of t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e

c o p i e s o n l y f o r - s u c h u s e r s o r i n r e s p o n s e t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y
o f a n y o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s 'own
b e h a l f o r f o r one of i t s u s e r s .

I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission f o r

m u l t i p l e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d
b y me or t h e Dean of G r a d u a t e S t u d i e s .

It i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g

o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

T i t l e of ~ h e s i s / ~ l s s e r t a t i o n :

Folly and Wisdom:

Author :
(signature )

Robert Michael McCarron

(name )

27 April 1977
(date)

The Dickensian Holy Innocent

iii

ABSTRACT

Although v a r i o u s c r i t i c s have recognized t h a t t h e f o o l i s a r e c u r r e n t

f i g u r e i n Dickens's works, few o f f e r more t h a n a c u r s o r y a n a l y s i s .

Y e t this

complex, u b i q u i t o u s c h a r a c t e r , l a r g e l y d e r i v e d from t h e f o l k - f o o l t r a d i t i o n
and Shakespearean drama, i s c e n t r a l t o Dickens's a r t i s t i c and moral v i s i o n .
I n h i s most f r e q u e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n as Holy Innocent ( t h e simple-hearted o r
simple-souled i n d i v i d u a l ) , t h e f o o l a c t s a s a moral t o u c h s t o n e , s e r v a n t mentor, comic buffoon and e n t e r t a i n e r , s a t i r i s t and t r u t h - t e l l e r ,

presenting

h i s p a r a d o x i c a l b l e n d of f o l l y and wisdom.
The t h e s i s b e g i n s w i t h a g e n e r a l survey of Dickens's d i v e r s e f o o l - t y p e s
and t h e s o u r c e s which c o n t r i b u t e d t o h i s c o n c e p t i o n of t h e s e f i g u r e s , w h i l e
t h e procedure i n t h e main s t u d y i n v o l v e s a d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e p r i mary m o t i f s w i t h i n t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent convention.
fool-type
child-fool)

Each i n d i v i d u a l

(Pickwick and h i s l i t e r a r y d e s c e n d a n t s , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ,

and t h e

i s s e e n t o perform p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n s , though a l l a r e s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y i n t e r - r e l a t e d , p r i n c i p a l l y concerned w i t h t h e f o o l a s a symbolic
counterbalance t o s o c i a l corruption.

The Pickwickian f o o l , f o r example, i s

o f t e n an e x p l i c i t a n t a g o n i s t of s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l e v i l , e s t a b l i s h i n g a
community of innocence t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e p e r v e r s i t i e s of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y .
The f o l k - f o o l o r f o o l - l u n a t i c d i s p l a y s a more complex i n t e r m i n g l i n g of d i v i n e
and demonic madness, s u b t l y embodying Dickens's own ambivalent r e s p o n s e t o
s o c i a l v i o l e n c e and t h e power of t h e f o o l t o r e s i s t c o r r u p t i o n .
I n n o c e n t ' s personal-thematic

The Holy

r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e c h i l d and t h e woman,

f i n a l l y , i l l u m i n a t e t h e f o o l ' s o f t e n troubled i n n e r l i f e while simultaneously

p r e s e n t i n g Dickens's e f f o r t s t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s t h e m a t i c import a n c e through a union of p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m and symbolic v a l u e s .

Throughout t h i s s t u d y , i t i s discovered t h a t t h e Holy Innocent i s a t

once a more complex and s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e i n ~ i c k e n s ' smoral and s o c i a l
v i s i o n than many c r i t i c s have acknowledged.

Dickens's uses of t h e f o o l

a r e found t o be never s u p e r f i c i a l l y r o s e a t e , b u t always d i s p l a y i n g a f u l l

r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n t r i n s i c d i f f i c u l t i e s involved i n making t h i s c h a r a c t e r type a major v e h i c l e f o r his moral philosophy.

A l a r g e p a r t of Dickens's

concern, i n f a c t , i s t o e x p l o r e t h e s e problems, acknowledging t h e f o o l ' s

mental and s o c i a l l i m i t a t i o n s , and y e t g i v i n g form and substance t o t h e Holy
Innocent's paramount moral v a l u e s by g r a n t i n g him a c r e d i b l e psychologicalsymbolic b a s i s .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance and advice I have

received from Michael Steig, in the writing of this thesis, and I wish to
thank Ann Messenger, Mason Harris, and Temple Maynard for their support
and encouragement throughout my university career.

CONTENTS

Page

APPROVAL

ii

ABSTRACT

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

NOTE ON REFERENCES AND EDITIONS

v ii

CHAPTER ONE:

Introduction:

Dickens and t h e Fool T r a d i t i o n

1.

The Dickensian Holy I n n o c e n t

2.

Witty F o o l s and F o o l i s h W i t s

CHAPTER TWO:

From Pickwick t o B o f f i n :
Social Evil

CHAPTER THREE:

Divine and Demonic Madness:

Fool-Lunatic

CHAPTER FOUR:

The C h i l d , t h e Woman, and t h e Fool

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Holy Innocent and

The Ambiguous

1.

The Fool and t h e Normal World

2.

The Child-Fool

3.

Conclusion

vii

NOTE ON REFERENCES AND EDITIONS

A l l q u o t a t i o n s from Dickens's n o v e l s , u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a r e from

The Oxford I l l u s t r a t e d Dickens (London:

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966-74),

and a r e documented i n t h e t e x t w i t h i n p a r e n t h e s e s by c h a p t e r , page, and

(where a p p l i c a b l e ) book.

A r t i c l e s from B e n t l e y ' s M i s c e l l a n y , Master Humphrey's

Clock, and Household Words a r e s i m i l a r l y documented.

The f o l l o w i n g abbrevia-

t i o n s a r e used throughout:

Pickwick P a p e r s

David Copper f i e d

DC
-

O l i v e r Twist

Bleak House

BH
-

Nicholas Nickleby

NN
-

Hard Times

HT
-

Old C u r i o s i t y Shop

OCS
-

L i t t l e Dorrit

LD
-

Barnab y Rudge

BR
-

T a l e of Two Cities

TTC

M a r t i n Chuzzlewit

MC
-

Great E x p e c t a t i o n s

Christmas Books

CB
-

Our Mutual F r i e n d

Dombey and Son

DS
-

Edwin Drood

OMF
-

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction:

Dickens and t h e Fool T r a d i t i o n

The major c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , arguing t h a t t h e

f o o l i s e s s e n t i a l l y a product of t h e medieval and r e n a i s s a n c e world-views,
seldom examine any l i t e r a r y work l a t e r than t h e Elizabethan period.

There

is, of course, eome b a s i s f o r t h i s l i m i t a t i o n ; h i s t o r i c a l l y t h e f i g u r e of

t h e c o u r t jester declined r a p i d l y i n England a f t e r t h e s i x t e e n t h century,
while i n l i t e r a t u r e t h e f o o l s of Jonsonian comedy and of t h e R e s t o r a t i o n
t h e a t r e a r e less t h e m a t i c a l l y and a r t i s t i c a l l y complex than t h e protean
c h a r a c t e r s c r e a t e d by Erasmus, Shakespeare, and Cervantes.

The f o o l , how-

e v e r , i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a r e s i l i e n t and mutable f i g u r e , and a s t h e novel gained

p o p u l a r i t y and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , t h e f o o l re-emerged i n t h i s new genre a s a
s i g n i f i c a n t character-type.

The innocent simpletons, devoted s e r v a n t s , and

c a u s t i c commentators i n t h e works of F i e l d i n g , Goldsmith, S t e r n e , and

Smollett a r e d i r e c t descendants of e a r l i e r f o o l - f i g u r e s .

V i c t o r i a n novel-

ists, l i k e w i s e , continued t o employ t h i s v e r s a t i l e performer (Thackeray's

Captain Dobbin and Hardy's C h r i s t i a n Cantle a r e two obvious c a s e s ) .

The most

p r o l i f i c and i n n o v a t i v e devotee of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n i n post-Elizabethan

times, however, i s Charles Dickens, whose holy f o o l s (although i n e x p l i c a b l y

ignored by t h e p r i n c i p a l s t u d i e s of t h a t t r a d i t i o n ) d i s p l a y t h e same r i c h and
varied a t t r i b u t e s a s those i n renaissance l i t e r a t u r e .

The Dickensian f o o l ,

i n f a c t , l a r g e l y d e r i v e d from t h e f o l k - f o o l t r a d i t i o n and Shakespearean drama,

is c e n t r a l t o Dickens's moral and a r t i s t i c v i s i o n .

I n h i s most f r e q u e n t

and s i g n i f i c a n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n , t h a t of t h e Holy Innocent ( t h e simple-hearted

o r simple-souled

i n d i v i d u a l ) , t h e f o o l a c t s a s moral touchetone, s e r v a n t -

mentor, comic buffoon and e n t e r t a i n e r , s a t i r i s t and t r u t h - t e l l e r ,

presenting

h i s p a r a d o x i c a l b l e n d of f o l l y and wisdom.
Every d i s c u s s i o n of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n e n c o u n t e r s a n immediate o b s t a c l e

--

t h e problem o f d e f i n i t i o n .

Enid Welsford s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e f o o l "is a

man who f a l l s below t h e a v e r a g e human s t a n d a r d , b u t whose d e f e c t s have been

transformed i n t o a s o u r c e of d e l i g h t , a mainspring of comedy

. . . .112

Attempting a more p r e c i s e f o r m u l a t i o n , William W i l l e f o r d proposes a series

of a l t e r n a t i v e s :

"The f o o l i s , i n s h o r t , a s i l l y o r i d i o t i c o r mad person,

o r one who i s made by circumstance ( o r t h e a c t i o n s of o t h e r s ) t o appear a

f o o l i n t h a t s e n s e , o r a person who i m i t a t e s f o r non-fools t h e f o o l i s h n e s s of
b e i n g i n n a t e l y s i l l y , o r made t o look s o . "3

These d e f i n i t i o n s , however,

a l t h o u g h i n f o r m a t i v e , do n o t r e s o l v e a l l t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s .
"average human standard"?

What i s t h e

And does n o t t h e f o o l o f t e n r i s e above some s t a n -

d a r d s a s w e l l a s f a l l below them ( a s i n t h e c a s e s of Don Quixote o r

S t u l t i t i a ' s Christ)?

Similarly, although t h e f o o l is " s i l l y o r i d i o t i c o r

mad," h e i s a l s o w i s e , i n s p i r e d , and s a n e ( e s p e c i a l l y when c o n t r a s t e d w i t h

t h e w o r l d l y - w i s e non-fool).

The s u b t l e i r o n i e s of t h e Erasmian-Shakespearean

oxymoron " w i s e f o o l " do n o t permit a f a c i l e d e f i n i t i o n .

As S t u l t i t i a h e r s e l f

e x c l a i m s n e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g of h e r encomium, " l e t none of ye e x p e c t from me,

t h a t a f t e r t h e manner of R h e t o r i c i a n s I should go about t o Define what I a m , 114
f o r t h e p r o t e a n and e l u s i v e n a t u r e of t h e f o o l is a n e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t of h i s
t h e m a t i c importance.
I m p l i c i t i n t h e Erasmian-Shakespearean c o n c e p t , n o n e t h e l e s s , from which
Dickens d e r i v e d h i s major i n s p i r a t i o n , is t h e image o f t h e f o o l a s a moral
b e i n g , and t h o s e few c r i t i c s who have recognized t h a t t h i s f i g u r e is a rec u r r e n t c h a r a c t e r - t y p e i n Dickens's n o v e l s c o r r e c t l y emphasize h i s b a s i c
moral f u n c t i o n s .

Angus Wilson a r g u e s t h a t "the d i v i n e i d i o t i s a s powerful

a p a r t of Dickens's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of C h r i s t ' s b e a t i t u d e s a s i t i s of
Dostoevsky's; and t h e e x i s t e n c e of d i v i n e simpletons i n Dickens's works i s
perhaps one of t h e chief reasons why Dostoevsky admired them s o much. 115
C. B. Cox s i m i l a r l y s t a t e s t h a t "in l i t e r a t u r e , t h e g r e a t and v i r t u o u s man

i s o f t e n a f o o l , " and goes on t o p r a i s e Pickwick's "love of l i f e and

...

kindness," n o t i n g t h a t "a touch of t h i s mixture of wisdom and f o l l y i s seen

i n t h e optimism of Micawber, i n t h e devotion t o t h e s t a g e of Crummles, and
i n t h e f a n t a s t i c imagination of M r . Dick.

Dick's b r a i n s may b e a l i t t l e

touched, b u t , a s he f l i e s h i s k i t e on peaceful summer days, h e evinces a

god-like s e r e n i t y . 116

I n a more s u g g e s t i v e a n a l y s i s , J . C. Reid s u g g e s t s t h a t

t h e f o o l " i n c a r n a t e s Dickens's i d e a of t h e Wisdom of t h e Heart a s opposed t o

t h e Wisdom of t h e Head," and t h a t t h e Dickensian f o o l , derived from "the Holy
Fool of t h e folk-formula,"
d e n i a l of i t s v a l u e s

i s t h e "innocent who rebukes t h e world by h i s

. . . a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e c o r r u p t and s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,

an image of a needed r e v e r s a l of

value^."^

and

While such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e

undoubtedly i l l u m i n a t i n g , t h e more important m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h e Dickensian

Holy Innocent a r e seldom merely p a s s i v e embodiments of symbolic values.
Welsford observes t h a t "the f o o l knows t h e t r u t h because he is a s o c i a l outc a s t , " and h i s indeterminate s o c i a l p o s i t i o n l i c e n s e s him t o speak t h a t
truth.

Dickens's f o o l s c a r r y t h e s e seminal p r i n c i p l e s much f u r t h e r , t h e i r

union of moral v a l u e s and s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n n o t only enabling them t o perform

a s t r u t h - t e l l i n g onlookers, b u t t o r e p r e s e n t an a c t i v e l y a m e l i o r a t i v e counterbalance t o s o c i a l e v i l .

A v i t a l p a r t of Dickens's C h r i s t i a n v i s i o n , t h e Holy

Innocent may, a s Reid s u g g e s t s , be an image of a necessary a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e

c o r r u p t world, b u t i n Dickens's uses of t h e f o o l , t h i s c o n t r a s t between s i m p l i c i t y and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i s o f t e n a d i r e c t c o n f l i c t , t h e Holy Innocent
a c t u a l l y c l a s h i n g w i t h t h e powerful f o r c e s of t h e non-fool world.

Dickens's

d e p i c t i o n s of such c o n f r o n t a t i o n s , moreover, a r e never s u p e r f i c i a l l y r o s e a t e ,

b u t always d i s p l a y a f u l l y conscious r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n t r i n s i c d i f f i c u l t i e s
involved i n making t h e Holy Innocent a major v e h i c l e f o r h i s moral philosophy.
A l a r g e p a r t of Dickens's purpose, i n f a c t , is t o e x p l o r e t h e s e problems,
acknowledging t h e f o o l ' s mental and s o c i a l l i m i t a t i o n s , and y e t g i v i n g form
and substance t o t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s paramount moral values by g r a n t i n g him
a c r e d i b l e psychological-symbolic b a s i s .

1. The Dickensian Holy Innocent

Although t h e s e v e r a l m o t i f s of t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent convention

a l l p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t , they d i s p l a y some important d i f f e r *

ences i n c h a r a c t e r and thematic r o l e .

While much of t h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s

of t h e s e f i g u r e s w i l l appear i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s , a b r i e f account of t h e Holy

Innocent's h i s t o r i c a l development, t h e p r i n c i p a l sources f o r ~ i c k e n s ' s conc e p t i o n of t h e f o o l , a s w e l l a s h i s i n n o v a t i v e uses of such f i g u r e s i s
e s s e n t i a l t o an adequate understanding of how Dickens adopts and a l t e r s t h e s e
c l a s s i c character-types.

Hietorically the basic fool-figure,

o r i g i n a t e , is the "natural,"

from which a l l subsequent types

t h e madman o r v i l l a g e i d i o t .

Since a n t i q u i t y ,

h i s witless behaviour has been a source of e n t e r t a i n m e n t a t c o u r t s and g r e a t

households, amusing h i s masters while r e a s s u r i n g them of t h e i r personal
superiority.

More important, because he was not considered r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

h i s a c t i o n s and speech, t h e n a t u r a l f o o l was t a c i t l y granted s o c i a l and

p o l i t i c a l i-ity,
uncorrupt t r u t h :

a l i c e n s e t o v i o l a t e p o l i t e convention by speaking t h e
"Children 61 f o o l e s they s a y can n o t l [ y ] . "lo This a s p e c t

of t h e f o o l ' s r o l e e v i d e n t l y appealed t o V i c t o r i a n w r i t e r s , and c l e a r l y cont r i b u t e d t o t h e powerful s a t i r i c impulse found i n numerous Dickensian f o o l s .

John Doran's A H i s t o r y of Court Fools (1858) p r a i s e d t h o s e "preachers and

admonishers of kings" who "exercized, g e n e r a l l y w i t h impunity, a marvellous
l i c e n s e of speech, and

....

""

. . . communicated d i s a g r e e a b l e t r u t h s

t o tyrants

As e d i t o r of Bentley's Miscellany, Dickens published both

W i l l i a m J. Thoms's "Joe Miller, and t h e Jesters of A l l Times and C l i m e s "

(4, 1838, 338-45), an a n e c d o t a l account of v a r i o u s f o o l - f i g u r e s which seeks

t o prove t h a t "though t h e f o o l ' s b o l t might have been soon s h o t , i t had h i t
t h e mark" (339), and I n g l e b e r r y G r i s k i n ' s "Merrie England i n t h e Olden Time"

(5, 1839, 98-101), a b r i e f e r though more s o p h i s t i c a t e d a p p r a i s a l of t h e

f o o l ' s s a t i r i c and i n s t r u c t i v e f u n c t i o n s .

G r i s k i n , f o r example, n o t e s t h a t

t h e famous W i l l Summers n o t only made Henry V I I I "merry w i t h h i s mummeries,"

b u t "tamed t h e t y r a n t ' s f e r o c i t y , and urged him t o good deeds" (101), an
a b i l i t y t h a t G r i s k i n regards a s t h e f o o l ' s most important r o l e :

"These w e r e

t h e t h r e e merry men [Summers, Dick T a r l t o n , Archie Armstrong] of t h e olden

time, who, by v i r t u e of t h e i r o f f i c e , spoke t r u t h i n j e s t t o t h e r o y a l e a r ,

and gave home-thrusts t h a t would have c o s t a whole c a b i n e t t h e i r heads.

If

t h e i r c a l l i n g had no o t h e r redeeming q u a l i t y b u t t h i s , p o s t e r i t y would have

been bound t o honour it" (108).
The f o o l ' s addled mind, furthermore, although a p i t i a b l e o r amusing
-.

--._
-

d e v i a t i o n from t h e norm o r a source of p r o t e c t i o n f o r h i s s a t i r i c g i b e s , was

L

--

a l s o h e l d t o be t h e v e h i c l e f o r h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s .

The v i l l a g e i d i o t

\---

t h u s became t h e d i v i n e i d i o t - - t h e
higher r e a l i t y .

seer, mystic, and p r o p h e t - r h o sees a

William Langland's P i e r s Plowman, f o r example, d e s c r i b e s

t h a t s p e c i a l c l a s s of beggars " t h a t a r e l u n a t i c " and who

wander,
With a good w i l l , b u t w i t l e s s , over many wide c o u n t r i e s ,
J u s t as P e t e r d i d and Paul, save t h a t they preach n o t
And do no m i r a c l e s ; b u t many times i t happens
That they u t t e r prophecy, a l l a s i f i n p l a y ;
God s u f f e r s such t o go; and i t seems t o my judgment

They a r e h i s a p o s t l e s , such people, o r h i s p r i v y d i s c i p l e s ;

Men of t h i s manner, Matthew teaches u s ,

W e should have i n t o our houses and h e l p them when they come,
For they a r e merry-mouthed men, m i n s t r e l s of heaven,
God's boys, t h e B i b l e s a y s , j e s t e r s of J e s u s . 12
Leonard Manheim argues t h a t although s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s of i n s a n i t y were
s t e a d i l y advancing i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e s e o l d e r b e l i e f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y manifested i n l i t e r a t u r e , were s t i l l p r e v a l e n t .13 Doran observes t h a t
i n some s o c i e t i e s " a b e r r a t i o n of mind is taken t o be a s o r t of d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n , ''14 and i n Dickens'e own nrwels, such c h a r a c t e r s a s Barnaby Rudge,

M r . Dick, and Maggy, t h e mental incompetents whose clouded minds ( p a r a d o d c a l l y ) possess an a c u t e i n t u i t i v e i n s i g h t , exemplify t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l concept.
Dickens, furthermore, deeply i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e proper treatment of lunacy,
was a p p a l l e d by t h e abysmal c o n d i t i o n s and c a l l o u s d i s r e g a r d endured by t h e

inmates of V i c t o r i a n asylums. l5 H i s n a t u r a l f o o l s a r e t h e r e f o r e presented

w i t h g r e a t sympathy, t h e sources of t h e i r maladies o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o b r u t a l
mistreatment; Smike, M r . Dick, and Piaggy, f o r i n s t a n c e , a l l b e a r t h e s c a r s
of some p a s t mental anguish.

T h e i r pain can only be r e l i e v e d by kindness and

humanity, and they themselves ( l i k e t r u e Holy Innocents) repay t h e i r bsnef a c t o r s w i t h a f e r v e n t l y pure and p e r c e p t i v e devotion.
The Holy I n n o c e n t ' s moral insight--his
wisdom--has

i n t e r m i n g l i n g of s i m p l i c i t y and

i n f a c t long been a major theme i n western thought.

exclaims, "Let no man deceive h i m s e l f .

S t . Paul

I f any man among you seeuieth t o be

w i s e i n t h i s world, let him become a f o o l t h a t he may be wise" (I C o r i n t h i a n s ,

3:18),

and t h e "jesters of Jesus" p e r i o d i c a l l y occur i n medieval w r i t i n g a s

well.

A s Walter Kaiser p o i n t s o u t , however, t h e f u l l y developed concept of

t h e w i s e and h o l y f o o l i s p r i m a r i l y a c r e a t i o n of r e n a i s s a n c e humanist
thought,16 and i n t h e works of such t h i n k e r s a s Thomas

;Kempis

and Nicholas

of Cusa, f o l l y and s i m p l i c i t y became paramount C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s .

Kernpis's

I m i t a t i o n of C h r i s t (1441) s t a t e s , "Blessed i s t h a t s i m p l i c i t y , which l e a v e t h

t h e d i f f i c u l t p a t h s of q ~ e s t i o n i n g s , " f o r "God walketh w i t h t h e simple, rev e a l e t h Himself t o t h e humble, and g i v e t h understanding t o l i t t l e ones. ,117
Cueanus's Of Learned Ignorance (1440), l i k e w i s e , argues t h a t " t h e b e t t e r a

man w i l l have known h i s own ignorance, t h e g r e a t e r h i s l e a r n i n g w i l l b e , 1118

and The I d i o t (1450), an i r o n i c dialogue between an i g n o r a n t simpleton and
a l e a r n e d o r a t o r , f u r t h e r advocates t h e g r e a t e r s p i r i t u a l wisdom of holy
simplicity:
ORATOR:

IT SEEMS THOU THINKEST THY SELFE WISE BEING INDEED AN IDIOT.

IDIOT:
This is, i t may be, t h e d i f f e r e n c e betweene t h e e and nee;
thou t h i n k e s t they [ s i c ] s e l f e w i s e , when thou a r t n o t , and hereupon
a r e proved; b u t I know my s e l f e an I d i o t ; and hereupon am more humble,
and i n t h i s peradventure more l e a r n e d . 1 9
Erasmus's P r a i s e of F o l l y (1511), t h e foremost document of t h e r e n a i s s a n c e
folly-wisdom p r i n c i p l e , c a r r i e s t h i s argument t o i t s l o g i c a l conclusion:

"To

speak b r i e f l y , a l l C h r i s t i a n Religion seems t o have a kind of a l l y a n c e w i t h

f o l l y , and i n no r e s p e c t t o have any accord w i t h wisedom. lt20 For Erasmus,
C h r i s t himself i s a f o o l who "ever abhors and condemns those w i s e e n , and
such a s put confidence i n t h e i r own wisdome," and who "conceal'd t h e Mystery
of S a l v a t i o n from t h e wise, b u t revealed i t t o babes and s u c k l i n g s , t h a t i s
t o say, Fools. 1121
Dickens, l i k e w i s e , recognizing t h e i r o n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between
and " f o l l y , " adopts t h i s Erasmian paradox and a f f i r m s t h a t t h e "wise d o c t r i n e ,
Every man f o r h i n e e l f
heart!"

(I%,

39, 616).

. . . is an i d i o t ' s

f o l l y , weighed a g a i n s t a simple

Self-seeking worldly wisdom is mere f o l l y , while t h e

f o l l y of t h e "simple h e a r t " i s t h e t r u e s t wisdom.

Helena Landless, "you have t h e wisdom of Love
wisdom e v e r known upon t h i s e a r t h , remember"

A s Crisparkle says t o

. . . and
(3,10,

i t was t h e h i g h e s t

107).

This p r i n c i p l e

u n d e r l i e s much of Dickens's moral philosophy, h i s Holy Innocents r e p r e s e n t i n g

t h e unworldly f o l l y of p u r i t y and l o v e and s t a n d i n g i n d i r e c t moral c o n t r a s t
t o t h e s u p e r f i c i a l wisdom of self-seeking non-fools.

Like Shakespeare and

Erasmus, Dickens i s keenly aware of t h e r i c h and v a r i e d connotations of such

terms a s " f o l l y " and "wisdom," and while n o t every i n s t a n c e of t h e i r use i n

h i s f i c t i o n is s i g n i f i c a n t , t h e d i v e r s e a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s e and r e l a t e d

terms o f t e n provide an i l l u m i n a t i n g commentary on h i s understanding of t h e

fool tradition.
"Fool,"

f o r example, i s f r e q u e n t l y a term of contempt, though u s u a l l y

rebounding a g a i n s t t h e speaker, f o r whereas t h e " f o l l y " of t h e morally w i s e

f o o l is t h e t r u e s t wisdom, t h e "wisdom" of t h e knave is revealed a s t h e most
p e r v e r s e "folly."

Ralph Nickleby c o n s t a n t l y s c o r n s t h e "foolery" of any

a c t i o n o r emotion n o t d i r e c t l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o s e l f - i n t e r e s t , 2 2

only t o be

f i n a l l y exposed a s t h e n o v e l ' s most contemptible and p a t h e t i c f o o l .

In

L i t t l e D o r r i t , Miss Wade exclaims, "I have t h e misfortune of n o t b e i n g a f o o l .

From a very e a r l y age I have d e t e c t e d what those about me thought they h i d
from me.

I f I could have been h a b i t u a l l y imposed upon, i n s t e a d of h a b i t u a l l y

d i s c e r n i n g t h e t r u t h , I might have l i v e d a s smoothly a s most f o o l s do" (11,

21, 663).

With t h e complexity t y p i c a l of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , H i s s Wade's

claim n o t t o be a f o o l merely e l i m i n a t e s h e r from t h e c l a s s of holy f o o l s

while g r a n t i n g h e r t h e f o o l ' s coxcomb f o r h e r s e l f - t o r t u r i n g b l i n d n e s s .
Betsey Trotwood's d e s c r i p t i o n of M r . Dick's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s c a l l o u e
r e l a t i v e s f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t e s t h i s concept:

...
...

' H e has been c a l l e d mad,' s a i d my a u n t

'And n i c e people they
were, who had t h e a u d a c i t y t o c a l l him mad
I f i t hadn't been f o r
me, h i s own b r o t h e r would have s h u t him up f o r l i f e
A proud f o o l ! '
s a i d my aunt.
'Because h i s b r o t h e r was a l i t t l e eccentric-though
he i s

...

n o t h a l f s o e c c e n t r i c a s a good many people--he d i d n ' t l i k e t o have him

v i s i b l e about h i s house, and s e n t him away t o some p r i v a t e asylum-place:
though he had been l e f t t o h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a r e by t h e i r deceased f a t h e r ,
who thought him almost a n a t u r a l . And a wise man he must have been t o
(DC, 14, 204)
t h i n k so! Mad h i m s e l f , no doubt.'

Martin Chuzzlewit, f i n a l l y , a s t u d y of t h e s o r t of " f o o l i s h " s e l f i s h n e s s

t h a t Betsey's o u t b u r s t s condemn, c o n t a i n s Dickens's perhaps most complex and
c o n s i s t e n t use of t h e i r o n i c f o l l y r i s d o m theme.

(Immediately preceding t h e

w r i t i n g of t h e novel, i t i s important t o n o t e , Dickens a v i d l y re-read

~ h a k e s p e a r e ,and
~ ~ t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e d r a m a t i s t ' s Erssmian d o c t r i n e s i s
pervasive.)

For those c h a r a c t e r s of a s e l f - s e e k i n g , worldly-wise o r i e n t a t i o n ,

" f o l l y " i s simple-minded f r i v o l i t y o r i n j u d i c i o u s d i s r e g a r d f o r one's own

interest.

The h y p o c r i t i c a l Pecksniff responds t o h i s daughters' a f f e c t i o n ,

f o r example, by exclaiming, "What f o l l y i s t h i s !

Let us t a k e heed how w e

laugh without reason, l e s t w e c r y with i t " ( 2 , 1 6 ) , and young Martin, "who

seldom got upi o r looked about him" on board t h e s h i p t o America, "was q u i t e
incensed by t h e f o l l y of [Mark ~ a p l e y ' s ] speech" (15, 248-9) when Mark a s s i s t ed t h e d i s t r a u g h t emigrant passengers.

Dickens himself i r o n i c a l l y adopts

t h i s worldly-wise non-fool s t a n c e t o i l l u s t r a t e a c h a r a c t e r ' s moral f a i l i n g s .

When Mrs. Gamp d e s c r i b e s h e r e x p e r t methods of r e l i e v i n g i n v a l i d s , he n o t e s
that
a l l p r e s e n t (Tom Pinch and h i s s i s t e r e s p e c i a l l y ) appeared t o be
disposed t o d i f f e r from h e r views. For such i s t h e r a s h boldness
of t h e u n i n i t i a t e d , t h a t they w i l l f r e q u e n t l y set up some monstrous
a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e , such a s humanity, o r tenderness, o r t h e l i k e
i d l e f o l l y , i n o b s t i n a t e d e f i a n c e of a l l precedent and usage
(46, 710)

....

Dickens, on t h e o t h e r hand, a l s o employs t h e s e protean t e r n as moral co-nd a t i o n s o r g e n t l y a f f e c t i o n a t e terms of endearment ( a f r e q u e n t Shakespearean

use).

I n h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n of Ruth Pinch and John Westlock, e s p e c i a l l y , h e

d e p i c t s " f o l l y " a s an i n s e p a r a b l e f a c e t of y o u t h f u l romantic l o v e (45, 688;

53, 819), while i n a passage n e a r t h e end of t h e novel he combines t h e term's
d i v e r s e meanings i n t o a f u l l Erasmian paradox:
Was i t f o l l y i n Tom t o be s o pleased by t h e i r remembrance of him
a t such a time? Was t h e i r g r a c e f u l l o v e a f o l l y , were t h e i r dear
c a r e s s e s f o l l i e s , was t h e i r lengthened p a r t i n g f o l l y ? Was i t f o l l y
i n him t o watch h e r window from t h e s t r e e t , and r a t e its s c a n t i e s t

gleam of l i g h t above a l l diamonds; f o l l y i n h e r t o b r e a t h e h i s name

upon h e r knees, and pour o u t h e r pure h e a r t b e f o r e t h a t Being,
from who such h e a r t s and such a f f e c t i o n s come?
I f t h e s e be f o l l i e s , then F i e r y Face go on and prosper! I f they
(53, 825)
be n o t , then F i e r y Face avaunt!
On t h e one hand, t h e meaning of t h i s passage i s c l e a r :

Dickens s c o r n s and

r e p u d i a t e s t h e view h e l d by P e c k s n i f f , Jonas, Mrs. Gamp, and o t h e r s t h a t such

t h i n g s a r e f o l l i e s , t h a t l o v e i s merely a f o o l i s h u n p r o f i t a b l e emotion.
.'

On

t h e o t h e r hand, Dickens himself has c o n s i s t e n t l y c l a s s i f i e d l o v e a s a " f o l l y , "

p r a i s i n g t h e "foolishness" of John's and Ruth's mutual a f f e c t i o n .

The p o i n t

i s , I t h i n k , t h a t Dickens i s employing t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Shakespearean-Erasmian

c o n t r a d i c t i o n , a f f i r m i n g t h a t love i s indeed f o l l y , b u t a f o l l y s o opposed t o
t h e shallow worldly e t h o s t h a t i t becomes a h i g h e r wisdom.
s a y s t o Mark Tapley, "Your ignorance, a s you c a l l i t
men's enlightenment, and mine among them" (52, 807).

A s o l d Martin

. . . is wiser

than some

Louise ~ a b 6 ' sDispute

of Love and F o l l y (reviewed i n Household Words, 7 , 1853, 214-6) concludes by

n o t i n g t h a t "the d i s p u t e between Love and Folly i s a t l a s t ended by t h e judgment of t h e gods, who pronounce t h a t n e i t h e r can s u b s i s t without t h e o t h e r "
(216), and Dickens s i m i l a r l y a f f i r m s t h a t f o l l y ( t h e s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g ,

loving

response t o another) i s f a r wiser than the f o o l i s h pseudo-wisdom espoused by

t h e unloving non-fools.
Although I can l o c a t e no c e r t a i n e x t e r n a l evidence t h a t Dickens read
t h e major r e n a i s s a n c e t r e a t i s e s on t h e holy f o o l , t h i s f r e q u e n t emphasis on
t h e folly-wisdom theme s u g g e s t s t h a t he was not unacquainted w i t h such thought.
S i m i l a r l y , a s Humphry House observes, Dickens's r e l i g i o n was a " p r a c t i c a l
, i"s~p l~a y i n g ( l i k e Erasnus's) a marked af f i n humanist kind of ~ h r i s t i a n i t ~ d
i t y f o r t h e humane d o c t r i n e s of C h r i s t ' s b e a t i t u d e s and c a s t i g a t i n g t h e
r e p r e s s i v e Calvinism of t h e Murdstones and M r s . Clemam.

H i s own L i f e of

Our Lord, though maudlin and s e n t i m e n t a l , r e v e a l s h i s sympathy f o r a simple-

h e a r t e d , s p i r i t u a l l y u p l i f t i n g r e l i g i o u s devotion. 25

Whether o r n o t Dickens

was f a m i l i a r w i t h The P r a i s e of F o l l y , he a p p a r e n t l y absorbed t h e primary

t e n e t s of Erasmian theology.

Indeed, a s Walter Kaiser argues, Erasmus's

i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e was pervasive:

"Like many g r e a t t e a c h e r s , h e i s f o r g o t -

t e n when h i s p u p i l s a r e n o t , and many who read Rabelais o r Montaigne,

Shakespeare o r Jonson, Ariosto o r Cervantes, have only heard of t h e s c h o l a r
from Rotterdam who taught them a l l s o much. "26 Of t h i s group, Shakespeare
and Cervantes (and t o an e x t e n t Jonson) were Dickens's major sources of ins p i r a t i o n , n o t only o f f e r i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e Erasmian f o o l ' s moral n a t u r e ,
but p r e s e n t i n g a comprehensive p o r t r a i t of t h e f o o l ' s e s s e n t i a l dramatic and
symbolic a t t r i b u t e s .
Considering Dickens's i n t i m a t e acquaintance with Shakespeare's works,

27

i t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t such a v e r s a t i l e comic-dramatic f i g u r e a s

Shakespeare's wise f o o l would engage h i s imagination.

Dickens was, f o r example,

a devoted admirer of As You Like I t , condemning George Sand's e c c e n t r i c

"Come I1 Vous P l a i r a , "28 and, i n a speech t o t h e Garrick Club on 23 A p r i l
1854 (Shakespeare's b i r t h d a y ) , o f f e r i n g a p e r c e p t i v e a p p r a i s a l of Touchstone's
major functions:
And on t h i s day was born a f o o l , not dressed i n v e s t a l l i v e r y , b u t
dressed i n motley, who ' l a i d him down and basked him i n t h e sun,'
described, f o r a l l
and, as quoted by t h e melancholy Jaques
time, t h e q u a l i t i e s , t h e p r i v i l e g e s and t h e d u t i e s of t h e s a t i r i s t [,I
of him who, l i k e t h i s f o o l , 'should be s o deep contemplative' a s t o
make t h e sage 'ambitious f o r a motley s u i t . '
' I n v e s t me i n my motley:
g i v e me l e a v e t o speak my mind, and I w i l l , through and through,
c l e a n s e t h e f o u l body of t h e whole i n f e c t e d world, i f they w i l l b u t
p a t i e n t l y r e c e i v e my medicine. '29

...

One of Diekens's few d i r e c t cormPente on t h e Shakespearean f o o l , t h i s passage

d e s c r i b e s Touchstone as t h e paradigm of t h e w i t t i l y s a t i r i c jester--the

wise

man who assumes t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e f o o l ' s motley t o c r i t i c i z e and p u r i f y

t h e f o l l i e s of t h e c o r r u p t world--and

Touchstone's trenchant w i t and s a t i r i c

Launce, Lavache, Dogberry, and Shakespeare's o t h e r secondary f o o l - f i g u r e s

a r e of marginal i n f l u e n c e only; t h e i r w i t l e s s o r w i t t y sayings and a c t i o n s
r e c a l l v a r i o u s Dickensian c h a r a c t e r s , b u t t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e too d i f f u s e
t o be u s e f u l l y discussed.

I n c o n t r a s t , although I can f i n d no d i r e c t r e f e r -

ence t o F e s t e , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l a l l u s i o n s t o W e l f t h Night i t s e l f i n Dickens's

writings,

30

t e s t i f y i n g t o h i s knowledge of t h e play, and F e s t e ' s opposition

t o t h e a u s t e r e puritanism of Malvolio i s decidedly Dickensian.

Nick Bottom's i n f l u e n c e i s of s t i l l g r e a t e r thematic import.

Bottom's

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h T i t a n i a ( a symbolic union not u n l i k e t h a t of Lear's Fool

and Cordelia) exemplifies a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t of t h e f o o l ' s t r a d i t i o n a l l y

complicated romantic and s e x u a l impulses--the
i n f e r i o r f o o l and t h e i d e a l i z e d woman.

r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e o u t c a s t o r

A s William Willeford states,

Although t h e f o o l seems t o b e , and i s , beneath t h e woman he yearns

f o r , s h e o f t e n e n i g m a t i c a l l y seems t o belong t o him. Both t h e form
and meaning of t h e i r a f f i n i t y , a s e c r e t bond t h a t is a t t h e same
time a w a l l of taboo, i s suggested by a remark made by Nietzsche's
Zarathustra. Speaking of "the most contemptible of a l l t h i n g s
t h e L a s t Man," Z a r a t h u s t r a comments t h a t "a man must have chaos w i t h i n
him t o be a b l e t o give b i r t h t o a dancing s t a r . " The pure woman,
o f t e n f u l l of redeeming grace, i s such a dancing s t a r f a r above t h e
c h a o t i c f o o l ( t h e c h i l d who i s a l s o t h e L a s t Man); she i s t h e form of
t h e freedom t h a t he mindlessly e n a c t s , t h e s p i r i t u a l counterpart of
h i s baseness. 31

. ..

Mckene employs t h i s motif e x t e n s i v e l y :

Smike and Kate Nickleby, K i t Nubbles

and L i t t l e N e l l , Tom Pinch and Mary Graham, M r . Toots and Florence Dombey.
Although t h e f o o l and t h e p r i n c e s s a r e never romantically u n i t e d ( a f a c t
i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e f o o l ' s i n n e r t e n s i o n s and f r u s t r a t i o n s ) , they are o f t e n
bound t o g e t h e r a t a deeper thematic and personal l e v e l , s h a r i n g an innocent
view of l i f e and a c o d t m e n t t o love, e x e r c i s i n g a redemptive e f f e c t on
others.
Of a l l Shakespeare's jesters, Lear's Fool e x e r t e d t h e most pervasive

i n f l u e n c e on Dickens's imagination.

I n 1838 Charles Macready r e s t o r e d t h e

o r i g i n a l t e x t of King Lear t o t h e s t a g e , c o r r e c t i n g t h e i d i o s y n c r a c i e s of

Nahum Tate '8 1681 a d a p t a t i o n .

For many V i c t o r i a n c r i t i c s and playgoers

( i n c l u d i n g Dickens), Macready's d e c i s i o n t o r e s t o r e t h e Fool was of p a r t i c u l a r importance.

I n h i s review of t h e production (The Examiner, 4 February

1838). Dickens's f r i e n d and l i t e r a r y a d v i s e r John F o r s t e r (who had o f t e n

championed t h e Fool's r e t u r n ) observes t h a t
The Fool i n t h e tragedy of Lear i s one of t h e most wonderful
c r e a t i o n s of Shakespeare's genius. The p i c t u r e of h i s quick and
pregnant sarcasm, of h i s l o v i n g devotion, of h i s a c u t e s e n s i b i l i t y ,
of h i s d e s p a i r i n g m i r t h , of h i s heartbroken silence--contrasted
w i t h t h e r i g i d s u b l i m i t y of L e a r ' s s u f f e r i n g
is t h e n o b l e s t
thought t h a t ever e n t e r e d i n t o t h e mind and h e a r t of man.32

...

I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, t h i s review has long been c r e d i t e d t o Dickens himself

and only r e c e n t l y has William J. Carlton proved F o r s t e r ' s authorship.

33

Mckens, nonetheless, undoubtedly knew t h e review; i n f a c t , t h e r e i s some

evidence t o suggest t h a t h i s and F o r s t e r ' s views were s u b s t a n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l .
As Carlton n o t e s , F o r s t e r could not a t t e n d t h e play's debut on 25 January and

i n a b r i e f n o t i c e on t h e 28th merely r e p o r t e d t h e p l a y ' s success.

One pas-

sage i n t h a t e a r l i e r n o t i c e , however, is worthy of f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n :

From p r i v a t e sources we l e a r n t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e Fool
gave s i n g u l a r and most masterly r e l i e f t o t h e c h a r a c t e r of Lear,
and t h a t t h e e a r l y scenes, and t h e f i r s t scene of t h e storm, were
i n p a r t i c u l a r s t a r t l i n g l y e f f e c t i v e . So Shakespeare was r i g h t ,
a f t e r a l l ! A f r i e n d , on whose judgment w e have thorough r e l i a n c e ,
remarks of t h e performance:
"The r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e Fool p o i n t s some of Lear's f i n e s t
and most touching passages. The c h a r a c t e r was e x q u i s i t e l y played
by Miss P. Horton; t h e f a c e , g a i t , voice, and manner were a l i k e i n
p e r f e c t keeping w i t h t h e p a r t ; t h e attachment and f i d e l i t y of t h e
poor Fool t o t h e houseless, broken-hearted King, i n h i s sorrow and
d e s t i t u t i o n , were most a f f e c t i o n a t e l y and b e a u t i f u l l y portrayed.
A more f i n i s h e d and d e l i c a t e performance of a very d i f f i c u l t p a r t
cannot be imagined. "34

A s C a r l t o n a s k s , "who was t h e f r i e n d on whose judgement F o r s t e r placed s o much

r e l i a n c e and whose opinion he quoted?

There a r e grounds f o r surmising t h a t h e

m y h a w been Charles Mckens. "35

Dickens's own review of Macready's pro-

d u c t i o n , echoing t h e opinions of F o r s t e r ' s unnamed f r i e n d , was n o t published

m t i l 1849, and, although b r i e f , e x p r e s s e s a c l e a r awareness of t h e Fool's

importance:

"Sow y e a r s have e l a p s e d s i n c e I f i r s t n o t i c e d Miss Horton's

a c t i n g of t h e Fool, r e s t o r e d t o t h e p l a y , a s one of i t s most a f f e c t i n g and

necessary f e a t u r e s , under M r . Macready's management a t Covent Garden.
h a s l o s t nothing i n t h e i n t e r v a l .

It

It would be d i f f i c u l t t o p r a i s e s o exqui-

s i t e and d e l i c a t e an assumption, too h i g h l y . ~ 3 6

This emphasis on t h e f e r v e n t emotional bonds between Lear and h i s Fool
a l s o appears i n I n g l e b e r r y G r i s k i n ' s aforementioned "Merrie England i n t h e
Olden Time,'' a s u c c i n c t a n a l y s i s of t h e Shakespearean f o o l t h a t c l e a r l y rec a l l s F o r s t e r ' s (and Dickens's) i n tone and theme:
What a marvellous personage i s t h e court-fool of Shakespeare!
Truths, deep a s t h e c e n t r e , came from h i s l i p s . H i s head was
stocked w i t h n o t i o n s . H e wore n o t Motley i n h i s b r a i n . H e was,
what Jacques s t y l e s Touchstone, "a m a t e r i a l fool." And t h a t
g l o r i o u s f o o l i n Lear! How touching i s h i s devoted attachment
t o t h e d i s t r a c t e d o l d k i n g , and i t s g r a t e f u l r e t u r n ! I n t h e
i n t e n s i t y of h i s sorrow and i n t h e agony of d e a t h , h e rematbers
h i s f a i t h f u l servant:
"And my poor f o o l i s hang'd!"
Shakespeare never showed himself a more profound master than i n
hanaonising and u n i t i n g i n b e a u t i f u l c o n t r a s t t h e s e transcendent
p i c t u r e s of human w i t and human woe. (101)

---------------

Whether Dickens was d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d by G r i s k i n ' s view of t h e f o o l ' a perc e p t i o n , moral i n s i g h t , symbolic c o n t r a s t , pathos, and genuine human devotion
i n h i s l a t e r novels, o r whether he published t h e work because i t concurred
w i t h h i s own conception of t h i s f i g u r e i s d i f f i c u l t t o determine.

The paper

is nonethelese an important s t a t e m e n t of V i c t o r i a n a t t i t u d e s towards t h e

wise f o o l , a t t i t u d e s t h a t Dickens (both a s t h e Miscellany's e d i t o r and i n
h i s own review) endorsed.
F a l s t a f f , f i n a l l y , Mckens's f a v o u r i t e Shakespearean c h a r a c t e r , might
a l s o be considered a prototype of t h e Dickensian f o o l .

F a l s t a f f ' s connections

with t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n have been widely explored i n r e c e n t y e a r s ,

37

and,

while earlier c r i t i c s d i d n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f y t h e k n i g h t w i t h t h a t
t r a d i t i o n , they too emphasized h i s f o o l - l i k e c a p a c i t y t o combine a comic
and moral v i s i o n .

Maurice Morgann's An Essay on t h e Dramatic Character of

S i r John F a l s t a f f (1777), a work well-known

t o Dickens, was a seminal study,

commending F a l s t a f f ' s " p e r f e c t good-nature, p l e a s a n t r y , mellowness, and

h i l a r i t y of mind, f o r which w e admire and almost love him

. . . .1138

F a l s t a f f ' s w i t , humour, and t a l e n t f o r hyperbolic language a r e , of course,

those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s most l i k e l y t o have appealed t o Dickens's imagination
and influenced h i s p o r t r a y a l of fool-figures.

F a l s t a f f ' s imprudence, s e l f -

aggrandizement, ambition, and e t e r n a l optimism, f o r example, along w i t h h i s

r o l e as t e a c h e r , tempter, and s u r r o g a t e f a t h e r t o P r i n c e Hal, a r e s u b t l y
reminiscent of M r . Micawber (and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p with David Copperfield).

39

A t t h e same time, however, v a r i o u s nineteenth-century writers, while cont i n u i n g Morgann's a d u l a t i o n , regarded F a l s t a f f with e v e r i n c r e a s i n g g r a v i t y .
W. Maginn's I1Shakespeare Papers No. 1:

S i r John P a l s t a f f , " published i n

Bentley's Miscellany (1, 1837, 494-508) during t h e time of Dickens's e d i t o r s h i p , proposes t h a t F a l s t a f f ' s w i t and g a i e t y mask a deep-rooted sense of
f r u s t r a t i o n and f a i l u r e :

H e jests w i t h a sad brow. The w i t which he p r o f u s e l y s c a t t e r s

about is from t h e head, not t h e h e a r t . Its s a t i r e is s l i g h t ,
and never malignant o r a f f r o n t i n g ; b u t s t i l l i t is s a t i r i c a l ,
and seldom joyous.
It i s anything b u t fun. O r i g i n a l genius and
long p r a c t i c e have rendered i t easy and f a m i l i a r t o him, and h e
u s e s i t a s a matter of business. H e h a s too much philosophy t o
show t h a t he f e e l s himself misplaced; w e discover h i s f e e l i n g s
by s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n s , which a r e , however, q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t .
I f e a r t h a t t h i s conception of t h e c h a r a c t e r could never be
rendered popular on t h e s t a g e ; b u t I have heard i n p r i v a t e t h e
p a r t of F a l s t a f f read with a p e r f e c t l y grave, solemn, slow, deep,
and sonorous v o i c e , touched o c c a s i o n a l l y somewhat w i t h t h e broken
tones of age, from beginning t o end, w i t h admirable e f f e c t . (505-6)
Edgar Johnson maintains t h a t Dickens published nothing w i t h which he d i d n o t

agree,

40

and while i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t Dickens could approve t h i s b l e a k

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of F a l s t a f f ' s psyche, i t i s not implausible t h a t Maginn's

v i s i o n influenced o r coincided with Dickens's understanding of t h e f o o l ' s
personality.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , Maginn's a r t i c l e i l l u s t r a t e s a theme t h a t Dickens

himself i n c o r p o r a t e s i n t o h i s own conception of t h e fool--the

i n n e r pathos and outward comedy.

t e n s i o n between

I n The Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi, f o r

example, which Dickens e d i t e d (and rewrote) i n 1838, the c o n t r a s t between t h e

comic t h e a t r i c a l clown and t h e s u f f e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l is s t r o n g l y accentuated
i n his e d i t o r i a l i n t e r j e c t i o n s :

''Many r e a d e r s w i l l r i d i c u l e t h e i d e a of a

Clown being a man of g r e a t f e e l i n g and s e n s i b i l i t y :

Grimaldi was s o , notwith-

s t a n d i n g , and s u f f e r e d most s e v e r e l y from t h e a f f l i c t i o n s which b e f e l l him. 1841

S i s s y Jupe's d e s c r i p t i o n of h e r c i r c u s performer f a t h e r , likewiee, c e r t a i n l y
owes sonrething t o Dickens's f a m i l i a r i t y with t h i s character-type:
1

L a t e l y , they very o f t e n wouldn't laugh, and he used t o come home

d e s p a i r i n g . F a t h e r ' s n o t l i k e most. Those who d i d n ' t know him
as w e l l a s I do, and d i d n ' t l o v e him as d e a r l y as I do, might b e l i e v e
he was n o t q u i t e r i g h t . Sometimes they played t r i c k s upon him; b u t
they never knew how he f e l t them, and shrunk up, when h e w a s alone
42
w i t h me. H e was f a r , f a r t i m i d e r than they thought!'
(HT, I , 9, 59)
Ben Jonson's i n f l u e n c e on Dickens's conception of t h e f o o l , i n c o n t r a s t ,

i s of a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e than Shakespeare's, emphasizing t h e less

morally s e n s i t i v e a s p e c t s of t h e f o o l ' s t r a d i t i o n a l forms and guises.

First,

l i k e such Dickensian f i g u r e s a s Bumble and Sapsea, Jonson's Captain Bobadil

and S i r Epicure Mammon s h a r e with F a l s t a f f t h e n a t u r e of t h e comically s e l f i n f l a t e d " m i l e s g l o r i o s u s " b u t without S i r John's redeeming moral i n s i g h t ;
Jonson and Dickens a r e e q u a l l y c a u s t i c i n t h e i r savage denunciation of such
pompous and c o r r u p t f i g u r e s .
i n g i d e n t i c a l character-types,
i n very d i s s i m i l a r ways.

On o t h e r occasions, however, even while employ-

Dickens and Jonson look upon t h e i r c r e a t i o n s

For t h e most p a r t , Jonson's f o o l i s h w i t s seldom

reach beyond t h e simple l e v e l s of comedy and rudimentary s a t i r e , and, a s

17
Evelyn M. Simpson s u g g e s t s , Jonson "is more of a r e a l i s t than Dickens, he

is h a r d e r , f i e r c e r , less humane."

H i s "gulls a r e invariably stripped a t l a s t

of t h e i r f e a t h e r s , and look ugly enough i n t h e i r nakedness.

dom s o c r u e l . l~~~

Dickens i s sel-

Lord Frederick Verisopht, f o r i n s t a n c e , a s a t i r i c c a r i c a t u r e

of a r i s t o c r a t i c obtuseness, m e r c i l e s s l y g u l l e d by S i r Mulberry Hawk, achieves

( u n l i k e Jonson's naked f o o l s ) a b e l a t e d y e t genuine n o b i l i t y i n h i s vain

- 50).
defense of Kate Nickleby (NN,

Dickens's condemnation is d i r e c t e d towards

t h e rapacious r o w r a t h e r than t h e upper-class dupe.

Second, Jonson's uses of o t h e r fool-types,

however, e x e r t e d a more per-

vasive i n f l u e n c e , and c h a r a c t e r s l i k e J i n g l e and Montague Tigg, r e c a l l i n g t h e

devious i n t e l l i g e n c e of Jonson's knavish Mosca, S u b t l e , and Face, r e c e i v e
Dickens's t a c i t admiration.

H i s e x t e n s i v e knowledge of European folk-lore

and its numerous t r i c k s t e r - f i g u r e s

Eulenspiegel

(e.g.,

t h e legendary folk-fool 511

44

) a l s o augmented h i s understanding of t h i s character-type, while

t h e toughaainded picaro-rogues of t h e eighteenth-century novel and i t s antecedents s i m i l a r l y influenced Dickens's v i s i o n .

S m o l l e t t ' s Roderick Random

and Peregrine P i c k l e , exemplifying f o r Dickens "a way without tenderness, ~ 4 5

a r e f r e q u e n t l y devious and vengeful, while F i e l d i n g ' s Jonathan Wild, Defoe's
M o l l Flanders, and Le Sage's G i l Blas a r e a l s o r e p l e t e with embodiments of

picaresque knavery.

Such f i g u r e s a r e , of course, f a r removed from t h e

Dickensian Holy Innocent, y e t t h e presence of t h e Jonsonian-picaresque knave

i n Dickens's works, embodying t h e f o o l i s h wisdom of mercenary s e l f - i n t e r e s t ,
provides a v i t a l moral a n t a g o n i s t f o r t h e wise f o l l y of t h e holy f o o l s , and
underscores t h e e x t e n t of h i s indebtedness t o t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .

More important, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e d e p i c t i o n s of t h e knavish rogues,

t h e novels of t h e picaresque convention a l s o r e i n f o r c e d and extended Dickene's
b a s i c conception of the wise f o o l .

Like David Copperfield, Dickens owed much

t o h i s childhood reading:

"From t h a t b l e s s e d l i t t l e room, Roderick Random,

Peregrine P i c k l e , Humphrey C l i n k e r , Tom Jones, t h e Vicar of Wakefield, Don

Quixote, G i l Blas, and Robinson Crusoe, came o u t , a g l o r i o u s h o s t , t o keep

m e company" (DC, 4, 55).

As w e l l a s various s t y l i s t i c and p l o t s i m i l a r i t i e s

( e s p e c i a l l y i n Dickens's e a r l y n o v e l s ) , a t l e a s t two s i g n i f i c a n t charactertypes--the

Cervantic v e r s i o n s of t h e Holy Innocent and s q u i r e - m e n t o r - r e r e

derived from t h e s e predecessors.

Don Q d x o t e i t s e l f , f o r i n s t a n c e , contin-

uing t h e i r o n y of t h e Pauline-Erasmian
and i n f l u e n t i a l study of t h e holy f o o l .

tradition, presents a sophisticated

Don Diego de Mranda can only wonder

i f Quixote ie "a sane man turned mad o r a madman verging on s a n i t y , " a quest i o n t h a t lies a t t h e h e a r t of Cervantes's i r o n i c v i s i o n :

"One moment they

thought him a man of s e n s e , and t h e n e x t he s l i p p e d i n t o c r a z i n e s s ; nor

could they decide what degree t o a s s i g n him between wisdom and f o l l y . 1,46
The paradoxical n a t u r e of Q u i x o t e ' s c h a r a c t e r e l i c i t e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y cont r a d i c t o r y responses from V i c t o r i a n r e a d e r s .

Dickens himself a s s e r t s t h a t

" C e ~ a n t e slaughed S p a i n ' s c h i v a l r y away, by showing Spain its impossible

and wild absurdity,"47 while G. W. Thornbury, i n "In Search of Don Quixote"
(Household Words, 18, 1858, 529-341, fulsomely h a i l s t h e k n i g h t ' s "generous
thunders and =st w i s e f o l l i e s " (530).

The holy f o l l y of Dickens's own

M r . Pickwick, s i m i l a r l y , as Dostoevsky recognized, owes much t o Q u i x o t e ' s

i n s p i r e d madness; w r i t i n g of t h e a r t i s t ' s q u e s t t o c r e a t e "a t r u l y p e r f e c t
and noble man," Dostoevsky a s s e r t s t h a t
of a l l t h e noble f i g u r e s i n C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e , I reckon
Dan Quixote as t h e most p e r f e c t . But Don Quixote is noble only
by b e i n g a t t h e same time comic. And Dickens's Pickwickians
(they were c e r t a i n l y much weaker than Don Quixote, b u t s t i l l i t ' s
a powerful work) a r e conric, and t h i s i t is which g i v e s them t h e i r
g r e a t value. The r e a d e r f e e l s sympathy and compassion v i t b t h e
B e a u t i f u l , derided and unconecious of i t s own worth. The s e c r e t of
humour c o n s i s t s p r e c i s e l y i n t h i s a r t of wakening t h e r e a d e r ' s
sympathy. 48

The sympathy (of both reader and author) awakened by Don Quixote and
Pickwick Papers h a s , i n a d d i t i o n , a more profound i n t e n t i o n .

Cervantes and

Dickens (who begin by c r e a t i n g comic b u t t s ) come t o regard t h e i r p r o t a g o n i s t s

less w i t h compassion f o r t h e i r derided and unconscious worth than admiration

f o r t h e moral power of t h e i r holy s i m p l i c i t y ; and i t i s u l t i m a t e l y t h e cent r a l elements of t h e Quixotic-Pickwickian motif--the

f o o l ' s merging of moral

s a n i t y and unworldly madness and t h e challenges encountered i n h i s c o n f l i c t

w i t h s o c i a l corruption--that

form t h e t r u e source of t h e i r "great value" and

thematic import.
S i m i l a r p a t t e r n s a r e manifested throughout many of Dickens's f a v c u r i t e
eighteenth-century novels.

The Reverend Primrose i n O l i v e r Goldsmith's

Vicar of Wakefield, which Dickens claimed had "done more good i n t h e world,
and i n s t r u c t e d more kinds of people i n v i r t u e , than any o t h e r f i c t i o n e v e r
written,"49

i s an innocent i d e a l i s t who can withstand a d v e r s i t y without s s c r i -

f i c i n g h i s i n n a t e optimism, and who, l i k e Quixote and Pickwick, evolves from

a comic dupe i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e novel t o become a sympathetically
portrayed embodiment of a redemptive moral d o c t r i n e . 50

Parson M-,

like-

wise, i s both a comic and moral agent; Joseph Andrews's t i t l e page s t a t e s

t h a t t h e novel was " w r i t t e n i n i m i t a t i o n of t h e manner of Cervantes," and
Adams's energy, r e s i l i e n c y , and compassion r e c a l l (and foreshadow) t h e
Quixotic and Pickwickian holy f o o l s :

"He was b e s i d e s a man of good sense,

good p a r t s , and good n a t u r e ; b u t a t the same t i m e a s e n t i r e l y i g n o r a n t of

t h e ways of t h e world a s an i n f a n t j u s t e n t e r e d i n t o i t could p o s s i b l y be

. . . . He was

generous, f r i e n d l y , and brave t o an excess; b u t s i m p l i c i t y was

h i s characteristic.

This emphasis on t h e v i r t u o u s wisdom of s i m p l i c i t y

i s s i m i l a r l y e v i d e n t i n Tom Jones, i n Sarah F i e l d i n g ' s David Simple (of which

Dickens owned a copy), i n t h e works of Dickens's f r i e n d and fellow-novelist

Captain Marryat (notably P e t e r Simple), and t o a lesser degree i n S m o l l e t t ' s

w r i t i n g s ( a t l e a s t i n t h e u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y g e n t l e Humphry C l i n k e r and
t h e e x p l i c i t l y Cervantic S i r Launcelot Greaves).
Laurence S t e r n e ' s Tristam Shandy, another major Dickensian f a v o u r i t e ,
o f f e r s a cogent f u r t h e r study of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .
a s a s a t i r i c commentator on t h e "hobby-horses"

Tristam himself s e r v e s

of t h e n o v e l ' s main c h a r a c t e r s ;

Yorick ( a s h i s name connotes) is i n p a r t descended from Shakespeare's wise

f o o l s ; and Uncle Toby, "the most Cervantic of a l l S t e r n e ' s c h a r a c t e r s , ,152
d i s p l a y s t h a t union of comic burlesque and C h r i s t i a n n o b i l i t y t h a t Dostoevsky
praised.

Toby, i n f a c t , r e v e a l i n g t h e complexities, s t r e n g t h s , and weakness-

es of t h i s c l a s s i c f i g u r e , r e p r e s e n t s S t e r n e ' s most s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y s i s
of t h e Holy Innocent and presages Dickens's own complex fool-types.

Toby's

s e x u a l ambiguity and romantic d i f f i c u l t i e s with Mrs. Wadman are p l a i n l y

derived from t h e f o o l ' s t y p i c a l l y confused r e l a t i o n s w i t h women (an a s p e c t
of t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t Dickens a l s o e x p l o r e s ) .

Toby d i s p l a y s a p o t e n t s a t i r i c

power as he u n w i t t i n g l y punctures Walter's philosophic p o n t i f i c a t i o n s ; and

more important, he s h a r e s t h e l o v i n g i n s i g h t of h i s Q u i x o t i c and Dickensian
c o u n t e r p a r t s , reducing human s t r i f e t o an innocent amusement by c o n s t r u c t i n g
models of famous s i e g e s i n an unconscious parody of t h e i r d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s and
horror.

J u e t as Dickens q u e s t i o n s t h e redemptive power of t h e Holy Innocent

i n h i s later works, however, s o S t e m e recognized t h a t t h e f o o l ' s i n t u i t i v e

v i r t u e ie n o t a panacea.

I n t h e serio-comic meeting between Toby and

Lieutenant Le Fever, p a r t i c u l a r l y , S t e r n e both p r a i s e s and q u e s t i o n s (with

almost Erasmian irony) t h e a m e l i o r a t i v e n a t u r e of t h e wise and holy f o o l :
There w a s a franknees i n my Uncle Toby,---not
t h e e f f e c t of
f a m i l i a r i t y , ---but t h e cause of i t , ---which l e t you a t once
i n t o h i s s o u l , and showed you t h e goodness of i t s n a t u r e ; t o t h i s ,
t h e r e was something i n h i s looks, and v o i c e , and manner, superadded,
which e t e r n a l l y beckoned t o t h e u n f o r t u n a t e t o come and t a k e s h e l t e r
under him.
The blood and s p i r i t s of Le Fever, which were waxing

...

cold and slow w i t h i n him, and were r e t r e a t i n g t o t h e i r l a s t

c i t a d e l , t h e h e a r t , - - - r a l l i e d back, ---the f i l m forsook h i s
eyes f o r a moment, ---he looked up w i s t f u l l y i n my uncle Toby's
face
Nature i n s t a n t l y ebbed a g a i n , ---the f i l m r e t u r n e d t o i t s
p l a c e , ---the p u l s e fluttered---stopped---went on---throbbed--stopped again---moved---s
topped---shall I go on?---No .53

....

Both S t e r n e and Dickens, with t h e i r s o p h i s t i c a t e d understanding of t h e fool

t r a d i t i o n , acknowledge t h a t while t h e f o o l may be t h e embodiment of t r u e
C h r i s t i a n m o r a l i t y , C h r i s t ' s s u p e r n a t u r a l m i r a c l e s a r e beyond t h e scope even
of t h e Holy Innocent.
Accompanying t h e Q u i x o t i c h e r o , t h e second element of t h e Cervantic
motif--the

f i g u r e of t h e servant-mentor--also

ence on Dickens's use of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .

exerted a significant influLargely derived from t h e

"servus" of Roman comedy, t h i s c l a s s i c character-type has a long and complex

l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , producing such d i v e r s e h e i r s a s L e a r ' s touchingly f a i t h f u l

jester and t h e w i t t y Brainworm of Every Man i n H i s Humour, t h e e a r t h y and

i n t e l l i g e n t Sancho Panza and t h e innocent-hearted Humphry Clinker.

Dickens

himself acknowledged t h a t he s p e n t many childhood hours "with a head f u l l of

(JI,
PARTRIDGE, STRAP, TOM PIPES, AND SANCHO PANZA" N

"Preface

," m i ) , and

r e l a t i o n s h i p s l i k e Pickwick and Sam Weller, Nicholas Nickleby and Smike,

Martin Chuzzlewit and Mark Tapley, even P i p and Joe Gargery a r e p a t t e r n e d
a f t e r t h e s e prototypes.
I n many c a s e s t h e s e r v a n t ' s primary f u n c t i o n s a r e t o educate, t o parody,
and t o balance t h e Holy Innocent, p r e s e r v i n g a s e n s e of r e a l i t y i n t h e world
of d i v i n e madness.

Sancho, a s Wayne Bums n o t e s , i s t h e paradigm of t h i s

f o ~ l - t ~ ~Whereas
e . ~ ~ Quixote e x i s t s i n h i s f a n t a s t i c dream-world o f k n i g h t s
and e n c h a n t e r s , Sancho limits h i s d e s i r e s t o t h e immediate p h y s i c a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n of food, d r i n k , and s l e e p .

H i s i n t e l l i g e n c e i s derived from n a t u r e

r a t h e r than c h i v a l r i c romance, and while Quixote a t t a c k s windmills and re-

and p r a c t i c a l wisdom.

The s e r v a n t i s n o t , however, always o r merely an image

of t h e c a r n a l i t y and common-sense t h a t t h e h e r o ' s i d e a l i s m d e n i e s , f o r he too

( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Dickens's works) s h a r e s , o r i s t h e major embodiment o f , t h e
visionary ethos.

Lear's Fool s a t i r i z e s t h e k i n g ' s b l i n d n e s s , y e t o f f e r s

l o y a l companionship throughout h i s t r i a l s ; Hugh S t r a p i s o f t e n maligned by

Roderick Random, y e t o f f e r s h i s master a l i f e l o n g devotion; Corporal Trim
e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e s i n Uncle Toby's warm-hearted f o l l i e s .

And when

t h e Squire of t h e Wood accuses Quixote of b e i n g "more of a rogue than e i t h e r

f o o l i s h o r v a l i a n t , " even Sancho, quickly defending t h e k n i g h t ' s goodness,
r e v e a l s h i s own adherence t o Q u i x o t i c v i r t u e :
r e p l i e d Sancho.
as c l e a r as

'I mean t h e r e ' s nothing of t h e rogue i n him.

a pitcher.

H i s s o u l is

H e can do no harm t o anyone, only good t o everybody.

There's no malice i n him.

day.

"'That my master i s n ' t , '

A c h i l d might make him b e l i e v e i t ' s n i g h t a t noon-

And f o r t h a t s i m p l i c i t y I l o v e him a s d e a r l y a s my h e a r t - s t r i n g s ,

and

c a n ' t t a k e t o t h e thought of l e a v i n g him f o r a l l h i s w i l d t r i c k s . 1,855

Dickens's servant-mentors,

l i k e w i s e , obviously derived from Sancho and h i s

r e n a i s s a n c e and eighteenth-century c o u n t e r p a r t s , perform s i a t i l a r f u n c t i o n s :

Smike s e r v e s (however unconsciously) t o s t i m u l a t e Nicholas's maturation;
Mark Tapley i s regarded a s "the b e s t master i n t h e world" (36, 555) by Martin
Chuzzlewit (a c l e a r r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n s of master and s e r v a n t a r e
o f t e n equivocal); and Sam Weller, Dicken's most complete example of t h i s f o o l type, combines education and g e n t l e s a t i r e w i t h an a f f e c t i o n a t e awareness of
Pickw5ck1s innocence and virtue:

"'I never heerd, mind you, nor read of i n

story-books, nor see i n p i c t e r s , any angel i n t i g h t s and g a i t e r s

. . . but

mark my words, Job T r o t t e r , h e ' s a r e g ' l a r thoroughbred a n g e l f o r a l l t h a t ;

and l e t are see t h e man a s wenturs t o t e l l me h e knows a b e t t e r vun"'

(45, 642).

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e major i n f l u e n c e of t h e Shakespearean and Cervantic

t r a d i t i o n , o t h e r sources a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o Dickens's understanding of t h e
f o o l ' s thematic p o t e n t i a l .

It i s n o t inconceivable, f o r example, t h a t t h e

Pantomime and Harlequinade, which Dickens d e l i g h t e d i n from h i s childhood,

were among h i s e a r l i e s t c o n t a c t s with t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n :

t h e Harlequin's

s a t i r e , magical p r o p e r t i e s , jests, songs, dances, and s e x u a l i t y f a i t h f u l l y

p a r a l l e l t h e a n t i c s and p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c o u r t jester, and c h a r a c t e r s l i k e
Punch, P i e r r o t , P u l c i n e l l a , and Pantaloon--the

s t a n d a r d c a s t i n innumerable

burlesques, f a r c e s , and marionette-shows--are,

l i k e e a r l i e r fool-figures,

w i t t y , roguish, and comic.

The Harlequinade's h i g h l y v e r s a t i l e Clown, i n

p a r t i c u l a r , as Thelma Niklaus n o t e s , e x h i b i t s "a s a t i r i c a l q u a l i t y t h a t

d e l i g h t e d h i s audience, a defiance of law and o r d e r , a comic anarchy t h a t
made mock of a l l e s t a b l i s h e d

institution^,"^^

t i o n with t h e s a r d o n i c o u t c a s t f o o l .

c l e a r l y i n d i c a t i n g h i e connec-

Dickens himself a p p r e c i a t e d t h i s

s a t i r i c q u a l i t y , claiming t h a t "a pantomime i s t o us, a mirror of l i f e , "

and t h a t t h e Pantaloon, Columbine, Harlequin, and Clown a r e b u t c a r i c a t u r e d
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of human f o l l y and e v i l seen i n t h e t h e a t r e audience i t s e l f
("The Pantomime of L i f e , "Bentley's Miscellany, 1, 1837, 291).

These e n t e r -

tainments, furthermore, a l s o enhanced Dickens's awareness of t h e f o o l ' s

humane and moral q u a l i t i e s , heightening h i s understanding of t h e Holy Innocent.
I n Grimaldi's p o r t r a y a l of t h e lawless Clown, e s p e c i a l l y , t h e f i e r c e l y aardonic and s e x u a l l y vulgar a s p e c t s of t h e Pantomime were complemented with a
v a s t l y i n c r e a s e d emphasis on humour and sympathy:

" Y e t through i t a l l glowed

t h e golden h e a r t of Grimaldi, s o t h a t i n s p i t e of Clown's shocking depravi-

ties, t h e p u b l i c loved him a s much as they laughed a t him. "57

william J.

Thoms's "A Chapter on Clowns" (Bentley's Miscellany, 3, 1837, 617-24) o f f e r s

a s i m i l a r e v a l u a t i o n , n o t i n g t h a t i f Grimaldi's a n t i c s a t times dieplayed

" t h a t ruder mirth i n which our g r a n d f a t h e r s d e l i g h t e d , he d i d s o v a r n i s h

i t over w i t h h i s i r r e s i s t i b l e humour, t h a t t h e v e r i e s t prude looked on and

laughed, without once deeming i t necessary t o h i d e h e r enjoyment behind h e r

fan'' (623).

The s i m i l a r i t y between Grimaldi's r e n d i t i o n of t h e s a t i r i c y e t

warm-hearted Clown and t h e f i g u r e s of t h e Shakespearean and Cervantic t r a d i t i o n e ( p a t t e r n s expressed i n both Dickens's own novels and h i s e d i t o r i a l
changes i n Grimaldi's Memoirs) is e x p l i c i t .
Robert Goldsmith warns t h a t "in looking too hard and long a t t h e f o o l s
i n t h e p l a y s of Shakespeare and h i s contemporaries, w e may e a s i l y l o s e our
s e n s e of p e r s p e c t i v e .

I n s e n s i b l y w e may allow our focus t o become s o d i s -

t o r t e d t h a t t h e f o o l emerges a s t h e epitome of a l l t h a t i s comic, p a t h e t i c ,

o r t r a g i c i n t h e s e v e r a l p l a y s i n which he appears. "58

Dickens's uses of

t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , i n c o n t r a s t , though s i m i l a r l y complex, have s u f f e r e d t h e

o p p o s i t e fate--a

v i r t u a l l y complete c r i t i c a l n e g l e c t .

This p r e s e n t discus-

s i o n began by n o t i n g t h a t while Dickens may n o t have read t h e a c t u a l r e n a i s sance t r e a t i s e s on holy f o l l y , he was no s t r a n g e r t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h a t

doctrine.

A s w e have now seen, i n f a c t , Dickens possessed an e x t e n s i v e and

i n t i m a t e acquaintance with t h e major l i t e r a r y and t h e a t r i c a l works of t h e

f o o l t r a d i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y those character-types and motifs moat c l o s e l y
r e l a t e d t o t h e Shakespearean and Cervantic v i s i o n s of holy s i m p l i c i t y and
d i v i n e madness.

Whether o r n o t Mckens always consciously p a t t e r n s h i s own

c r e a t i o n s a f t e r t h e s e c l a s s i c f o o l - f i g u r e s i s , of course, impossible t o d e t e r -

miue, b u t t h e obvious range of h i s readings i n t h a t t r a d i t i o n w i t h a l l i t s

mingled s t r e n g t h s and l i m i t a t i o n s c l e a r l y argues f o r a pervasive indebtedness.
Far from merely o f f e r i n g s l a v i s h i m i t a t i o n s of t h o s e t r a d i t i o n a l pat-

terns, moreover, Mckens's f o o l - f i g u r e s c o n t a i n a s k i l l f u l blend of establ i s h e d and innovative elements; o t h e r w r i t e r s - - b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e V i c t o r i a n

period--employ

t h e f o o l ' s v a r i e d customary forms, b u t few s u r p a s s Dickens

i n t h e v e r s a t i l i t y , symbolic v a l u e s , and psychological complexity of h i s

fool-figures.

Thus, even a s Dickens d e r i v e s t h e e s s e n t i a l moral and thematic

foundation of h i s Holy Innocent, t h e dominant fool-type i n h i s f i c t i o n , from

t h e s e longstanding t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s , he a l s o c o n s t r u c t s s e v e r a l o r i g i n a l
m o t i f s , seeking above a l l t o p r e s e n t t h e Erasmian-Shakespearean p r i n c i p l e s
i n action.

A s noted e a r l i e r , f o o l s tend t o be o u t c a s t o r i s o l a t e d f i g u r e s ,

s t a n d i n g i n opposition t o t h e main arenas of s o c i a l c o n f l i c t , while, i n

Dickens's more innovative uses of t h e t r a d i t i o n , t h e Holy Innocent i s o f t e n

an e x p l i c i t a n t a g o n i s t of s o c i e t y ' s c o r r u p t i n g n a t u r e .

Extending t h e m o t i f s

enunciated i n Don Quixote, f o r example, Pickwick and h i s descendants, t h e

ubiquitous c l a s e of p a t e r n a l i s t i c f o o l - f i g u r e s whom Harry Levin terms
Dickens's " h c l e s , J9 exemplify t h i s precept.

Whatever t h e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r e

of t h e i r i s o l a t i o n , whether naive&, bachelorhood, a l a c k of s o c i a l s t a t u s ,

an i n a b i l i t y o r unwillingness t o countenance worldly wisdom, t h e Cheerybles,

Brawnlow, C u t t l e , Jarndyce, and Boffin d i s p l a y an uncorrupted moral sense
d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d world, and, more important, they
i n c a r n a t e t h e sympathetic e t h o s of holy s i m p l i c i t y needed t o r e g e n e r a t e t h a t
world.

Beyond t h i s , moreover, although t h e f o o l i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s o l i t a r y

f i g u r e , t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent is given an important innovation--the

f o o l community, a form of a n t i - s o c i e t y , o f t e n f a m i l i a l i n s t r u c t u r e , which
honours those values of love and mutual sympathy t h a t t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y deems
"foolish."

The f o o l community, embracing d i v e r s e s o c i a l ranks ( a f a c t enhanc-

i n g t h e meaningfulness of t h e f o o l ' s symbolic r o l e s ) , augments Mckens's

s a t i r i c and moral purpose, demonstrating t h a t t h e Holy Innocent's c e n t r a l
values can f u n c t i o n i n a t r u e s o c i a l s e t t i n g .
For t h e f o o l t o execute t h e s e symbolic-moral f u n c t i o n s , n e i t h e r h i s

s o c i a l detachment n o r community can be merely an i d y l l i c r e t r e a t unable, i f

challenged, t o withstand t h e darker r e a l i t y .

Throughout h i s use of what I

a m d e s c r i b i n g a s t h e Pickwickian m o t i f , Dickens explores t h e f o o l ' s a c t u a l

c o n f r o n t a t i o n with e v i l , t e s t i n g and s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e Holy Innocent's moral
r e s i l i e n c y and c a p a c i t y f o r personal growth.

This e x p l o r a t i o n , i n f a c t ,

underscores t h e p a r t i c u l a r importance of t h e f o o l i n Dickens's art:

simul-

taneously s e p a r a t e from s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f o r c e s and e t h o s

necessary t o remedy t h a t e v i l , and extending (through h i s community) an a c t i v e
sympathy and concern t o i t s v i c t i m s , t h e f o o l is t h e foundation of Dickens's
moral and s a t i r i c v i s i o n .
This p a t t e r n i s n o t , however, a s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d o r utopian as i t might

A s Angus Wilson observes, "only a mystic o r a d i v i n e f o o l

i n i t i a l l y appear.

could b e l i e v e t h a t t h e gospels alone could answer t h e complex contemporary

q u e s t i o n s of man's r o l e i n t h e world of Chancery and Coketown, Merdledom and
t h e c i t y of J a g g e r ~ , " ~ 'and whatever h i s admiration f o r t h e f o o l , Dickens
does not condone an unwarranted optimism.

I n the movement from Pickwick t o

Boffin, i n f a c t , we see a gradual y e t steady d e c l i n e i n t h e Holy Innocent's

moral i n s i g h t , r e s i l i e n c y , and redemptive e f f e c t , while t h e e f f i c a c y and
s e c u r i t y of t h e f o o l community s i m i l a r l y d e c l i n e .

Dickens does not abandon

f a i t h i n t h e a m e l i o r a t i v e goodness of t h i s fool-type, b u t t h e s t r u g g l e between

t h e wise and holy f o o l and t h e monolithic s o c i a l e v i l s depicted i n Bleak
House, L i t t l e D o r r i t , and Our Mutual Friend i s never presented w i t h a superf i c i a l conidence

Although t h e main t h r u s t of t h e Holy Innocent's a c t u a l c o n f l i c t with

such e v i l s is borne by t h e Pickwickian f o o l , o t h e r Dickensian fool-types cont r i b u t e t o Dickens's purpose and e n r i c h h i s use of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .
fool-lunatic,

The

transformed i n Dickens's a r t t o an i n t r i c a t e mixture of sym-

b o l i c f u n c t i o n s , s o c i a l propaganda, and a c l i n i c a l s t u d y of lunacy, performs

an e q u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e .

S i m i l a r l y i s o l a t e d , i n t h i s c a s e by mental

abnormality, t h e Dickensian f o o l - l u n a t i c a l s o s e r v e s a s a counterbalance and

touchstone t o p r e v a i l i n g s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n s .

Perhaps Dickens's most f a i t h -

f u l d e r i v a t i o n of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l folk-fool,

Barnaby Rudge d i s p l a y s a super-

n a t u r a l power of prophecy and mystic i n s i g h t , i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e underlying

b r u t a l i t y of t h e more worldly c h a r a c t e r s , while h i s addled mind provides an
i r o n i c comment on t h e n a t u r e of h i s f e l l o w - r i o t e r s .

Miss F l i t e ' s symbolic

b i r d s r e v e a l t h e i n j u s t i c e of t h e Chancery c o u r t s , w h i l e Toots, M r . Dick, and

Xaggy possess t h e n a t u r a l f o o l ' s s i m p l i c i t y of h e a r t and i n t u i t i v e wisdom.
More important, t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c o f t e n p r e s e n t s unique v a r i a t i o n s on
t h e Holy Innocent's c o n f l i c t with s o c i a l e v i l , f u l f i l l i n g h i g h l y v e r s a t i l e
and complex r o l e s .

Devoid of i n t e l l i g e n c e o r i n d i v i d u a l w i l l , t h e i d i o t was

t r a d i t i o n a l l y regarded as t h e v e h i c l e f o r e x t e r n a l powers, a p a t t e r n t h a t
Dickens e n l a r g e s , making h i s f o o l - l u n a t i c s t h e unconscious r e f l e c t o r s of t h e
dominant and d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s i n t h e i r s o c i a l world.
ous and o f t e n seemingly c o n t r a d i c t o r y a p p l i c a t i o n s .

This motif has numer-

I n a d d i t i o n t o parodying

t h e f o r c e s of e v i l , Barnaby's connections w i t h t h e demonic f o r c e s unleashed

i n t h e Gordon r i o t s i n t r o d u c e a n o t e of ambiguity which s i g n i f i c a n t l y i l l u ntines Dickens's own ambivalent response t o s o c i a l v i o l e n c e , a p a t t e r n r e c u r r i n g i n T r o t t y Veck's confused r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e p r o p h e t i c chimes.

The

moral bewilderment of Mrs. Gradgrind, t h e s e n i l e o u t b u r s t s of Grandmother

Smallweed, and t h e s p i t e f u l animosity of M r . F's Aunt a l l t e s t i f y t o t h e
power of s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n , while t h e damaged minds of Smike, Toots, M r . Dick,
and Maggy i n d i c a t e t h e l i m i t s of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s power t o r e s i s t t h a t
evil.

+he f o o l - l u n a t i c o f t e n c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e Holy Innocent's c o n f l i c t

w i t h s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n through h i s unconscious p a r o d i c and s a t i r i c powers,

b u t h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h a t c o r r u p t i o n e n a b l e s Dickens
t o more f u l l y explore t h e n a t u r e of t h a t c o n f l i c t , a r t i c u l a t i n g h i s own
l a t e n t doubts and ambivalence.
The f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s

addled w i t s , moreover, i n t r o d u c e a f u r t h e r i s s u e :

t h e need t o e s t a b l i s h t h e holy s i m p l i c i t y d o c t r i n e on a f i r m e r , more c r e d i b l e

foundation.

Despite h i s symbolic s p i r i t u a l power, t h e l u n a t i c is n o t t h e

most convincing embodiment of a s e r i o u s moral system, and i n o r d e r t o o f f e r

a s t r o n g e r statement of h i s e t h o s , Mckens endeavours t o merge symbolic
v a l u e s and peychological realism, c r e a t i n g f o o l - f i g u r e s who can p r e s e r v e t h e
n a t u r a l ' s c h i l d - l i k e innocence and redemptive goodness without recourse t o
s u p e r n a t u r a l posseesion o r mystic power.
Like many issues i n Dickens's use of the f o o l t r a d i t i o n , t h i s attempt
to create a

prore

r e a l i s t i c Holy Innocent has s e v e r a l f a c e t s , involving both

s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses.

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l fool-

l u n a t i c , numeroue Dickensian f o o l s may embody a non-supernatural moral sense

without b l a t a n t mental incompetence, b u t , i n h i s wish t o provide a genuinely
b e l i e v a b l e Holy Innocent, Dickens mows beyond t h i s , essaying a f u l l and
p e r c e p t i v e a n a l y s i s of t h e f o o l ' s i n n e r l i f e .

On t h e one hand, t h i s emphasis

allows Mckens increased scope f o r c h a r a c t e r development, r e i n f o r c i n g t h e

f o o l ' s c a p a c i t y f o r personal maturation i n h i s c o n f l i c t with e x t e r n a l e v i l s .
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e a r e b a s i c i n t e r n a l human impulses, such as s e x u a l i t y ,

aggression, and anger, t h a t t h e Holy Innocent convention cannot e a s i l y accommodate.

This p a r t i c u l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n does n o t , of course, touch a l l

Mckens's f o o l f i g u r e s ( t h e Pickwickian f o o l , g e n e r a l l y o l d e r and w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n a s e c u r e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , has few i n t e r n a l t e n s i o n s ) ; b u t i n s e v e r a l

i n s t a n c e s , Mckens encounters s e r i o u s problems i n r e c o n c i l i n g t h e demands of
both t h e Holy Innocent convention and t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s psychological make-up.

Having explored t h e deeper impulses of f o o l - f i g u r e s l i k e Smike and Tom Pinch,

Dickens must r e l e g a t e them t o death o r c e l i b a t e i s o l a t i o n , because t h e s e
Holy Innocents, troubled by i n c h o a t e f e e l i n g s of s e x u a l i t y o r aggression,
cannot b e a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e normal course of human r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Simi-

l a r l y , he must l i t e r a l l y r e f a s h i o n t h e c h a r a c t e r s of K i t Nubbles and Sloppy

i n o r d e r t o make t h e i r marriages t o Barbara and Jenny Wren b e l i e v a b l e , while
t h e wedding between t h e q u i c k - w i t t e d Susan Nipper and t h e l a r g e l y addleminded M r . Toots (engineered t o avoid t h e problems encountered i n Smike and
Pinch) s t r a i n s t h e r e a d e r ' s c r e d u l i t y .

Despite such a u t h o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n ,

Dickens's psychological i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e f o o l ' s c m p l e x i n n e r l i f e , r e v e a l i n g

t h e sadness, i s o l a t i o n , personal l i m i t a t i o n s , a s w e l l as t h e confused and
f r u s t r a t e d s e x u a l i t y t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e r e a l i s t i c Holy Innocent's c h a r a c t e r ,
a r e n o n e t h e l e s s l u c i d l y d e l i n e a t e d , i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e impassable gulf between
t h e f o o l and t h e normal world.

The i n t e r v e n t i o n i t s e l f , i n f a c t , s e r v e s t o

emphasize t h i s d i s p a r i t y , suggesting both Dickens's f u l l awareness of t h e

problems endemic t o a psychologically r e a l i s t i c f o o l , and h i s wish t o avoid
a f i n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e i s s u e .
Dickens's e f f o r t s t o explore t h e Holy Innocent's i n n e r l i f e , then, seem
t o r e t a r d r a t h e r than advance t h e need t o c r e a t e a more c r e d i b l e and r e a l i s t i c b a s i s f o r t h e f o o l ' s symbolic values.

The i n t r i n s i c l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e

f o o l ' s c h a r a c t e r s u g g e s t , i n f a c t , t h a t those v a l u e s , t h e d o c t r i n e of holy

s i m p l i c i t y , can only e x i s t i n a near mythic world untouched by r e a l i t y o r
r e a l i s t i c a n a l y s i s , an i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h r e a t e n s t o undermine t h e very posi t i o n of t h e Holy Innocent as a v i t a l p a r t of Dickens's w r a l v i s i o n .
Although t h e p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s of t h e f o o l ' s d i s r u p t i v e impulses are
unresolved (and perhaps u n r e s o l v a b l e ) , t h e fundamental q u e s t i o n of t h e Holy
3

Innocent's seemingly i n e v i t a b l e u n r e a l i t y is, i n Mckens's v a r i e d and exten-

s i v e uses of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , f a r from insuperable.

Always c l o s e l y re-

l a t e d t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l , t h e c h i l d , c o n s t i t u t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t motif
w i t h i n t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent convention, o f f e r s a p o s s i b l e r e s o l u t i o n .
Like o t h e r Holy Innocents, t h e e a r l i e s t examples of t h e child-fool a r e essent i a l l y symbolic, e x i s t i n g i n a mythically s u p e r n a t u r a l world p r o t e c t e d by
Providence and f a t a l l y vulnerable t o any i n t r u s i v e r e a l i t y .
t h i s motif s t e a d i l y evolves, t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s

And y e t , a s

greater innate adaptability,

h i s power t o grow i n m a t u r i t y while s t i l l r e t a i n i n g h i s f o o l - l i k e innocence,

becomes t h e necessary b r i d g e between t h e f o o l and t h e normal world.

A t once

symbolic and r e a l i s t i c , a s s p i r i t u a l l y e l e v a t e d as any w i s e and holy f o o l ,

y e t e v i n c i n g a b e l i e v a b l e psychological make-up and capable of s u r v i v i n g
without a u t h o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n , t h e child-fool r e p r e s e n t s an e f f e c t i v e response t o t h e Holy Innocent's a l l e g e d u n r e a l i t y .
The c h i l d - f o o l ' s

process of c h a r a c t e r growth, moreover, f u r t h e r en-

hances t h e fundamental c o n f l i c t between t h e Holy Innocent and s o c i a l e v i l .

A l a r g e p a r t of t h e f o o l ' s importance t o Dickens's moral v i s i o n i s h i s capac-

i t y t o g a i n i n s i g h t and s t r e n g t h from t h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n , and i n a more

r e a l i s t i c d e p i c t i o n of t h i s process, t h e n a t u r a l maturation of t h e c h i l d
s u g g e s t s t h a t such growth i s f o r Dickens a major and necessary a s p e c t i n t h e
development of any i n d i v i d u a l advancing towards a mature moral sense.
Both f o o l and non-fool simultaneously, s h a r i n g t h e Holy Innocent's
p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n s and m o t i f s while s h a r i n g none of h i s i n n a t e mental o r
personal l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e c h i l d extends t h e range and importance of t h e holy
s i m p l i c i t y d o c t r i n e i n Dickene's works.
fool-figures,

Through t h e movement from e x p l i c i t

t o t r a n s i t i o n a l f i g u r e s l i k e t h e c h i l d , and u l t i m a t e l y t o

figures f u l l y a d u l t yet still child-like,

w e witness an almost imperceptible

h e r o i n e (a f i g u r e of considerable importance i n t h e Dickensian f o o l t r a d i tion)

shares the child-fool's

e v o l u t i o n a r y growth and advances from p a s s i v e

symbolism t o a c t i v e realism, thus f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c i n g t h e c r e d i b i l i t y of

t h e c h i l d - f o o l motif.

Dickens a l s o c o n t i n u a l l y s t r e s s e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of

p r e s e r v i n g o r r e g a i n i n g t h e c h i l d ' s and f o o l ' s innocence through moral educat i o n o r r e b i r t h , a p a t t e r n which, ubiquitous among f o o l s and non-fools a l i k e ,
continues t o disseminate t h e d o c t r i n e of holy s i m p l i c i t y throughout t h e normal
world.
The development of t h e Holy Innocent i n Dickens's f i c t i o n may seem on
occasion almost e x c l u s i v e l y t h e h i s t o r y of t h e f o o l ' s weaknesses and d e c l i n e .
Yet t h a t development a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e h i s t o r y of t h o s e c h a r a c t e r s who can
unify t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s of t h e f o o l and t h e normal world, t h e c h i l d and
t h e a d u l t , s i m p l i c i t y and m a t u r i t y , innocence and experience, and make them
mutually complementary, a u n i t y which, i n s h o r t , r e p r e s e n t s t h e essence and
cornerstone of Mckens's moral philosophy.

2.

Witty Fools and Foolish W i t s

This v i s i o n of a u n i f i e d Holy Innocent, i n f a c t , h a s a n e a r antecedent

w i t h i n Dickens's own f i c t i o n ; f o r whereas t h e v a r i o u s m o t i f s of t h e Holy
Innocent convention remain h i s dominant fool-types,

another c l a s s i c fool-

f i g u r e , t h e w i t t i l y i n t e l l i g e n t comic j e s t e r , occupies a s i g n i f i c a n t i f

lesser p o s i t i o n i n h i s uses of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .

H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e comic

jester o r " a r t i f i c i a l fool" a r o e e from t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ,

adopting t h e n a t -

u r a l ' s t r a d i t i o n a l l i c e n s e t o v i o l a t e s o c i a l conventions, and h i d i n g behind

t h e facade of an assumed f o l l y o r mental-social debasement f o r comic and
s a t i r i c purposee.

Touchstone "uses h i s f o l l y l i k e a stalking-horse,"

says

Duke Senior, "and under t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h a t he shoots h i s w i t "

4. 103-4).

(e.
V.

"I wear n o t motley i n my brain" (TN.

- I. 5. 51-2) exclaims Feste,

likewise, and t h e v e r b a l a g i l i t y , poetry, songs, withering sarcasm, and

unclouded i n s i g h t of Shakespeare's wise and w i t t y j e s t e r s s u b s t a n t i a t e
Feste's self-appraisal.

I n Mckens's novels, such imaginative and s t r e e t -

wise c h a r a c t e r s a s Sam Weller, Dick Swiveller, and Mark Tapley, a l l "wise

enough t o play t h e foolt1 (E. 111. 1. 58) i n t h e i r complex r o l e s a s comedian,

satirist, and conmentator, most c l o s e l y resemble t h e Shakespearean models.

Although t h e foremost examples of t h e comic j e s t e r have a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t l i v e d h i s t o r y i n Dickens's f i c t i o n , they provide a high expression of h i s
moral and s a t i r i c v i s i o n , t h e i r c a u s t i c and d e f l a t i n g opposition t o s o c i a l
e v i l c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e Dickensian f o o l ' s major thematic function.

Further

p a t t e r n s e l u c i d a t e d i n t h i s s p a r s e y e t i n f l u e n t i a l motif, such a s an emphasis

on u n i t y , f l e x i b i l i t y , and v e r s a t i l i t y , have a f u r t h e r d i r e c t and important
bearing on t h e evolution of t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent.

Unlike t h e l i m i t -

i n g symbolic n a t u r e of Dickens's e a r l y Holy Innocents, t h e comic i n t e l l i g e n c e

of t h e w i t t y f o o l s enables them t o accommodate a wider range of c o n f l i c t i n g
f o r c e s , unifying ( f o r a time a t l e a s t ) w i t and innocence, experience and
s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , worldliness and holy s i m p l i c i t y , and thus representing a c l o s e
approximation of t h e i d e a l towards which Dickens d i r e c t s h i s -re

symbolic

Holy Innocents.
Discussing Touchstone's r o l e i n As You Like I t , John Palmer observes
t h a t t h e w i t t y f o o l ' s "part i n t h e comedy is t o shed t h e l i g h t of r e a l i t y
and common sense upon i t s f a n c i f u l f i g u r e s and diversions,'' t o "see t h i n g s
a s they are b u t without malice," and t o "have a keen f l a i r f o r absurdity i n
people and t h i n g s - n o t l e a s t f o r h i s own i n f i r m i t i e s .

'16'

Sam Weller and

Dick Swiveller a r e perhaps Mckens's most noteworthy d e p i c t i o n s of t h i s com-

p l e x fool-type and function.

It i s v i r t u a l l y t r u i s t i c t h a t Weller repre-

s e n t s r e a l i t y and common s e n s e amid t h e f a n c i f u l e c c e n t r i c i t i e s of Pickwick

Papers, while, a s Malcolm Andrews s u g g e s t s , Swiveller f u l f i l l s "a kind of
Chorus r o l e , a b r i d g e between t h e r e a d e r ' s r e a c t i o n s and t h e dramatic a c t i o n
i n t h e novel," r e s t o r i n g "a l i t t l e equilibrium.

lh2

Like Touchstone, Sam and

Dick a r e t h e voice of reason a l l i e d with t h e voice of imagination, performing

t h e f o o l ' s c l a s s i c f u n c t i o n of counterbalancing and s y n t h e s i z i n g extremes.
Touchstone responds t o t h e more extravagant a s p e c t s of Rosalind's and
Orlando's romantic fervour w i t h understanding and h e a l t h y cynicism, n e i t h e r
i d e a l i z i n g nor disdaining.

Sam and Dick, l i k e w i s e , a r e t h e only t r u l y inde-

pendent c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e novels:

Sam maintains an amused

admiration f o r Pickwick without t h e contempt of J i n g l e o r t h e self-deluded

obsequiousness of t h e Pickwickians, while Dick i s t h e only major f i g u r e i n
The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop not overwhelmed by N e l l ' s d i v i n i t y o r i n t i m i d a t e d by
Quilp's demonic power.

A s f o o l s , they c o n t r i b u t e a necessary s y n t h e s i s of

r e a l i s m and imagination t o a world where t h e s e f o r c e s a r e abnormally separated.

The f o o l o f t e n s e r v e s as a m i r r o r f o r non-fools (e.g.,
ponse t o t h e melancholy Jaques [II. 7 , 12-34]),
exposing t h e i r f o l l y .

Touchstone's res-

s h a r i n g t h e i r i n s i g h t s while

Sam perforrns a l i k e f u n c t i o n i n h i s a s s o c i a t i o n with

Pickwick and J i n g l e , though S w i v e l l e r ' s thematic r e l a t i o n s h i p with Q u i l p and

N e l l , a more complex combination of parody and s y n t h e s i s , is Dickens's most

meaningful and developed use of t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l r o l e .

Both Q u i l p and

M c k , whatever t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r s o n a l i t y , a r e p e r c e p t i v e s a t i r i s t s ,
e q u a l l y cognizant of a n o t h e r ' s knavery.

And y e t , while Quilp rages a n g r i l y ,

Dick d i s p l a y s a g e n t l e , almost e n t e r t a i n i n g v i s i o n .

Even those ' h o r r i b l e

d e s i r e s t o a n n i h i l a t e t h i s S a l l y Brass" (33, 251-2) a r e calmed by s e v e r a l

i n s i g h t f u l response t o t h e a v a r i c i o u s Brass family, while ( i n h i s pseudov i o l e n c e ) parodying and n u l l i f y i n g t h e dwarf's demonic anger.

Like

Touchstone, moreover, Dick "uses h i s f o l l y l i k e a stalking-horse,"

delight-

e d l y enjoying h i s own s a t i r i c humour:

'Is i t no harm t o have a c o n s t a n t

'What harm!' c r i e d Brass.
h a l l o o i n g and hooting under one's very nose, d i s t r a c t i n g one
from b u s i n e s s , and making one grind one's t e e t h with vexation?
Is i t no harm t o be blinded and choked up, and have t h e k i n g ' s
highway stopped with a set of screamers and r o a r e r s whose
t h r o a t s ~ u e bt e made of--of--'
' ~ r a s,
s suggested M r . S w i v e l l e r
(37, 275)

'

Like Shakespeare's f o o l s , furthermore, Dick is a comic e n t e r t a i n e r , " l i g h t i n g

up t h e o f f i c e w i t h s c r a p s of song and merriment, conjuring with i n k s t a n d s
and boxes of wafers, c a t c h i n g t h r e e oranges i n one hand, balancing s t o o l s
upon h i s c h i n and penknives on h i s nose, and c o n s t a n t l y performing a hundred
o t h e r f e a t s with equal i n g e n u i t y ; f o r w i t h such unbendings d i d Richard, i n

M r . Brass's absence, r e l i e v e t h e tedium of h i s confinement1' (36, 270).

Such

clownish performances may seem a r e l a t i v e l y minor element i n Dick's c h a r a c t e r ,

b u t t h i s l i g h t - h e a r t e d j o v i a l i t y is an e s s e n t i a l f a c e t i n t h e thematic importance of Dickens's w i t t y

0 0 1 6 . ~Quilp,
~

f o r example, i s e q u a l l y e c c e n t r i c

and (indeed) e n t e r t a i n i n g i n h i s grotesque a c r o b a t i c s :

"Daniel Quilp with-

drew i n t o a dismantled s k i t t l e - g r o u n d behind t h e public-house,

and, throwing

himself upon t h e ground, a c t u a l l y screamed and r o l l e d about i n t h e mst uncont r o l l a b l e d e l i g h t " (21, 164).

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s p e r v e r t e d , s o l i t a r y joy,

Dick's g e n i a l showmanship is expansive and u p l i f t i n g , an inrage of Q u i l p ' s

energy without t h e dwarf's self-enclosed b i t t e r n e s s .

Ae Dick himself observes

i n a passage t h a t Dickens d e l e t e d , t h e purpose of t h e f o o l - f i g u r e ( i n t h i s

c a s e Punch) is "to hold t h e m i r r o r up t o Mature, show v i r t u e h e r own image,
v i c e h e r am deformity. '164

I n t h e i r c e l e b r a t e d fight-scene,

as Dick prances

around t h e f a l l e n dwarf i n a d e f l a t i n g burlesque of Quilp's aggressive malice

(13, 99-loo), he f u l f i l l s t h a t same function.

Though p r e s e n t i n g a less complex v e r s i o n of t h e Swiveller-Quilp r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e connections between t h e w i t t y Sam Weller and t h e knavish Alfred
J i n g l e involve s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s of a s s i m i l a t i o n and r e j e c t i o n .

Like Q u i l p

and Dick, Sam and J i n g l e a r e both i n s i g h t f u l s a t i r i s t s , recognizing t h e pretensions and f o l l i e s of o t h e r s .

Sam h a s l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i d e n t i f y i n g and

r i d i c u l i n g t h e obtuseness of S t a r e l e i g h and Buzfuz; J i n g l e ' s d i s g u i s e a s

M r . Fitz-Marshall,

"a gentleman of fortune" (15, 207), d e f l a t e s t h e pomposity

of Mrs. Leo Hunter's b r e a k f a s t p a r t y f o r n o t a b l e s .

The Weller-Jingle r e l a -

t i o n s h i p i s f u r t h e r underscored, a s s e v e r a l c r i t i c s have observed,65 by t h e i r

novel uses of language, Sam a c t u a l l y employing t h e rogue's i d i o s y n c r a t i c
l i n g u i s t i c s t y l e ('"Down

he goes t o t h e Commons, t o s e e t h e lawyer and draw

t h e blunt--wery smart--top-boots
tile--green

shawl--quite

on--nosegay

t h e gen'lm'n"'

i n h i s button-hole-broad-brimmed

[10,121]), while J i n g l e s h a r e s Sam's

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c penchant f o r black humour and macabre anecdotes:

place-dangerous work--other

day--five

children--mother--tall

sandwiches--forgot

t h e arch-crash--knock--children

head off--sandwich

i n h e r hand--no

shocking, shocking!"'

(2, 11).

"'Terrible

lady, e a t i n g

look round--mother's

m u t h t o p u t i t in--head

of a family off--

Like S w i v e l l e r , moreover, who s o f t e n s Q u i l p ' s

malicious s p i t e and converts i t t o joy, Sam employs h i s J i n g l e - l i k e i n s i g h t

and v e r b a l i n g e n u i t y t o b e t t e r ends.

G a r r e t t Stewart d i s t i n g u i s h e s between

"the honest and dishonest imagination," n o t i n g t h a t ''while Sam t h r i v e s on

this gift

. . . J i n g l e c a p i t a l i z e s on i t . "66

The rogue's s a t i r e and l i n g -

u i s t i c s k i l l have no c o r r e c t i v e purpose o r b e n e f i c e n t i n t e n t i o n , b u t a r e
s o l e l y concerned w i t h deluding t h e credulous and p r o f i t i n g from t h e i r inexperience.

Sam's imagination, i n c o n t r a s t , i s redemptive; h i s v e r b a l f l i g h t s

express and maintain h i s own joy i n l i f e , while h i s darker imagery and

"Wellerisms'' i n t r o d u c e a v i t a l l y necessary common s e n s e t o t h e v u l n e r a b l e

Pickwickian i d y l l .
Although Sam and Dick may s h a r e some of t h e i r most engaging q u a l i t i e s
w i t h J i n g l e and Quilp, t h e i r thematic-symbolic

r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h Pickwick

and L i t t l e N e l l , t h e moral c e n t r e s of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e works, a r e e q u a l l y

significant.

C l e a r l y n e i t h e r i s a Holy Innocent, y e t l i k e L e a r ' s i n c e s s a n t l y

moralizing f o o l both d i s p l a y a p e r c e p t i v e s e n s e of value.

Sam may be occa-

s i o n a l l y exasperated by Pickwick's n a i v e t i , b u t h i s moral n a t u r e i n e v i t a b l y

draws him t o defend h i s master and s h a r e h i s imprisonment.

Although i n i t i a l l y

d e p i c t e d as a p r o f l i g a t e young g a l l a n t advocating a mercenary e t h o s ("'The

watchword t o t h e o l d min is--fork"'

13, 24]), Dick S w i v e l l e r a l s o a f f i r m s

h i s b e l i e f i n compromise r a t h e r than c o n f l i c t , family u n i t y r a t h e r than

strife.

Even i n h i s f i r s t appearance, when h e i s involved w i t h T r e n t ' s p l o t

a g a i n s t N e l l and h e r g r a n d f a t h e r , he d i s p l a y s t h e wise f o o l ' s customary blend

of wisdom i n f o l l y .

I n t h e midst of h i s l u d i c r o u s account of t h e r e l a t i v e

m e r i t s of Jamaica rum, f o r example, he suddenly a d v i s e s ,

...

'It's a d e v i l of a t h i n g , gentlemen
when r e l a t i o n s f a l l o u t
and d i s a g r e e . I f t h e wing of f r i e n d s h i p should never moult a
f e a t h e r , t h e wing of r e l a t i o n s h i p should never be c l i p p e d , b u t b e
always expanded and s e r e n e . Why should a grandson and g r a n d f a t h e r
peg away a t each o t h e r w i t h mutual wiolence when a l l might be b l i s s
and concord? Why not j i n e hands and f o r g e t i t ? ' (2, 19)
Whereas Q u i l p , furthermore, i s c r u e l l y amused by t h e Marchioness's l o n e l i n e s s
and ignorance, Dick is s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a t t r a c t e d t o t h e n e g l e c t e d g i r l , earne s t l y lamenting t h e f a c t t h a t "nobody e v e r c a l l e d t o see h e r , nobody spoke of
h e r , nobody cared about her" (36, 271).

S i m i l a r l y , Dick i s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n

t h e v i l l a i n s ' dawnfall and K i t Nubbles's s a l v a t i o n , and, as B r a s s anrazedly

observes, "If y o u ' l l b e l i e v e m e I ' v e found t h a t f e l l o w , i n t h e commonest

l i t t l e matters of t h e o f f i c e t h a t have been t r u s t e d t o him, b l u r t i n g o u t t h e

t r u t h , though e x p r e s s l y cautioned" (62, 465).
E

J u s t a s Dick both r e f l e c t s and p a r o d i e s ~ u i l p ' sn a t u r e , however, s o he

s h a r e s N e l l ' s moral p r i n c i p l e s while s t i l l o f f e r i n g an unconsciously iconoc l a s t i c response t o h e r s e n t i m e n t a l melodrama, f o r t h e f o o l must "hold t h e

m i r r o r up t o Nature" without t h e d i s t o r t i n g i n f l u e n c e of e x c e s s i v e i d e a l ization.

Unlike t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e n o v e l ' s c h a r a c t e r s , who a l l f a l l under

Mell's morbid s p e l l , Dick, who can c a s u a l l y remark of t h e d i v i n e N e l l t h a t

s h e i s a " f i n e g i r l of h e r age, b u t small" (7, 55) and then a b r u p t l y d i g n i f y
a d i r t y , i l l e g i t i m a t e s e r v i n g - g i r l w i t h t h e t i t l e "Marchioness,"
s i n g u l a r l y unimpressed.

remains

Weller performs l i t t l e of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r icono-

c l a s t i c f u n c t i o n ; h i s c o n s t a n t e f f o r t s t o e d u c a t e Pickwick, q u a l i f y i n g t h e
Holy Innocent's n a i v e & while s t i l l endorsing h i s moral e x c e l l e n c e , temper
t h e n o v e l ' s i d y l l i c atmosphere.

I n The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, however, N e l l

has no such moderating companion, and t h e t a s k of q u a l i f y i n g h e r extravagant

i d e a l i z a t i o n becomes t h e province of t h e w i s e f o o l .

As Dick drunkenly ex-

claims, ''Left an i n f a n t by my p a r e n t s , a t an e a r l y age

. . . cast

upon t h e

world i n my t e n d e r e s t p e r i o d , and thrown upon t h e mercies of a deluding dwarf"

I

(23, 1 7 1 ) , h i s l o t i s a s u b t l e burlesque of N e l l ' s sombrely melodramatic

world.

G a b r i e l Pearson makes t h i s p o i n t even more f o r c e f u l l y ; d i s c u s s i n g

Dick's pseudo-poetic

rhapsody on death (56, 415), h e argues t h a t "Dick's own

parody p o e t i c s and t h e a t r i c a l i t y e s t a b l i s h themselves i n endemic, n e u t r a l i e i n g o p p o s i t i o n t o Ne11'6 blank-verse e l e g i a c s . 1'67

For a l l h i s moral s t r e n g t h and wholesome i r o n y , however, Dick does n o t
f u l l y s h a r e t h e competent s t r e n g t h of Sam Weller, o f t e n seeming t o o detached,
too t h o u g h t l e s s and s e l f - c e n t e r e d t o s t a n d a g a i n s t t h e Quilpian world.
Unlike Sam, who m a s t e r f u l l y copes w i t h S e r j e a n t Buzfuz, Dick is v e r b a l l y
manhandled by B r a s s ' s lawyer u n t i l h e "retires abashed" (63, 471), while
Quilp, l i k e w i s e , has l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y e x t r a c t i n g i n f o n n a t i o n from t h e helpl e s s l y i n t o x i c a t e d Swiveller (21, 163-4).

Dick i s a double f o o l , a w i s e f o o l

I
1

who sees and understands t h e t r u t h , and a comic b u t t duped and used by w i s e r

characters.

Sam e n t e r s t h e Pickwickian world f u l l y developed and i n t e g r a t e d

w i t h no need f o r change o r growth.

Dick, i n c o n t r a s t , i n a p a t t e r n of some

importance t o Dickens's l a t e r uses of t h e Holy Innocent convention, i s a miin

"who t a k e s refuge i n imagination u n t i l he l e a r n s t h a t he can a c t u a l l y make
a h o w of it,"68 a man i n movement towards t h e Weller i d e a l whose t h o u g h t l e s s
g a i e t y and imagination r e q u i r e only s t r e n g t h e n i n g and d i r e c t i o n .

Through h i s

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e Marchioness, s p e c i f i c a l l y , Dick achieves t h i s s y n t h e s i s

of realism and imagination t h a t allows him t o abandon h i s f r i v o l i t y while
r e t a i n i n g both h i s Q u i l p i a n life-energy and h i s N e l l - l i k e v i r t u e s of sympathy
and t r u t h f u l n e s s .

As Garrett Stewart observes, when Dick g r a n t s t h e Marchioness h e r d i g n i f i e d t i t l e ("'To make i t seem more r e a l and p l e a s a n t , I s h a l l c a l l you t h e
Marchioness, do you hear?"'

[57, 42711, he is doing more than expressing h i s

normally p l a y f u l c h a r a c t e r :
Thie i s a romantic daydream i n which t h e "real" and t h e "pleasantt'
can b e w i l l e d a t once i n t o conjunction; y e t a t t h e same time i t
bespeaks a mature f a i t h i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a b e t t e r world,
a f a i t h nurtured i n t h e love of p o e t r y , where t h e r e a l and t h e
p l e a s a n t , t r u t h and beauty, do r e g u l a r l y coincide. Here, domestic a t e d and made comic, i s a t r u e R o m n t i c p o e t ' s f a i t h i n the
sue t a i n i n g power of imagination. 6 9
This b e l i e f i n imagination a s t h e pathway t o "a b e t t e r world" where "the r e a l

. . . coincide," p a r a l l e l s Enid Welsford's d e s c r i p t i o n of

c r e a t o r . . . of s p i r i t u a l freedom," t h e man who demonstrates

and t h e p l e a s a n t
t h e f o o l a e "a

" t h e p l e a s i n g delusion t h a t f a c t s a r e more f l e x i b l e than they appear t o be,"

t h a t c a d y (or imagination) can r e a a k e t h e world.70

Robert Coldsclith, on

t h e o t h e r hand, observes t h a t t h e f o o l is sometimes "too hardheaded t o l i v e

happily i n t h e f o r e s t of romance.

. . . H i s mocking humor enables us

t o laugh

a t p r e t e n s e and vulgar f o l l y , b u t i t cannot open our eyes t o t h e t r u e i f

t r a n s i t o r y l o v e l i n e s s of t h e Arcadian dream. 1 1 7 1
h a s i t both ways.

Dickens , however, l i t e r a l l y

H e transforms t h e imaginative, f r i v o l o u s Dick Swiveller

and g r a n t s him an increased p r a c t i c a l i t y while s t i l l s u s t a i n i n g t h e imaginat i v e , expansive comic world.

When Dick awakes from h i s f e v e r i s h s l e e p , t h e r e f o r e , and p o e t i c a l l y desi g n a t e s t h e Marchioness "a Genie" (64, 475), he preserves and enhances t h e
imaginative " f o r e s t of romance."

H i s newly strengthened v i s i o n , however, is

no longer drunkenly obscured by t h a t "Arcadian dream":

Marchioness h a s been wearing h e r s e l f t o death!"'

(478).

"'This poor l i t t l e
J u s t a s Dick g r a n t s

( o r c r e a t e s ) t h e Marchioness's i d e n t i t y , s o she r e t u r n s t h e compliment and

Dick responds t o t h e metaphorical meaning of h i s "new" name and t o i t s
emotional, human s i g n i f i c a n c e a s well:
fully.

'It's w e l l I am a l i v e r e r .

Marchioness, b u t f o r you"'

(478-9).

"'Liverer indeed!'

s a i d Dick thought-

I s t r o n g l y suspect I should have d i e d ,

Dick, moreover, asks M r . Garland, " i f

you could make t h e Marchioness yonder, a Marchioness i n real, sober e a r n e s t

. . . I'd

thank you t o g e t i t done off-hand"

o u t , "'Sober'

(66, 490).

As Stewart p o i n t s

i s now t h e o p e r a t i v e marker, placed next t o ' r e a l '

f i n a l l y more s a t i s f y i n g modification. '172

a s a new and

And y e t , Dickens notes. "let i t b e

added, t o ~ i c k ' shonour, t h a t , though w e have c a l l e d h e r Sophronia, h e c a l l e d

h e r t h e Marchioness from f i r s t t o l a s t " (552), and though h e r education "kept
him i n s t r a i t e n e d circumstances f o r half-a-dozen
i n h i s zeal" (551).

y e a r s , he never slackened

The world of t h e imagination triumphs, n o t i n o p p o s i t i o n

t o t h e r e a l world, b u t enhanced and s u s t a i n e d by Dick's new s t r e n g t h of

character.
C r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e Swiveller-Marchioness r e l a t i o n s h i p has n o t
been u n i v e r s a l l y favourable.

Steven Marcus, f o r example, w r i t e s t h a t i t s

" g r a t i f y i n g a c r o b a t i c r e s o l u t i o n and t h e assurance i t holds o u t f o r t h e f u t u r e

are simply too light and supple for a novel whose unremitting impulse is
toward all that lies underground.1'73 And yet, as fool, Dick is the
"creator of spiritual freedom" who moves beyond the simple evil-energy/
virtue-passivity dichotomy of the novel's main action.

If his story is

"too light and supple," it also contains much that is painful and harsh--the
Harchioness's brutalized, perverted childhood, Dick's own fever and near
death. As Willeford maintains, "the fool among us is a perpetual link to
the light and the life in [the world's] darkness,"74 the wise comic who
combines the salient features of both realms to create unity rather than conflict. Ae M c k states, in a passage applicable to his particular role in the
novel and with implications extending far into the evolution of the Dickensian
Holy Innocent as well, "I was wafted here upon the pinions of concord

came

...

to remove, with the rake of friendship, the seeds of mutual wiolence

and heart-burning, and to sow in their place, the germs, of social harmony"
(13, 103).

Nell, therefore, must ascend into an angelic eternity while

Quilp dies in darkness, for the extremes remain self-destructive. Only the
imaginative yet "hardheaded" fool is reborn.
Even among their immediate successors, none of whom equals Sam and
Dick in imaginative power or thematic importance, Weller's and Swiveller's
characteristic unifying nature is dominant. Hark Tapley, the clearest subsequent manifestation of the comic jester, merely "fans what is left of the
Weller spark,"75 but like his antecedents, he promotes concord and harmony
in a world rife with "mutual wiolence," assimilating the passive virtue of
the Holy Innocent and the greater dynamism normally associated with the
villainous rogue to form an effectively ameliorative synthesis.
The moral sensitivity of Hark's character, linking him to Martin
Chuzzlewit's primary representatives of holy simplicity, is continually re-

i t e r a t e d , even presented on occasion a s an e x p l i c i t p a r a l l e l .

Contemplating

Tapley's l o v i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r beleaguered fellow-emigrants d u r i n g

t h e trials i n Eden, Martin "somehow

. . . coupled

Tom Pinch w i t h t h i s t r a i n

'of r e f l e c t i o n " and "began t o t h i n k i n what r e s p e c t s two people s o extremely

d i f f e r e n t were l i k e each o t h e r " (33, 524).

Like Sam and Dick, Mark has a

f a r more i n t e l l i g e n t w i t and s t r e e t r i s e experience than t h e simple-hearted

Holy Innocent, b u t , a s M a r t i n ' s developing awareness c l e a r l y acknowledges,
t h e v a r i o u s m o t i f s of t h e Dickensian f o o l a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y u n i t e d a t a fundamental moral l e v e l .
I n The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, moreover, t h e c e n t r a l moral c o n f l i c t i s
transformed from a simple c o n f r o n t a t i o n between an i n t e n s e l y p a s s i o n a t e e v i l
and a p a s s i v e l y i n s i p i d good by t h e presence of Dick S w i v e l l e r , t h e s o l e
f i g u r e who can impart a s e n s e of v i t a l i t y t o t h e f o r c e s of holy simplicdty.
Martin Chuzzlewit d i s p l a y s a s i m i l a r p o l a r i z a t i o n , and once again i t i s t h e
comic jester (connected t o t h e Holy Innocent while s t i l l s h a r i n g t h e v i l l a i n ' s
g r e a t e r l i f e - f o r c e ) who r e p r e s e n t s t h e equilibrium.

Though less demonically

grotesque than Daniel Quilp, Montague Tigg i s o v e r t l y "Satanic"

( 4 , 44; 27,

429) i n h i s restless d u p l i c i t y and s a r d o n i c i n s i g h t , d i s p l a y i n g ( a s Steven

Marcus n o t e s ) a " s p i r i t e d and i r r e p r e s s i b l e " c h a r a c t e r , "charming i n h i s
fraudulence, r e f u s i n g t o go under, and compelling i n h i s r e s o u r c e f u l r a f f i s h n e s s our g a i e t y and admiration. "76

The "ornamental

. . . inventive

and

p o e t i c a l department" (27, 431) of t h e Anglo-Bengalee D i s i n t e r e s t e d Loan and

L i f e Assurance Company, f o r example, d e r i v e s from Montague's

comic genius,

while h i s l u d i c r o u s y e t e q u a l l y i n v e n t i v e v i s i o n of Chevy Slyiae as "the

highest-minded,

t h e most independent-spirited,

most o r i g i n a l , s p i r i t u a l ,

c l a s s i c a l , t a l e n t e d " (4, 46) man i n e x i s t e n c e , is s o f a r i n excess of t h e

demands of any scheme Tigg may d e v i s e a s t o suggest t h a t h i s d e l i g h t i n

P e c k s n i f f i a n hyperbole is l a r g e l y a r e s u l t of h i s own p r o d i g a l imagination.

Like Q u i l p ' s , however, Tigg's life-energy, whatever i t s comic exuberance o r
s e n s e of s t y l e , i s e n t i r e l y c o r r u p t , and, s h a r i n g ~ w i v e l l e r ' s primary foolf u n c t i o n , Hark Tapley ( o b l i q u e l y connected w i t h Tigg through t h e i r shared
i n i t i a l s ) converts such r e s i l i e n t energy, comic b o i s t e r o u s n e s s , and i n t e l l i gent perception t o g e n t l e r ends.
J u s t a s S w i v e l l e r ' s g e n i a l showmanship " l i g h t s up t h e o f f i c e " i n t h e
gloomy world of Quilp and Brass, s o Mark's comic s p i r i t i s "the l i f e and s o u l
of t h e steerage" during t h e s q u a l i d voyage t o America, reducing t h e passeng e r s ' hardships through p r a c t i c a l a s s i s t a n c e and h i s own "best and gayest of
tempers" (15, 2 5 0 ) , while h i s e c s t a t i c rediscovery of h i e emigrant f r i e n d s
i n London produces an almost Quilpian o u t b u r s t :

"Away he went again, i n a

p e r f e c t l y wild s t a t e , hugging them, and skipping round them, and c u t t i n g i n

between them, a s i f he were performing some f r a n t i c and o u t l a n d i s h dance"

(54, 832).

Unlike Tlgg's o r Q u i l p ' s e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , moreover, Hark's comic

energy h a s a p o s i t i v e b e n e f i c e n t e f f e c t :

M r . Chuzzlewit no sooner gathered who t h e s e people were, than he

b u r s t open t h e coach-door somehow o r o t h e r , and came tumbling o u t
among them; and a s i f t h e lunacy of M r . Tapley were contagious,
he immediately began t o shake hands too, and e x h i b i t every
demonstration of t h e l i v e l i e s t joy. (832)
The p a s s i o n a t e l y v i l l a i n o u s c h a r a c t e r s of t h e e a r l y novels could undoubtedly
s h a r e Mark's v i s i o n of himself a s an embodiment of energy ("'if
Werb a l i v e , I ' m it"'
II

there's a

[48, 733]), b u t , i n t h e j o y f u l frenzy of h i s d i v i n e

lunacy" ( o f t e n a meaningful term i n Dickens's l e x i c o n ) , Mark r e j e c t s t h e i r

s u p e r f i c i a l s a n i t y and corrupt energy and is f i r m l y e n l i s t e d among t h e ranks

of t h e h o l y f o o l s , while h i s power t o i n f e c t o t h e r s w i t h h i s "contagious"
happiness t e s t i f i e s t o h i s moral e f f e c t .
Mark, "So's j o l l i t y "

"Virtue's i t s awn reward," s a y s

(15, 2 4 7 ) , and h i s c e n t r a l thematic r o l e demonstrates

t h a t h i s j o l l i t y ( i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e perverted l a u g h t e r of Quilp and Tigg,

and r e c a l l i n g Dick's equation between wisdom and merriment) i s indeed inseparable from v i r t u e .

Throughout Martin Chuzzlewit, Tigg's d e c e i t f u l

v o l u b i l i t y , together with t h e corrupt imaginative powers of t h e novel's

o t h e r g r e a t l i g u i s t i c t a l e n t s , Pecksniff and Mrs. Gamp, have obscured and
destroyed t r u e human communication.

Mark, who a l s o consciously e x p l o i t s

the resources of language i n h i s use of "Werb" a s a noun t o d e f i n e h i s

i d e n t i t y , who c r e a t e s f r e s h meaning f o r t r i t e aphorisms i n h i s "virtuej o l l i t y " p r i n c i p l e , and whose comic a n t i c s during t h e voyage were "always
doing something f o r t h e general entertainment" (250), has c o n s i s t e n t l y conv e r t e d such c r e a t i v e ingenuity i n t o more expansive, g e n i a l form,~. "The Blue
Dragon w i l l be con-werted i n t o t h e J o l l y Tapley," Hark s t a t e s before h i s
marriage t o Mrs. Lupin, "A s i g n of my own inwention, s i r .
w i v i a l , and expressive!"

Wery new, con-

(52, 810), and while Mark may not equal t h e b r i l -

l i a n c e of Sam's o r Dick's comic w i t , he too can "con-wert" t h e very s t r e n g t h s

of v i l l a i n y - - i t s

energy, exuberance, and imaginative genius--into

"conwivial"

elements r e i n f o r c i n g t h e paramount values of t h e Holy Innocent.

Following the impressive s t r e n g t h s presented i n t h e s e e a r l y foolf i g u r e s , hawever, t h e comic j e s t e r motif, i n a s t r a n g e r e v e r s a l of i t s
o r i g i n a l power, d e c l i n e s sharply, t h e sporadic appearances of i t s l a t e r repr e s e n t a t i v e s l a r g e l y denuded of any unifying fool-functions.

Micawber

indulges h i s g r e a t l i n g u i s t i c imagination and unmasks t h e conniving Uriah

Heep, b u t h i s v i t a l i t y , undergoing no Swiveller-like maturation, cannot repeat
t h e w i t t y f o o l ' s union of energy and d i s c i p l i n e , a union c e n t r a l t o t h e f o o l ' s
r o l e i n t h e c o n f l i c t between s i m p l i c i t y and corruption.

Sleary i s perhaps

a more successful adaptation, an advocate of holy f o l l y who d i s p l a y s an

almost knavish disregard f o r officialdom's concept of j u s t i c e i n a s s i s t i n g

t h e f u g i t i v e Tom Gradgrind t o f l e e England; and y e t , w i t h h i s "muddled head

which wae never sober and never drunk" (I, 6 , 35), S l e a r y i s f a r removed
from t h e unclouded b r i l l i a n c e and s a r d o n i c i r o n y of t h e Weller-SwivellerTapley archetype.
Perhaps t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n t h i s d e c l i n e i s
t h a t t h e comic jester's power t o unify d i s p a r a t e f o r c e s , although i n one
s e n s e h i s g r e a t e s t s t r e n g t h , is a l s o a source of c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s r u p t i v e
t e n s i o n s , c o n t a i n i n g t h e seeds of h i s own d i s s o l u t i o n .
t h a t t h e w i t t y f o o l once a s s i m i l a t e d and tempered--the
Holy Innocent-become

For a s t h e f i g u r e s
roguish knave and

increasingly a n t i t h e t i c a l , the j e s t e r ' s synthesizing

n a t u r e can no longer e s t a b l i s h e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e more extreme p o l a r i t i e s .

Not only i n Dickens's uses of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , i n f a c t , b u t throughout
t h e f o o l ' s l i t e r a r y development, t h e complex i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e f o o l
and t h e knave produces s i m i l a r t e n s i o n s .

Traditional characters l i k e

Marcolf, T y l l Eulenspiegel, Scogin, and Robin Goodfellow, t h e d e c e i t f u l ,

cunning, w i t t y , humourous picaro-fools of folk-legend, i n c a r n a t e moral
ambiguity, while one of t h e i r major antecedents, t h e Vice of medieval mora l i t y p l a y s , possesses some of t h e j e s t e r ' s sardonic humour b u t s t i l l
embodies t h e Seven Deadly Sins.

One may argue ( a s Robert Goldsmith does)

t h a t "the Vice-fool underwent b i n a r y f i s s i o n , one p a r t continuing a s rogue

and impostor, t h e o t h e r s p i r a l l i n g o f f t o become a w i t t y j e s t e r and cornment z ~ t o r , "b~u~t t h e moral d i v i s i o n , a s Dickens's use of both f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e s ,

is n o t q u i t e s o neat.

As w e have s e e n , f o r example, t h e d e c e i t f u l J i n g l e

b e l i t t l e s p r e t e n s i o n while Quilp i s both a demonic grotesque and "a d e f l a t e r

of hypocrisy and
s a t i r i c commentator.

roguish y e t w i t t y c a r i c a t u r e s of t h e w i s e l y
A s t i l l more humourous c r e a t i o n , t h e A r t f u l Dodger,

i n a scene reminiscent of Weller's c o n f l i c t w i t h Buzfuz, regards t h e j a j l e r ' s

statement,

"L

knw him w e l l , your worship ," as "a c a s e of deformation of

c h a r a c t e r , " w i l l not "abase" himself by "descending" t o speak w i t h a w i t n e s s ,

and c a u s t i c a l l y observes of t h e c o u r t t h a t " t h i s a i n ' t t h e shop f o r j u s t i c e "

(OT, 43, 334-5).

approve.

opinions t h a t Dickens (and h i s r e a d e r s ) cannot h e l p b u t

Even Tigg is g i f t e d with an a c u t e awareness of a n o t h e r ' s f a i l i n g s ,

and, a s "kindred v i c e s know each o t h e r i n t h e i r hiding-place"

(MC, 14, 242),

s k i l l f u l l y outmaneuvers t h e rapacious y e t credulous Jonas Chuzzlewit.

Goldsmith's suggestion of an a b s o l u t e moral d i v i s i o n , however, cannot
be dismissed, f o r whatever t h e s a t i r i c w i t of such f o o l - f i g u r e s ,

t h e primary

impulses of t h e i r n a t u r e m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t any c o r r e c t i v e use of t h e i r b i t i n g

intelligence.

As Welsford s t a t e s , regard t h e knavish rogue "as a r e a l man,

d e a l i n g w i t h r e a l men capable of f e e l i n g pain, and h e becomes a purely odious

'C01

figure,""

a f a c t t h a t i n ~ i c k e n s ' s l a t e r novels, where h i s a n a l y s i s of e v i l

is i n c r e a s i n g l y r e a l i s t i c , a l t e r s t h e n a t u r e of h i s knavish v i l l a i n s and t h u s
t h e w i t t y f o o l ' s power of u n i f i c a t i o n .

Though r e t a i n i n g some of t h e f o o l ' s

innate opposition t o the s o c i a l order, characters l i k e the "devilishly sly"

Joseph Bagstock, t h e power-hungry Uriah Heep, t h e murderous Mgaud, t h e
s o p h i s t i c a t e d and h e a r t l e s s Compeyson, t h e scheming S i l a s Wegg, and t h e mercenary and conniving Fledgeby and Larnmles, a l l t h o s e , i n e f f e c t , who ( t o a
g r e a t e r o r lesser degree) l i v e by t h e i r w i t s i n d i r e c t antagonism t o organized
s o c i e t y , have l o s t even Dickens's t a c i t approbation.

80

Equally important,

t h e range of e v i l is extended, and t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of s o c i e t y i t s e l f

(Chancery, t h e Marshalsea, t h e Circumlocution O f f i c e , Coketown), i n s t i t u t i o n s
whose c o r r u p t i o n i s s u f f o c a t i n g r a t h e r than demonically e n e r g e t i c , a l s o f o r c i b l y m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t an ameliorative s y n t h e s i s .

Among such c h a r a c t e r s and

impersonal bodies, t h e power of t h e w i t t y f o o l t o n u l l i f y and a s s i m i l a t e t h e

d i s p a r a t e f o r c e s now d i s s i p a t e s , t h e comic j e s t e r motif i t s e l f breaking i n t o

rr

i t s component elements:

t h e w i t and r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s of Weller, Swiveller,

and Tapley a r e made once again the almost e x c l u s i v e property of t h e t o t a l l y

c o r r u p t ; t h e w i t t y f o o l ' s c r e a t i v e imagination i s perverted under t h e
a u s p i c e s of such bombastic c h a r l a t a n s a s Chadband, Turveydrop, Pumblechook,
and Sapsea; t h e use of " f o l l y " as a "stalking-horse"

merely masks t h e greed

and ahallowness of Mrs. Skewton, Harold Skimpole, and S i l a s Wegg.

a w i t t y f o o l than a f o o l i s h w i t "

(2.I.

"Better

5. 32-3), s a y s F e s t e , y e t t h e f o o l i s h

w i t s of Diclrens's l a t e r f i c t i o n , occupying both t h e c e n t r e s of s o c i a l power

and i t s c h a o t i c edges, have apparently p r e v a i l e d even over t h e w i t t y f o o l ' s
unifying paver.
Throughout t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of Dickens's works, then, t h e l i n e s of demarc a t i o n between t h e Holy Innocent and h i s moral a n t a g o n i s t s a r e s h a r p l y drawn.
One might even suggest t h a t t h e d e c l i n e of t h e comic j e s t e r motif stems a s
much from Dickens's half-conscious d e s i r e t o explore t h i s c o n f l i c t i n i t s
s i m p l e s t and most i n t e n s e forms, a s from t h e t e n s i o n s i n t h e motif i t s e l f .
I n any e v e n t , t h e Holy Innocent remains t h e dominant fool-figure i n Dickens's
novels; a b s o l u t e innocence (most o f t e n l e f t without t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e
experienced senrant-mentor) i s t e s t e d and proven i n i t s c o n f r o n t a t i o n with
t h e f o r c e s of i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l corruption.
This does not mean, of course, t h a t t h e w i t t y f o o l is simply an anomalous
e a r l y development.

A s noted above, although t h e j e s t e r motif breaks i n t o

i t s component elements, i t s f i r s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s have a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on

Diclrens's l a t e r uses of t h e Holy Innocent, embodying an i d e a l u n i t y of conf l i c t i n g f o r c e s needed t o c r e a t e t h e v i t a l i n t e r m i n g l i n g of r e a l i s m and
symbolic values.

Weller's purely u n i f i e d c h a r a c t e r , compacted of innocence

and experience i n a mutually complementary f a s h i o n , r e p r e s e n t s t h e paradigm,

while S w i v e l l e r ' s r o l e , perhaps s t i l l more meaningful, demonstrates t h a t t h e

i d e a l is n o t a s p e c i a l g i f t of grace b u t can be achieved through growth and

rebirth.

As Mark Tapley says t o Martin Chuzzlewit during t h e i r t r i a l s ,

"it's only a seasoning; and w e must a l l be seasoned, one way o r another.

That's r e l i g i o n , t h a t is, you know" (23, 383) .*I From Pickwick (whose development is f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e experience of h i s servant-mentor),

t o Jenny Wren

( a t once an important and innovative l a t e a d a p t a t i o n of t h e comic j e s t e r and

t h e culmination of t h e c h i l d - f o o l ) ,

Mark's statement has a d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n .

Like t h e p a t t e r n s of growth throughout t h e Holy Innocent's v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r types, t h e maturation process enunciated i n t h e comic jester motif a s s e r t s
t h a t personal development and r e b i r t h i s t h e only c e r t a i n avenue through
which r e l i g i o u s values can be given form and substance i n t h e r e a l world,
and i t is towards t h i s concern--the

Holy Innocent's rites of passage i n h i s

c o n f l i c t with t h e non-fool world--that

the fool tradition.

Dickens d i r e c t s h i s primary uses of

NOTES:

CHAPTER ONE

Enid Welsford, The Fool:

H i s S o c i a l and L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y (1935; r p t .

Gloucester, Mass. : P e t e r Smith, 1966), p. 195.

I b i d . , p. x i .

The Fool and H i s Scepter:

Audience (Evanston, I l l i n o i s :

A Study i n Clowns and Jesters and Their

Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969), p. 10.

Erasmus, Ihe P r a i s e of P o l l y , ed. Henrik W i l l e m van Loon, t r a n s . John

Wilson (1942; r p t . Roslyn, New York:

Walter J. Black, 1970), p. 100.

The World of Charles Dickens (1970; r p t . New York:

The Viking P r e s s ,

1972), p. 35.
"In Defence of ~ i c k e n s , " Essays and S t u d i e s , 11 (1958), 88-9.

The Hidden World of Charles Dickens, The Macmillan Brown Lectures

(Auckland:

U n i v e r s i t y of Auckland P r e s s , 1962), pp. 27-8.

The Fool, p. 323.

For much of t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e f o o l ' s h i s t o r y I am indebted t o both
Welsford's and W i l l e f o r d ' s s t u d i e s , a s w e l l a s Walter ~ a i s e r ' sP r a i s e r s of
F o l l y (Cambridge, Mass.:

Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963) and Robert H i l l i s

Goldsmith's Wise Fools i n Shakespeare (East Lansing:

Michigan S t a t e

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955).
lo Quoted by Goldsmith, p. 8.
l1 A H i s t o r y of Court Fools (1858; r p t . New York:

PP. 3, 6.

Haskell House, 1966),

l2Visions From P i e r s Plowman, t r a n s . Nevi11 Coghill (1949; r p t

. London:

Phoenix House, 1964), p. 57.

"Dickens' Fools and Madmen," Dickens S t u d i e s Annual, 2 (1972), 73.
A H i s t o r y of Court Fools, p. 68.

See, f o r example, Dickens and W. H. W i l l s , " I d i o t s , " Household Words,

June 1853), 313-7, and Dickens's and Wills's d i s c u s s i o n of S t . Luke's
H o s p i t a l f o r Lunatics i n "A Curious Dance Round a Curious Tree," Household
Words, 6 (17 January 1852), 385-9.
l6 P r a i s e r s of ~ o l l y ,p. 9.
l7 I m i t a t i o n of C h r i s t , ed. Paul M. Bechtel (Grand Rapids:

Zandellan

Publishing House, 1967), pp. 226-7.

Of Learned Ignorance, t r a n s . Germain Heron (London:

Routledge and

Kegan Paul, 1954), p. 9.

l9 The I d i o t , [ r e p r i n t of 1650 London t r a n s l a t i o n ] , od. P. Radin (San

Francisco:

C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e L i b r a r y , 1940), p. 2.

20 P r a i s e of F o l l y , p. 240.

22

See, f o r example, Ralph's comments on Miss La Creevy's p a i n t i n g s (10,

118), Kate's t e a r s (10, 121), p a r t i e s (19, 231), l o v e (34, 431), and Madeline
Bray's unworldliness (47, 615)

23 Steven Narcus, Dickens:

Schuster, 1965), p. 214.

From Pickwick t o Dombey (New York:

S i m n and

24 The Dickena World (London:

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1941), p. 131.

25 Echoing Erasmus and Kempis, f o r example, Dickens a s s e r t s t h a t "it i s

C h r i s t i a n i t y t o b e g e n t l e , m e r c i f u l , and f o r g i v i n g , and t o keep t h o s e
q u a l i t i e s q u i e t i n our own h e a r t s , and never make a b o a s t of them" ( L i f e of
Our Lord [New York:

Simon and S c h u s t e r , 19341, p. 124).

26 P r a i s e r s of F o l l y , p. 91.

''

See, f o r example, Robert F. F l e i e s n e r ' s u n r e l i a b l e though o c c a s i o n a l l y

u e e f u l Dickens and Shakespeare:

A Study i n H i s t r i o n i c C o n t r a s t s (New York:

Haskell House, 1965); Edward P. Vandiver's "Dickens' Knowledge of ~ h a k s p e r e , "

The Shakespeare Association B u l l e t i n , 21 (1946), 124-8; Jerome Meckier's
"Dickens and King Lear:

A Myth f o r V i c t o r i a n England," The South A t l a n t i c

Q u a r t e r l y , 71 (1972), 75-90.

28 P l e i s s n e r , pp. 67-8.
29 Quoted i n Harry F u r n i s s ' s "A Shakespeare Birthday:

A Reminiscence of

Charles Dickens," The P a l l Mall Magazine, 37 (1906), 428.

30 F l c i s s n e r , pp. 156-7.

31 The Fool and H i s S c e p t e r , pp. 188-9

32 '*The R e s t o r a t i o n of Shakespeare's 'Lear' t o t h e Stage, "The English
Dramatic C r i t i c s , ed. James Agate (New York:

H i l l and Wang, n.d.),

Maynard Mack's King Lear i n Our Time (Berkeley:

pp. 124-5.

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a

P r e s s , 1965) c a u s t i c a l l y n o t e s t h a t b c r e a d y ' s f o o l was "a e o r t of f e v e r i s h

P e t e r Pan" (p. 1 9 ) ; t h i s emphasis on t h e Fool's f r a i l t y and pathos was,
however, much admired by both F o r s t e r and Dickens.

33 "Dickens o r F o r s t e r ?

Some King Lear C r i t i c i s m s ~e-examined,"

Dickensian, 6 1 (19 6S), 133-40.

34 Ibid., p. 133.

36 " ~ a y u r k e tTheatre, I' F l e i s s n e r , p. 291.

37 See, f o r cxaxple, P r a i s e r s of F o l l y , pp. 267-75, and J. W.
" F a l s t a f f , ' A Fool and Jester,

'

38 Shakespearian C r i t i c i s m , ed

raper's

"Modern Language Quarterly, 7 (1946), 453-62.

. Daniel

A. Fineman (Oxf ord : Clarendon

P r e s s , 1972). p. 211.
39

See, f o r example, a b r i e f n o t e "Hamlet and t h e Clown," Times L i t e r a r y

Supplement, 16 October 1959, p. 593.

40 Charles Mckens:

H i s Tragedy and Triumph, Vol. 1 (New York:

Simon

and Schuster, 1952), p. v i i i .

41 Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi, ed. Richard F i n d l a t e r (New York:

S t e i n and

Day, 1968), p. 290.

42 See a l s o t h e dying pantomime a r t i s t i n Pickwick Paper.

(3, 35-40),

another i n t h i s ubiquitous group of s u f f e r i n g comics.

43 "Sonson and Dickens : A Study i n t h e Comic Genius of

on don ," Essays

and S t u d i e s , 29 (l944), 87, 92.

44 As can be seen i n t h e only a u t h o r i t a t i v e account of Mckens's l i b r a r y

holdings, J. H. Stonehouse's Catalogue of t h e L i b r a r y of Charles Dickens from
G a d s h i l l (London:

P i c a d i l l y Fountain P r e s s , 1935), Dickens owned a copy of

Kenneth R. H. MacKenziels The Marvellous Adventures and Rare C o n c e i t s of

Master T y l l Owlglass (1859), a bowdlerized y e t s t i l l i l l u m i n a t i n g account of
t h e r o g u e ' s s a t i r i c pranks and s a y i n g s .
figure,

Because Owlglass was a w i d e l y known

f u r t h e r m o r e , Dickens could e a s i l y have been a c q u a i n t e d w i t h h i s

more h e a r t l e s s o r v u l g a r a d v e n t u r e s a s w e l l ; h i s l i f e was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
E n g l i s h a s e a r l y a s 1528, and Dickens may have r e a d about him i n Jonson,
Thoms, and C a r l y l e (who, i n " ~ e r m a n L i t e r a t u r e i n t h e X I V and XV c e n t u r i e s , "
C r i t i c a l and n i s c e l l a n e o u s Essays, Vol. I1 [London:

Chapman and H a l l , 1899,

274-3323 r e c o u n t s one of Owlglass's more e a r t h i e r s t o r i e s about a Parson and

a concubine)

45 L e t t e r t o Frank S t o n e , 30 May 1854; quoted by Frans D. W i e r s t r a , S m o l l e t t

and Dickens (Amsterdam:

C. de Boer, 1928), p. 4.

46 Don Quixote, t r a n s . J . M. Cohen (Harmondsworth:

Penguin Books, 1950),

pp. 578, 852.

47 "Preface t o t h i r d e d i t i o n of O l i v e r %ist (1841),11 C h a r l e s Dickens:

C r i t i c a l A n t h o l o a , ed. Stephen Wall (Harmondsworth:

Penguin Books, 1970),

p. 58.

48 L e t t e r s of Fyodor M i c h a i l o v i t c h Dostoevsky, t r a n s . E t h e l Colburn Mayne

(New York:

Horizon P r e s s , 1961), pp. 142-3.

See a l s o Alexander Welsh,

"Waverley, Pickwick, and Don Quixote," N i n e t e e n t h Century F i c t i o n , 22 (1967),

19-30,

49 The Heart of C h a r l e s Dickens:

Burdett-Coutts,

L e t t e r s From C h a r l e s Dickens t o Angela

ed. Edgar Johnson (New York:

D u e l l , Sloan and P e a r c e , 1952),

p. 144.
5 0 Compare, f o r example, P r i m r o s e ' s and Pickwick's s a l u b r i o u s e f f e c t s on

t h e inmates of t h e p r i s o n s .

51 Joseph Andrews, ed. Martin C. B a t t e s t i n (Boston:

Houghton Mif f l i n

Co., 1%1), p. 17.

52 John M. Stdreond, The Comic A r t of Laurence Sterne (Toronto:

University

of Toronto P r e s s , 1967), p. 76.

Tristam Shandy (New York:

New American L i b r a r y , 1960), p. 347.

The Pantalc P r i n c i p l e (Vancouver:

Penjedo P r e s s , n.d.).

Don Quixote, p. 547.

Harlequin, o r t h e Rise and F a l l of a Bergomask Rogue (New York:

George

wa
1U

B r a z i l l e r Inc.,

1956), p. 163.

57 -*I b i d * p. 163.

'hi

58 Wise Fools i n Shakespeare, p. 94.

59 "The Uncles of ~ i c k e n s , " The Worlds of V i c t o r i a n F i c t i o n , ed. Jerome

R. Buckley, Harvard English S t u d i e s , 6 (Cambridge, Mass.:

Harvard U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s , 1975), 1-35.

60 The World of Charles Dickens, p. 296

61 P o l i t i c a l and Comic Characters of Shakespeare (1945; r p t . London:

Maanillan and Co.

, 1964),

p. 384.

62 "Introduction," The Old C u r i o s i t y Shag, ed. Angus E a s e m (liarmndsvorth:

Penguin Books, 1972), p. 24.

63 As Welsford s t a t e s , "comedy i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e s p i r i t of t h e
Fool" (The Fool, p. 324), a f a c t t h a t i n Dickens's works s u b s t a n t i a l l y
enhances t h e f o o l ' s moral n a t u r e .

I n Pickwick Papers, f o r example, t h e

h e r o ' s c a p a c i t y t o t r a n s m i t a j o y f u l enthusiasm i s , i n no small measure,

p a r t of h i s redemptive e f f e c t on o t h e r s ; a s S l e a r y a s s e r t s , "people mutht
b e amuthed" (HT,
- 111, 8, 293), f o r l a u g h t e r produces a b e n e f i c e n t , s o f t e n i n g
e f f e c t , counterbalancing t h e cold-hearted humourlessness of t h e Gradgrind
world.

S w i v e l l e r o f f e r s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s i g h t i n t o t h i s element of t h e

f o o l ' s r o l e ; Dick n o t e s t h a t " t h e r e a r e some people who can be merry and

c a n ' t be w i s e , and some who can be wise (or t h i n k they can) and c a n ' t be
merry" (7, 5 4 ) , and h i s f u n c t i o n throughout t h e novel i s t o provide a meeting
p o i n t f o r t h e s e extremes, u l t i m a t e l y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t merriment and wisdom
a r e e s s e n t i a l l y inseparable.

64 "Notes," The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, ed. Easson, p. 702.

It should a l s o

b e noted t h a t Dick modifies t h i s a l l u s i o n t o Hamlet ("the purpose of playing,

whose end both a t f i r s t and now, was and i s , t o hold a s 'twere t h e m i r r o r
up t o Nature; t o show V i r t u e h e r own f e a t u r e , Scorn h e r own image'' (111. 2.
20-3]),

i n t e n s i f y i n g , a s is t h e wont of Dickensian f o o l s , t h e moral aclpects.

65 See, f o r example, G a r r e t t Stewart, Dickens and t h e T r i a l a of Imagination

(Cambridge, Mass.:

Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1974), -pp. 66-7,

and Angus

Wilson, The World of Charles Dickens, p. 121.

D i c k n s and t h e T r i a l s of Imagination, p. 67.
67 "The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop ," Dickens and t h e Twentieth Century, ed. John
Gross and Gabriel Pearson (London:

Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962), p. 88.

68 Dickens and t h e T r i a l s of Imagination,

I b i d . , p. 105.

The Fool, p. 326.

Wise Fools i n Shakespeare, p. 51.

Dickene and t h e T r i a l s of Imagination, p. 111.
Dickens:

From Pickwick t o Dombey, p. 168.

The Fool and H i s S c e p t e r , p. 235.

D i c k e n ~and t h e T r i a l s of Imagination, p. 116.
Dickens:

Prom Pickwick t o Doubey, p. 228.

Wise Fools i n Shakespeare, p. 29.

Michael S t e i g , "The Grotesque and t h e A e s t h e t i c Response i n Shakespeare,
Dickens, and Giinter Grass," Comparative L i t e r a t u r e S t u d i e s , 6 (1969), 174.

One might a l s o n o t e t h a t Quilp p r e s e n t s a f u r t h e r i s s u e .

A s Welsford n o t e s ,

t h e dwarf-fool has been a conmton f i g u r e s i n c e a n c i e n t times (The Fool, p. 56),

a kind of demi-human o u t s i d e of normal s o c i a l l e v e l s and f r e e of s o c i a l
r e s t r a i n t , Hiss Mawcher i n David Copperfield, whose c h a r a c t e r Mckens a l t e r e d
i n t h e process of w r i t i n g of t h e novel, b e g i n s a s a very s i m i l a r type of
s a t i r i c f i g u r e and only g r a d u a l l y gains some warmer human c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

79 The Pool, p . 50.

80 As Michael S t e i g observes, "Dickens a p p a r e n t l y could n o t avoid f e e l i n g

admiration f o r a c h a r a c t e r whose whole world bows b e f o r e h i s f e e t , who

handles every s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h mastery, and who i s superbly competent
i n h i e chosen work" ("The Whitewashing of I n s p e c t o r ~ u c k e t , " Papers of t h e

1%

Michigan Academy, 1 119651, 584), a p a t t e r n c l e a r l y evident i n h i s response

t o Weller, Quilp, Dawkins, Bucket, and Jaggers.

But when t h i s competence

becomes perverted i n f i g u r e s l i k e Rigaud and Compeyson, whatever admiration

Dickens i n v o l u n t a r i l y f e e l s f o r t h e criminal obviously vanishes.

81 J. H i l l i s H i l l e r argues t h a t Mark himself undergoes so*

Swiveller-like

maturation, advancing beyond h i s q u a s i - s e l f i s h d e s i r e s t o "come out strong"

i n adverse circumstances.

Such a d e s i r e i s , says M i l l e r , "very c l o s e t o

taking pleasure i n contemning human beings, n o t i n loving them," and Mark

must l e a r n t o e n t e r i n t o "reciprocal" r e l a t i o n s h i p s where one g e t s p l e a s u r e

"in t h e very process of giving pleasure" (Charles Dickens:

The World of H i s

Novels [Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University P r e s s , 19591, p. 122).

Mark

thus a l s o r e i t e r a t e s personal r e b i r t h and a c t i v e human inter-dependence,

f u r t h e r extending these c r u c i a l a s p e c t s of the Dickensian f o o l t r a d i t i o n .

CHAPTER TWO

From Pickwick t o Boffin:

The Holy Innocent and S o c i a l E v i l

Don Quixote begins a s a parody of t h e c h i v a l r i c t r a d i t i o n , recounting

t h e misadventures of a demented gentleman s o absorbed i n t a l e s of k n i g h t s
and enchanters t h a t "he had u t t e r l y wrecked h i s reason" and f a l l e n " i n t o t h e
s t r a n g e s t fancy t h a t e v e r a madman had i n t h e whole world."'

Throughout a

l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e novel, Q u i x o t e ' s mad fancy i s uncompromisingly p i l l o r i e d .

Not only does he b a t t l e windmills, m a r i o n e t t e s , and f l o c k s of sheep i n a
d e v a s t a t i n g burlesque of k n i g h t l y combat, b u t , by r e l e a s i n g galley-slaves
(who a r e , i n r e a l i t y , c r i m i n a l s ) and rescuing a shepherd boy from h i s c r u e l

master (who punishes t h e boy even more s e v e r e l y a f t e r Quixote's i n t e r v e n t i o n ) ,

t h e misguided knight e r r a n t c a l l s t h e values of t h e c h i v a l r i c code themselves
i n t o doubt.

A s t h e novel progresses, however, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t o t h e second

book, Cervantes's s a t i r i c v i s i o n undergoes a gradual y e t profound metamorphosis; and a s h i s demented p r o t a g o n i s t comes i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t o c o n t a c t with
t h e more c o r r u p t c l a s s e s of Spanish s o c i e t y , t h o s e same c h i v a l r i c i d e a l s
become less t h e o b j e c t s of s a t i r e than t h e v a l u e s needed t o redeem t h e call o u s l y b l i n d world.

When t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a t t h e c o u r t of t h e Duke and

Duchess d e r i d e s him a s "Don Fool," f o r example, Quixote r e p l i e e ,

'A knight I am and a k n i g h t I s h a l l d i e , i f i t p l e a s e t h e Most

High.
Some t r a v e l over t h e broad f i e l d of proud ambition; o t h e r s
by way of base and s e r v i l e a d u l a t i o n ; o t h e r s again by way of
d e c e i t f u l hypocrisy, and a few by way of t h e t r u e r e l i g i o n . But
beneath t h e i n f l u e n c e of my s t a r I journey along t h e narrow path
of k n i g h t e r r a n t r y , i n which e x e r i s e I d e s p i s e wealth, b u t n o t
honour. I have redressed grievances, set r i g h t wrongs, punished
i n s o l e n c e s , conquered g i a n t s , and trampled down f i e n d s . I am i n love,
only because knight e r r a n t s a r e obliged t o be s o ; and, being s o , I
a m not one of those depraved l o v e r s , b u t of t h e c o n t i n e n t and p l a t o n i c

s o r t . I always d i r e c t my purposes t o v i r t u o u s ends, and do good

t o a l l and ill t o none. Whether he who s o purposes, whether he
who s o labours, whether he who s o a c t s , deserves t o be c a l l e d a
f o o l , l e t your Highnesses d e c i d e , mst e x c e l l e n t Duke and Duchess. 1 3
Quixote may accomplish l i t t l e of substance i n h i s q u e s t , but through h i s
f i e r y i d e a l i s m and imaginative energy, he h a s transcended Cervantes ' s
o r i g i n a l s a t i r i c purpose t o become a convincing image of Erasmian holy f o l l y .
Dickens's M r . Pickwick (who himself r e f e r s t o Cervantes i n h i s reappearance i n Master Humphrey's Clock, [3, 5 9 3 ) experiences a s i m i l a r t r a n s formation.

A buabling, v a i n g l o r i o u s middle-aged gentleman who i e a t t h e

mercy of such unscrupulous rogues a s J i n g l e and Job T r o t t e r , who g u l l i b l y

records t h e cabman's account of h i s miraculous horse, stumbles i n t o t h e
m i l i t a r y review a t Rochester, and mistakenly i d e n t i f i e s "BILL STUMPS, HIS
MARK" as an a n c i e n t i n s c r i p t i o n , Pickwick i s , i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e
novel, l i t t l e more than a comic b u t t .

Like Cervantes, however, Dickens soon

discovered t h a t h i s buffoonish hero possessed q u a l i t i e s t h a t f a r transcended

h i s creator's i n i t i a l intention.

Without any s a c r i f i c e of t h e n o v e l ' s comic

atmosphere, Pickwick becomes a man of imperturbable moral s t r e n g t h and n a t u r a l

goodness of h e a r t who regards h i s fellow-men benevolently, who n e i t h e r i n dulges i n , nor s u s p e c t s , t r i c k e r y and g u i l e , and whose innocence is n o t mere
comic o b t w e n e s s , b u t t h e consequence of a generous, loving world-view.
Dickens himself acknowledged t h i s development:

It has been observed of M r . Pickwick, t h a t t h e r e is a decided change

i n h i s c h a r a c t e r , as t h e s e pages proceed, and t h a t he becomes more
good and more s e n s i b l e . I do not t h i n k t h i s chaage w i l l appear
forced o r unnatural t o my r e a d e r s , i f they w i l l r e f l e c t t h a t i n r e a l
l i f e t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s and o d d i t i e s of a man who has anything
whimsical about him, g e n e r a l l y impress us f i r s t , and t h a t i t is not
u n t i l we a r e b e t t e r acquainted with him t h a t w e u s u a l l y begin t o look
below t h e s e s u p e r f i c i a l t r a i t s , and t o know t h e b e t t e r p a r t of him.
(PP, "Preface," x i i )
As Edgar Johnson observes, " t h i s is b r i l l i a n t s p e c i a l pleading, b u t i t is n o t

wewho have become b e t t e r acquainted with M r . Pickwick.

It i s Dickens whose

conception h a s broadened.

"'H i s conception h a s broadened,

moreover, a s h e ,

l i k e Cervantes, confronts h i s comic hero w i t h t h e darker a s p e c t s of human

n a t u r e and s o c i a l corruption-the

i n t e r p o l a t e d t a l e s and t h e i r emphasis on

murder, i n s a n i t y , and revenge, t h e perversion of t h e j u d i c i a l system, t h e

degradation of humanity i n t h e F l e e t prison--a

c o n f r o n t a t i o n which i s of

c r u c i a l importance t o Dickens's understanding of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .

For

although Pickwick l o s e s h i s buffoonish q u a l i t i e s and gains an i n c r e a s e d

sense of d i g n i t y , i f t h e fool proves too v u l n e r a b l e o r i n e f f e c t u a l when
faced w i t h t h e knowledge of e v i l and misery, h i s r o l e as a redemptive moral
f o r c e ( o r even v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e ) is s e v e r e l y undermined.

Enid Welsford

has suggested t h a t f o o l s are f r e q u e n t l y impervious t o l i f e ' s shocks and

t r i b u l a t i o n s and emerge from any hardship "none t h e worse f o r t h e i r slapping. 116
For Dickens, however, even i f t h e f o o l d i s p l a y s such r e s i l i e n c y , b u t cannot
overcome t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of h i s c h i l d i s h v i s i o n , he i s an inadequate response
t o i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l e v i l :
ment, mere escape.

h i s innocence is b l i n d naivet;,

h i s detach-

The fool must be both r e s i l i e n t and s e n s i t i v e , a b l e t o

confront and transcend a world r e p l e t e with s u f f e r i n g and c r u e l t y , while s t i l l

a c t i n g p o s i t i v e l y and benevolently w i t h i n t h a t world.

Pickwick Papers rep-

r e s e n t s Dickens's e a r l i e s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h i s q u e s t i o n of t h e f o o l ' s
moral p o t e n t i a l , t e s t i n g and exploring t h e s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses of t h e
Holy Innocent's i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e s o r d i d l y "real" world.
On t h e one hand, M r . Pickwick e u b s t a n t i a t e s Welsford's view of t h e f o o l ' s

imperturbability.

H i s c h i l d - l i k e s o u l r a d i a t e s s h e e r d e l i g h t i n l i f e and

companionship, ranging from h i s z e s t f o r new and unusual scenes and t h e joy

w i t h which he ( l i k e t h e morning sun i t s e l f ) g r e e t s each dawn, t o t h e Christ-

mas f e s t i v i t i e s a t Dingley Dell (perhaps t h e c l e a r e s t e x t e r n a l expression of

Pickwick's s p i r i t ) :

"Mr.

Pickwick expressed h i s h e a r t f e l t d e l i g h t a t every

a d d i t i o n a l suggestion; and h i s eyes beamed w i t h h i l a r i t y and cheerfulness"

The f i d d l e s and harps began i n r e a l e a r n e s t . Away went M r .

Pickwick--hands across-down
t h e middle t o t h e very end of t h e
room, and half-way up t h e chimney, back again t o t h e door-p o u s e t t e everywhere--loud stamp on t h e ground--ready f o r t h e
n e x t couple--off again--all t h e f i g u r e over once more-another
stamp t o b e a t out t h e time--next couple, and t h e n e x t , and t h e
n e x t again-never was such going! A t l a s t , a f t e r they had
reached t h e bottom of t h e dance, and f u l l f o u r t e e n couple
a f t e r t h e o l d lady had r e t i r e d i n an exhausted s t a t e , and t h e
clergyman's w i f e had been s u b s t i t u t e d i n h e r s t e a d , d i d t h a t
gentleman, when t h e r e was no demand whatever on h i s e x e r t i o n s ,
keep p e r p e t u a l l y dancing i n h i s p l a c e , t o keep time t o t h e music:
s m i l i n g on h i s p a r t n e r a l l t h e while w i t h a blandness of demeanour
which b a f f l e a a l l d e s c r i p t i o n . (389)

H i s exuberant p l e a s u r e i n s p o r t s and entertainments i s s i m i l a r l y accentuated,

a s he goes "through a l l t h e mysteries of blind-man's

b u f f , w i t h t h e utmost

r e l i s h f o r t h e game" (392) and s l i d e s along t h e i c e , " h i s black g a i t e r s

t r i p p i n g p l e a s a n t l y through t h e snow, and h i s eyes beaming cheerfulness and
gladness through h i s s p e c t a c l e s " (30, 414).

Not only i s Pickwick's enthusiasm

indefatigable, h i s conviviality is l i t e r a l l y infectious:

"The very s e r v a n t s n

a t Dingley D e l l "grinned with p l e a s u r e a t t h e s i g h t of M r . Pickwick" (29,

381), and even M r . Wardle's o c c a s i o n a l l y t a c i t u r n mother, "touched by

M r . Pickwick's a f f e c t i o n a t e good nature" (382), i s aroused from h e r s e l f absorption.

Even t h e darker v i s i o n expressed i n t h e i n t e r p o l a t e d t a l e s cannot seri o u s l y depress M r . Pickwick's i n n a t e equanimity.

The miseries of t h e

" S t r o l l e r ' s Tale" a r e driven from h i s mind immediately when t h e a r r i v a l of

M r . Winkle's g u e s t s (3, 41) promises f u r t h e r s o c i a b i l i t y ; "The Convict's

Return" merely sends him i n t o "a sound and dreamless sleep" (7, 82); and on
t h e morning a f t e r he reads t h e "Madaran's Manuscript," t h e "gloom which had
oppressed him on t h e previous n i g h t , had disappeared w i t h t h e dark shadows
which shrouded t h e landscape, and h i s thoughts and f e e l i n g s were a s l i g h t and

gay as t h e morning i t s e l f " (11, 147).

Pickwick i s n o t , however, t o t a l l y o b l i v i o u s t o more s e r i o u s concerns,
and h i s innocent world-view possesses some moral s t r e n g t h .

H i s decision

t o resist t h e mercenary machinations of Dodson and Fogg, f o r example, r e s u l t s

f r m h i 8 b e l i e f i n an i d e a l i z e d concept of j u s t i c e , a b e l i e f a s f e r v e n t i n
i t e way ar Quixote's c h i v a l r i c i d e a l .

James R. Kincaid d i s a g r e e s , arguing

t h a t Sam Weller's frequent puns on Pickwick's "principle"

(25, 342; 35, 487;

44, 615-6) r e p r e s e n t an a t t a c k on h i s master's "ignorance and u n r e a l i s t i c

'

behavior" and t h a t " P i c b i c k ' s p r i n c i p l e is a means of escape, an unders t a n d a b l e b u t s t i l l s e l f i s h attempt t o preserve h i s own i l l u s o r y image of
h i s greatness.

. . .,'7

Surely, however, t h e term " p r i n c i p l e " i s a t l e a s t as

complex h e r e a s "folly1' and "wisdom" a r e i n o t h e r works.

Pickwick's "prin-

ciple'' may appear f o o l i s h l y " u n r e a l i s t i c " from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of Dodson and

Fogg ( o r any of t h e more worldly c h a r a c t e r s ) , y e t w i s e i n t h e mind of t h e holy
fool.

Aa Goldsmith's Reverend Priterose (one of Pickwick's antecedents and

a c h a r a c t e r who a l s o w i l l i n g l y e n t e r s p r i s o n f o r noble motives) exclaims,

"Why, my t r e a s u r e s
t h i n g t h a t i s not

. . . why w i l l you thus attempt t o persuade me t o t h e

r i g h t ! . . . Would you have me applaud t o t h e world what my

h e a r t m u s t i n t e r n a l l y condemn?

Would you have me tamely s i t down and f l a t t e r

our infamous b e t r a y e r ; and t o avoid a prison c o n t i n u a l l y s u f f e r t h e more

p a l l i n g bonds of mental coninementlm8 Even Sam Weller h i m s e l f , moreover,
i o v o l u n t a r i l y imprisoned i n response t o a "principle1'--his
t o Pickwick.

l o v i n g devotion

Sam's puns a r e t h u s more than s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s a t i r e , b u t ex-

p r e s s the r e a l i s m needed t o c o r r e c t t h e excesses of Pickwick'e innocence,

while s t i l l approving h i s master's i d e a l i s t i c v i s i o n , an i r o n i c coatplexity
t h a t Sam is c e r t a i n l y i n t e l l i g e n t enough t o comprehend and i n t e n d .
There is, n o n e t h e l e s s , some t r u t h i n Kincaid's judgment, and Pickwick's

naivet;

and r e s i l i e n c y a r e n o t without s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n s .

t o t a l l y innocent world-view,

In fact, a

a s a passage from Pickwick's j o u r n a l i n d i c a t e s ,

i s n o t always morally p e r c i p i e n t :
'The streets [of Stroud, Rochester, Chatham, and c romp ton] p r e s e n t
a l i v e l y and animated appearance, occasioned c h i e f l y by t h e conv i v i a l i t y of t h e m i l i t a r y . It i s t r u l y d e l i g h t f u l t o a p h i l a n t h r o p i c
mind, t o see t h e s e g a l l a n t men s t a g g e r i n g along under t h e i n f l u e n c e
of an overflow, both of animal and a r d e n t s p i r i t s ; more e s p e c i a l l y
when w e remember t h a t t h e following them about, and j e s t i n g with them,
a f f o r d s a cheap and innocent amusement f o r t h e boy population.
Nothing (adds M r . Pickwick) can exceed t h e i r good humour. I t was b u t
t h e day b e f o r e my a r r i v a l t h a t one of them had been most g r o s s l y
i n s u l t e d i n t h e house of a publican. The barmaid had p o s i t i v e l y
r e f u s e d t o draw him any more l i q u o r ; i n r e t u r n f o r which h e had
(merely i n p l a y f u l n e s s ) drawn h i s bayonet, and wounded t h e g i r l i n
t h e shoulder. And y e t t h i s f i n e fellow was t h e very f i r s t t o go
dawn t o t h e house n e x t morning, and express h i s r e a d i n e s s t o overlook
t h e m a t t e r , and f o r g e t what had occurred.' ( 2 , 14)
Dickens c l e a r l y i n t e n d s Pickwick's n a i v e a n a l y s i s t o be a w i n g , y e t t h e
b l i n d n e s s t o t h e more s o r d i d a s p e c t s of human n a t u r e is undeniably present.
Even l a t e r i n t h e novel (when t h e changes i n Pickwick's buffoonish q u a l i t i e s
a r e e v i d e n t ) t h i s theme re-appears.

Immediately b e f o r e he l e a r n s of the

l e g a l a c t i o n launched by Mrs. B a r d e l l ' s lawyers, Pickwick himself exclaims,

...

'Is it n o t a wonderful circumstance

t h a t we seem d e s t i n e d
t o e n t e r no man's house without involving him i n some degree of
t r o u b l e ? Does i t n o t , I ask, bespeak t h e i n d i s c r e t i o n , o r , worse
than t h a t , t h e blackness of heart--that I should say so! --of my '
followers, t h a t , beneath whatever roof they l o c a t e , they d i s t u r b
t h e peace of mind and happiness of some confiding female?' (18, 243)
The phrase, "blackness of h e a r t , " may be i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e Pickwickian
c h a r a c t e r , b u t although Pickwick's c h i l d - l i k e h e a r t r a d i a t e s e n t h u s i a s t i c
enjoyment of l i f e and p r o t e c t s him from any grimly despondent response t o
t h e i n t e r p o l a t e d tales, i t s b l i n d n e s s makes i t an i n s u f f i c i e n t b a s i s f o r
Dickens's moral v i s i o n .

Pickwick must be i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e darker a s p e c t s

of l i f e , h i s awareness of pain and e v i l made more i n s i g h t f u l .

Simultaneously,

of course, h i s innocence, h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o b e l i e v e t h e b e s t of everyone

(even t h e " f i n e fellow" i n t h e publican house) must n o t b e endangered.

Dickens must, i n e f f e c t , seek t o e s t a b l i s h an e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e s e con!

flitting s t a t e s of mind, p r e s e r v i n g t h e uncorrupted world-view of t h e Holy

Innocent, y e t tempering t h a t v i s i o n w i t h a more p e r c e p t i v e understanding and

g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h of c h a r a c t e r .
Convicted u n j u s t l y and confined i n t h e F l e e t p r i s o n , however, a shocking
demonstration t h a t he too i s s u b j e c t t o l i f e ' s h a r d s h i p s , Pickwick d i s p l a y s
a v a c i l l a t i n g response t o t h e misery he encounters.

On t h e one hand, h e

f o r s a k e s any anger o r vengefulness towards h i s o l d nemesis, Alfred J i n g l e ,

whom he discovers, s i c k and hopeless, i n d e s p e r a t e circumstances.

Drawing

Job T r o t t e r a s i d e , Pickwick, " t r y i n g t o look s t e r n , " exclaims, "Take t h a t ,

sir" :
Take what? I n t h e o r d i n a r y a c c e p t a t i o n of such language, i t should
have been a blow. As t h e world runs, i t ought t o have been a sound,
h e a r t y c u f f ; f o r M r . Pickwick had been duped, deceived, and wronged
by t h e d e s t i t u t e o u t c a s t who was now wholly i n h i s power. Must w e
t e l l t h e t r u t h ? It was something from M r . Pickwick's waiatcoatpocket, which chinked as i t was given i n t o Job's hand, and t h e giving
of which, somehow o r o t h e r imparted a s p a r k l e t o t h e eye, and a
s w e l l i n g t o t h e h e a r t , of our e x c e l l e n t o l d f r i e n d , as he h u r r i e d
away.
(41, 598)
Whereas Pickwick previously e x e r t e d a benevolent e f f e c t by his =re presence,
h e now consciously d i r e c t s h i s c h a r i t a b l e f e e l i n g s i n a more a c t i v e f a s h i o n ,
r e l e a s i n g J i n g l e and Job from t h e F l e e t and financing t h e i r emigration.

On t h e o t h e r hand, d e s p i t e h i s compassion f o r h i s former enemies,

Pickwick a l s o evinces t h e most n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s of t h e Holy Innocent's conf r o n t a t i o n w i t h human s u f f e r i n g .

Gazing i n t o t h e p r i s o n e r s ' rooms "with

g r e a t c u r i o s i t y and i n t e r e s t " (41, 575), he is p r i m a r i l y animated by h i s

f o m r detachment and i n q u i s i t i v e n e s s and unable (without Sam's a s s i s t a n c e )
t o comprehend t h e t r u e e f f e c t s of imprisonment on t h e inmates (576).

For

t h e f i r s t time, furthermore, Pickwick's r e s i l i e n t equanimity i s shaken.

"Alone i n t h e c o a r s e vulgar crowd," Pickwick f e e l s "the depression of s p i r i t

and s i n k i n g of h e a r t , n a t u r a l l y consequent on t h e r e f l e c t i o n t h a t h e was

cooped and caged up, without a prospect of l i b e r a t i o n " (579),

a s t a t e of mind

which, a s h e e x p l o r e s t h e F l e e t f u r t h e r , s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e s :
There were t h e same s q u a l o r , t h e same turmoil and n o i s e , t h e same
g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n every corner; i n t h e b e s t and t h e worst
a l i k e . The whole p l a c e seemed r e s t l e s s and t r o u b l e d ; and t h e
people were crowding and f l i t t i n g t o and f r o , l i k e t h e shadows i n
an uneasy dream.
' I have seen enough,' s a i d M r . Pickwick, a s h e threw himself
i n t o a c h a i r i n h i s l i t t l e apartment. 'My head aches w i t h t h e s e
scenes, and my h e a r t too. Henceforth I w i l l b e a p r i s o n e r i n my own
roam. ' (45, 645)
This voluntary r e n u n c i a t i o n of h i s q u e s t marks a p o t e n t i a l turning-point i n
Pickwick's c a r e e r f u l l y a s profound a s Don Quixote's f i n a l d e f e a t .

I n both

c a s e s , t h e i d e a l i s t s a r e disenchanted, t h e i r r o s e a t e v i s i o n s of t h e world
overwhelmed by d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t .

Their responses t o t h i s f a c t , h w e v e r ,

d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y , and a b r i e f comparison of t h e two novels' conclusions

w i l l i l l u m i n a t e Dickens's deeper i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e Holy

Innocent's moral v i s i o n .
Don Quixote ends on a l a r g e l y p e s s i m i s t i c n o t e .

Defeated by t h e Knight

of t h e White Moon ( t h e disguised Sampson Carrasco) and forced t o a b s t a i n from

any f u r t h e r k n i g h t l y q u e s t s , Quixote i s rendered despondent and purposeless.
Subsequently f a l l i n g i n t o a f e v e r a f t e r he r e t u r n s t o h i s v i l l a g e , he awakes
r e s t o r e d t o "sanity":
odious t o me.

"'Now

a l l profane h i s t o r i e s of knight e r r a n t r y a r e

I know my f o l l y now, and t h e p e r i l I have i n c u r r e d from t h e

reading of them.

Now, by God's mercy, I have l e a r n t from nry own b i t t e r

experience and I abominate them.

""

Discussing Q u x i o t e ' s f a l l , Richard I.

Predmore states t h a t t h e k n i g h t ' s " c h i v a l r i c i d e a l gave him both a reason

f o r l i v i n g and a program of a c t i o n , and now i t i s gone.

How, then, can one

doubt t h e p l a u s i b i l i t y of h i s death?"1 and Ludmilla B. Turkevich, s t i l l

more f o r c e f u l l y , s u g g e s t s t h a t "idealism, s o l i d a s i t may be, cannot resist,

i n d e f i n i t e l y , t h e b a t t e r i n g of r e a l i t y .

When t h e f i n a l c r a s h comes and

Don Quixote is deprived of h i s mania, he f a l l s i n t o apathy and d i e s .

1111

Quixote's i d e a l i s m i s u l t i m a t e l y i n f l e x i b l e , unable t o encompass new experi e n c e ; s t r i p p e d of h i s " f o l l y , " he d i e s i n a "sanity" t h a t shuns imagination
and renounces t h e power of t h e q u e s t .

It may be conjectured t h a t Pickwick's r e t r e a t i n t o h i s rooms when conf r o n t e d w i t h t h e most widespread scene of irremediable s u f f e r i n g he h a s y e t
encountered r e p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r disenchantment, an admission of t h e Holy
Innocent's v u l n e r a b i l i t y .

Although Pickwick, however, l i k e Quixote, i s

undoubtedly disheartened by h i s new knowledge, h i s i d e a l i s m i s strengthened

r a t h e r than undermined.

While Q u i x o t e ' s companions v a i n l y attempt t o rouse

him from h i s l e t h a r g y by r e - a s s e r t i n g t h e c h i v a l r i c q u e s t ,
quickly revives Pickwick.

12

such an appeal

Dedication t o a " p r i n c i p l e " s e n t him t o t h e F l e e t ,

and d e d i c a t i o n t o y e t another principle--the

wish t o f o r g i v e h i s enemies,

assist t h e d i s t r a u g h t Mrs. B a r d e l l , and c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e Winkles1 m a r i t a l

happiness-engenders

h i s release.

W. H. Auden may suggest t h a t t h i s repre-

s e n t s a l o s s of innocence, t h a t "for t h e sake of c h a r i t y , [Pickwick] h a s t o

s a c r i f i c e h i s honour,"13 y e t f o r t h e Holy Innocent, c h a r i t y and honour a r e
substantially identical.

Quixote d i e s when he f a i l s t o keep f a i t h with t h e

i d e a l i s t i c v i s i o n , r e l i n q u i s h i n g h i s "madness" f o r t h e world's concept of

"sanity";

Pickwick, i n c o n t r a s t , r e t a i n s h i s f a i t h i n l'principle," and, by

now engaging i n a more a c t i v e c h a r i t y , i n c r e a s e s t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of h i s

idealism.
The p r e s e r v a t i o n of h i s innocent world-view is s o s u c c e s s f u l , i n f a c t ,
t h a t i t is d i f f i c u l t t o adduce s u f f i c i e n t evidence t o support any major
change i n h i s c h a r a c t e r .

Kincaid, f o r example, apparently d e s p e r a t e f o r such

proof, goes s o f a r as t o argue t h a t Pickwick's r e f u s a l t o "carouse" w i t h

Bob Sawyer (48, 678-9)

i n d i c a t e s t h a t ' h e i s t r u l y sobered,"14 overlooking

t h e f a c t t h a t only two c h a p t e r s l a t e r he i s b u s i l y c a r o u s i n g w i t h Ben Allen

(50, 703-4).

Perhaps t h e change i s manifested less i n Pickwick himself than

i n h i s l i t e r a r y descendants--the

Cheerybles, f o r example--the

who have endured s u f f e r i n g and t r a n s l a t e d i t i n t o s t r e n g t h .

Holy Innocents
The Cheerybles'

philanthropy, i n f a c t , i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e i r own e a r l y h a r d s h i p s i n
t h e "wildernees of ond don":
a wil&rness,'
t o me once.

(NN,

"'Wilderness!

Yes i t i s , i t is.

s a i d t h e o l d man w i t h much animation.

I came h e r e b a r e f o o t .

35, 450, my i t a l i c s )

Good!

It

'It w a s a w i l d e r n e s s

I have never f o r g o t t e n i t .

Thank God!'"

Pickwick, n o n e t h e l e s s , does d i s p l a y some i n c r e a s e i n h i s awareness of

t h e i n e l u c t a b l e n a t u r e of human s u f f e r i n g .

While he a s s i s t s J i n g l e and

M r s . B a r d e l l , and, among t h e p r i s o n e r s i n t h e F l e e t , "not one

. . . was not

t h e h a p p i e r f o r h i s sympathy and c h a r i t y " (47, 666), he a l s o recognizes h i s

powerlessness t o a m e l i o r a t e a l l human d i s t r e s s :
the prison:

f a r more sad and melancholy, f o r t h e moment, than when h e had

f i r s t entered it.
(667).

"[Pickwick] h u r r i e d from

Alas! how many sad and unhappy beings had h e l e f t behind!"

S i m i l a r l y , he was unable t o d e f e a t t h e mercenary p l o t s of Dodson and

Fogg, and while h i s anger towards t h e egregious lawyers is unabated, h e must

acknowledge t h a t h i s power t o p u r i f y t h e c o r r u p t world i s s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d :
'---Rascally,
p e t t i f o g g i n g robbers!' continued M r . Pickwick,
t a k i n g n o t t h e l e a s t n o t i c e of t h e t h r e a t s t h a t were addressed t o him.
'Robbers!' c r i e d M r . Pickwick, running t o t h e s t a i r - h e a d , a s
t h e two a t t o r n e y s descended.
'Robbers!' shouted M r . Pickwick, breaking from Lowten and Perker,
and t h r u s t i n g h i s head o u t of t h e s t a i r c a s e windw.
When M r . Pickwick drew i n h i s head a g a i n , h i s countenance was
s m i l i n g and p l a c i d , and, walking q u i e t l y back i n t o t h e o f f i c e , h e
d e c l a r e d t h a t h e had now renoved a g r e a t weight from h i s mfnd, and
t h a t he f e l t p e r f e c t l y comfortable and happy.
(53, 751)
O v e r s t r e s s i n g t h i s i n a b i l i t y of Pickwickian innocence t o d i s p e l t h e
darkness, however, can l e a d t o such problems a s W. H. Auden'e euggestion t h a t ,

l i k e Don Quixote, Pickwick Papers ends on a sombre n o t e , t h e " l o s s of

innocence" f o r c i n g both comic heroes t o "pass away, Don Quixote by dying,

M r . Pickwick by r e t i r i n g from view. "I5 A s I have attempted t o i n d i c a t e ,

r a t h e r , t h e r e is a s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two works.

Quixote

cannot recover h i s i d e a l i s t i c v i s i o n a f t e r h i s disenchantment; Pickwick

n o t only r e t a i n s h i s , b u t s t r e n g t h e n s i t through h i s g r e a t e r knowledge of
h u m oaisery.

H i s r e t i r e m e n t , then, a t t h i s p o i n t i n h i s l i f e , is f a r

removed from t h e death of t h e "sane" knight e r r a n t .

For whereas Quixote

d i e s renouncing t h e very works t h a t engendered h i s d i v i n e madness, Pickwick

retires i n f u l l possession of h i s wise f o l l y , "known by a l l t h e poor people

about" (57, 801) f o r h i s more productive benevolence, and s t i l l d i s p l a y i n g
h i s r a d i a n t c o n v i v i a l i t y and c h a r i s m a t i c joy:
And i n t h e midst of a l l t h i s , stood M r . Pickwick, h i s countenance
l i g h t e d up w i t h s m i l e s , which t h e h e a r t of no man, woman, o r c h i l d ,
could resist: himself t h e h a p p i e s t of t h e group: shaking hands,
over and over a g a i n w i t h t h e same people, and when h i s own hands
were n o t s o employed, rubbing them with pleasure: t u r n i n g round
i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n a t every f r e s h expression of g r a t i f i c a t i o n
o r c u r i o s i t y , and i n s p i r i n g everybody with h i s looks of gladness
and d e l i g h t . (799)
This concluding scene, moreover, i n t r o d u c e s a motif which w i l l become
i n c r e a s i n g l y important i n Dickens's l a t e r uses of t h e Holy Innocent convention
--the

community of t h e f o o l s .

The f o o l ' s i s o l a t i o n from s o c i e t y enables him

t o see and speak t h e t r u t h about i t s f a l s e n e s s , y e t t h e Dickensian Holy

Innocent, embodying t h e p r i n c i p l e of u n i v e r s a l brotherhood and mutual love,
expresses h i s n a t u r e more p e r f e c t l y i n c l o s e personal r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Although

a r e l a t i v e l y minor c h a r a c t e r , Miss La Creevy i n Nicholas Nickleby exemplifies

t h i s theme.

As Dickens n o t e s , "one of t h e advantages of having l i v e d alone

s o long" i s both t h e opportunity t o observe t h e f a i l i n g s of o t h e r s and t o be

"as s a r c a s t i c a s she could b e , on people who offended her," and y e t t o Miss
La Creevy, ''London i s a s complete a s o l i t u d e a s t h e p l a i n s of Syria"; and

i t is only when "the p e c u l i a r misfortunes of t h e Nickleby family a t t r a c t e d

h e r a t t e n t i o n , " t h a t h e r h e a r t , % r i m f u l l of t h e f r i e n d l i e s t f e e l i n g s t o
a l l mankind" (20, 246), can b e a c t i v e l y engaged.

The f o o l community,

furthermore, t h e q u a s i - f a m i l i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s congregating around Pickwick

and t h e Cheerybles, f u l f i l l s an important thematic f u n c t i o n , r e i n f o r c i n g
and e x t e n d i n g t h e Holy Innocent's r o l e a s t h e moral counter-balance t o s o c i a l
evil.

Representing t h e v a l u e s and i d e a l s d e n i g r a t e d by t h e world of Dodson

and Pogg o r Ralph Nickleby and S i r Mulberry Hawk, t h e f o o l cornunity is a

kind of a n t i - s o c i e t y ,
social structure.

a symbolic ( y e t o f t e n e f f e c t i v e ) opponent of t h e l a r g e r

Compare, f o r example, t h e v u l g a r i t y of Hawk's a c t i o n s

towards Kate Nickleby a t a f a s h i o n a b l e dinner-party

(19, 238-40), w i t h t h e

warmth and humanity of t h e Cheerybles' c e l e b r a t i o n s :

Never was such a d i n n e r a s t h a t , s i n c e t h e world began.

There was
t h e superannuated bank c l e r k , Tim Linkinwater's f r i e n d ; and t h e r e
was t h e chubby o l d l a d y , Tim Linkinwater's sister; and t h e r e was s o
much a t t e n t i o n from Tim Linkinwater's s i s t e r t o H i s s La Creevy, and
t h e r e were s o many jokes from t h e superannuated bank c l e r k , and Tim
Linkinwater himself was i n such t i p t o p s p i r i t s , and l i t t l e Miss La
Creevy was i n such a comical s t a t e , t h a t of themselves they would
have composed t h e p l e a s a n t e s t p a r t y conceivable. Then, t h e r e were
Mrs. Nickleby, s o grand and complacent; Madeline and Kate, s o
b l u s h i n g and b e a u t i f u l ; Nicholas and Frank, s o devoted and proud;
and a l l f o u r s o s i l e n t l y and tremblingly happy; t h e r e was Newman s o
subdued y e t s o overjoyed, and t h e r e were t h e twin Brothers s o
d e l i g h t e d and i n t e r c h a n g i n g such looks, t h a t t h e o l d s e r v a n t stood
t r a n s f i x e d behind h i s m a s t e r ' s c h a i r , and f e l t h i s eyes grow dim a s
they wandered round t h e t a b l e .
(63, 817)
Against t h i s cotmuunity of innocence, t h e morally bankrupt f o r c e s of t h e HawkW i t i t t e r l y world a r e v i r t u a l l y impotent.
The triumph of Pickwick and h i s community i n t h e i r c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h
e v i l t h e r e f o r e ensured t h a t t h e Holy Innocent would remain an important f i g u r e
i n Dickene's l a t e r works, c o n t i n u i n g t h e c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t between t h e opposing
world-views.

O l i v e r Twist, f o r example, although i t s eponymous h e r o i s a

somewhat d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n of t h e Holy Innocent, c e l e b r a t e s "the p r i n c i p l e of

Good s u r v i v i n g through every a d v e r s e circumstance,"16 and M r . Brownlow cont i n u e s t h e l i n e of avuncular p h i l a n t h r o p i s t s i n i t i a t e d by M r . Pickwick.

"Although t h e hope and d e l i g h t of my l i f e l i e b u r i e d , " s a y s Brownlow, "I
have n o t made a c o f f i n of my h e a r t , and s e a l e d i t up, f o r e v e r , on my b e s t
affections.

Deep a f f l i c t i o n h a s b u t s t r e n g t h e n e d and r e f i n e d them'' (14, 9 6 ) ,

a p r o c e s s of growth c l e a r l y r e m i n i s c e n t of Pickwick and t h e Cheerybles, a l l

of whom d i s p l a y t h e power of innocence tempered by t h e knowledge and experi e n c e of s u f f e r i n g .
I n H a r t i n Chuzzlewit, l i k e w i s e , t h e simple-hearted Tom Pinch undergoes
a p r o c e s s of c h a r a c t e r m a t u r a t i o n , h i s " g r a t e f u l l o v i n g n e s s " ( 5 , 64) t o
M r . P e c k s n i f f suddenly g i v i n g way t o an awareness of t h e a r c h - h y p o c r i t e ' s
moral impoverishment.

P i n c h ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i n f a c t , i s s t i l l more r a d i c a l

and p o t e n t i a l l y d i s i l l u s i o n i n g than Pickwick's F l e e t e x p e r i e n c e s , f o r i n t h e

l o s s of h i s n a i v e f a i t h , t h e very c o r n e r s t o n e s of Tom's world a r e s h a t t e r e d :
For a s Tom's b l i n d n e s s i n t h i s m a t t e r had been t o t a l and n o t
p a r t i a l , s o was h i s r e s t o r e d s i g h t . His P e c k s n i f f could n e v e r
have worked t h e wickedness of which he had j u s t now h e a r d , b u t
any o t h e r P e c k s n i f f could; and t h e P e c k s n i f f who could do t h a t
could do a n y t h i n g , and no doubt had been doing a n y t h i n g and
e v e r y t h i n g e x c e p t t h e r i g h t t h i n g a l l through h i s c a r e e r . From
t h e l o f t y h e i g h t on which poor Tom had placed h i s i d o l i t was
tumbled down headlong, and
Not a l l t h e k i n g ' s h o r s e s , nor a l l t h e k i n g ' s men,
Could have s e t Mr. P e c k s n i f f up a g a i n .
Legions of T i t a n s c o u l d n ' t have got him o u t of t h e mud; and s e r v e
him r i g h t ! But i t was n o t he who s u f f e r e d ; i t was Tom. H i s
compass was broken, h i s c h a r t d e s t r o y e d , h i s chronometer had
s t o p p e d , h i s masts were gone by t h e board; h i s anchor w a s a d r i f t ,
t e n thousand l e a g u e s away.
(31, 493-4)
Emerging from t h i s mental c o n f u s i o n , Tom l e a r n s t h a t " t h e r e a r e more P e c k s n i f f s
than one" (36, 5 7 0 ) , t h a t f a l s e n e s s and v i l l a i n y a r e widespread, and a l l , l i k e
Pickwick, w i t h o u t descending i n t o m i s a n t h r o p i c pessimism.

Tom, i n f a c t , a s

Dickens c l e a r l y s u g g e s t s , s u r v i v e s h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t p r e c i s e l y because h e

is a
-

fool:

"The change l a y no deeper t h a n t h i s , f o r Tom was f a r from b e i n g

sage enough t o know t h a t , having been disappointed i n one man, i t would have
been a s t r i c t l y r a t i o n a l and eminently w i s e proceeding t o have revenged hims e l f upon mankind i n g e n e r a l , by m i s t r u s t i n g them one and a l l " (556).

Lack-

i n g t h e 'bisdom" t o become T i m n i s t i c , Tom r e t a i n s h i s Erasmian " f o l l y " of

t r u e t and hopefulness, y e t adding t o i t a g r e a t e r awareness of p o s s i b l e
duplicity.

H e becomes, i n e f f e c t , Martin Chuzzlewit's c e n t r a l moral agent--

a f o o l who has overcome t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of naivet; without s u r r e n d e r i n g t h e

moral power of innocence.

I n c o n t r a s t t o h i s previous g u l l i b i l i t y , f o r

example, h i s response t o Ruth P i n c h ' s b o o r i s h employer is both p e r c e p t i v e

and i n n o c e n t , an unworldly y e t f i r m adherence t o b a s i c C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s (36,
572-4).

Ae Dickens's f a i t h i n s o c i e t y ' s p o t e n t i a l f o r such moral s t r e n g t h e n i n g

s t e a d i l y diminished, however, s o h i s commitment t o t h e Holy Innocent a s an
a m e l i o r a t i v e counterbalance a l s o d e c l i n e d ( i n novels l i k e Bleak House and
L i t t l e D o r r i t , t h e Pickwickian f o o l p l a y s a f a r l e e s e f f i c a c i o u s r o l e ) .
Dickens'e f i r s t two Christmas Books c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h i s e v o l u t i o n i n h i s
thought.

On t h e one hand, i n Christmas Carol, a s Pickwick himself is f i g -

u r a t i v e l y r e s u r r e c t e d i n t h e joy with which t h e transformed Scrooge g r e e t s

t h e Christmas dawn, t h e Holy Innocent's v i s i o n performs i t s most d r a s t i c
redemption.

Returning t o a s t a t e of childhood innocence ("'I'm

Never mind.

I don't c a r e .

I ' d r a t h e r be a baby'"

q u i t e a baby.

[CB, V, 7Z]), and looking

"so i r r e s i s t i b l y p l e a s a n t " (73), Scrooge r e c a l l s Pickwick's c h a r i s m a t i c joy,

while ( l i k e Pickwick and Pinch) t r a n s l a t i n g h i s g r e a t e r knowledge i n t o a c t i v e
benevolence:

"Scrooge w a s b e t t e r than h i s word.

H e d i d i t a l l , and i n f i n -

i t e l y more; and t o Tiny Tim, who d i d NOT d i e , he was a second f a t h e r .

He

became as good a f r i e n d , a s good a master, and a s good a man, a s t h e good

o l d c i t y knew.

..

'I

(76).

Scrooge, moreover, e n t e r s one c011111tunityof t h e

'It's I. Your uncle Scrooge. I have come t o d i n n e r . W i l l

you l e t me i n , Fred?'
Let him i n ! It i s a mercy h e d i d n ' t shake h i s arm o f f . He
w a s a t home i n f i v e minutes. Nothing could be h e a r t i e r . H i s
niece looked j u s t t h e same. So d i d Topper when he came. So d i d
came. So d i d every one when they came.
t h e plump sister when
Wonderful p a r t y , wonderful games, wonderful unanimity, wonderful
happiness ! (75)
and, i n h i s wish t o a s s i s t t h e s t r u g g l i n g C r a t c h i t family, endeavours t o
e s t a b l i s h a second a n t i - s o c i e t y p a t t e r n e d on t h e Pickwickian-Cheeryble model.
Once a g a i n , Dickens's i n t r i c a t e word-play on t h e terms " f o l l y " and "wisdom"
comes i n t o view.

Whereas Tom Pinch r e j e c t s t h a t "eminently wise proceeding"

t o revenge himself "upon mankind i n g e n e r a l , " Scrooge (now e q u a l l y

"f oolishl')

is "wise enough t o know t h a t nothing e v e r happened on t h i s globe, f o r good,

a t which some people d i d n o t have t h e i r f i l l of laughter" (76), and, i n h i s

w i s e f o l l y , s e e s t h e shallowness of t h i s worldly-wise response:

" H i s own

h e a r t laughed; and t h a t was q u i t e enough f o r him" (76).

The Chimes, on t h e o t h e r hand, follows a somewhat d i f f e r e n t approach,
o f f e r i n g a f a r more s e a r c h i n g a p p r a i s a l of t h e Holy Innocent's moral power,
and documenting an extreme example of t h e e d u c a t i o n a l process presented i n
Pickwick Papers and Martin Chuzzlewit.

Not only c o n f r o n t i n g e v i l , Toby Veck,

t h e work's simple-minded p r o t a g o n i s t , a c t u a l l y descends i n t o t h e d e s p a i r and

self-doubt t h a t Pickwick and Pinch transcended.

T r o t t y ' s p a r t i c u l a r fool-

f u n c t i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y r e l a t e d t o those of t h e Dickensian f o o l - l u n a t i c
( s e e Chapter Three), t h a t i s , t h e unconscious r e f l e c t i o n of t h e major f o r c e s ,
symbolized by t h e b e l l s , governing h i s world.

For t h e purposes of t h e pre-

s e n t d i s c u s s i o n , however, i t i s important t o n o t e t h a t although t h e Scroogian

Alderman Cute, M r . F i l e r , and S i r Joseph Bowley a r e c l e a r l y more i n need of
m o r a l - s p i r i t u a l r e b i r t h , i t i s T r o t t y , "the s i m p l e s t , hardest-working,
c h i l d e s t - h e a r t e d man, t h a t e v e r drew t h e b r e a t h of l i f e " (IV, 142), who must

undergo t h e transforming process, e n t e r i n g t h e world of e v i l , and, f o r a

time a t least, a c t u a l l y embracing i t s outlook:
o r do r i g h t , '
born bad!'"

thought T r o t t y i n d e s p a i r .
(I, 96).

"'No, no.

We c a n ' t go r i g h t

'There i s no good i n us.

We a r e

As t h e b e l l s maintain, i n f o r s a k i n g t h e Holy Innocent's

b e l i e f i n human goodness and condemning t h e unfortunate woman g u i l t y of

s u i c i d e and i n f a n t i c i d e , T r o t t y " t u r n s h i s back upon t h e f a l l e n and d i s f i g u r e d
of h i s kind; abandon6 them a s v i l e " (111, 124), a response t o human e v i l t h a t
Pinch lacked t h e "wisdodt t o condone.

T r o t t y does, of course, emerge from

h i e dark n i g h t of t h e s o u l through a re-affirmation of t h e Holy Innocent's

i n n a t e idealism, b u t t h e very f a c t t h a t Dickens s u b j e c t s t h i s fool-type t o
such profound disenchantment i n d i c a t e s a growing s k e p t i c i s m about t h e f o o l ' s
r e s i l i e n t m r a l nature.

Equally important, although Toby r e g a i n s h i s optim-

i s t i c v i s i o n , a f f i r m i n g t h a t "we must t r u s t and hope, and n e i t h e r doubt our-

selves, nor doubt t h e good i n one another" ( I V , 151). and r e - e n t e r s t h e f o o l

c o l s ~ ~ u n i t(152-4),
y

t h e work's conclusion i s c u r i o u s l y unconvincing.

Scrooge

was given a v i s i o n of a f u t u r e t h a t he could, through a l t e r i n g h i s own v a l u e s ,

m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t ; T r o t t y , i n c o n t r a s t , s e e s a f u t u r e beyond h i s personal
choice o r i n f l u e n c e , a f u t u r e , i n f a c t , t h a t , given t h e p r e v a i l i n g s o c i a l
c o n d i t i o n s , is f r i g h t e n i n g l y p l a u s i b l e .

For d e s p i t e t h e Dingley D e l l cele-

b r a t i o n a t t h e conclusion of The Chimes, t h e economic-social t h e o r i e s of

Cute, F i l e r , and Bowley a r e not themselves vanquished, t h e prophesied v i s i o n
n o t genuinely prevented.
Following t h i s work, Dornbey and Son seems almost a r e g r e s s i o n , a r o s e a t e
assurance t h a t t h e Holy Innocent's moral v i s i o n i s n o t impotently utopian.
And y e t , although t h e novel c l e a r l y argues t h a t t h e r e s i l i e n c y and redemptive
power of t h e f o o l and h i s community s t i l l r e t a i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l Pickwickian
f o r c e , t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e doubt enunciated i n The Chimes is a l s o present.

On t h e one hand, t h e powerful f o r c e s of Dombey and Son's a n t i - f o o l

c h a r a c t e r s appear f a r t o o menacing t o be e f f e c t i v e l y opposed by t h e c h i l d l i k e Holy Innocent.

Captain C u t t l e , f o r example, t h e work's most e x p l i c i t l y

Pickwickian f o o l , has f r e q u e n t l y been deemed a wholly inadequate c u s t o d i a n

of t h e novel' a redemptive a l t e r n a t i v e . l7 Even while p r e s e n t i n g t h i s uneven
c o n f l i c t , however, Dickens a l s o e s s a y s a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t approach i n h i s
a n a l y s i s of t h e two a n t a g o n i s t i c f o r c e s .

For t h e most p a r t , d e s p i t e i t s

apparent power, Dombeyism i s revealed a s an e s s e n t i a l l y s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e way

of l i f e , i t s e g o i s t i c b l i n d n e s s and r i g i d p r i d e i n e v i t a b l y l e a d i n g t o i t s
f i n a l collapse.

One might s p e c u l a t e , i n f a c t , t h a t t h e seeming weakness of

t h e f o o l s i n such a c o n f l i c t i s simply an i r o n i c comment on t h e r e a l weakness

of t h e Dombey world (much a s t h e " f o l l y " of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l s a t i r i z e s
t h e "wisdom" of t h e a l l e g e d non-fools).

For t h e f o o l s , whatever t h e i r apparent

incompetence, possess p r e c i s e l y those i n n e r r e s o u r c e s - - s e l f l e s s

generosity,

d e d i c a t i o n t o i d e a l s , d e l i g h t i n companionship, and t h e c a p a c i t y t o s h a r e
a n o t h e r ' s sorrows--needed

t o preserve t h e i r v a l u e s i n t h e f a c e of s o c i a l chaos.

Captain C u t t l e , i n p a r t i c u l a r , who "on Sunday n i g h t s

. . . always

read f o r

h i m s e l f , b e f o r e going t o bed, a c e r t a i n Divine Sermon once d e l i v e r e d on a

Mount" (DS, 39, 543), p e r s o n i f i e s t h e s e b a s i c C h r i s t i a n values:

No c h i l d could have surpassed Captain C u t t l e i n inexperience of
e v e r y t h i n g b u t wind and weather; i n s i m p l i c i t y , c r e d u l i t y , and
generous t r u s t f u l n e s s . F a i t h , hope, and c h a r i t y , shared h i s whole
n a t u r e among them. An odd s o r t of romance, p e r f e c t l y unimaginative,
y e t p e r f e c t l y u n r e a l , and s u b j e c t t o no c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of worldly
prudence o r p r a c t i c a l i t y , was t h e only p a r t n e r they had i n h i e
c h a r a c t e r . (49, 684)
Such v a l u e s may n o t appear s u f f i c i e n t (although t h e novel c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s
a r e s u f f i c i e n t ) ; y e t , juxtaposing t h e
Dickene's own w i s h f u l d e s i r e t h a t they Captain's v a l u e s , i n a s e r i e s of i l l u m i n a t i n g p a r a l l e l s , w i t h t h o s e of t h e
Dombey world, Dickens s e e k s t o demonstrate t h a t t h e Holy Innocent's C h r i s t i a n

e t h o s possesses t h e g r e a t e r l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g r e s i l i e n c y .
I n an e a r l y scene, f o r example, when Walter and t h e Captain seek Dombey's
f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r Sol G i l l s , t h i s e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i s made manifest.

Dombey n o t e s , when h i s son decides t o lend Walter t h e money, "Then

you s h a l l do i t

. , . And you see, Paul . . . how powerful money i s ,

anxious people a r e t o g e t it.

and how

Young Gay comes a l l t h i s way t o beg f o r money,

and you, who are s o grand and g r e a t , having g o t i t , a r e going t o l e t him have
i t , as a g r e a t favour and o b l i g a t i o n " (10, 132-3).

Cuttle, In contrast,

although a b l e t o o f f e r much less,

produced t h e s i l v e r watch, t h e ready money, t h e teaspoons, and t h e
sugar-tongs; and p i l i n g them up i n t o a heap t h a t they might look a s
precious a s p o s s i b l e , d e l i v e r e d himself of t h e s e words:
'Half a l o a f ' s b e t t e r than no bread, and t h e same remark holds
good w i t h c r u d s . There's a few. Annuity of one hundred pounds
prannum a l s o ready t o b e made over.' (131)
The b i b l i c a l p a r a l l e l i s c l e a r :

"Verily I say unto you, That t h i s poor widow

h a t h c a s t more i n , than a l l they which have c a s t i n t o t h e t r e a s u r y :

For a l l

they d i d c a s t i n of t h e i r abundance; b u t she of h e r want d i d c a s t i n a l l t h a t

she had, even a l l h e r l i v i n g " (Mark 12: 43-4).

Whereas W e y ' s "charity"

is merely self-aggrandizement and a means of impressing upon Paul t h e power

of money, t h e Captain's o f f e r i n g comprises h i s e n t i r e worldly goods ( i n c l u d i n g
h i s small annuity).

This theme i s r e i t e r a t e d and expanded i n a l a t e r scene,

when Florence, having sought refuge a t t h e Midshipman, d e c l i n e s t o spend t h e

money C u t t l e has given h e r :

'My lady l a s s , ' returned t h e b a f f l e d Captain, looking s t r a i g h t

d m t h e street b e f o r e them, ' t a k e c a r e on i t f o r m e , w i l l you be
so good, till such time a s I ask ye f o r i t ? '
'May I put i t back i n i t s u s u a l p l a c e , ' s a i d Florence, 'and
keep i t t h e r e ? '
The Captain w a s not a t a l l g r a t i f i e d by t h i s proposal, b u t he
answered, 'Aye, aye, put i t anywheres, lay lady l a s s , s o long as you
know where t o f i n d i t again. It a n ' t o' no u s e t o TIE,' s a i d t h e
'I wonder I haven't chucked i t away a f o r e now.' (49, 686)
Captain.
About t h i s passage, Edgar Johnson observes t h a t "no speech was e v e r more absurd,

and y e t no gentleman ever s a i d anything more t r u l y imbued w i t h d e l i c a c y and

generosity. 1118 More important, t h e Captain's speech a l s o answers one of t h e
novel's c e n t r a l questions-"what

i s money?"

C u t t l e ' s response (and Dickens's

a s w e l l ) is t h a t money i s a means of f u r t h e r i n g human w e l f a r e , and t h a t when

i t performs no p o s i t i v e c h a r i t a b l e a c t i o n i t i s u s e l e s s , f i t only t o b e

"chucked away."

Dombey i s s o l e l y concerned w i t h accumulation and personal

p r i d e , t h e Captain, w i t h remedying human need.

And i n a novel which cele-

b r a t e s t h e Holy Innocent's C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Dombey

is e v e n t u a l l y s t r i p p e d of h i s impotent wealth, whereas t h e Captain, f o r a l l

h i s f i n a n c i a l incompetence, becomes t h e co-proprietor of t h e Midshipman
(68, 874-5).

C u t t l e ' s "property," moreover, t h e teaspoons, s i l v e r watch,

and sugar-tongs (by now thoroughly i d e n t i f i e d a s a symbol of h i s magnanimous

l o v e ) , i s "made over j i n t l y " t o Walter and Florence.

Dombey's wealth proves

impotent t o t h e end, while t h e s u r r o g a t e f a t h e r bestows t h e t r u e legacy on

h i s foster-children.
Even something a s p r o s a i c a s meals ( o f t e n an important s y d o l i n
Dickens's works1g) i l l u m i n e s t h e c e n t r a l d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e C u t t l e and
Dombey v i s i o n s .

Dombey's "dark-brown dining-room, which no c o n f e c t i o n e r can

b r i g h t e n up" (31, 446), i s an a p p r o p r i a t e image of t h e emotional s t a g n a t i o n

i n t h e Dombey world:
There was a toothache i n everything. The wine was s o b i t t e r cold
The v e a l had come
t h a t i t forced a l i t t l e scream from Miss Tox.
from such an a i r y pantry, t h a t t h e f i r s t t a s t e of i t had s t r u c k a
s e n s a t i o n a s of cold l e a d t o M r . Chick's e x t r e m i t i e s . M r . Dombey
alone remained unmoved. H e might have been hung up f o r e a l e a t a
Russian f a i r as a specimen of a frozen gentleman. (5, 57)

...

When C u t t l e prepares dinner f o r Florence, i n c o n t r a s t , joy and warmth predominate:

Besides t h e s e c a r e s , t h e Captain had t o keep h i s eye on a diminutive
frying-pan, i n which some sausages were h i s s i n g and bubbling i n a
most musical manner; and t h e r e was never such a r a d i a n t cook a s t h e

Captain looked, i n t h e h e i g h t and h e a t of t h e s e functions:

i t b e i n g impossible t o s a y whether h i s f a c e o r h i s glazed h a t
shone t h e b r i g h t e r .
'My lady l a s s , ' s a i d t h e Captain, 'cheer up, and t r y t o e a t
a d e a l . Stand by, my deary! Liver wing i t is. S a r s e i t is.
Sassage i t is. And potato!' a l l which t h e Captain ranged
s y l ~ m e t r i c a l l yon a p l a t e , and pouring h o t gravy on t h e whole
w i t h t h e u s e f u l spoon, set b e f o r e h i s cherished guest. (49, 681-2)

...

C u t t l e is, furthermore, l i k e Pickwick, a source of c h a r i s m a t i c joy t o those

about him, " t h a t sun, h i s f a c e
ordinary brilliancy.

. . . s h i n i n g on a l l beholders w i t h

. ." (56, 800).

extra-

The f o o l s , i n e f f e c t , s h a r e a cornunity

t h a t is denied t o t h e e g o c e n t r i c members of t h e Dombey world, a community

formed of mutual love and warmth, and r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e novel's redemptive
alternative.
The p a r a l l e l s between t h e C u t t l e and Donbey worlds a l s o i n c l u d e Dickens's
continuing i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e Holy Innocent's c o n f r o n t a t i o n with t h e
darker a s p e c t s of s o c i e t y and human n a t u r e .

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t

both C u t t l e and Dombey a r e , i n a s e n s e , innocent, e q u a l l y a t t h e mercy of t h e

machinations of d e c e i t f u l knaves l i k e Carker and Bagstock.

And y e t , whereas

Dorebey's d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , combined with E d i t h ' s f l i g h t and t h e f a i l u r e of

h i s firm, d r i v e s him t o near s u i c i d e (57, 842-3), t h e Captain, endowed with
those c a r d i n a l C h r i s t i a n values of " f a i t h , hope, and c h a r i t y , " possesses t h e
i n n e r s t r e n g t h t o transcend h i s disenchantment.
As b l i n d as Dombey t o Carker's t r u e p e r s o n a l i t y , and s i m i l a r l y convinced

of h i s own shrewdness, C u t t l e i s r e a d i l y duped by t h e Manager's f a l s e assurances about Walter's f u t u r e (17, 232-6).

With t h e l o s s of t h e "Son and Heir,"

however, and s t r i p p e d of h i s complacent s e n s e of h i s awn worldly experience

by Carker's brusque contempt, C u t t l e i s a t f i r s t overwhelmed by t h e destruct i o n of h i s n a i v e world-view.
ground, and speechless

"The Captain was a b s o l u t e l y rooted t o t h e

. . . a s i f he d i d not

c l e a r l y understand where h e was,

o r i n what company" (32, 467), and h i s response t o Carker i s , f o r a b r i e f

moment, t h a t of t h e Dombey world:

"'But you and m e w i l l come alongside o f

one another again, my l a d , ' s a i d t h e Captain, holding up h i s hook, ' i f we

live"'

(468, my i t a l i c s ) .

C u t t l e ' s apparently murderous i n t e n t i o n , however,

is quickly s t i l l e d , j u s t a s t h e Captain's v i s i o n of an incomprehensible

world i s r e c t i f i e d , by t h e r e - a s s e r t i o n of t h e Holy Innocent's C h r i s t i a n
values :
The Captain glanced, i n passing through t h e o u t e r countinghouse,
a t t h e desk where he knew poor Walter had been used t o s i t , now
occupied by another young boy, with a f a c e almost a s f r e s h and
hopeful as h i s on t h e day when they tapped t h e famous l a s t b o t t l e
b u t one of t h e o l d Madeira, i n t h e l i t t l e back p a r l o u r . The
a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s , thus awakened, d i d t h e Captain a g r e a t d e a l
of good; i t s o f t e n e d him i n t h e very h e i g h t of h i s anger, and
brought t h e t e a r s i n t o h i s eyes.
Arrived a t t h e Wooden Midshipman's a g a i n , and s i t t i n g down i n a
corner of t h e dark shop, t h e Captain's i n d i g n a t i o n , s t r o n g as i t was,
could make no head a g a i n s t h i s g r i e f . Passion seemed n o t only t o do
wrong and v i o l e n c e t o t h e memory of t h e dead, b u t t o b e i n f e c t e d by
death, and t o droop and d e c l i n e b e s i d e i t . A l l t h e l i v i n g knaves
and l i a r s i n t h e world, were nothing t o t h e honesty and t r u t h of one
(468-9)
dead f r i e n d

Whereas t h e mere e x i s t e n c e of "knaves and l i a r s " was previously o u t s i d e t h e

Captain's experience, h i s g r i e f , t o g e t h e r with h i s g r e a t e r understanding of
death, has enlarged and matured h i s world-view.

The "whole world of Captain

C u t t l e had been drowned," b u t a s he contemplates t h e day's events "to t h e

e n t i r e e x c l u s i o n of h i s own i n j u r y " (469), C u t t l e r e p e a t s t h e Pickwickian
m o t i f , h i s d e d i c a t i o n t o h i s C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s transcending any d e s i r e f o r
vengeance o r any d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t .

Dickens does not emphasize t h e p o i n t , b u t

C u t t l e a l s o g a i n s from t h i s experience, f e e l i n g "a s e r i o u s misgiving t h a t

he had done more harm than good" (39, 542) through h i s naive&;

and h i s l a t e r

a c t i o n s (though no less innocently c h a r i t a b l e ) a r e f a r more conaidered, even

intelligent:

he b e f r i e n d s M r . Toots (but, "rendered cautioue by h i s l a t e

experience," only a f t e r he is convinced t h a t Toots i s n o t "a profoundly a r t f u l and d i s s i m u l a t i n g hypocrite" [39, 544]), a c t s w i t h g r e a t d e l i c a c y and

t a c t towards Florence, and c a r e f u l l y arranges h e r e v e n t u a l reunion with

Walter.

Like e a r l i e r Pickwickian f o o l s , C u t t l e d i s p l a y s a r e s i l i e n t y e t

f l e x i b l e moral n a t u r e , a b l e t o confront new and p o t e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e

experience, and convert i t i n t o s t r e n g t h .
Throughout Dombey and Son, f i n a l l y , as Kathleen T i l l o t s o n n o t e s , t h e
s e a i s a major image p a t t e r n , r e p r e s e n t i n g " a s s o c i a t i o n s of s e p a r a t i o n and
reunion, d e a t h and e t e r n a l l i f e , "20 and f u r t h e r i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i o n
between t h e Doabey and C u t t l e worlds.

To t h e f i r m of -bey

and Son, t h e

sea is merely a m a u s of accumulating wealth; t h e a n t i - f o o l s can d i s p l a y no

emotional or imaginative response t o " r i v e r s and seas" t h a t "were formed t o
f l o a t t h e i r ships" (1, 2) and c o n t r i b u t e only t o t h e i r b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e .
The f o o l s ' a s s o c i a t i o n s with t h e s e a , i n c o n t r a s t , (Paul's "voices i n t h e
waves," Walter's death and r e b i r t h , o l d Glubb's t a l e s , t h e Wooden Midshipman,
even "The Toots's Joy") connote mystery, imagination, and r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s .
Paul d i e s d r i f t i n g on t h e metaphorical waves towards C h r i s t h i m e l f (16, 226),
and t h e s e a whispers t o Florence "of love, e t e r n a l and i l l i m i t a b l e , n o t
bounded by t h e confines of t h i s world, o r by t h e end of time

. . ." (67,

811).

Captain C u t t l e , whose m a r i t i m e name, jargon, and experience p l a c e him a t t h e

h e a r t of t h i s image p a t t e r n , who speaks of t h e s e a " r e v e r e n t i a l l y , " and who
h a s learned from h i s adventures on t h e ocean t o honour an e t h o s t h a t denies
c a l l o w s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n ("'I've

seen my s h a r e of bad weather

had my s h a r e of knocking about; but-but

t o speak'''

[49, 689-9011,

. . . and

I've

i t a n ' t of myself a s I w a s a meaning

expresses t h e c e n t r a l meaning of t h e sea symbol:

'There's p e r i l s and dangers on t h e deep, my beauty,' a a i d t h e

Captain; 'and over many a brave s h i p , and many and many a bould
h e a r t , t h e s e c r e t waters has closed up, and never t o l d no t a l e s .
But t h e r e ' s escapes upon t h e deep, too, and sometimes one laan
o u t of a score,--ah! maybe o u t of a hundred, pretty,--has been
saved by t h e mercy of God, and come home a f t e r being given over
f o r dead, and t o l d of a l l hands l o s t . ' (690)

A t one level, t h i s passage i s a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d account of Walter's miracul o u s escape; a t another l e v e l , i t has much wider thematic i m p l i c a t i o n s .
"There are p e r i l s " even f o r f o o l s ( t h e Captain h i m s e l f , f o r example, has
endured them both a t s e a , and, more important, i n Carker's o f f i c e ) , b u t
It

t h e r e a r e escapes'' a s w e l l , f o r those granted God's mercy, f o r those pro-

t e c t e d by Providence.
cal:

The passage is, i n e f f e c t , both l i t e r a l and a l l e g o r i -

l i t e r a l i n t h a t t h e f o o l s ' v a l u e s produce a commtnity of shared sympathy

and support i n v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s of t h e Dombey world,

and a l l e g o r i c a l i n t h a t t h e f o o l s , t h e favoured c h i l d r e n of God, who acknavledge t h e i r l i n k s t o t h e d i v i n e through t h e i r response t o t h e sea, a r e i n a
s p e c i a l state of grace, p r o t e c t e d through a l l t h e i r innocent f o l l i e s .
Allegory, moreover, dominates t h e novel's conclusion.

The Dombey world

i s d e f e a t e d , Walter and Florence marry ( t h u s j u s t i f y i n g t h e Captain's "Dick

Whittington" prophecy), and Sol G i l l s ' s f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e remedied.
The c h i l d r e n of God emerge v i c t o r i o u s over t h e c h i l d r e n of Hamaon.

Carker,

moreover, meets an a p p r o p r i a t e end, while t h e c h a s t i s e d M r . Doutbey confirms

h i s r e g e n e r a t i o n by e n t e r i n g t h e charmed circle of the fools:
and h i s wife!'

exclaims t h e Captain.

'Hooroar!'

a strong desire t o clink h i s glass against

a ready hand, holds o u t h i s .

soole

"'To Wal'r

and t h e Captain e x h i b i t i n g
o t h e r g l a s s , Mr. Donbey, w i t h

The o t h e r s follow; and t h e r e is a b l i t h e and

merry r i n g i n g , as of a l i t t l e p e a l of marriage b e l l s " (62, 873).

This h e a v i l y a l l e g o r i c a l conclusion, however, i s not without some d i s q u i e t i n g elements.

The Holy Innocents' v i c t o r y , although c l e a r l y j u s t i f i e d

i n l i g h t of t h e novel's moral framework, is somewhat contrived.

Dickens has,

i n f a c t , manipulated e v e n t s , claiming, f o r example, t h a t Sol G i l l s ' s i n v e s t ments (whatever they may be) "instead of being behind t h e time" w e r e " i n
t r u t h , a l i t t l e ahead of i t .

. ." (62,

874).

One might j u s t l y s p e c u l a t e

whether t h e f o o l s a r e p r o t e c t e d by God o r Dickens.

More important, Dickens's

a n a l y s i s of s o c i a l e v i l h a s becolae i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d .
Holy Innocent's e a r l i e r opponents--Jingle,
Seth Pecksniff--+sere,

Whereas t h e

Ralph Nickleby, Mulberry Hawk,

f o r t h e most p a r t , i n d i v i d u a l o r i s o l a t e d evils, t h e

f o o l s of Dombey and Son confront f a r more pervasive a n t a g o n i s t s ; and although

t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of t h e s e e v i l s follow a s e l f - d e s t r u c t i v e way of l i f e ,
t h e f o r c e s t h a t they represent--the
trialism-continue

unabated.

railway, m e r c a n t i l e philosophy, indus-

J u s t as t h e s o c i a l and economic t h e o r i e s

v i l i f i e d i n The Chimes cannot be remedied by Toby Veck's personal r e b i r t h ,

s o t h e f o r c e s behind t h e Dombey facade a r e impervious t o t h e Midshipman's
Holy Innocents.
S i m i l a r r e s e r v a t i o n s occur throughout t h e l a t e r novels; following Dombey
and Son, Dickens's uses of t h e Holy Innocent convention c o n t i n u a l l y q u e s t i o n
t h e p o s s i b l e shortcomings of t h e f o o l community, even t h e l a t e n t weaknesses
of t h e Pickwickian f o o l himself-his

c o n f l i c t with s o c i a l e v i l , h i s own

l i m i t a t i o n s i n v i s i o n , i n s i g h t , and s t r e n g t h .

The r e s u l t of such q u e s t i o n i n g

is an i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and ambivalent a n a l y s i s , a s Dickens v a c i l l a t e s between h i s emphasis on t h e Holy Innocent's C h r i s t i a n values and major
symbolic f u n c t i o n s , and h i s growing r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t such t r a d i t i o n a l elements
have l o s t much of t h e i r former trenchancy.

As e a r l y a s

Nicholas

and Martin Chuzzlewit, Dickens had t e n t a -

t i v e l y explored t h e p o t e n t i a l weaknesses of t h e f o o l c~~lllllunity

(both Smike
and Tom Pinch d i s p l a y some i n a b i l i t y t o f u l l y accept t h e i r r o l e s w i t h i n t h a t
body, although t h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n r e s u l t s from h i g h l y i n d i v i d u a l causes-t h e i r s e x u a l and romantic impulses-rather
community i t s e l f ) .

than any e x p l i c i t f a i l i n g i n t h e

For t h e most p e r t , however, t h e f o o l ' s a n t i - s o c i e t y

remains a f a i r l y s t a b l e and e f f e c t i v e body i n t h e e a r l y novels, p r o t e c t i n g

i t s members and enhancing t h e Holy Innocent's f u n c t i o n a s an a m e l i o r a t i v e

counterbalance.

One should r e c a l l , n o n e t h e l e s s , t h a t Dickens had o r i g i n a l l y

intended t o test t h e h i g h l y cohesive Midshipman by t h e moral d e t e r i o r a t i o n

of Walter Gay, and although t h a t plan was n o t executed, t h e need t o e x p l o r e
t h e limits of t h e f o o l community e v i d e n t l y remained,

Once a g a i n , t h e con-

f r o n t a t i o n w i t h e v i l i s t h e dominant motif, y e t Dickens h a s s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d

t h e n a t u r e of t h e s t r u g g l e ; f o r t h e next few works, t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y becomes a s much a tempter a s an adversary, inducing members of t h e f o o l community t o r e j e c t t h e innocently utopian s a n c t u a r y and embrace t h e power and
seductiveness of wealth.

L i t t l e ErPily's f a r e w e l l l e t t e r t o t h e Peggotty

family, f o r example, although p r i m a r i l y remorseful, expresses some d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e l i f e of t h e f o o l community ("If he don't b r i n g m e back a
lady" 131, 4521); Richard Carstone i s l u r e d i n t o Chancery by t h e prospect of
unearned wealth; Pip longs f o r t h e p r i v i l e g e s of s o c i a l prominence.
I n i t i a l l y a t l e a s t , Dickens's a t t e n t i o n i s focussed on t h e e f f e c t s of
such r e j e c t i o n on t h e coxnmunity i t s e l f .

The Peggotty household, c l e a r l y re-

l a t e d t o t h e Midshipman through t h e n a u t i c a l imagery, experiences t h e p r e c i s e

t r i a l t h a t t h e f o o l s of Dombey and Son were spared.

And t h e consequence of

Emily's f a l l from grace i s , a s David observes, i n t e n s e l y dramatic:

I remember a g r e a t w a i l and c r y , and t h e women hanging about him
[Mr. Peggotty], and we a l l s t a n d i n g i n t h e room; I with a paper
i n my hand, which Ham had given me; M r . Peggotty, w i t h h i s vest
t o r n open, h i s h a i r w i l d , h i s f a c e and l i p s q u i t e white, and blood
t r i c k l i n g d m h i s bosom ( i t had sprung from h i s mouth, I t h i n k ) ,
looking f i x e d l y a t me. (451-2)
The l a r g e r s o c i e t y , i n e f f e c t , i n t h e s e d u c t i v e and c o r r u p t i n g person of James
S t e e r f o r t h , thoroughly d i s r u p t s t h e s e r e n i t y of t h e Yarmouth a n t i - s o c i e t y , a s
Emily's f l i g h t , Mr. Peggotty's compulsive s e a r c h , and Ham's death r e p r e s e n t
an apparently i r r e c o v e r a b l e d e s t r u c t i o n .

I n Dickens's v i s i o n , however, t h e

f o o l community s t i l l possesses considerable r e s i l i e n c y , and j u s t a s t h e Holy

Innocent a l o n e gains s t r e n g t h from h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h e v i l and remains

dedicated t o h i s i n n a t e idealism, s o h i s community rests upon t h e l i f e s u s t a i n i n g power of i t s moral b e l i e f s .

Loyalty, C h r i s t i a n forgiveness, and

t h e r e f u s a l t o harbour vengeance o r h a t r e d a l l preserve t h e Peggotty family

through its t r i a l s , while t h i s example of s t r e n g t h and mutual sympathy e x e r t s
a r e g e n e r a t i v e e f f e c t on Martha and Mrs. Gumnidge.

The community, moreover,

r e - e s t a b l i s h e d and even extended (by t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e Xicawbere), i s f i g u r a t i v e l y reborn i n i t s eventual emigration, and, a s Martha's presence i n t h e
r e s u r r e c t e d family r e v e a l s , i t s v a l u e s have become s t r o n g e r .

Rosa D a r t l e ,

f o r example, can f e e l only contempt f o r Emily (31, 471), b u t t h e Peggotty

anti-society,

honouring values denied by t h e upper echelons of t h e s o c i a l

h i e r a r c h y , extends i t s forgiveness and sympathy i n t r u e C h r i s t - l i k e fashion

(Luly! 7: 37-50).
The v u l n e r a b i l i t y of t h e f o o l community, however, s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e s
(even t h e Peggottys' emigration can be seen a s a r e t r e a t from t h e c o r r u p t i n g
s o c i e t y they have encountered), and i n Dickens's next account of such a conf l i c t , t h e community may maintain i t s moral v a l u e s , b u t t h e c a p a c i t y t o
preserve its members i s f a r more l i m i t e d .

Richard Carstone, s p e c i f i c a l l y ,

although a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e Bleak House a n t i - s o c i e t y , is destroyed by t h e

very f o r c e s t h a t Jarndyce's s a n c t u a r y was designed t o resist:
temptation of t h e Chancery s u i t .

the vain

Despite a l l t h e counsel of Jarndyce,

E s t h e r , and Ada, Richard i s l e d t o d e s e r t t h e Bleak House coleplunity, while h i s

i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a more worldly m i l i e u d i s t o r t s and c o r r u p t s h i s moral v i s i o n :
'If any man had t o l d m e , when I f i r s t went t o John Jarndyce's house,
t h a t he was anything b u t t h e d i s i n t e r e s t e d f r i e n d he seemed--that he
was what he has gradually turned o u t t o be--I could have found no
words s t r o n g enough t o r e p e l t h e s l a n d e r ; I could n o t have defended
him too a r d e n t l y . So l i t t l e d i d I know of t h e world! Whereas, now,
I do d e c l a r e t o you t h a t he becomes t o me t h e embodiment of t h e s u i t ;
t h a t , i n p l a c e of i t s being an a b s t r a c t i o n , i t i s John Jarndyce; t h a t

t h e more I s u f f e r , t h e more indignant I am w i t h him; t h a t every

new d e l a y , and every new disappointment, i s only a new i n j u r y
- 39, 552)
from John Jarndyce's hand.'
(BH,
The more v i t a l e a r l i e r coxanunities a c t i v e l y enlarged t h e i r c i r c l e and influence through t h e i r example and a m e l i o r a t i v e e f f e c t ; t h e Bleak House a n t i s o c i e t y , with Richard's d e s e r t i o n and Ada's i l l - a d v i s e d marriage, has l o s t
much of t h a t l i f e - s u s t a i n i n g power, and, a s Jarndyce i s forced t o admit,
"Bleak House is t h i n n i n g f a s t " (51, 700).

Even though i t i s strengthened by

i t s g r e a t e r knowledge of s u f f e r i n g , by t h e eventual termination of t h e

Chancery s u i t , and by t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e d i l i g e n t and experienced (though
r a t h e r shadowy) Allan Woodcourt, f o r t h e f i r s t time i n Dickens's novels, t h e
Holy Innocent's sanctuary h a s been revealed a s e s s e n t i a l l y d e f e n s e l e s s .
Unlike L i t t l e Emily, then, Richard does not re-enter t h e f o o l comnamity, and
i n l i g h t of Dickens's g r e a t e r i n s i s t e n c e upon i t s v u l n e r a b i l i t y , t h e f i n a l
re-appearance of "Bleak House" i s b u t a q u a l i f i e d success.
Equally important, throughout t h e works of Dickens's darker period, h i s
r e s e r v a t i o n s about t h e f o o l c o ~ m u n i t ya r e p a r a l l e l e d by a s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n i n g
of t h e Holy Innocent's moral power and personal c h a r a c t e r .

Jarndyce's a n t i -

s o c i e t y , f o r example, executes some p r a c t i c a l personal philanthropy, b u t i t

possesses no power t o a m e l i o r a t e o r even s e r i o u s l y challenge t h e ever p r e s e n t
i n j u s t i c e of t h e c o u r t s , t h e slums, and t h e fashionable world.

Pickwick

could not remedy t h e c o r r u p t i o n of Dodson and Fogg, b u t t h e c o r r e c t i v e p w e r

of t h e e a r l i e r fool-figures was s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f e a t t h e rapacious i n t e n t i o n s
of J i n g l e , Squeers, Ralph Nickleby, and P e c k s n i f f , and t o a s s i s t i n Martin's
and Dombey's r e b i r t h .

I n a world dominated by Chancery and Tom-all-Alone's,

however, such c o r r e c t i v e power is v i r t u a l l y n e g l i g i b l e .

Dismissing Jarndyce ' s

o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e j u d i c i a l system, Conversation Kenge, "gently moving h i s

r i g h t hand, a s i f i t were a s i l v e r trowel, w i t h which t o spread t h e cement of

h i s words on t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e system, and c o n s o l i d a t e i t f o r a thousand

ages" (62, 844), is impervious t o t h e Holy Innocent's redemptive e f f e c t .
A s i m i l a r q u a l i f y i n g p a t t e r n r e c u r s i n Hard Times, where t h e performers i n

S l e a r y ' s c i r c u s , l i k e t h e innocent-hearted

f o o l communities of previous

n o v e l s , d i s p l a y "a remarkable g e n t l e n e s s and c h i l d i s h n e s s

...a

special

i n a p t i t u d e f o r any s h a r p p r a c t i c e , and an u n t i r i n g r e a d i n e s s t o h e l p and

p i t y one another"

e,I , 6,

35); and y e t , although t h i s community r e p r e s e n t s

t h e inoral v a l u e s and imaginative energy needed t o redeem o r d e f e a t i n d i v i d u a l

e v i l s l i k e Gradgrind and Harthouse, t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l f o r c e s t h a t give b i r t h
t o Coketown and i t s philosophy a r e proof a g a i n s t any degree o f sympathetic
imagination and a r t i s t i c "fancy

."

Whereas t h e Holy Innocent has l o s t much of h i s power t o p o s i t i v e l y a f f e c t

s o c i a l e v i l s , t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y h a s gained s u f f i c i e n t power t o a f f e c t t h e
Holy Innocent.

An e x p l i c i t v a r i a t i o n on t h e Pickwickian f o o l , Jarndyce demon-

s t r a t e s how t h i s e a r l i e s t example of t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent has undergone some s i g n i f i c a n t e v o l u t i o n .

On t h e one hand, l i k e Pickwick, Jarndyce

i s an innocent wealthy avuncular f i g u r e whose c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h e v i l stimu-

l a t e s g r e a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o human pain and an a l t r u i s t i c wish t o t r a n s l a t e

h i s knowledge i n t o p e r s o n a l c h a r i t y .

Even t h e i r a d v e r s a r i e s a r e s i m i l a r ,

Pickwick b a t t l i n g t h e lawyers Dodson and Fogg, Jarndyce c o n f r o n t i n g t h e

l e g a l i s t i c "fog" of Chancery.

Lady Dedlock, furthermore, s t r e n g t h e n s t h e

p a r a l l e l , claiming t h a t Jarndyce possesses a "Don Q u i x o t e c h a r a c t e r " (18, 2 5 5 ) .

and i n h i s comic e c c e n t r i c i t i e s and c h i v a l r o u s d e s i r e t o rescue t h e v i c t i m s
of s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n , he s u b s t a n t i a t e s h e r a p p r a i s a l .
On t h e o t h e r hand, j u s t a s Jarndyce's s a n c t u a r y breaks w i t h t h e s t a b l e

c o n x u n i t i e s of p a s t n o v e l s , s o Jarndyce h i m s e l f , i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
Harold Skimpole, is s u b j e c t e d t o s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m .

I n Jarndyce's mind,

Skimpole embodies t h o s e v a l u e s t h a t Jarndyce ( d i s i l l u s i o n e d by t h e l a r g e r

s o c i e t y ) d e s p e r a t e l y needs t o b e l i e v e can e x i s t :

an i n n o c e n t c h i l d - l i k e

romanticism o b l i v i o u s t o any c o r r u p t i n g i n f l u e n c e s o r mercenary motives.

Skimpole, however, whether o r n o t h i s c h i l d i s h n e s s i s genuine, is a man who
acknowledges no r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o r o b l i g a t i o n s , and whose innocence i s
u l t i m a t e l y i n s e p a r a b l e from s e l f - i n t e r e s t

and o u t r i g h t c r u e l t y .

For example,

as h e t a k e s advantage of E s t h e r and Richard, s e l l s J o t o Bucket, c a s t s a s p e r s i o n s on J a r n d y c e ' s c h a r a c t e r , d i s p l a y s a t o t a l i n d i f f e r e n c e t o s l a v e r y , and

i n t r o d u c e s Richard t o t h e " r e s p e c t a b l e " Vholes, Skimpole r e v e a l s t h a t t h e
t o t a l l y unworldly f o o l is v i r t u a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e mst p e r n i c i o u s
v i l l a i n i n Dickens's d r a m a t i s personae.
f i g u r e , then, is highly s i g n i f i c a n t .

J a r n d y c e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h such a

Jarndyce i s , i n f a c t , as h i s explana-

t i o n f o r Skimpole's c h i l d i s h n e s s i n d i c a t e s , l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s
dependent's c h a r a c t e r :
'Why,'

h e slowly r e p l i e d , roughening h i s head more and more, ' h e

s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , and--and s e n s i b i l i t y - - a n d
--and imagination. And t h e s e q u a l i t i e s a r e n o t r e g u l a t e d i n him,
somehow. I suppose t h e people who admired him f o r them i n h i a youth,
a t t a c h e d t o o much importance t o them, and t o o l i t t l e t o any t r a i n i n g
t h a t would have balanced and a d j u s t e d them; and s o he became what
h e is. ' (43, 592-3)

i s a l l s e n t i m e n t , and--and

C o n s t a n t l y excusing (and indeed j u s t i f y i n g ) Skimpole's a c t i o n s , Jarndyce r e v e a l s

a dangerous b l i n d n e s s .

His i n a b i l i t y ( o r r e f u s a l ) t o r e c o g n i z e t h e t r u t h about

Skimpole m a t e r i a l l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o R i c h a r d ' s d e s t r u c t i o n and J o ' s d e a t h ,

though t o Jarndyce (who r e p r e s s e s most m i s g i v i n g s ) , Skimpole's a c t i o n s a r e
merely proof of h i s unworldly n a t u r e .

J a r n d y c e ' s response t o Skimpole, a f t e r

h i s dependent h a s borrowed money from t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d E s t h e r and Richard,

is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .

A t f i r s t tormented by t h e u b i q u i t o u s east wind, Jarndyce

o n l y r e c o v e r s h i s f a i t h by t h e a s s u r a n c e t h a t Skimpole's a c t i o n s were t o t a l l y
without g u i l e .

"It w a s s o d e l i c i o u s t o see t h e c l o u d s about h i s b r i g h t f a c e

c l e a r i n g , and t o s e e him s o h e a r t i l y p l e a s e d , and t o know

. . . that

the

s o u r c e of h i s p l e a s u r e w a s t h e goodness which was t o r t u r e d by condemning, o r

m i s t r u s t i n g , o r s e c r e t l y accusing any one" (6, 791, o r by b e i n g forced t o
acknowledge t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v a l u e s Skimpole embodies f o r Jarndyce a r e f a l s e :

'Why, what a cod's head and s h o u l d e r s I am,' s a i d M r . Jarndyce, ' t o

r e q u i r e reminding of i t ! The whole b u s i n e s s shows t h e c h i l d from
beginning t o end. Nobody b u t a c h i l d would have thought of s i n g l i n g
you two o u t f o r p a r t i e s i n t h e a f f a i r ! Nobody b u t a c h i l d would
t h e money! I f i t had been a thousand
have thought of = h a v i n g
pounds, i t would have been j u s t t h e same!' s a i d M r . Jarndyce, w i t h
hie whole f a c e i n a glow. (79)
A l a r g e p a r t of t h e problem i s t h a t Jarndyce, i n t h e more c o r r u p t world
of Bleak Howe, has n o t f u l l y undergone t h e e d u c a t i o n a l process enunciated i n
Pickwick Papers.

Esther n o t e s t h a t t h e suit of Jarndyce and Jarndyce has n o t

t a i n t e d h e r b e n e f a c t o r "because

. . . his

i s an uncommon c h a r a c t e r , and h e

has r e s o l u t e l y kept himself o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e ' ' (37, 525), and Jarndyce hims e l f states, "the p l a i n t r u t h is, I have forsworn and abjured t h e whole
business t h e s e many y e a r s , and my s o u l i s s i c k of i t

. . ." (62,

842).

As

noted e a r l i e r , Lady Dedlock compares Jarndyce t o Don Q u i x o t e , and w h i l e

J a q d y c e ' s soul-sick withdrawal is not a d e s p a i r i n g r e s i g n a t i o n l i k e Q u i x o t e ' s
disenchanted death, t h e r e i s a s u b t l e and s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between
~ a r n d y c e ' s and Pickwick's response t o evil.

Pickwick's a c t i o n s d u r i n g and

a f t e r h i s F l e e t experiences a r e a s i g n of i n n a t e s t r e n g t h :

he emerges from

p r i s o n i n t o t h e world, s t i l l a c t i v e l y engaged i n h i s primary q u e s t , s t r e n g t h ened r a t h e r than harmed by h i s i n i t i a t i o n i n t o darker scenes.

contrast, retreats

from h i s

Jarndyce, i n

c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n , "forswearing

and a b j u r i n g t h e whole business," and withdrawing i n t o h i s community s a n c t u a r y ,

A f t e r h u r l i n g h i s p a r t i n g i n v e c t i v e a t t h e egregious lawyers, Pickwick f e e l s
" p e r f e c t l y comfortable and happy," prepared t o continue t o s h a r e and t r a n s m i t
joy and love.

Jarndyce, s t i l l tormented by t h e "east wind," and needing t h e

"Grawlery" t o maintain h i s g o o d - s p i r i t s , d i s p l a y s s i m i l a r moral v a l u e s y e t

f a r greater vulnerability.
The Holy Innocent's i n n a t e r e s i l i e n c y , then, a c r u c i a l a s p e c t of
Dickens's e a r l i e r f o o l - f i g u r e s ,

s e r i o u s l y d e c l i n e s i n t h e d a r k e r novels.

Following Bleak House, t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h e Pickwickian f o o l a r e l a r g e l y

denuded of t h e i r o r i g i n a l vigour and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y .

William D o r r i t suc-

cumbs t o t h e p r i s o n world t h a t Pickwick transcended, undergoing no growth

i n strength o r insight.
image.

H i s b r o t h e r Frederick p r e s e n t s a s t i l l more complex

On t h e one hand, l i k e a t r u e Dickensian Holy Innocent, he can r i s e

from h i s meek subservience and proclaim, "Brother, I p r o t e s t a g a i n s t p r i d e .

I protest against ingratitude.

I p r o t e s t a g a i n s t any one of us h e r e

...

s e t t i n g up any p r e t e n s i o n t h a t p u t s Amy a t a moment's disadvantage, o r t o

t h e c o s t of a amment's pain," y e t h i s moral i n d i g n a t i o n i s not only unable
t o e x e r t any c o r r e c t i v e e f f e c t , b u t is i t s e l f ephemeral.

For although

Frederick's r i s i n g hand momentarily "might have been a blacksmith's"

in

s t r e n g t h , i t quickly
relaxed i n t o i t s usual weak condition. H e went round t o h i s
b r o t h e r with h i s o r d i n a r y s h u f f l i n g s t e p , put t h e hand on h i s
shoulder, and s a i d , i n a softened voice, 'William, my d e a r , I
f e l t obliged t o say i t ; f o r g i v e m e , f o r I f e l t obliged t o say it!'
and then went, i n h i s bowed way, o u t of t h e palace h a l l , j u s t a s
11, 5, 485-6)
he might have gone o u t of t h e Marshalsea room. (I&,
Torn between h i s own e t h o s and t h e demands of t h e m e r c a n t i l e world, t h e Holy
Innocent must ( i f he i s not t o f a l l i n t o F r e d e r i c k ' s enervated despondency)
make some accommodations.
exclaims, "Feelings!

M r . Lorry i n A Tale of Two Cities, f o r example,

I have no time f o r them, no chance of them.

I pass my

whole l i f e , miss, i n t u r n i n g an immense pecuniary Mangle" (I, 4, 21), although,

l i k e h i s predecessors, he commits himself t o a more k i n d l y course of a c t i o n .
Wemmick, on the o t h e r hand, maintains t h i s d i v i s i o n , t o t a l l y s e p a r a t i n g t h e
Walworth community from t h e "pecuniary" world of L i t t l e B r i t a i n .

Walworth,

i n f a c t , described a s a " f o r t r e s s " w i t h "the top of i t

. . . c u t o u t and

- 25, 195), i s an extreme despainted l i k e a b a t t e r y mounted with guns" (GE,

cendant of t h e Bleak House s a n c t u a r y , and a p p a r e n t l y necessary t o preserve
even a l i m i t e d sense of t h e f o o l community i n t h e h a r s h e r s o c i a l world.
Following t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e l o g i c a l f i g u r e t o consider n e x t is
Boffin of Our Mutual Friend, a f o o l who renounces ( a l b e i t , f a l s e l y ) t h e
Pickwickian v i s i o n and embraces t h e mercenary e t h i c of Wemmick's L i t t l e
Britain.

Before Mckens r e t u r n s t o h i e c e n t r a l l i n e of argument, however,

Great Expectations p r e s e n t s a s u b t l e y e t s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n on t h e
Pickwickian fool-type.

Dickene's previous Pickwickian f o o l s are, f o r t h e

most p a r t , wealthy avuncular gentlemen; t h e r e may be an o c c a s i o n a l C u t t l e o r

Peggotty, b u t t h e p r i n c i p a l l i n e of descent remains a t a f a i r l y e l e v a t e d
social level.

With Joe Gargery, however, t h i s fool-type d e c l i n e s s e v e r a l

s o c i a l ranks, a development of some thematic importance.

F i r s t , Gargery i s a somewhat more c r e d i b l e Piclcwickian f o o l , t h a t i e ,
a Holy Innocent more i m m d i a t e l y involved i n t h e r e a l world.

For while

fool-figures l i k e Pickwick and Jarndyce, however i n t e n s e t h e i r c o n f r o n t a t i o n s

with e v i l , a r e p r o t e c t e d by t h e i r wealth and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , Gargery, obliged
t o labour f o r h i s l i v e l i h o o d i n "a place t h a t he i s competent t o f i l l , and
f i l l s w e l l and w i t h respect'' (19, 141), possesses no resources o t h e r than t h e
s t r e n g t h of h i s moral v i s i o n .

This emphasis on Joe'e productive work is,

of course, p r i m a r i l y intended a s an i r o n i c and c r i t i c a l comment on P i p ' s

gentlemanly i d l e n e s s ; but i t a l s o c o n t a i n s an i m p l i c i t r e s e r v a t i o n about
e a r l i e r Pickwickian f o o l s , suggesting t h a t t h e i d e a l i s t i c v i r i o n must b e neit h e r l i m i t e d t o high s o c i a l s t r a t a nor dependent upon t h e s h i e l d of wealth
f o r i t s e f f e c t i v e expression.

I n Joe Gargery, t h e n , Dickene p r e e e n t s a more

humanly meaningful v e r s i o n of t h e Pickwickian f o o l (meaningful t o t h e m a j o r i t y

of human b e i n g s ) , a s s e r t i n g t h a t i t i s J o e ' s s t r o n g s e n s e of h i s own worth

and d i g n i t y , r a t h e r than any s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e of wealth o r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n ,
t h a t makes p o s s i b l e h i s moral i n t e g r i t y .
Second, an e q u a l l y important c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Holy Innocent's s o c i a l
d e c l i n e s t e m s from Dickens's d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l o r d e r
and h i s s k e p t i c i s m about i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r moral growth.

I r o n i c a l l y , Dickens's

d e p i c t i o n s of s o c i e t y ' s upper echelons now f r e q u e n t l y stress t h e " f o l l y " of

governmental o r m e r c a n t i l e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .

A s Welsford observes, t h e terms

"fool" and "knave" were sometimes h e l d t o be synonymous, and t o some s a t i -

rists t h e f o o l was "the a c t u a l l y w o r t h l e s s c h a r a c t e r t h a t lurked beneath t h e

veneer of wealth, l e a r n i n g , and r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . "21

Erasinus s i m i l a r l y v i l i -

f i e d t h o s e "foolieh" P r i n c e s who a r e "onely taken up w i t h themselves, n o t

admitting any one t o t h e i r e a r e b u t such a s know how t o speak p l e a s a n t t h i n g s ,
and not t r o u b l e ' e m with business,"22 a s a t i r i c motif culminating i n Dickens's
own Circumlocution O f f i c e where t h e dim-witted T i t e Barnacle ("'Upon my s o u l
you mustn't come i n t o t h e p l a c e saying you want t o know, you know"'
10, 1131) spreads t h e philosophy of '*How Not To Do It."

[LD, I ,

Confronted with such

pernicious "foolishness" among monarchs and e c c l e s i a s t i c s , Erasmius turned

t o t h e wise f o l l y of t h e C h r i s t i a n f o o l ; Dickens's Joe Gargery, " t h i s g e n t l e
C h r i s t i a n man" (57, 4 3 9 ) , f a r removed from t h e c o r r u p t c e n t r e s of s o c i a l
power, r e p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r a m e l i o r a t i v e counterbalance.
I n a d d i t i o n t o enhancing t h e meaningfulness and relevance of t h e Holy
Innocent's c h a r a c t e r , t h e Pickwickian f o o l ' s s o c i a l d e c l i n e v a s t l y augments
Dickens's m j o r s a t i r i c purposes, extending J o e ' s primary fool-function a s
t h e symbolic c o n t r a s t t o s o c i a l evil.

H i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h Miss Havisham, f o r

example, i l l u m i n a t e s t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , and o f f e r s an informative comment on

t h e perverted innocence of Harold Skimpole:

'You expected, ' s a i d Miss Havisham, a s she looked them [ P i p ' s

i n d e n t u r e s ] over, 'no premium with t h e boy?'
I remonstrated; f o r he made no r e p l y a t a l l . 'Why d o n ' t
'Joe!'
you answer---'
'Pip,' returned Joe, c u t t i n g me s h o r t a s i f he were h u r t , 'which
I meantersay t h a t were not a q u e s t i o n r e q u i r i n g a answer betwixt
y o u r s e l f and me, and which you know t h e answer t o be f u l l w e l l No.
You know i t t o be No, Pip, and wherefore should I say i t ? ' (13, 95,
my i t a l i c s )
Like Skimpole, J o e l a c k s t h e c a p a c i t y t o a p p r e c i a t e o r comprehend t h e language
of money; y e t while Skimpole d e n i e s t h e values of t h e pecuniary world simply
because no values have meaning f o r him, Joe cannot address himself t o Hiss
Havlsham's q u e s t i o n s because he acknowledges values beyond t h o s e of t h e money
ethic.

Hr. Jaggers, l i k e w i s e , when Joe expresses h i s d e s i r e not t o impede o r

p r o f i t from Pip's e x p e c t a t i o n s , considers t h e unworldly blacksmith "a f o o l
f o r h i s d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s " (18, 130) :
'Pip i s t h a t h e a r t y welcome,' s a i d Joe, ' t o go f r e e w i t h h i s
s e r v i c e s , t o honour and f o r t u n ' , a s no words can t e l l him. But
i f you t h i n k a s Money can make compensation t o me f o r t h e l o s s
of t h e l i t t l e child--what come t o t h e forge--and ever t h e b e s t of
f r i e n d s 1--' (133)
Accustomed t o d e a l i n g with l e s s morally honest c h a r a c t e r s , Jaggers can only
look upon a l l t h i s "as one who recognised i n Joe t h e v i l l a g e i d i o t " (134).
o b l i v i o u s t o t h e genuine t r u t h Joe col~llliunicates. I t should be noted, f u r t h e r more, t h a t J a g g e r s ' s i n s i n u a t i o n s and overbearing a t t i t u d e provoke one of
J o e ' s few d i s p l a y s of proper ( i f incoherent) indignation:
tersay,'

"'Which I mean-

c r i e d Joe, ' t h a t i f you come i n t o my p l a c e b u l l - b a i t i n g and badger-

i n g rse, come out!

Which I meantersay a s sech i f you're a man, come on!

Which I meantersay t h a t what I s a y , I meantersay and s t a n d o r f a l l by!"'

(134).

Their c o n f l i c t , r e l a t i v e l y unimportant i n i t s e l f , gains some s i g n i f i -

cance when seen i n conjunction with Dickens's l a t e r r e v e l a t i o n s of J a g g e r s ' s

character.

So contemptuous of t h e t h i e v e s and murderers he d e a l s with and

s o s e l f - a s s u r e d i n h i s p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l power t h a t h e d i s d a i n s t o
l o c k h i s house a t n i g h t (25, 194), t h e lawyer, f o r t h e only time i n t h e
novel, f e a r f u l l y retreats b e f o r e an opponent h e cannot c o n t r o l o r i n t i m i d a t e .
Dickens does n o t emphasize t h e p o i n t , b u t t h e i m p l i c i t assumption i s t h a t
even t h e m a s t e r f u l Jaggers must f e a r J o e ' s r i g h t e o u s anger, and t h a t Joe
(alone among t h e n o v e l ' s major c h a r a c t e r s ) i s completely beyond J a g g e r s ' s
power, f r e e of t h e g u i l t and b a s e motives t h a t Jaggers e x p l o i t s t o achieve
domination over o t h e r s .

The e s e e n t i a l c o n f l i c t between Joe and t h e p e r v e r s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of

t h e urban c u l t u r e is f u r t h e r s i g n i f i e d through Dickens's s o p h i s t i c a t e d use
of imagery.

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e image p a t t e r n s of g u i l t and c r i m i n a l i t y t h a t

dominate t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y throughout Great Expectations, t h e images surrounding J o e ( l i k e C u t t l e ) a c c e n t u a t e h i s C h r i s t i a n n a t u r e .

Joe " s a n c t i f i e d "

(14, 100) t h e home i n P i p ' s childhood; h i s touch is l i k e "the r u s t l e of an

a n g e l ' s wing" (18, 133); t h e wreaths of smoke from h i s p i p e a r e " l i k e a
b l e s s i n g " (138); and Dickens's memorandum concerning P i p ' s i l l n e s s mentions

t h e "Ministering Angel J o e . 1'23

H i s name, s i m i l a r l y , and "strong sense of

t h e v i r t u e of industry" (101), r e c a l l S a i n t Joseph, t h e patron of workers,

an a l l u s i o n which i s a l s o suggested (though r a t h e r o b l i q u e l y ) when Joe recounts how he welcomed t h e i n f a n t Pip t o h i s home, saying, "And b r i n g t h e
poor l i t t l e c h i l d

. . . there's

room f o r him a t t h e forge!"

response t o Hagwitch ("'God knows you're welcome t o i t

( 7 , 44).

Joe's

. . . w e wouldn't

you s t a r v e d t o death f o r i t , poor miserable fellow-creatur"'

[S,

have

36]), and

h i e r e f u s a l t o "rise" a g a i n s t M r s . Joe lest he d u p l i c a t e h i s f a t h e r ' s c r u e l t y

(45), a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e C h r i s t i a n imagery.
This image p a t t e r n , moreover, o f t e n e x p r e s s e s a s e n s e of a c t i o n , s i g n i f y i n g t h a t Joe, d e r i v i n g h i s moral s t r e n g t h from t h e s e fundamental v a l u e s ,

is n o t only t h e moral touchstone revealed i n h i s encounters w i t h M i s s

Havisham and M r . J a g g e r s , b u t e x e r t s a p o s i t i v e redemptive e f f e c t :
It is n o t p o s s i b l e t o know how f a r t h e i n f l u e n c e of any amiable
honest-hearted duty-doing man f l i e s o u t i n t o t h e world; b u t i t
i s very p o s s i b l e t o know i t has touched one's s e l f i n going by,
and I know r i g h t w e l l t h a t any good t h a t intermixed i t s e l f w i t h
my a p p r e n t i c e s h i p came of p l a i n contented Joe, and n o t of r e s t l e s s
a s p i r i n g d i s c o n t e n t e d me. (101)
Q. D. Leavis t a k e s Joe t o t a s k f o r h i s f a i l u r e t o " p r o t e c t l i t t l e P i p from

Mrs. Joe, as he ougbt, he knew, t o have done, '12'

Joe's explanation f o r t h i s "failure,"

an ar-nt

overlooking both

and t h e f a c t t h a t , i n lnatters f a r more

important, Joe i s indeed P i p ' s p r o t e c t i v e guardian.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , he s e r v e s

a s a c o n s t a n t source of moral t r u t h , i n s i g h t , and u n s e l f i s h love, always

occupying an a c t i v e (though submerged) p o s i t i o n i n P i p ' s conscience, and
e v e n t u a l l y t r i u u p h i n g over P i p ' s d e t e r i o r a t i o n .

Joe i s no more a b l e t o pro-

t e c t Pip from h i s i n i t i a l f a l l from grace than Jarndyce could redeem Richard,

b u t h i s s u b t l e r o l e i n P i p ' s s a l v a t i o n is n o n e t h e l e s s e f f i c a c i o u s , and when
P i p u l t i m a t e l y a c c e p t s Magwitch's l o v e , i t i s thoughts of Joe t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y

rise i n h i s mind:
Joe" (54, 423).

"I only saw i n him a much b e t t e r man than I had been t o

Although p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of b u s i n e s s and marriage

prevent P i p ' s p h y s i c a l re-entry i n t o t h e f o r g e , h i s s p i r i t u a l r e b i r t h (with

Joe as t h e "ministering angel") t e s t i f i e s t o J o e ' s redemptive power, while
Gargery's marriage t o Biddy and t h e b i r t h of t h e i r c h i l d "Pip" promise a
c o n t i n u a t i o n i n t h e l i f e of J o e ' s community.
This conclusion, however, l i k e t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n of t h e Bleak House sanct u a r y , expresses a r a t h e r l i m i t e d optimism, f a r removed from t h e r a d i a n t l y
hopeful f u t u r e promised by Pickwick's,
communities.

t h e Cheerybles', o r t h e Midshipman's

Even Gargery, i n f a c t , although a powerful r e - a s s e r t i o n of t h e

i n c o r r u p t i b i l i t y , moral i n s i g h t , and r e s i l i e n t c h a r a c t e r of M r . Pickwick,

s t a n d i n g a p a r t from t h e main arena of s o c i a l c o n f l i c t as a potent symbolic

c o n t r a s t , i s n o t without l i m i t a t i o n s .

Through t h e f o o l ' s d e c l i n e i n s o c i a l

s t a t u s , Dickens enlarged t h e Holy Innocent's symbolic and s a t i r i c f u n c t i o n s ,

b u t t h i s descent a l s o produced a less s a t i s f a c t o r y consequence.

Socially

i s o l a t e d among t h e lower c l a s s e s of a small v i l l a g e d i s t a n t from London, Joe

can p a r t i c i p a t e only p e r i p h e r a l l y i n t h e major a c t i o n of t h e Holy Innocent's
evolution:

t h e f o o l ' s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h an e v i l i n c r e a s i n g l y centered i n

t h e mercantile philosophy and c o r r u p t i n g temptation of t h e urban world.

Despite a l l h i s moral power and thematic relevance, Gargery is n o t an adequate
response t o t h e i s s u e s t h a t have dominated Dickens's p o r t r a y a l of t h e
Pickwickian f o o l throughout t h e l a t e r novels.

I f t h e s e i s s u e s are t o be

r e s o l v e d , t h e Holy Innocent must re-enter t h e primary t h e a t r e of c o n f l i c t ;

and i n t h e p o l l u t e d r i v e r and excremental duet-heaps of Our Mutual Friend,
where t h e money e t h i c dominates and c o r r u p t s a l l personal r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
Mckens r e t u r n s t o t h e s e c e n t r a l concerns w i t h a vengeance.
'%ne of t h e b i g g e s t disappointments i n l i t e r a t u r e , " writes Graham
Smith, "occurs i n Our Mutual Friend a t t h e moment when w e d i s c o v e r t h a t
B o f f i n ' s moral degeneration has been nothing b u t a well-intentioned sham. 1125
This appears t o be t h e general consensus, and few c r i t i c s have endeavoured
t o e x p l a i n Mckens's motives.

Smith, f o r example, d e s p a i r i n g l y continues,

"Our resentment may be contained i f we f e l t t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r 'uiystery'

enclosed a s p e c i a l meaning, b u t t h e reason f o r B o f f i n ' s absurd p r e t e n s e
[ t h e homeopathic cure of B e l l a ' s v e n i a l i t y ] i s a s d i s a p p o i n t i n g a s t h e pret e n s e i t s e l f . "26

While Smith's judgment i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o r r e c t , t h e r e i s

nonetheless a s p e c i a l meaning t o B o f f i n ' s c h a r a c t e r , and B e l l a ' s education

(though n o t i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n some ways) is l i t t l e more than an excuse f o r
Dickena t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h a t meaning.
I have suggested t h a t Dickens's darker novels, p r e s e n t i n g t h e l a r g e r

s o c i e t y a s b o t h an odious a d v e r s a r y and a l l u r i n g c o r r u p t e r , i n i t i a l l y examined

t h e community's r e s p o n s e t o t h e moral d e t e r i o r a t i o n of a f e l l o w - f o o l .

In

Our Mutual F r i e n d , t h i s i n t e r e s t i s now focussed on t h e Pickwickian f o o l hims e l f , and a l t h o u g h merely a p r e t e n s e , B o f f i n ' s p l a u s i b l y and p e r s u a s i v e l y
d e l i n e a t e d d e g e n e r a t i o n is t h e culmination of t h e l o n g c o l l a p s e of t h e Holy
I n n o c e n t ' s moral c h a r a c t e r .

The importance of B o f f i n ' s i n v e r t e d change of

h e a r t , t h e n , is n o t l i m i t e d t o Our Mutual F r i e n d , b u t r e a c h e s back t o Pickwick's

F l e e t e x p e r i e n c e s , Pinch's d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , Veck's l o s s of f a i t h , C u t t l e ' s
c o n f l i c t w i t h Carker, and J a r n d y c e ' s r e t r e a t .

Throughout t h e e v o l u t i o n of

t h i s f i g u r e , Dickens h a s moved s t e a d i l y towards t h i s f i n a l s t a t e m e n t , and

w h i l e h e could n o t u l t i m a t e l y embrace d e s p a i r , t h e very f a c t t h a t B o f f i n ' s
m i s e r l i n e s s i s p r e s e n t e d i n a f a r more convincing f a s h i o n than h i s " t r u e "
n a t u r e c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s Dickens's genuine ( i f unacknowledged) conclusion.
Although, l i k e Pickwick, "an o l d f e l l o w of r a r e s i m p l i c i t y " ( I , 5 , 53)
who s u s p e c t s no d e c e i t o r mercenary d e s i g n s even from t h e t r a n s p a r e n t l y
m a l i c i o u s S i l a s Wegg, B o f f i n i n h a b i t s a f a r more dangerous and c o r r u p t i n g
world t h a n t h a t of Pickwick Papers.

The o n l y Dickensian novel s e t i n contem-

p o r a r y London, Our Mutual Friend p r e s e n t s Dickens's most s c a t h i n g i n d i c t m e n t

of t h e s o c i a l o r d e r ; from t h e narrow-minded Podsnap, t h e shallow Veneerings,
and t h e mercenary Lammles, t o t h e a v a r i c i o u s Fledgeby, t h e murderous Bradley
Headstone, t h e s p i t e f u l s e l f i s h n e s s of Charley Hexam, and t h e debased greed
of Rogue Riderhood, a l l l e v e l s of t h i s s o c i a l system m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t t h e
s u r v i v a l of Pickwickian innocence.
servant-mentors

Pickwick's and B o f f i n ' s c o n t r a s t i n g

( s u b t l y l i n k e d by t h e i r i n i t i a l s ) , f o r example, r e v e a l t h e

e s s e n t i a l difference.

Whereas Sam Weller v a l u e s Pickwick's innocence, seek-

i n g t o p r o t e c t and e d u c a t e h i s m a s t e r through h i s own more experienced perc e p t i o n , t h e scheming S i l a s Wegg e x p l o i t s B o f f i n ' s g u i l e l e s s n a t u r e f o r h i s

own advantage.

And, a s Dickens o b s e r v e s , " t h e man of low cunning had,

of

c o u r s e , a c q u i r e d a mastery over t h e man of h i g h s i m p l i c i t y " ( I , 15, 185, my

i t a l i c s ) , an unprecedented acknowledgement of t h e Holy ~ n n o c e n t ' s now
seemingly i n e v i t a b l e d e f e n s e l e s s n e s s .

Secondary f i g u r e s l i k e Riah and

'hemlow, s i m i l a r l y , s h a r e t h e f o o l ' s moral n a t u r e , y e t n e i t h e r can r e s i s t

I

t h e "low cunning" of even a l i m i t e d i n t e l l e c t l i k e F a s c i n a t i o n Fledgeby.

Riah, i n f a c t , a s Harry Levin a p t l y p o i n t s out,*'

p a r a l l e l s Boffin's pretense,

h i d i n g h i s t r u e n a t u r e behind a mask of mercenary r u t h l e s s n e s s ; and even h i s

e v e n t u a l r e l e a s e o c c u r s through t h e genuinely r u t h l e s s A l f r e d Lammle's a t t a c k o n
Fledgeby, r a t h e r t h a n through any s p e c i a l q u a l i t y of h o l y innocence.

Twemlow,

l i k e w i s e , a Q u i x o t i c "Knight of t h e Simple Heart" (111, 1 3 , 569), may preach

t r u e gentlemanly conduct, b u t can e f f e c t no change i n t h e c l a s s snobbery of
t h e Podsnap world.

H i s speech merely drops "a canopy of wet b l a n k e t

...

upon t h e company, and Lady T i p p i n s was never known t o t u r n s o v e r y greedy, o r

s o v e r y c r o s s " (IV, 820) a f t e r Twemlow h a s made h i s i n e f f e c t u a l p r o t e s t , a
c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s i n t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s redemptive power.

The s t i l l more

i n e f f e c t u a l Reginald W i l f e r , f i n a l l y , p r e s e n t s h i s "cherubic" innocence, b u t

remains a t o t a l l y impotent c i p h e r throughout.
So i n t e n s e i s Dickens's v i s i o n of t h i s new world, i n f a c t , t h a t B o f f i n ' s
d e t e r i o r a t i o n i s i n i t i a t e d l o n g b e f o r e t h e e d u c a t i o n a l charade is planned.
Once a g a i n , a p a r a l l e l between Our Mutual F r i e n d and an e a r l i e r vork i s suggestive.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , when Nicholas Nickleby approached C h a r l e s Cheeryble

i n t h e s t r e e t , p e n n i l e s s and s e e k i n g a p o s i t i o n , Cheeryble responded w i t h an

i n j u d i c i o u s y e t generous o u t p o u r i n g of sympathy and concern.

I n t h e more

c o r r u p t i n g and s u s p i c i o u s world of t h e l a t e r n o v e l , Rokesmith's f i r s t enc o u n t e r w i t h B o f f i n , (though o c c u r i n g under v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l circumstances)

t r a n s p i r e s somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y :

'I am nobody, ' s a i d t h e s t r a n g e r , 'and not l i k e l y t o b e known;

b u t Mr. Boffin's wealth---'
'Oh! t h a t ' s got about a l r e a d y , has i t ? ' muttered M r . Boffin.

.................................

' I f I don't mistake, you have followed me from my lawyer's and

t r i e d t o f i x my a t t e n t i o n . Say out! Have you? O r haven't you?'
demanded M r . Boffin, r a t h e r angry.

('Now,' thought M r . Boffin, ' i f he proposes a game a t s k i t t l e s , o r

meets a country gentleman j u s t come i n t o property, o r produces
any a r t i c l e of jewellery he has found, I ' l l knock him dovn!').
(I,
8, 95)
Even p r i o r t o t h e f a l s e d i s p l a y of m i s e r l i n e s s and m i s t r u s t , Boffin has learned
t h a t a s u e p i c i o u s , defensive a t t i t u d e is necessary f o r s u r v i v a l i n t h e l a t e r
work's p a r a s i t i c world.

Complementing B o f f i n ' s apprehensiveness, Mrs. Boffin

a l s o r e v e a l s a l a t e n t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o t h e morally c o r r u p t i n g temptations
of wealth and s o c i a l prominence:

'Now, I ' l l t e l l you want I want, Noddy,' s a i d M r s . Boffin,

smoothing h e r d r e s s with an a i r of immense enjoyment, ' I want
Society '
'Fashionable S o c i e t y , my d e a r ? '
'Yea!' c r i e d Mrs. Boffin, laughing w i t h t h e g l e e of a c h i l d .
'Yes! I t ' s no good my being kept h e r e l i k e Wax-Work; i s i t now?'
'People have t o pay t o s e e Wax-Work, my d e a r , ' r e t u r n e d h e r
husband, 'whereas (though you'd be cheap a t t h e same money) t h e
neighbours i s welcome t o s e e you f o r nothing.'
'When
'But i t don't answer,' s a i d t h e c h e e r f u l W r s . Boffin.
we worked l i k e t h e neighboura, we s u i t e d one another. Now we have
l e f t work o f f , w e have l e f t o f f s u i t i n g one another.' ( I , 9 , 99)

It is now t h e Gargery-like B o f f i n s , then, ( o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e same s o c i a l

c l a m as Joe) who d i s p l a y P i p ' s snobbish a t t i t u d e ; and although "the c h e e r f u l

M r s . Boffin" may laugh "with t h e g l e e of a c h i l d , " t h e haughty d i s m i s s a l of

h e r former f r i e n d s is, i n Dickens's lexicon, decidedly unchild-like.
The p r i n c i p a l d e w l o p e n t of Boffin's d e t e r i o r a t i o n is n o t presented
u n t i l midway through t h e novel, b u t Dickens has prepared t h e necessary founda t i o n , and t h e "sources" of B o f f i n ' s m i s e r l i n e s s a r e a s r e a l i s t i c a s t h e pretense i t s e l f .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e image of wealth as c o r r u p t i o n t h a t runs

throughout Our Mutual Friend, and t h e Boffins' own inchoate v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o

t h a t c o r r u p t i n g f o r c e , t h e " D i s m a l Swamp" of continuous and abusive begging

letters ("and i f you have t h e meanness t o r e f u s e i t , count upon being despised

by t h e s e g r e a t s p i r i t s " [I, 1 7 , 212]), a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o Boffin's d e c l i n e .
For, as t h e Golden Dustman i s compelled t o acknowledge,
'Our o l d selves wouldn't do h e r e , o l d lady. Haven't you found
t h a t o u t y e t ? Our o l d s e l v e s would be f i t f o r nothing h e r e b u t
We've got t o hold our own
t o b e robbed and imposed upon
now, a g a i n s t everybody ( f o r everybody's hand i s s t r e t c h e d o u t
t o be dipped i n t o our pockets), and w e have got t o r e c o l l e c t t h a t
I have
money Qakes money, a s w e l l a s makes everything e l s e .
found o u t t h a t you must e i t h e r scrunch them, o r l e t them scrunch
you. I f you a i n ' t imperious with ' e m , they won't b e l i e v e i n your
being any b e t t e r than themselves, i f a s good, a f t e r t h e s t o r i e s
( l i e s mostly) t h a t they have heard of your beginnings. There's
nothing betwixt s t i f f e n i n g y o u r s e l f up, and throwing y o u r s e l f
(111, 5, 464)
away: t a k e my word f o r t h a t , o l d lady.'

....

...

Other P i c W c k i a n f o o l s (a p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e "old s e l v e s " i n

B o f f i n ' s speech) passed through s i m i l a r t r i a l s and emerged strengthened.
Like Tom Pinch, who refused t o revenge himself "upon mankind i n g e n e r a l , by
m i s t r u s t i n g them one and a l l " when h i s f a i t h was betrayed by P e c k s n i f f , t h e
"old selves" tempered t h e i r n a i v e t i by a g r e a t e r knowledge of e v i l t o produce
a more mature moral v i s i o n .

In t h e d e s t r u c t i v e l y uninnocent world of t h i s

l a t e r work, however, Boffin must l e a r n t h e "wisdom" of s u s p i c i o n , "passing

through t h e furnace of proof and coming out dross" (111, 5, 661).

I n an

obvious parodic a l l u s i o n t o e a r l i e r Pickwickian f o o l s , Boffin, "with t h e ardour

of Don Quixote f o r h i s books of chivalry" ( 4 6 7 ) , c o l l e c t s biographies of
infamous misers, and, f u r t h e r parodying t h e i d e a l i s t i c k n i g h t , sets o u t on
h i s anti-quest t o duplicate t h e i r f e a t s :
A kind of i l l e g i b i l i t y , though of a d i f f e r e n t kind, s t o l e over
Its o l d s i m p l i c i t y of expression got maeked by
a c e r t a i n c r a f t i n e s s t h a t a s s i m i l a t e d even h i s good-humour t o i t s e l f .
H i s very smile was cunning, a s i f he had been studying smiles among
t h e p o r t r a i t s of h i s misers. Saving an o c c a s i o n a l b u r s t of impatience,
o r c o a r s e a s s e r t i o n of h i s mastery, h i s good-humour remained t o him,
b u t i t had now a s o r d i d a l l o y of d i s t r u s t ; and though h i s eyes should
twinkle and a l l h i s f a c e should laugh, h e would s i t holding himself

Mr. Boffin's face.

i n h i s own arms, a s i f he had an i n c l i n a t i o n t o hoard himeelf up,

and must always grudgingly s t a n d on t h e defensive.
(472)
Boffin may r e t a i n some good-humour and comic e c c e n t r i c i t y , b u t h i s new
c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e f i n a l statement of Dickens's i n t e r e s t i n t h e
Pickwickian f o o l , t h e outcome of an e v o l u t i o n a r y process t h a t Dickens f o l lowed t o i t s l o g i c a l conclusion.
The f a c t t h a t t h i s process i s f i n a l l y compromised, t h e r e f o r e , generates
s e r i o u e c r i t i c a l problems.

Is Dickens's assurance t h a t Boffin is, a f t e r a l l ,

i n c o r r u p t i b l e , a v a l i d demonstration of h i s unconquerable f a i t h i n t h e Holy

Innocent o r an a r t i s t i c a l l y d i s h o n e s t consequence of h i s d e s p e r a t e wish t o
believe?

While i t is n o t my i n t e n t i o n t o defend t h e p r e t e n s e , a f u l l account

of B o f f i n ' s thematic importance must acknowledge h i s r e l a t i o n t o t h e m o t i f s

and f u n c t i o n s of t h e Pickwickian archetype.
A t t h e r i s k of seeming unwisely f o o l i s h , one might argue t h a t Boffin not

only r e p r e s e n t s t h e f i n a l s t a g e of t h e Holy Innocent's d e c l i n e , b u t t h e

apotheosis of h i s moral s t r e n g t h .

I n one s e n s e , f o r example, t h e sham i t s e l f

t e s t i f i e s t o h i s r e s i l i e n t moral power and redemptive e f f e c t .

For, d e s p i t e

t h e f a c t t h a t Our Mutual Friend o f f e r s Dickens's most unsparing d e l i n e a t i o n

of s o c i a l and mercantile p e r v e r s i t y , Boffin emerges from t h i s dismal swamp
of p a r a s i t i c and c o r r u p t i n g f o r c e s r e t a i n i n g h i s e s s e n t i a l good-nature and
moral i n t e g r i t y .

Beyond t h i s , moreover, Boffin r e p r e s e n t s t h e Pickwickian

f o o l a t t h e z e n i t h of h i s r e g e n e r a t i v e c a p a c i t y , e f f e c t i n g a p o s i t i v e and
l a s t i n g transformation i n B e l l a ' s c h a r a c t e r .

The Boffins, l i k e w i s e , i n t h e i r

d e a l i n g s w i t h Johnny and Sloppy, experience some s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h e n i n g of

t h e i r moral v i s i o n , transcending t h e i n c i p i e n t s e l f i s h n e s s and p r i d e d i s played e a r l y i n t h e novel.

I n i t i a l l y r e v e a l i n g a form of s e l f - g r a t i f y i n g

benevolence (however generous t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s ) , they a r e l e d t o acknowledge

t h a t t h e i r vagrant p h i l a n t h r o p i c impulses must be d i r e c t e d i n a t r u l y produc-

t i v e and s e l f l e s s fashion.

Johnny's d e a t h , f o r example, M r s . Boffin observes,

' h a s made m e ask myself t h e q u e s t i o n , s e r i o u s l y , whether I wasn't

t o o b e n t upon p l e a s i n g myself. E l s e why d i d I seek o u t s o much
f o r a p r e t t y c h i l d , and a c h i l d q u i t e t o my l i k i n g ? Wanting t o do
good, why n o t do i t f o r i t s own s a k e , and p u t my t a s t e and l i k i n g s
by?'
(11, 10, 334)
Acting from more d i s i n t e r e s t e d motives and g r e a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o o t h e r s , then,
t h e Boffins adopt t h e f a r less "prepossessing" y e t "honest and i n d u s t r i o u s "
(335) Sloppy, p l a y an e f f i c a c i o u s r o l e i n B e l l a ' s s a l v a t i o n , and s e l f l e s s l y
a s s i s t Rokesmith.

B o f f i n ' s c h a r a c t e r and a c t i o n s , f i n a l l y , o f f e r a powerful

r e - a s s e r t i o n of t h e Pickwickian f o o l ' s e s s e n t i a l symbolic and moral f u n c t i o n s ,

p r e s e r v i n g h i s innocence i n a world f r a u g h t w i t h c o r r u p t i o n , and e x p r e s s i n g
h i s moral n a t u r e i n t r u e productive benevolence.
Even a l l t h i s , however, cannot o f f s e t t h e g r e a t e r a u t h e n t i c i t y of t h e
d e c l i n e o r j u s t i f y i t s unconvincing e x p l a n a t i o n .

Apparently l a c k i n g t h e con-

v i c t i o n t o o f f e r an u n s u l l i e d image of e i t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e - - d e c l i n e o r reassertion--Dickens

opted f o r a compromise.

And, depending on t h e r e a d e r ' s

g e n e r o s i t y , h e may be condemned f o r b e t r a y i n g t h e t e n e t s of a r t i s t i c honesty,

o r p r a i s e d f o r p r e s e n t i n g a s much of t h e t r u t h a s h e does.

Whatever a t t i t u d e

i s adopted, I t h i n k i t i s c l e a r t h a t Dickens himself is aware t h a t Boffin i s

no more than a pseudo-apotheosis,

embodying both Dickens's hope t h a t t h e

Piclwickian f o o l could maintain h i s redemptive power, and Dickens's c e r t a i n

(though unacknowledged) r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t even t h e wise and holy f o o l has no
f u r t h e r miracles t o o f f e r .
Although t h e e v o l u t i o n of Dickens's Pickwickian f o o l t e r m i n a t e s i n such
ambiguous a s s e r t i o n s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , t h e u n r e m i t t i n g impulses of t h a t
p a r t i c u l a r e v o l u t i o n remain c l e a r , t h e moral r e s i l i e n c y and a m e l i o r a t i v e power
of t h e Pickwickian f o o l undergoing a gradual y e t i n e x o r a b l e d e c l i n e as h i s
social-moral a n t a g o n i s t s become i n c r e a s i n g l y menacing.

Simultaneously, however,

100
i t is equally c l e a r t h a t t h e moral values t h a t t h i s fool-figure i n c a r n a t e s ,

t h e p r i n c i p l e s and b e l i e f s necessary f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of a human community i n the midst of s o c i a l chaos and moral impoverishment, a s w e l l a s t h e
i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s ' capacity f o r growth and maturation, have exerted a
powerful i n f l u e n c e throughout Mckens's f i c t i o n .

Dickens r e t u r n s t o t h e

Holy Innocent again and again ( o f t e n s u b j e c t i n g him t o s t i l l f u r t h e r c r i t i c a l

s c r u t i n y ) , and while t h e f o o l ' s power t o remedy o r even r e s i s t t h e darkness
has proved seemingly inadequate, he always re-surfaces,
forma, t o continue t h e s t r u g g l e .

often i n different

Although a c e n t r a l element i n Dickens's use

of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , t h e d e c l i n e of t h e Pickwickian f o o l i s not t h e complete

s t o r y ; and, i n order t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e multi-faceted innovations among
Dickensian f o o l s , one must consider t h e Holy Innocent's o t h e r manifestations
and r e l a t e d motifs.

k.i
i

NOTES:

CHAPTER TWO

Don Quixote, p . 33.

See, f o r example, Wayne Burns's The Panzaic P r i n c i p l e , p. 18.
Don Quixote, pp. 674-5.
Robert S u r t e e s ' s J o r r o c k s ' s J a u n t s and J o l l i t i e s , f o r example, a
contemporary s o u r c e f o r Pickwick Papers, r e c o u n t s t h e e x p l o i t s of an unbright
and v u l g a r cockney sportsman, a f i g u r e not u n l i k e t h e e a r l y c h a r a c t e r of
M r . Pickvick.

Charles Dickens : H i s Tragedy and Triumph, Vol. 1, 172.

The Fool, p. 323.

"The Education of M r . Pickwick," Nineteenth Century F i c t i o n , 24 (1969-70).
137.
The Vicar of Wakefield (New York:

Ai-nt

P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1964), p. 114.

h n Quixote, p. 936.
lo The World of Don Quixote (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,

1967), p. 127.
l1 '%ervantes

i n Russia," Cervantes Across t h e Centuries, ad. Angel F l o r e s

and M. J. Benardete (New York:

l2Quixote's nemesis, S-on
a

Gordon P u b l i s h e r s , 1969), p. 367.

Carrasco, f o r example, i n an i r o n i c r e v e r s a l ,

now implores t h e k n i g h t " r e t u r n t o your senses and c e a s e your i d l e tales1'

(936), while Sancho, who engineered t h e deception w i t h t h e s e r v a n t - g i r l ,

now

exclaims, "perhaps w e s h a l l f i n d t h e lady Dulcinea behind some hedge, disenchanted and a s p r e t t y a s a p i c t u r e " (937).

One might argue t h a t t h e s u r v i v a l

of Quixote's i d e a l i s t i c v i s i o n i n h i s fonner enemies and s c o f f e r s suggests

a more p o s i t i v e reading of t h e novel's end than I have given i t ; b u t when
t h e l e a d i n g embodiment of t h a t v i s i o n d i e s i n a s t a t e of complete d i s i l l u s i o n ment, v e r g i n g upon b i t t e r n e s s , whatever optimism e x i s t s a t t h e conclusion i s
seriouely restrained.

l3 "Dingley D e l l and t h e F l e e t , " Charles Dickens:

A C r i t i c a l Anthology,

p. 467.

l4 "The Education of M r . Pickwick," p. 140.

l5 "Dingley D e l l and t h e F l e e t ," p. 468.

16

"Preface t o t h e Third E d i t i o n of Oliver ' h i s t , " Charles Dickens:

C r i t i c a l Anthology, p. 55.
17

John Lucas, f o r example, a s s e r t s t h a t "the values a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

Midehipman a r e i n t h e worst p o s s i b l e hands a s f a r a s t h e i r chances of s u r v i v a l

a r e concerned" (The Melancholy Man:

A Study of Dickens's Novel [London:

Faber and Faber, 19701, p. 151), and Michael S t e i g a s k s , "are t h e s e t h e

a l t e r n a t i v e s t o Dombeyism--an

imbecile youth [Toots], a semi-imbecile Captain

whose o r a c l e , Bunsby, i s t h e g r e a t e s t imbecfle of a l l , t o g e t h e r with an

incompetent shopkeeper i n Sol G i l l s , and a romantic, unbelievable youth i n
Walter Gay?" ("Structure and t h e Grotesque i n Dickens:
Bleak House," Centennial Review, 14 [1970], 315).
"Dealings w i t h t h e Firm of Dombey and Son:

Doarbey and Son;

See a l s o J u l i a n Moynihan's

Firmness versus Wetness,"

Dickens and t h e Twentieth Century, pp. 121-31.

Charles Dickens:

H i s Tragedy and Triumph, Vol. 2 , 633.

See, f o r example, Barbara Hardy, "Food and Ceremony i n Great

Expectations," Charles Dickens:
20

Novels of t h e Eighteen-Forties (London:

p. 189.

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954).

Moynihan's a r t i c l e a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h i s image p a t t e r n , though f a r

l e e s f avourably
21

A C r i t i c a l Anthology, pp. 478-90.

The Fool, p. 239.

S e b a s t i a n Brant ' s Narrenschif f and Alexander Barclay's

Ship of Fools p r e s e n t a h i g h l y developed v i s i o n of t h e fool a s an embodiment

of c o r r u p t i o n , o f t e n manifested a s j u s t such a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of wealth,
l e a r n i n g , and r e s p e c t a b i l i t y .
22

The P r a i s e of F o l l y , p. 212.

23 "Appendix A," Great Expectations, ed. Angus Calder (Ha-ndsworth:

Penguin Books, 1971) , p. 495.

24 "How W
e Must Read Great Expectations," Dickens t h e Novelist. F. R. and
Q. D. Leavis (Hara~ondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970), p. 392 n, 11.

25 Mckens. Money, and Society (Berkeley:

26 I b i d .
27

"me

uncles' of Dickens ," p. 29.

U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s ,

CHAPTER THREE

Divine and Demonic Madness :

The Ambiguous Fool-Lunatic

For t h e V i c t o r i a n mind, a s Dickens g r a p h i c a l l y p o i n t s o u t , " t h e main

i d e a of an i d i o t would b e of a h o p e l e s s , i r r e c l a i m a b l e , unimprovable b e i n g

. . . wallowing

i n t h e l o w e s t d e p t h s of d e g r a d a t i o n and n e g l e c t :

a miserable

monster, whom nobody may p u t t o d e a t h , b u t whom e v e r y one must wish dead,

and be d i s t r e s s e d t o s e e a l i v e " ( " I d i o t s , "
313).

Household Words, 7 , 4 June 1853,

Like a l l Dickensian Holy I n n o c e n t s , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c s u f f e r s from

s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n o r r e j e c t i o n , a f a c t t h a t Dickens imbues w i t h v a r i e d themat i c significance.

Underlying Dickens's d e p i c t i o n s of t h e m e n t a l l y incompetent, f o r example,

i s an e x p l i c i t s o c i a l propagandizing, an a p p e a l f o r a proper u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of t h e c a u s e s and n a t u r e of lunacy and a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e l u n a t i c a s a
s u f f e r i n g fellow-human r e q u i r i n g sympathy and l o v e .

Smike i n Nicholas

Nickleby, M r . Dick i n David C o p p e r f i e l d , and Maggy i n L i t t l e D o r r i t , Dickens's

most p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c o h e r e n t s t u d i e s of t h e b r u t a l m i s t r e a t m e n t , emotional
trauma, and childhood i l l n e s s t h a t produce a n a t r o p h i e d i n t e l l e c t , exemplify
t h i s theme.

Smike may be regarded by one c r i t i c a s l i t t l e more t h a n "a

shadowy symbolic f i g u r e Y n 2b u t h i s mental and p h y s i c a l i n f i r m i t i e s a r e t h e

l o g i c a l consequence of h i s dehudtanized l i f e a t Dotheboys H a l l .

M r . Dick's

e a r l y y e a r s , l i k e w i s e , were f r a u g h t w i t h mental-emotional a n g u i s h , and t h e

h a r d s h i p s h i s f a v o u r i t e s i s t e r endured a t t h e hands of h e r b r u t a l husband
"had such an e f f e c t upon t h e mind of M r . Dick

. . . that,

combined w i t h h i s

f e a r of h i s b r o t h e r , and h i s s e n s e of h i s unkindness, i t threw him i n t o a

- 14, 2 0 5 ) .
f e v e r " (DC,

And Maggy, f i n a l l y , abused by h e r c r u e l grandmother

("'Broom-handles

and pokers"')

u n t i l t h e g i r l contracted a fever a t ten years

- I, 9 , 101), is a
of age and "has never grown any o l d e r e v e r s i n c e " (LD,
similarly plausible figure.

Far from b e i n g "miserable monsters, whom every

one must wish dead," moreover, when removed from t h e i r dismal e a r l y environments, Smike, M r . Dick, and Maggy repay t h e i r b e n e f a c t o r s ' kindness with
a f f e c t i o n a t e devotion, making l i m i t e d b u t c o n s c i e n t i o u s e f f o r t s a t s e l f improvement and s e l f - r e l i a n c e .

Dickens s e e k s t o p r e s e n t h i s mental d e f e c t i v e s

w i t h c l i n i c a l accuracy, o f f e r i n g s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n r a t h e r than r e l i g i o u s
and f o l k s u p e r s t i t i o n , and s u g g e s t i n g more l o g i c a l and humane methods of
treatment.

A s an o u t c a s t , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h e l u n a t i c r e i t e r a t e s Dickens's use of t h e
Holy ~ n n o c e n ta s t h e moral a n t a g o n i s t of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y .

Although, l i k e

h i s Pickwickian c o u n t e r p a r t , t h e d i v i n e i d i o t undergoes a gradual d e c l i n e i n

Dickens's works a s t h e more dominant p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s descend t o less p o t e n t
f i g u r e s , h e o f t e n performs s i g n i f i c a n t moral and s a t i r i c r o l e s .

One of t h e

most damaged v i c t i m s of s o c i a l c r u e l t y i n Dickens's f i c t i o n , t h e l u n a t i c

n o n e t h e l e s s p r e s e r v e s t h e i n n a t e innocence t o form s t r o n g l y l o v i n g personal
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h h i s p r o t e c t o r , counterbalancing t h e inhumanity r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r h i s mental weakness.
N e i t h e r t h e f o o l ' s c o n f l i c t w i t h e v i l , nor t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e Holy
Innocent, however, i s t h e dominant motif i n Dickens's use of t h i s fool-type.
Rather, even while emphasizing psychological r e a l i s m , s o c i a l propaganda, and
t h e n a t u r a l f o o l ' s i n n a t e moral innocence, Dickens r e p e a t e d l y e x p l o r e s t h e
i d i o t ' s most t r a d i t i o n a l q u a l i t y , h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l powers of prophecy and
mystic i n s p i r a t i o n .

Lacking a normal i n t e l l e c t and possessed by a heightened

power of non-rational p e r c e p t i o n , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c

a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y been

regarded a s t h e spokesman f o r more powerful s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s (both a n g e l i c

and demonic), a c r e a t u r e who, l a c k i n g w i l l and i n d i v i d u a l i t y , can r e c e i v e

This power

and e x p r e s s thoughts and knowledge from beyond t h e human world.

of o r a c u l a r possession, i n f a c t , engenders one of t h e Dickensian f o o l ' s more

complex and i n n o v a t i v e thematic r o l e s ; f o r Dickens extends t h e l u n a t i c ' s
t r a d i t i o n a l s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , making him an unconscious o r u n w i t t i n g r e f l e c t o r
n o t only of s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s , b u t of t h e dominant impulses, concepts, and
The p e c u l i a r empathy of

c o n f l i c t s i n t h e world of man and s o c i e t y a s

t h e n a t u r a l f o o l possesses c o n s i d e r a b l e thematic v e r s a t i l i t y .

The i n n a t e l y

ambiguous n a t u r e of t h e Pickwickian f o o l ' s f i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , f o r example,

is a longstanding a s p e c t of t h i s o t h e r fool-type;

even i n t h e e a r l y novels

where t h e Holy Innocent's redemptive power is seemingly ascendant, t h e

l u n a t i c ' s c a p a c i t y t o r e f l e c t a wide spectrum of s o c i a l f o r c e s o f t e n s e r v e s
a s an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e i r menacing d e s t r u c t i v e power, and t h u s i m p l i c i t l y
q u a l i f i e s t h e o p t i m i s t i c d e p i c t i o n of t h e Pickwickian f o o l ' s triumphs.

Al-

though t h e n a t u r a l f o o l s h a r e s t h e moral n a t u r e of h i s Pickwickian counterp a r t s , he can embody more c o r r u p t impulses--violence,

absorption--and

greed, anger, s e l f -

h i s ambiguous p r o t e a n c h a r a c t e r i n c a r n a t e s t h e l a t e n t ambiva-

l e n c e and confusion i n Dickens's own response t o s o c i a l q u e s t i o n s and t h e

Holy Innocent's major c o n f l i c t .
Barnaby Rudge i s t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of t h i s b a s i c
motif.

Although p a r t a k i n g of t h e Holy Innocent's s i m p l i c i t y , goodness, and

i n s i g h t , Barnaby is a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h such d i s r u p t i v e f o r c e s a s t h e n i h i l i s t i c r i o t e r s , h i s murderous f a t h e r , and t h e demonic raven ("'Grip

Grip t h e wicked, Grip t h e knowing"'
some c r i t i c a l confusion.

[47, 3561).

the clever,

This ambiguity h a s generated

Jack Lindsay, f o r example, while recognizing t h e

i n f l u e n c e of t h e folk-fool,

f a i l s t o a p p r e c i a t e Barnaby's s u b t l e r o l e i n

Dickens's ambivalent s o c i a l v i s i o n :

The f o l k - f o o l , who i s prophet and l i b e r a t o r , Merlin and P a r s i f a l ,

i s a p o t e n t symbol i n t h e medieval world, and s o i s s t i l l a v a i l a b l e
f o r t h e t r a g i c u n i v e r s e of Shakespeare; b u t i n t h e world of developing
Dickens c o n j u r e s him up
i n d u s t r i a l i s m h i s magic dwindles
v a l i a n t l y i n Barnaby, b u t is unable t o make him c a r r y a l l t h e weight
of meaning t h a t t h e f a b l e demands. P a r t of t h e reason f o r t h e
n o v e l ' s weaknesses lies i n Dickens's ambivalence towards t h e theme.
A t h i s d e e p e s t c r e a t i v e l e v e l s he i s drawn w i t h i n t e n s e sympathy
towards t h e d e p i c t i o n of a p o p u l a r u p r i s i n g , y e t a t t h e same time
h e f e a r s such e v e n t s a s merely d e s t r u c t i v e and r e v e n g e f u l . 4

....

This a n a l y s i s is i l l u m i n a t i n g y e t l i m i t e d .

I n a s s e r t i n g t h a t Dickens's r e f u s a l

t o e n d o r s e t h e r i o t e r s ' a c t i o n s unequivocally h a s s e r i o u s l y weakened t h e n o v e l ,

L i n d s a y ' s approach i s e x c e s s i v e l y d o c t r i n a i r e .
r e s p o n d i n g l y narrow.

H i s v i s i o n of Barnaby i s c o r -

Perhaps Barnaby cannot " c a r r y a l l t h e weight of meaning"

demanded by t h e A r t h u r i a n f a b l e , b u t he i s i n t r i c a t e l y connected w i t h
Dickens's major theme.

Barnaby Rudge is undoubtedly ambiguous, y e t does n o t

Bamaby's own ambiguity s e r v e a s t h e p e r f e c t v e h i c l e f o r Dickens's moral

uncertainty?

Employing t h e f o l k and Shakespearean t r a d i t i o n s of t h e f o o l ,

i d e n t i f y i n g Barnaby b o t h w i t h t h e demonic f o r c e s of d e s t r u c t i o n and w i t h t h e

redemptive power of innocence, Dickens r e v i t a l i z e s t h a t "dwindling magic."
Barnaby's appearance and costume c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h h i s l i n k s w i t h t h e
fool tradition:
H i s d r e s s was of g r e e n , c l u m s i l y trimmed h e r e and there--apparently
A p a i r of tawdry r u f f l e s
by h i s own hands--with gaudy l a c e
dangled a t h i s w r i s t s , w h i l e h i s t h r o a t was n e a r l y b a r e . He had
ornamented h i s h a t w i t h a c l u s t e r of peacock's f e a t h e r s , b u t they
were limp and broken, and now t r a i l e d n e g l i g e n t l y down h i s back.
G i r t t o h i s s i d e was t h e s t e e l h i l t of an o l d sword w i t h o u t b l a d e
o r scabbard; and some p a r t i c o l o u r e d ends of r i b a n d s and poor g l a s s
t o y s completed t h e ornamental p o r t i o n of h i s a t t i r e . The f l u t t e r e d
and confused d i s p o s i t i o n of a l l t h e motley s c r a p s t h a t formed h i s
d r e s s , bespoke, i n a s c a r c e l y l e s s degree t h a n h i s e a g e r and u n s e t t l e d
manner, t h e d i s o r d e r of h i s mind, and by a g r o t e s q u e c o n t r a s t set o f f
and h e i g h t e n e d t h e more i m p r e s s i v e w i l d n e s s of h i s f a c e . (BR,
- 3 , 28)

...

I n h i s primary d r a m a t i c f u n c t i o n s , l i k e w i s e , Barnaby i s d e r i v e d from t h e conventional l i t e r a r y folk-fool.

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e sane y e t o f t e n imperceptive

c h a r a c t e r s , h e p o s s e s s e s an i n t u i t i v e c a p a c i t y t o g r a s p e s s e n t i a l t r u t h .

Gabriel Varden recognizes M r s . Rudge's a n x i e t y , f o r example, b u t only Barnaby

( a l b e i t , unconsciously) a s s o c i a t e s h e r d i s t r e s s w i t h t h e e v e n t s surrounding
t h e Haredale murder (17, 132-5).

Barnaby cannot fully'comprehend h i s mother's

sorrowful h i s t o r y , y e t h i s wild imaginings--connecting h e r apprehensions with

h i s blood-stained w r i s t - - i n t u i t i v e l y
over, i s o f t e n c l a i r v o y a n t .

express t h e t r u t h .

H i s i n s i g h t , more-

A s Welsford s t a t e s , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c has t r a d i -

t i o n a l l y been regarded a s "an awe-inspiring f i g u r e whose reason has ceased t o

f u n c t i o n normally because h e has become t h e mouthpiece of a s p i r i t , o r power
e x t e r n a l t o h i m s e l f , and s o has a c c e s s t o hidden knowledge--especially

knowledge of t h e f u t u r e "5
'1

to

Barnaby ' s devil-haunted dreams, f o r example, t h o s e

s t r a n g e c r e a t u r e s crowded up t o g e t h e r neck and h e e l s , t o s i t upon t h e bed"

(6, 4 8 ) , and h i s c a p a c i t y t o "see" a tumultuous, menacing world l u r k i n g ben e a t h t h e s u r f a c e of r e a l i t y , symbolically f o r e t e l l t h e demonic energy w a i t i n g
t o be r e l e a s e d i n t h e r i o t s .

H i s "shadowy people," "voices i n t h e a i r , " and

"men s t a l k i n g i n t h e sky" (10, 81-2) a r e t h e p e r f e c t p o e t i c metaphors f o r t h e

t e n s i o n s and u n r e s t t h a t w i l l explode i n London.
S i r John C h e s t e r ' s response t o Barnaby's p r o p h e t i c f a n t a s i e s i s illuminating.

Chester and Barnaby meet a t t h e Maypole where Barnaby, gazing a t t h e

c l o t h e s drying on a l i n e , imaginatively p e r c e i v e s a world of p l o t t i n g , cons p i r a t o r i a l phantoms l u r k i n g beneath p r o s a i c r e a l i t y - - a

divinely-inspired

f o o l ' s i n s i g h t t h a t s u c c i n c t l y c a p t u r e s C h e s t e r ' s devious c h a r a c t e r :

'Look down t h e r e , ' h e s a i d s o f t l y ; 'do you mark how they whisper
i n each o t h e r ' s e a r s ; then dance and l e a p , t o make b e l i e v e they
a r e i n s p o r t ? Do you s e e how they s t o p f o r a moment, when they
t h i n k t h e r e is no one looking, and mutter among themselves again;
and then how they r o l l and gambol, d e l i g h t e d w i t h t h e mischief
they've been p l o t t i n g ? ' (81)
Barnaby i m p l i e s , moreover, t h a t Chester himself i s i n t r i c a t e l y involved i n
t h i s shadowy conspiracy ('"Isay-what

know? "')

,a

is i t t h a t they p l o t and h a t c h ?

remark c l e a r l y d i s c o n c e r t i n g t o t h e f a s h i o n a b l e knight:

Do you

'" These

i n s a n e c r e a t u r e s make such very odd and embarrassing remarks, t h a t they

r e a l l y ought t o b e hanged f o r t h e comfort of society"'

(75, 574).

Like t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i n e i d i o t , Barnaby does not g r a s p t h e t r u t h of h i s percept i o n s , b u t h i s s u p r a - r a t i o n a l v i s i o n i n t u i t i v e l y d i s c e r n s t h e moral impoverishment of Chester's shallow world.

More important, Barnaby's n a t u r a l good-

n e s s i s n o t merely an a t t a c k on t h e "comfort of s o c i e t y , " b u t on its moral

blindness a s w e l l .
t h e b r i g h t ones"'

H i s joy and imagination ("You're

t h e d u l l men.

We're

[82]) a r e a reproach t o t h e f a s h i o n a b l e world, an image of

i t s l o s t v a l u e s , a symbol of i t s needed reform.

Barnaby, i n e f f e c t , is both

t h e c r i t i c and a n t i t h e s i s of C h e s t e r ' s e t h o s :

'Now do, Ned, & n o t , ' s a i d M r . Chester, r a i s i n g h i s d e l i c a t e hand

i m p l o ~ n g l y , ' t a l k i n t h a t monstrous manner. About t o speak from
your h e a r t . Don't you know t h a t t h e h e a r t i s an ingenious p a r t of
our formation--the c e n t r e of t h e blood-vessels and a l l t h a t s o r t of
thing--which h a s no more t o do w i t h what you s a y o r t h i n k , than your
knees have? How can you be s o very vulgar and absurd? These
anatomical a l l u s i o n s should be l e f t t o gentlemen of t h e medical
profession. They a r e r e a l l y n o t agreeable i n s o c i e t y . You q u i t e
s u r p r i s e m e , Ned. (32, 243)

'

I n a d d i t i o n t o h i s f u n c t i o n s a s innocent moral s a t i r i s t , Barnaby i s t h e

c e n t r e of Dickens's l a r g e r thematic s t r u c t u r e .
r o l e a s fool-mystic,
King Lear--the

F u r t h e r enhancing Barnaby's

Dickens i n t r o d u c e s a major theme p a r t l y derived from

q u e s t i o n of d i v i n e j u s t i c e .

Albany's p r a y e r ,

I f t h a t t h e heavens do n o t t h e i r v i s i b l e s p i r i t s
Send quickly down t o tame t h e s e v i l d e o f f e n c e s ,
It w i l l conre,
Humanity must p e r f o r c e prey on i t s e l f ,
Like monsters of t h e deep
(ZV. 2. 46-50)

is t h e m a t i c a l l y echoed i n Barnaby's q u e s t i o n about t h e i n d i f f e r e n t s t a r s :

"'If they a r e angels,'

e y e s , why do they look down h e r e and s e e good men h u r t ,

and only wink and s p a r k l e a l l t h e night?"'

(3, 28-9).

As Jamas K. G o t t s h a l l

s t a t e s , "Dickens saw imaginatively t h a t , however p a l a t a b l e and comforting was

t h e p i c t u r e of a benign God c a r i n g f o r t h e pure i n h e a r t , i t was simply n o t

an a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e . " 7

The " v i s i b l e s p i r i t s " of heaven do n o t i n t e r c e d e

and t h e s t a r s stare down h e l p l e s s l y on t h e r u i n s of t h e Warren (55, 508).

This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , however, i s somewhat l i m i t e d , f o r Bamaby's foolf u n c t i o n a s an innocent c h i l d of God possessed by h i g h e r f o r c e s l i g h t e n s
t h i s bleak atmosphere.

The f o r c e s of n a t u r e , symbols of a heaven t h a t i s

i n d i f f e r e n t o r h o s t i l e t o o t h e r s , a r e wondrous and j o y f u l t o Barnaby:

"The

world t o him was f u l l of happiness; i n every tree, and p l a n t , and flower, i n

every b i r d , and b e a s t , and t i n y i n s e c t whom a b r e a t h of summer wind l a i d low
upon t h e ground, h e had d e l i g h t " (47, 355).

Like Wordsworth's I d i o t Boy,

Barnaby enjoys an empathetic c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e , a c o n t a c t n o t merely

emotional b u t moral and r e l i g i o u s .

Barnaby, i n f a c t , i n a world t o m by

s e c t a r i a n b i t t e r n e s s , i s among t h e few c h a r a c t e r s possessing n a t u r a l r e l i g i o u s

impulses, and t h e only c h a r a c t e r t o achieve a s p i r i t u a l l y u p l i f t i n g v i s i o n :
But t h e moon came slowly up i n a l l h e r g e n t l e g l o r y , and t h e s t a r s
looked o u t , and through t h e s m a l l compass of t h e g r a t e d window, a s
through t h e narrow c r e v i c e of one good deed i n a murky l i f e of
g u i l t , t h e f a c e of Heaven shone b r i g h t and merciful. H e r a i s e d h i s
head; gazed upward a t t h e q u i e t sky, which seemed t o smile upon t h e
e a r t h i n sadness, a s i f t h e n i g h t , more t h o u g h t f u l than t h e day,
looked down i n sorrow on t h e s u f f e r i n g s and e v i l deeds of men; and
f e l t i t s peace s i n k deep i n t o his h e a r t . He, a poor i d i o t , caged i n
h i s narrow c e l l , was a s much l i f t e d up t o God, while gazing on t h e
mild l i g h t , a s t h e f r e e s t and most favoured man i n a l l t h e spacious
c i t y ; and i n h i s ill-remembered p r a y e r , and i n t h e fragment of t h e
c h i l d i s h hymn, w i t h which h e sung and crooned himself a s l e e p , t h e r e
b r e a t h e d a s t r u e a s p i r i t a s e v e r s t u d i e d homily expressed, o r o l d
c a t h e d r a l arches echoed. (73, 563) 8
"The thoughts of worldly men," i n c o n t r a s t , "are f o r e v e r r e g u l a t e d by a moral
law of g r a v i t a t i o n , which, l i k e t h e p h y s i c a l one, h o l d s them down t o e a r t h .
The b r i g h t g l o r y of day, and t h e s i l e n t wonders of a s t a r l i t n i g h t , appeal t o
t h e i r minds i n vain.

There a r e no s i g n s i n t h e sun, o r i n t h e moon, o r i n

t h e s t a r s , f o r t h e i r reading1' (29, 217).

Unlike t h e s e worldly-wise men, who

"have q u i t e f o r g o t t e n such s m a l l heavenly c o n s t e l l a t i o n s a s C h a r i t y , Forebearance, Universal Love, and Mercy" (217), Barnaby--the

favoured c h i l d of God

and a r c h e t y p a l fool-seer--experiences
w i t h heaven.

an innocent, imaginative communion

G o t t s h a l l ' s suggestion t h a t Barnaby Rudge is governed by an

i n d i f f e r e n t cosmos, t h e r e f o r e , acknowledges only p a r t of t h e star-heaven

image p a t t e r n .

The s t a r s do n o t descend t o r e d r e s s man's grievances, but

man (through h i s imagination and love) may symbolically ascend.

In his

mystic i h s i g h t , h i s l o v i n g h e a r t , h i s r o l e a s a C h r i s t i a n f o o l , and h i s misguided ( y e t f e r v e n t ) i d e a l i s m , Barnaby r e p r e s e n t s t h o s e f o r c e s of goodness

and innocence needed t o redeem t h e Chester-Gashford world.

"The f o o l among

~
us is a p e r p e t u a l l i n k t o t h e l i g h t and t h e l i f e i n t h a t d a r k n e ~ s , " and
although o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s doubt heaven's j u s t i c e , Barnaby approaches t h e s c a f
f o l d hopefully:

"'Hugh, w e s h a l l know what makes t h e s t a r s s h i n e ,

now!''

( 7 7 , 595).
I n conjunction with h i s r o l e a s f o o l - s e e r , Barnaby i s a l s o a moral m i r r o r ,
r e f l e c t i n g t h e wisdom and f o l l y of o t h e r s .

The country s q u i r e ' s v e r d i c t t h a t

Barnaby is s a n e , f o r example, o r John W i l l e t ' s suggestion t h a t Barnaby "wants

imagination" (10, 8 2 ) , i r o n i c a l l y r e v e a l t h e i r own imperturbable obtuseness.
A s i m i l a r i r o n y , although f a r more s i g n i f i c a n t t h e m a t i c a l l y , o p e r a t e s i n

Barnaby's r e l a t i o n s h i p with Lord Gordon, a f i g u r e who, a s Lindsay has suggested, i s a l s o derived from the f o o l tradition.''

Gordon's b e l i e f i n Barnaby's

s a n i t y i s both a l u d i c r o u s and i n s i g h t f u l observation, f o r although Barnaby

cannot comprehend t h e i s s u e s involved i n Gordon's campaign, h i s innocent v i r t u e i s p r e c i s e l y t h e q u a l i t y needed t o make t h e movement more than mere
anarchy.

A s Gordon s t a t e s , "those who c l i n g t o t h e t r u t h and support t h e

r i g h t cause, a r e set down a s mad" (48, 366).

Barnaby and Gordon a r e mad f o r

b l i n d l y embracing a d e s t r u c t i v e crusade, y e t t h a t same madness--their

"unwiee" idealism--belongs,

unworldly,

i n t h e world of Barnaby Rudge (and throughout many

of ~ i c k e n s ' s novels), only t o those "who c l i n g t o t h e t r u t h , " only t o t h e Holy

Innocents.

Gordon f u r t h e r exclaims t o Barnaby, "I am proud t o be t h e l e a d e r

of such men a s you" (57, 437), a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t i r o n i c a l l y r e v e a l s h i s

l i m i t e d worldly v i s i o n , and h i s p e r c e p t i v e fool-sense.
Despite t h e i r moral s t r e n g t h s , however, Barnaby and Gordon a r e n o t
symbols of an u n t a i n t e d redemptive goodness, a f a c t of c r u c i a l importance
t o t h e n o v e l ' s v i s i o n of s o c i a l v i o l e n c e .

I have suggested t h a t Barnaby i n

p a r t r e f l e c t s t h e f o r c e s around him, and, a s Mrs. Rudge n o t e s , h e is charact e r i z e d n o t merely by innocence o r "dulness b u t

. . . something i n f i n i t e l y

worse, s o g h a s t l y and u n c h i l d - l i k e i n i t s cunning" (25, 189).

The t a i n t e d

legacy of h i s f a t h e r , moreover, symbolically r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e blood-like

s t a i n on Barnaby's w r i s t , i s a n o t h e r s u g g e s t i o n of corruption:

"He t w i s t e d

h i s handkerchief round h i s head, p u l l e d h i s h a t upon h i s brow, wrapped h i s

cloak about him, and stood b e f o r e h e r ; s o l i k e t h e o r i g i n a l h e c o u n t e r f e i t e d ,
t h a t t h e dark f i g u r e peering o u t behind him might have been h i s own shadow"
(17, 133).

H i s worshipful a t t i t u d e t o t h e demonic Grip ("'He's

and I ' m t h e man"'

t h e master,

16, 5 1 ] ) , h i s unhealthy f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h t h e power of gold,

and h i s p e r i o d i c outbreaks of v i o l e n c e f u r t h e r q u a l i f y h i s s t a t u s as a
Christian fool.

H i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Hugh and Dennis--two

a l l y associated with the fool tradition--also

f i g u r e s peripher-

i n d i c a t e s t h e darker a s p e c t s

of Barnaby 's c h a r a c t e r . l1 Barnaby cannot comprehend t h e passions of Hugh's

embittered s p i r i t o r Dennis's t w i s t e d love of punishment, b u t h e becomes
t h e i r comrade and standard-bearer,

c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e c o r r u p t crusade with

equal violence:
Covered w i t h s o o t , and d i r t , and d u s t , and l i m e ; t h e i r garments
t o r n t o r a g s ; t h e i r h a i r hanging w i l d l y about them; t h e i r hands
and f a c e s jagged and b l e e d i n g w i t h t h e wounds of r u s t y n a i l s ;
Barnaby, Hugh, and Dennis h u r r i e d on b e f o r e them a l l [ t h e r i o t e r s ] ,
l i k e hideous madnen. A f t e r them, t h e dense throng c a m f i g h t i n g on:
some s i n g i n g , some s h o u t i n g i n triumph; some q u a r r e l l i n g among
themselves; some menacing t h e s p e c t a t o r s as they passed; some w i t h

g r e a t wooden fragments, on which they s p e n t t h e i r rage a s i f

they had been a l i v e , rending them limb from limb, and h u r l i n g
t h e s c a t t e r e d morsels high i n t o t h e a i r ; some i n a drunken
s t a t e , unconscious of t h e h u r t s they had received from f a l l i n g
b r i c k s , and s t o n e s , and beams; one borne upon a s h u t t e r , i n
t h e very midst, covered with a dingy c l o t h , a s e n s e l e s s , g h a s t l y
heap. (50, 385-6)
P a r t a k i n g of t h i s widespread v i o l e n c e , Barnaby a l s o d i s p l a y s murderous
aggression:

"Next moment he was back i n t h e s t a b l e , d e a l i n g blows about

him l i k e a madman.

Wo of t h e men l a y s t r e t c h e d a t h i s f e e t :

had marked, dropped f i r s t - h e

and h u r r y of t h e s t r u g g l e .

t h e one h e

had a thought f o r t h a t , even i n t h e h o t blood

Another blow--another!"

( 5 7 , 439-40).

As the

madman b a t t l e s l i k e a madman, Dickens's i n t r i c a t e l y i r o n i c word-play is s k i l l f u l l y presented.

Barnaby, possessed by t h e d i v i n e madness of n a t u r a l m o r a l i t y

and r e l i g i o u s i n s i g h t , y e t t a i n t e d by h i s demonic a s s o c i a t i o n s and h i s own

clouded i n t e l l i g e n c e , embraces t h e d e s t r u c t i v e madness of s e n s e l e s s aggression.

H e may b e l i e v e t h a t he i s f i g h t i n g f o r t h e t r u e cause (and, i n one

sense, he alone among the combatants i n t h i s scene has pure i n t e n t i o n s ) , y e t

h i s v i r t u e i s i n s e p a r a b l e from Hugh's and Dennis's b r u t a l i t y .
J u s t a s t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e of Barnaby's d i v i n e and demonic madness
exemplifies h i s t h e m a t i c a l l y i l l u m i n a t i n g ambiguity, s o Gordon's r o l e i n t h e
campaign p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r complexity.

H i s r e l i g i o u s z e a l o t r y and l i m i t e d

understanding r e l e a s e ungovernable f o r c e s of d e s t r u c t i o n ; he is the pawn of

power-seekers,

c o n t r i b u t i n g by h i s s e l f - d e l u s i o n t o t h e spreading t e r r o r :

This l o r d w a s s i n c e r e i n h i s v i o l e n c e and i n h i s wavering. A n a t u r e

prone t o f a l s e enthusiasm, and t h e v a n i t y of being a l e a d e r , were
t h e worst q u a l i t i e s apparent i n h i s composition. A l l t h e rest was
weaknees-sheer weakness; and i t is t h e unhappy l o t of thoroughly
weak men, t h a t t h e i r very sympathies, a f f e c t i o n s , confidences--all
t h e q u a l i t i e s which i n b e t t e r c o n s t i t u t e d minds a r e virtues--dwindle
i n t o f o i b l e s , o r t u r n i n t o downright v i c e s . (36, 275)
Even w i t h t h e s e darker c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , however, Barnaby and Gordon a r e
t o o f i r m l y s i t u a t e d w i t h i n t h e Erasmian-Pauline t r a d i t i o n t o be wholly convinc-

i n g symbols of evil.

Functioning a s both t h e fool-seer and t h e embodiment

of n a t u r a l moral p r i n c i p l e , Barnaby continues t o a c t a s a c h o r i c v o i c e ,

i n t u i t i v e l y p e n e t r a t i n g t h e atmosphere of fanaticism:

"This f l i g h t and

p u r s u i t , t h i s c r u e l burning and d e s t r o y i n g , t h e s e d r e a d f u l c r i e s and stunning n o i s e s , were they t h e good l o r d ' s noble cause!" (68, 524).

H e re-enters

London only t o f i n d i t "peopled by a l e g i o n of d e v i l s " (524), while he himself

'

..

is " f u l l of c a r e s now, and r e g r e t s , and dismal r e c o l l e c t i o n s ; and wishes

( q u i t e unknown t o him before) t h a t t h i s o r t h a t event had never happened, and
t h a t t h e sorrow and s u f f e r i n g of s o many people had been spared" (69, 529).
Gordon, l i k e w i s e , d e s p i t e h i s deluded madness, a l s o comes t o r e p r e s e n t t h e
f o r c e s of v i r t u e and (paradoxically) of s a n i t y :
He had h i s mourners. The p r i s o n e r s bemoaned h i s l o s s , and missed
him; f o r though h i s means were n o t l a r g e , h i s c h a r i t y was g r e a t ,
and i n bestowing alms among them he considered t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of
a l l a l i k e , and knew no d i s t i n c t i o n of s e c t o r creed. There a r e w i s e
men i n t h e highways of t h e world who may l e a r n something, even from
t h i s poor crazy l o r d who died i n Newgate.
(629)
They may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e r i o t s ' h o r r o r , b u t Barnaby and Gordon r e t a i n an
innocent moral s e n s i b i l i t y .

Their f o l l y l e a d s them i n t o violence, y e t , a s

holy f o o l s , they r e p r e s e n t t h e f o r c e s a n t a g o n i s t i c t o violence, t h e f o r c e s ,

i n f a c t , which redeem t h e world from v i o l e n c e .
Barnaby Rudge, t h e r e f o r e , c l e a r l y c a r r i e s " a l l t h e weight of meaning
t h a t [Dickens's] f a b l e demands."

H e i s t h e Holy Innocent, t h e fool-seer,

the

s o c i a l c r i t i c , and t h e moral touchstone who r e v e a l s t h e wisdom and f o l l y of

others.

As t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c l a i r v o y a n t f o o l , he f o r e t e l l s and e l u c i d a t e s t h e

f o r c e s of d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t u n d e r l i e h i s s o c i e t y .
f o r t h e rioters--innocent,

H e i s t h e standard-bearer

unenlightened, yearning, and demonic--and

t h e i r symbolic counterbalance.

he is

Mckens recognizes both t h e n o b i l i t y and

t e r r o r of t h i s "popular u p r i s i n g , " t a c i t l y approving i t s life-energy w h i l e

damning i t s excesses, p r a i s i n g t h e f o o l i s h i d e a l i s m of Gordon, and condemning

t h e savagery t h a t h i s f o l l y i n i t i a t e s .

Barnaby, t h e ambiguous f o o l - l u n a t i c

whose addled mind can see both t h e c o n s p i r a t o r i a l phantoms and t h e "face of

Heaven," i s t h e embodiment of Dickens's c o n t r a d i c t o r y response.
Barnabyts involvement w i t h t h e r i o t s , f i n a l l y , although l e a v i n g unimpaired 'his l o v e of freedom and i n t e r e s t i n a l l t h a t moved o r grew," e f f e c t s
a . s u b t l e change i n h i s fool-nature:
But he recovered by degrees: and although he could never s e p a r a t e
h i s condemnation and escape from t h e i d e a of a t e r r i f i c dream, h e
became, i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s , more r a t i o n a l . Dating from t h e t i e of
h i s recovery, he had a b e t t e r memory and g r e a t e r s t e a d i n e s s of
purpose; b u t a dark cloud overhung h i s whole previous e x i s t e n c e ,
and never c l e a r e d away. (633)
Even t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c can gain s t r e n g t h from h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n with e v i l , and
although Barnaby r e t a i n s h i s innocence and n a t u r a l a f f e c t i o n s , t h e more mys-

rn~q
I*
w

t i c a l , s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s vanish, l e a v i n g him g r e a t e r l u c i d i t y and l e s s magic.

1mnL

The "dark cloud,'' however, l y i n g a t t h e h e a r t of h i s c h a r a c t e r and connecting

IIFN
I1
1

him t o t h e d e s t r u c t i v e madness of t h e r i o t s , n e c e s s a r i l y remains e q u a l l y

s t r o n g , f o r t h e i n n a t e ambiguity t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s Barnaby's primary thematic
purpose cannot be d i s p e l l e d .
No o t h e r f o o l - l u n a t i c i n Dickens's f i c t i o n possesses a s prominent a posi t i o n a s Barnaby Rudge and few a r e a s morally ambiguous y e t a l l ( t o some
degree) s h a r e h i s b a s i c thematic f u n c t i o n , s e r v i n g a s t h e u n w i t t i n g embodiment
of d i s p a r a t e f o r c e s .

Even Smike, an e a r l i e r f o o l - f i g u r e , while a p p a r e n t l y

more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e moral innocence of t h e Pickwickian f o o l than t h e

ambiguity of subsequent Dickensian i d i o t s , r e v e a l s (though admittedly i n
embryonic form only) t h e o r i g i n s of t h i s concept.

"The most g r a t e f u l , s i n g l e -

h e a r t e d , a f f e c t i o n a t e c r e a t u r e , t h a t e v e r breathed" (NN,
- 30, 386), Smike i s
a unique a d a p t a t i o n of a c l a s s i c character-type--the

servant-mentor.

He may

l a c k t h e s e l f - r e l i a n t p e r s o n a l i t y and worldly experience of Sancho Panza o r

Dickens's own Sam Weller, b u t , " a t once t h e cause and p a r t n e r of [Nicholas's]

""
*@

rln
1

IIOYWIP

El

u:

5 t1

t o i l " (15, 172), h i s r o l e i n Nicholas's maturation i s no l e s s e f f e c t i v e than

~ a n c h o ' so r Weller's r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r n a i v e masters:

" t h e unhappy

b e i n g had e s t a b l i s h e d a hold upon h i s sympathy and compassion, which made

h i s h e a r t ache a t t h e prospect of t h e s u f f e r i n g [Smike] was d e s t i n e d t o
undergo" (13, 151).

J u s t a s t h e Fool's t e r r o r and s u f f e r i n g i n t h e tempest

evoke King L e a r ' s sympathy and s u p p o r t (11, 2, 68-73),

s o Snike's p a i n s awaken

Nicholas from h i s self-preoccupation and o b l i g e him t o t a k e a moral s t a n d

a g a i n s t t h e savagely v i n d i c t i v e Squeers, while h i s mere presence b e s i d e
Nicholas throughout t h e i r t r a v e l s s e r v e s a l i k e purpose, reminding Nicholas
(and t h e r e a d e r ) t h a t , even i n t h e p l e a s a n t company of t h e Crummles and t h e
i d y l l i c Cheeryble f o o l community, t h e b r u t a l inhumanity of t h e o u t s i d e world
undeniably exists.

Virgil Grillo offers a similar interpretation:

Smike is a symbol of Nicholas' l o s s of innocence i n h i s encounter

w i t h t h e e v i l of Dotheboys Hall. Appropriately, when Nicholas
l e a v e s t h e H a l l , Smike goes w i t h him. Moreover, a s Nicholas moves
towards a f i r m alignment w i t h t h e a b s o l u t e good of t h e Chearybles,
Smike begins t o grow ill. The l o g i c of h i s symbolic r o l e r e q u i r e s
t h a t h e d i e once Nicholas has f i n a l l y overcome t h e e v i l f o r c e s
t h a t have c r e a t e d c r e a t u r e s such a s ~ m i k e . 1 2
Although I would argue t h a t Smike's c e n t r a l f u n c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e meaning
of h i s i l l n e s s and death, a r e b e t t e r explained i n terms of h i s complex r e l a t i o n s b i p w i t h Kate Nickleby ( s e e Chapter Four), G r i l l o ' s argument i s nonethe-

less i l l d n a t i n g , i n d i c a t i n g Smike's thematic connections with t h e p a t t e r n

developed i n Barnaby Rudge.

Unlike Barnaby, Smike does n o t a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i -

p a t e i n t h e s e " e v i l f o r c e s , " b u t t h e e v e r v i s i b l e e f f e c t s of h i s v i c t i m i z a t i o n
perform a s i m i l a r dramatic purpose.

Barnaby combined t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y images

of d i v i n e and demonic madness; Smike, though a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e j o y f u l and

l o v i n g f o o l community, i s a c o n s t a n t image of t h e a n t i - s o c i e t y ' s
impulses.

opposing

H i s g r a t i t u d e t o Nicholas may s t i m u l a t e some improvemat i n h i s

mental-emotional s t a t e , b u t , i n v i r t u a l l y a l l h i s appearances, he r e p r e s e n t s

and r e c a l l s t h e s u f f e r i n g , s i c k n e s s , d e s p a i r , and death a l s o rampant i n t h e

human world, and beyond t h e power of holy innocence t o r e c t i f y .
A t Dotheboys, f o r example, when Nicholas, "wishing t o rouse t h e poor

h a l f - w i t t e d c r e a t u r e t o reason," t r i e s t o comfort Smike with t h e f a c i l e

assurance t h a t " t h e r e i s always hope," Smike responds,

...

Who w i l l t a l k t o
'What f a c e s w i l l smile on me when I die!
me i n those long n i g h t s ! They cannot come from home; they would
f r i g h t e n me, i f they d i d , f o r I don't know what i t i s , and
s h o u l d n ' t know them. Pain and f e a r , pain and f e a r f o r me, a l i v e
o r dead. No hope, no hope!'
(8, 97)
Smike's v i s i o n , i n f a c t , warped by h i s childhood experience, seldom rises
above h i s obsession w i t h death; he escapes with Nicholas, vowing " t o go with

you--an-ere--everywhere--to

t h e world's end--to

the churchyard grave" (13,

159), and even t h e promise of a home w i t h Kate and M r s . Nickleby only inc r e a s e s h i s morbid s p e c u l a t i o n s :
' I could n o t p a r t from you t o go t o any home on e a r t h , ' r e p l i e d
Smike, p r e s s i n g h i s hand; 'except one, except one. I s h a l l never
be an o l d man; and i f your hand placed m e i n t h e grave, and I could
t h i n k , b e f o r e I d i e d , t h a t you would come and look upon i t sometimes
with one of your kind smiles, and i n t h e summer weather, when everyt h i n g was alive--not dead l i k e =--I could go t o t h a t home, almost
without a t e a r . '
'Why do you t a l k t h u s , poor boy, i f your l i f e i s a happy one with
me? ' s a i d Nicholas.
'Because I should change; not those about me. And i f they f o r g o t
ne, 2 should-never know i t , ' r e p l i e d Smike. ' I n t h e churchyard w e
a r e a l l a l i k e , b u t h e r e t h e r e a r e none l i k e me. I am a poor c r e a t u r e ,
b u t I know t h a t . ' (35, 443)
Even when accepted i n t o t h e l o v i n g household e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e Cheeryblea,
Smike i s d i s t r a u g h t by h i s confused f e e l i n g s towards Kate and h e r s u i t o r ,
Frank Cheeryble, and cannot f i n d peace ("Who was t h a t who, i n t h e s i l e n c e of
h i s own chamber, sunk upon h i s knees t o pray a s h i s f i r s t f r i e n d had taught
him, and f o l d i n g h i s hands and s t r e t c h i n g them w i l d l y i n t h e a i r , f e l l upon
h i s f a c e i n a passion of b i t t e r g r i e f ? " [ 4 3 , 5 6 6 ] ) , f o r , d e s p i t e t h e s o l i c i tous a t t e n t i o n s of h i s new family, Smike remains mentally paralysed, h i e

development a t r o p h i e d by h i s e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e of s u f f e r i n g .

Re-captured by

S q u e e r s , f o r example, Smike immediately f e l l i n t o a " s t a t e of apathy and

t e r r o r " and " c r e p t t o bed t h e same l i s t l e s s , h o p e l e s s , b l i g h t e d c r e a t u r e ,
t h a t Nicholas had f i r s t found him a t t h e Yorkshire school" (38, 500).

His

f l i g h t w i t h Nicholas from Dotheboys had been o n l y p h y s i c a l , and S q u e e r s ' s

t y r a n n y , deeply-ingrained

i n t o Smike's psyche, had n e v e r been genuinely

vanquished o r escaped.
The "dark cloud" which overhung Barnaby's l i f e and "never c l e a r e d away"
a f f irmed t h a t t h e f o o l ' s i n n a t e ambiguity would c o n t i n u e unabated; and,
a l t h o u g h V i r g i l G r i l l o i s c o r r e c t i n p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t Smike's symbolic r o l e
must end i n d e a t h , d e a t h i s n o t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e end of Smike's t h e m a t i c
effect.

The h o l y f o o l s d e f e a t t h e d a r k e r c h a r a c t e r s , and f u t u r e h a p p i n e s s is

I
I
I

c l e a r l y promised by t h e m a r r i a g e s of Frank and Kate, Nicholas and Madeline,

l

and by t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e Nickleby family home i n i t s p a s t o r a l s e t t i n g .

Yet even i n t h e midst of t h i s i d y l l i c c o n c l u s i o n , t h e f i n a l s c e n e (and i l l u s t r a t i o n ) i n t h e novel r e t u r n t o t h e work's dominant symbol of i n n o c e n t ,
irremediable suffering:
The g r a s s was green above t h e dead b o y ' s g r a v e , and trodden by f e e t
s o s m a l l and l i g h t , t h a t n o t a d a i s y drooped i t s head beneath t h e i r
p r e s s u r e . Through a l l t h e s p r i n g and summer-time, g a r l a n d s of
f r e s h f l o w e r s , wreathed by i n f a n t hands, r e s t e d on t h e s t o n e ; and,
when t h e c h i l d r e n came t h e r e t o change them lest t h e y should w i t h e r
and b e p l e a s a n t t o him no l o n g e r , t h e i r eyes f i l l e d w i t h tears, and
t h e y spoke low and s o f t l y of t h e i r poor dead c o u s i n . (65, 831)
Like Barnaby, f i n a l l y , Smike s h a r e s t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s

capacity t o represent

c o n t r a d i c t o r y f o r c e s and e l e m e n t s , d i s p l a y i n g t h e f a i t h f u l d e v o t i o n and
n a t u r a l a f f e c t i o n of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t , a s w e l l a s t h e s u f f e r i n g , n e g l e c t , and
d e s p a i r t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e Squeers-Ralph Nickleby world.

While h e does n o t

p o s s e s s any morally ambiguous motives (he i s a p a s s i v e r a t h e r t h a n a c t i v e

image of c o r r u p t i o n ) , h i s major fool-function--bringing

i n t o t h e Cheeryble

community a l i v i n g symbol of t h e d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s r e i g n i n g i n t h e l a r g e r
foreshadows t h e more developed use of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c i n

society--clearly

Barnaby Rudge, and e n r i c h e s t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of Nicholas Nickleby's

thematic concerns by tempering t h e novel's p r e v a i l i n g optimism.
From h i s e a r l i e s t appearances, then, t h e Dickensian i d i o t plays a somewhat d i f f e r e n t r o l e i n t h e Holy Innocent's c o n f l i c t with e v i l than t h e
Piclarickian fool.

He s h a r e s t h e b a s i c function of counterbalancing s o c i a l

corruption, b u t h i s c e n t r a l thematic r o l e s a r e more varied and complex.

Ranging from Smike's function a s a necessary mnemonic symbol of pain and
death, t o Barnaby's ambiguous p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e Gordon r i o t s , i n s e v e r a l
cases when Dickens's v i s i o n of t h e Holy Innocent's c o n f l i c t i s fraught with
doubt, unease, o r ambivalence, t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c i s t h e concrete expression
of such c o n t r a d i c t i o n and u n c e r t a i n t i e s .
Barnaby Rudge.

This p a t t e r n p e r s i s t s even a f t e r

I have e a r l i e r argued, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t The Chimes, though

s t r e s s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of moral redemption, p r e s e n t s one of t h e f i r s t

i n d i c a t i o n s of ~ i c k e n s ' swaning f a i t h i n t h e Holy Innocent's moral power;
and, i n such a t r a n s i t i o n a l work, i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c

i s again t h e chosen motif f o r Dickens's complex vision.13

Ostensibly, The

Chimes deals with Toby Veck's moral conversion, and while I do not question
Dickens's s i n c e r i t y , t h e work's f a c i l e conclusion, as a b r i e f account of
Toby's r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c convention w i l l demonstrate, cannot
mask Dickens's deep-rooted doubts.
Like Barnaby, who "sees" t h e c o n f l i c t i n g impulses of h i s world r e f l e c t e d
i n clothes and moonlight, Toby "hears" s i m i l a r l y a n t i t h e t i c a l concepts i n t h e
peals of t h e church-bells.

T r o t t y ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l - s p i r i t u a l a s s o c i a t i o n with

the chimes (obliquely suggested by t h e i r a c t u a l physical resemblances [I, 851)

is, moreover, a highly developed usage of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s b a s i c motif.

The

Bells, t h e v o i c e ( f o r Toby) through which t h e s o c i a l world speaks, a r e i n

t u r n t h e e x t e r n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of h i s f o o l - i n s i g h t s ;

their relationship,

i n e f f e c t , is c i r c u l a r , Toby's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y animating t h e Bells' v o i c e ,

t h e Bells then o f f e r i n g him a more a r t i c u l a t e image of h i s own confused
thoughts.

E a r l y i n the work, f o r example, Toby s c o r n s t h e s u g g e s t i o n of t h e

chimes "being connected w i t h any E v i l thing" (86), and t h e i r p e a l s sympatheti c a l l y echo h i s own hopefulness:

. . . Toby Veck,

Toby!

"'Toby Veck, Toby Veck, keep a good h e a r t ,

Toby Veck, job coming soon, Toby!"'

(90-1).

As Toby's

s u s c e p t i b l e f o o l - n a t u r e ( l i k e Barnaby's e a s i l y deluded innocence) succumbs

t o t h e p e r v e r s e i n f l u e n c e of F i l e r and Cute, however, t h e B e l l s , a t once t h e
v o i c e of s o c i e t y and of h i s own mental p e r p l e x i t y , sound a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t
peal :
'Wrong every way. Wrong every way!' s a i d T r o t t y , c l a s p i n g h i s
hands.
'Born bad. No b u s i n e s s here!'
The Chiues came c l a s h i n g i n upon him a s he s a i d t h e words. F u l l ,
loud, and sounding--but w i t h no encouragement. No, not a drop.
'The t u n e ' s changed,' c r i e d t h e o l d man, a s he l i s t e n e d . 'There's
n o t a word of a l l t h a t fancy i n i t . Why should t h e r e be? I have no
b u s i n e s s w i t h t h e New Year nor with t h e o l d one n e i t h e r . Let me d i e ! '
S t i l l t h e B e l l s , p e a l i n g f o r t h t h e i r changes, made t h e very a i r
spin. Put ' e m down, Put ' e m down! Good o l d Times, Good o l d Times!
F a c t s and Figures, F a c t s and Figures! Put 'em down, Put 'em down!
I f they s a i d anything they s a i d t h i s , u n t i l t h e b r a i n of Toby r e e l e d .
(100-1)
J u s t a s Barnaby unwittingly i n c o r p o r a t e d c o n f l i c t i n g extremes, opposing and
p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s o c i a l v i o l e n c e , s o Toby, unconsciously r e f l e c t i n g d i s p a r a t e
s u p e r n a t u r a l and s o c i a l f o r c e s , d i s p l a y s some i n n a t e moral ambiguity.

H e may

s t i l l a c t wfth c h a r i t y towards W i l l Fern and L i l i a n (11, 113), b u t , i n h i s

response t o the newspaper account of t h e d e s t i t u t e mother, he endorses t h e
Filer-Cute viewpoint:
cruel!

"'Unnatural and c r u e l ! ' Toby c r i e d .

'Unnatural and

None b u t people who were bad a t h e a r t , born bad, who had no b u s i n e s s

on t h e e a r t h , could do such deeds.

too j u s t , t o o f u l l of proof.

It's too t r u e , a l l I ' v e heard to-day;

We're Bad! "I

(117).

Even Toby's c l i m a c t i c r e v e l a t i o n i s marked by u n c e r t a i n t y r a t h e r than

clarity.

A s t h e c h i l d - s p i r i t s t a t e s , i n a passage p e r f e c t l y d e s c r i b i n g t h e

f o o l - l u n a t i c h i m s e l f , t h e phantoms of t h e B e l l s "take such shapes and occupat i o n s a s t h e hopes and thoughts of m o r t a l s , and t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n s they have
s t o r e d up, give them" (111, 125).

And t h u s , although one p a r t o f Veck's mind

s t i l l h o l d s f a s t t o t h e Holy Innocent vision--manifested

t h e Bells--and

a s t h e Goblin of

acknowledges t h e chimes a s a Heavenly f o r c e beyond any imputa-

t i o n of human e v i l (122-4),

t h e s e s p e c t r a l f i g u r e s , "ugly, handsome, c r i p p l e d ,

e x q u i s i t e l y formed," a l s o embody T r o t t y ' s f o o l - s e n s i t i v e awareness of man's

weaknesses and absurd p u r s u i t s :

H e saw t h e s e c r e a t u r e s , n o t only among s l e e p i n g men b u t waking a l s o ,

a c t i v e i n p u r s u i t s i r r e c o n c i l a b l e with one a n o t h e r , and possessing o r
assuming n a t u r e s t h e most o p p o s i t e . He saw one buckling on innumera b l e wings t o i n c r e a s e h i s speed; another l o a d i n g himself with chains
and weights, t o r e t a r d h i s . He saw some p u t t i n g t h e hands of clocks
forward, some p u t t i n g t h e hands of clocks backward, some endeavouring
t o s t o p t h e clock e n t i r e l y . He saw them r e p r e s e n t i n g , h e r e a marriage
ceremony, t h e r e a f u n e r a l ; i n t h i s chamber an e l e c t i o n , i n t h a t a b a l l ;
he saw, everywhere, r e s t l e s s and u n t i r i n g motion.
(120-1)
Toby may wish t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e B e l l s r e p r e s e n t u n s u l l i e d s p i r i t u a l - m o r a l
f o r c e s , b u t , i n t h e i r symbiotic r e l a t i o n s h i p with h i s own mind, they a r t i c u l a t e
an e q u a l l y ambiguous v i s i o n , p r e s e n t i n g a dual image of d i v i n e wisdom and
human corruption.
This d u a l i t y gains c o n s i d e r a b l e importance when s e e n i n conjunction with
The Chimes's l a r g e r thematic i s s u e s .

The v i s i o n of p a i n and d e s p e r a t i o n t h a t

t h e Bells impart t o Toby does, of course, s e r v e a s a homeopathic cure f o r h i s

moral confusion, and while I am n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t h i s conversion is merely
a sham o r t h a t T r o t t y remains a s morally impoverished a s Cute, F i l e r , o r
Bawley, o t h e r f a c t o r s tend t o confuse and undermine t h i s seemingly s t r a i g h t forward r e s o l u t i o n .

F i r s t , a s noted i n t h e previous c h a p t e r , The Chimes

p r e s e n t s a d o u b t f u l conclusion, t h e Holy Innocent r e - a s s e r t i n g h i s n a t u r a l

m o r a l i t y b u t e x e r t i n g no s u b s t a n t i a l redemptive e f f e c t on t h e p e r v a s i v e
social evils.

I n t h i s connection i t i s perhaps worth n o t i n g t h a t Dickens's

o r i g i n a l o u t l i n e f o r t h e s t o r y proposed t h a t "Toby on h i s knees w i l l beg and

pray f o r mercy; and i n t h e end t h e b e l l s w i l l s t o p h e r [Meg], by t h e i r v o i c e s ,
J u s t i n t i m e . "14 I n t h e f i n a l v e r s i o n of t h e t a l e , t h e b e l l s do no such
t h i n g , t h e c o n c l u s i o n remaining d e l i b e r a t e l y ambiguous, a s s e r t i n g d e s t r u c t i o n
and redemption c o n c u r r e n t l y .

Second, j u s t a s Dickens's response t o Barnaby

Rudge's r e v o l u t i o n a r y v i o l e n c e was obviously a m b i v a l e n t , s o h i s a p p a r e n t

a f f i r m a t i o n of T r o t t y ' s b e l i e f i n t h e v i r t u e of p a t i e n c e , i n t h e p a s s i v e hope
t h a t ( i n some unexplained manner) t h e oppressed w i l l b e v i n d i c a t e d , i s n o t
convincing.

Even w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c m o t i f , Michael

Goldberg's a n a l y s i s of t h e Carlyean i n f l u e n c e i n The Chimes a r r i v e s a t a

s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n , a r g u i n g t h a t " t h e ambiguity of T r o t t y Veck's v i s i o n of
Ill' t t 1 4

t h e f u t u r e is t h e e x p r e s s i o n of genuine p o l i t i c a l confusion on Dickens' p a r t .

mi!!

The Chimes may end w i t h a Dickensian Christmas f e s t i v a l , b u t , a s Dickens's

rnl~rl%

d e p i c t i o n s have become i n c r e a s i n g l y menacing and powerful, t h e work's r o s e a t e

c o n c l u s i o n (and, by i m p l i c a t i o n , Dickens's b e l i e f i n t h a t c o n e l u s i o n ) i s
seriously qualified.
Barnaby Rudge achieved a s p i r i t u a l l y e d i f y i n g r e v e l a t i o n denied t o t h e

"wiser" c h a r a c t e r s of h i s s o c i a l world, and y e t , t h e "dark cloud" and t h e

demonic Grip remain w i t h him even a f t e r h i s r e n u n c i a t i o n of t h e Gordon r i o t s ,
f o r h i s t h e m a t i c importance i n Dickens's v i s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y d e r i v e d from t h e
i n n a t e ambiguity of h i s moral n a t u r e .

S u f f i c i e n t doubts, likewise, a r e enter-

t a i n e d i n The Qlimes t o c l e a r l y s u g g e s t t h a t Toby's r e - a s s e r t i o n of t h e

Christmas C a r o l philosophy i s e s s e n t i a l l y t e n t a t i v e , and, l i k e Barnaby's,
i t i s Toby's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h b o t h t h e Holy Innocent and f o o l - l u n a t i c con-

v e n t i o n s t h a t e x e m p l i f i e s t h i s atmosphere of a f f i r m a t i o n and misgiving.

On

J ur

.Irlil

t h e one hand, a s Holy I n n o c e n t , Veck r e p r e s e n t s t h e work's i n t e n s e l y o p t i m i s t i c s u r f a c e l e v e l , c e l e b r a t i n g t h e Dickensian f o o l ' s r e s i l i e n c y and

moral s t r e n g t h .

On t h e o t h e r hand, a t a deeper (and p e r h a p s t r u e r ) l e v e l ,

r e g i s t e r i n g a l l Dickens's d o u b t s and u n c e r t a i n t i e s about t h e c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t ,

Toby, as ambiguous f o o l - l u n a t i c ,

is the necessary counterstatement.

Confirm-

i n g and q u e s t i o n i n g h i s own redemption, t h e v e r s a t i l e f o o l - l u n a t i c once

a g a i n e x e m p l i f i e s t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s of Dickens's s o c i a l and moral a n a l y s i s .
Such i s t h e Dickensian f o o l ' s t h e m a t i c v e r s a t i l i t y , i n f a c t , t h a t even
t h e f r e q u e n t l y ambiguous o r confused f o o l - l u n a t i c can b e adapted t o more
p o s i t i v e moral purposes.

While Barnaby's, Gordon's,

and Toby's primary f o o l -

f u n c t i o n s i n v o l v e t h e i n n a t e t e n s i o n between t h e i r Holy Innocent p u r i t y and

t h e i r f o o l - l u n a t i c ambiguity, t h e two m o t i f s can be s u c c e s s f u l l y f u s e d , producing a more v a r i e d f o o l - f i g u r e ,

more i n t r i c a t e l y connected w i t h t h e

Pickwickian f o o l ' s power t o p r e s e n t an a m e l i o r a t i v e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o s o c i a l

evil.

I n such an i n n o v a t i v e metamorphosis, t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c s t i l l r e t a i n s

h i s e s s e n t i a l c a p a c i t y t o r e f l e c t c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s , b u t t h i s primary
f o o l - f u n c t i o n i s s u b t l y transformed, w h i l e t h e n a t u r a l f o o l h i m s e l f e v o l v e s
from a q u a s i - c o r r u p t p a r t i c i p a n t i n s o c i a l e v i l , t o an uncorrupt s a t i r i c
f i g u r e unconsciously parodying t h e world h e r e f l e c t s .

This motif (among

o t h e r s ) w a s p a r t l y i n t r o d u c e d i n Barnaby Rudge, whose f e e b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e

p r o v i d e s an i r o n i c comment on h i s s e l f - s a t i s f i e d f e l l o w - r i o t e r s ,

and t h e n

more e l a b o r a t e l y developed i n such g e n t l e r f o o l - f i g u r e s a s M r . Toots and

M r . Dick, c h a r a c t e r s who, r a t h e r t h a n embodying any t e n s i o n o r confusion i n
Dickens's v i s i o n of s o c i a l c o n f l i c t , echo and a t t a c k t h e confusion i n t h e
l a r g e r s o c i a l world.

To t h i s end, Toots and M r . Dick, w h i l e s t i l l s h a r i n g

t h e i r l u n a t i c p r e c u r s o r s ' s e n s i t i v i t y t o s o c i a l impulses and r o l e a s a

mnemonic image of t h o s e impulses' d e s t r u c t i v e power, are more thoroughly

imbued w i t h t h e Holy ~ n n o c e n t ' s moral insight: and r e s i l i e n c y , e v e n t u a l l y

forming a major i n n o v a t i o n i n Dickens's use of t h e i d i o t convention.
I n i t i a l l y a t l e a s t , M r . T o o t s , i n a d d i t i o n t o i l l u m i n a t i n g such primary
f a c e t s of t h e Dickensian f o o l t r a d i t i o n a s t h e f o o l ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e
i n n o c e n t c h i l d and t h e i d e a l i z e d woman, p r e s e n t s a complex image of t h e b a s i c
s a t i r i c - p a r o d i c function.

Although f a r l e s s dehumanized t h a n Smike o r morally

ambiguous than Barnaby and Toby, Toots s e r v e s s i m i l a r t h e m a t i c r o l e s .

Both

Smike and Toots, f o r example, e x p e r i e n c e a damaging e d u c a t i o n and cannot

advance beyond a r e l a t i v e l y simple i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l , t h e i r mental i n f e r i o r i t y symbolizing t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l by an u n e n l i g h t e n e d s o c i a l
system.

T o o t s ' s i m b e c i l i t y , moreover, a s i n t h e c a s e s of Barnaby and Veck,

h e i g h t e n s h i s s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o more powerful p e r s o n a l i t i e s and i n f l u e n c e s ;

t h e s o u r c e of h i s s a t i r i c a b i l i t y i s , i n f a c t , l i k e p r e v i o u s f o o l - l u n a t i c s ' ,
p r e c i s e l y t h i s l a c k of i n d i v i d u a l w i l l o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

"Fired w i t h a noble

emulation t o pursue a b r i l l i a n t and d i s t i n g u i s h e d c a r e e r " ( 2 2 , 313, my i t a l i c s ) ,

Toots surrounds himself w i t h meaningless l u x u r i e s and t h e semblances of r e f i n e ment, a u t o m a t i c a l l y (and confusedly) r e f l e c t i n g whatever impulses p r e s e n t
themselves t o h i s addled mind.

I n g e n e r a l , t h i s motif o p e r a t e s a t two l e v e l s :

f i r s t , a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d parody, mocking by b e l i t t l i n g , and second, a more

s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m , exposing t h e i n n e r c o r e of t h e non-fool world-view.

On

t h e one hand, i n c o n t r a s t t o Barnaby and Veck, who r e f l e c t profound

p h i l o s o p h i c - s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s , t h e c o n f l i c t s embodied by t h e comic Toots i n volve a somewhat l e s s e r o r d e r of i n f l u e n c e s :
But n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h i s modest confidence i n h i m s e l f , M r . Toots
appeared t o b e i n v o l v e d i n a good d e a l of u n c e r t a i n t y whether, on
t h e whole, i t was j u d i c i o u s t o b u t t o n t h e bottom b u t t o n of h i s
w a i s t c o a t , and whether, on a calm r e v i s i o n of a l l t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
i t w a s b e s t t o wear h i s w r i s t b a n d s turned up o r t u r n e d down.
Observing t h a t M r . F e e d e r ' s were t u r n e d up, M r . Toots t u r n e d h i s up;
b u t t h e w r i s t b a n d s of t h e n e x t a r r i v a l b e i n g t u r n e d down, M r . Toots
t u r n e d h i s down. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o i n t of w a i s t c o a t b u t t o n i n g ,

n o t o n l y a t t h e bottom, b u t a t t h e t o p t o o , became s o numerous

and complicated a s t h e a r r i v a l s t h i c k e n e d , t h a t M r . Toots was
c o n t i n u a l l y f i n g e r i n g t h a t a r t i c l e of d r e s s , a s i f he were
performing on some i n s t r u m e n t ; and appeared t o f i n d t h e i n c e s s a n t
(14, 196)
e x e c u t i o n i t demanded, q u i t e b e w i l d e r i n g .
On t h e o t h e r hand, a l t h o u g h M r . Toots embodies f a r l e s s momentous c o n f l i c t s
than previous fool-lunatics,

Dickens's new r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i d i o t ' s comic

p o t e n t i a l ( i n c l u d i n g , f o r example, t h e even more i m b e c i l i c J a c k Bunsby

does n o t i m p a i r t h e f o o l ' s t h e m a t i c importance.

16

And T o o t ' s f o o l - l u n a t i c

s u s c e p t i b i l i t y n o t o n l y produces such comic b u r l e s q u e s of t h e f a s h i o n a b l e

w o r l d ' s a f f e c t a t i o n s as t h e s e i n c e s s a n t b u t t o n i n g s and u n b u t t o n i n g s , b u t
c r i t i c i z e s t h a t w o r l d ' s moral impoverishment a s w e l l .

As Kathleen T i l l o t s o n s u g g e s t s , "speech a f t e r speech, l1 o r , I submit,

a c t i o n a f t e r a c t i o n , "of Toots could be s e l e c t e d f o r i t s l u d i c r o u s b u t u n e r r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n t o t h e h e a r t of a s i t u a t i o n , "I7 f o r , i n h i s "noble emulation"
of t h e h i g h e r s o c i a l e c h e l o n s , t h e i m b e c i l e Toots p a r o d i e s t h a t s o c i e t y ' s
o s t e n s i b l y c u l t u r e d v a l u e s , u n w i t t i n g l y r e f l e c t i n g and d e f l a t i n g i t s f o r a s
and i d e a l s .

Rendered permanently feeble-minded by Blimber's e d u c a t i o n a l

system, Toots (with i n s p i r e d fool-sense) b e g i n s " h i s own c o u r s e of s t u d y :

which was c h i e f l y t o w r i t e long l e t t e r s t o h i m s e l f from persons of d i s t i n c t i o n
[ i n c l u d i n g M r . Dombey]" ( 1 2 , 153), and which a b s u r d l y r i d i c u l e s both h i s
imaginary c o r r e s p o n d e n t s and t h e m e r c a n t i l e s o c i e t y ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l d e a l i n g s .
A t t h e same t i m e , T o o t s ' s f u t i l e l e t t e r - w r i t i n g i m p l i c i t l y r e p r e s e n t s a more

s e a r c h i n g c r i t i c i s m of t h e non-communication t h a t i n f e s t s and o b s c u r e s pers o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e Dombey world, w h i l e h i s i n n o c e n t p r i d e i n t h e

s a r t o r i a l c r e a t i o n s of "Burgess and Co.,"

though p r i m a r i l y enhancing h i s

comic e f f e c t , a l s o m i r r o r s and s a t i r i z e s t h e "wise" s o c i e t y ' s s u p e r f i c i a l

concern f o r appearance r a t h e r t h a n t r u e c h a r a c t e r .

H i s r e l a t i o n s h i p with the

p u g i l i s t i c Game Chicken, l i k e w i s e , c o n t i n u e s t h i s s a t i r i c a t t a c k ,

One might

a r g u e , f o r example, t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a comic c o u n t e r p a r t of Dornbey's

f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Major Bagstock, p r e s e n t i n g a g r o t e s q u e parody of p e r s o n a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s and patronage i n t h e f a s h i o n a b l e world.

Toots, eager t o enlarge

h i s s o c i a l accomplishments, b e f r i e n d e d t h e Chicken i n o r d e r t o b e n e f i t from

t h i s o b t u s e mentor's company and i n s t r u c t i o n ( i n i t s e l f , a s u f f i c i e n t l y s c a t h i n g d e n u n c i a t i o n of s o c i a l i d e a l s ) ; and when one r e c a l l s t h a t Dombey, "disposed t o r e g a r d [ ~ a g s t o c k ]a s a c h o i c e s p i r i t who shone i n s o c i e t y " (20, 272),
h a s a s i m i l a r b e l i e f about t h e Major, t h e parody i s complete.

Even w h i l e

e x i s t i n g as p e r f e c t l y comic elements i n t h e i r own r i g h t , T o o t s ' s f o o l - l u n a t i c

r e f l e c t i o n s o f dominant s o c i a l f o r c e s a r e i n t r i c a t e l y l i n k e d t o t h e n o v e l ' s
ongoing s a t i r i c c r i t i c i s m , p r e s e n t i n g " l u d i c r o u s b u t u n e r r i n g " i n s i g h t s i n t o

il
nlrPH ,ii

RW.sr,

;2

s o c i a l a f f e c t a t i o n s and c o r r u p t i o n s .

''7
b

As n o t e d e a r l i e r , Toots i s an uncorrupt s o c i a l s a t i r i s t ; h i s u n w i t t i n g
l i n k s t o t h e Dombey world a r e d e r i v e d from t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s

hi*

ma rsrb

mirroring

<

n a t u r e , b u t he i s f r e e of t h e moral ambiguity t h a t pervades Barnaby's and

I*.

Toby's f o o l - n a t u r e s .

H i s r e c u r r e n t p h r a s e , "It's of no consequence," f o r

example, although i n p a r t r e p r e s e n t i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous Dombey p r e c e p t

--the

non-fools'

a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e f o l l y of l o v e is indeed inconsequential--

i s transformed t o i n n o c e n t parody by T o o t s ' s serio-comic melancholia.

Toots,

i n f a c t , whose f e e l i n g s f o r F l o r e n c e a r e "of t h e g r e a t e s t consequence nevert h e l e s s " (41, 5 8 2 ) , h e r e r e v e a l s a f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n on t h e Dickensian fooll u n a t i c convention.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , u n l i k e o t h e r f o o l - l u n a t i c s , who, a l t h o u g h

p a r t a k i n g of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s moral n a t u r e , d e r i v e t h e i r g r e a t e s t t h e m a t i c

s i g n i f i c a n c e from t h e i r t a i n t i n g ambiguity, Toots, r e p e a t i n g t h e Pickwickian
p a t t e r n , g a i n s s u f f i c i e n t i n s i g h t and s t r e n g t h of c h a r a c t e r t o t r a n s c e n d h i s
susceptibility t o s o c i a l forces.

T h i s i s n o t , of c o u r s e , a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r -

mation (Toots, i n t r o d u c e d a s "a g r e a t l y overgrown cherub" (11, 1421, has

'lull t

*dl

always s h a r e d t h e Holy ~ n n o c e n t ' s C h r i s t i a n v i s i o n ) ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , a s

M r . Toots d e r i v e s s t r e n g t h from t h e p a i n and p u r i t y of h i s l o v e f o r F l o r e n c e ,

t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of h i s l u n a t i c - n a t u r e i s transformed t o g r e a t e r moral
awareness and independence of mind.

Like t h e Pickwickian f o o l , moreover,

Toots a c h i e v e s h i s i n c r e a s e d i n s i g h t f u l n e s s through a s y m p a t h e t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s s u f f e r i n g fellow-men:

'Oh, upon my word and honour,' c r i e d M r . Toots, whose t e n d e r
h e a r t w a s m v e d by t h e C a p t a i n ' s unexpected d i s t r e s s [ a t t h e news
o f Walter's presumed d e a t h ] , ' t h i s i s a most wretched s o r t of
a f f a i r t h i s world i s ! Somebody's always dying, o r going and doing
something uncomfortable i n i t . I ' m s u r e I n e v e r should have looked
forward s o much, t o coming i n t o my p r o p e r t y , i f I had known t h i s .
I n e v e r s a w such a world. I t ' s a g r e a t d e a l worse than Blimber's.

(32, 462)
Toots, t h u s , though d i s i l l u s i o n e d by t h i s b l e a k world, s h a r e s t h e Pickwickian
f o o l ' s r e s i l i e n c y , and, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e non-imbecilic members of t h e Dombey
c l i q u e , e v e n t u a l l y r e c o g n i z e s t h e shallowness of h i s own f a s h i o n a b l e facade
and ambitions:
'Although I am very w e l l o f f , ' s a i d M r . T o o t s , w i t h energy, 'you
c a n ' t t h i n k what a m i s e r a b l e Beast I am. The hollow crowd, you
know, when they s e e me w i t h t h e Chicken, and c h a r a c t e r s of
d i s t i n c t i o n l i k e t h a t , suppose me t o be happy; b u t I ' m wretched.
I s u f f e r f o r M i s s Dombey, Captain G i l l s .
I c a n ' t g e t through my
meals; I have no p l e a s u r e i n my t a i l o r ; I o f t e n c r y when I ' m a l o n e . '
(464-5)
Although Toots h a s n o t l o s t h i s dominant comic q u a l i t i e s ( t h i s lament, f o r
example, b l e n d s s i n c e r e remorse w i t h a b u r l e s q u e of c h i v a l r i c d e v o t i o n ) , h i s
r e n u n c i a t i o n of t h e "hollow crowd" and t h e f a s h i o n a b l e Burgess and Co.,

indi-

c a t i n g h i s d i m i n i s h i n g v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o t h e Dombey w o r l d ' s pseudo-values,

c l e a r l y r e v e a l s h i s developing moral v i s i o n and more independent judgment.
Even a " c h a r a c t e r of d i s t i n c t i o n " l i k e t h e Game Chicken e v e n t u a l l y proves uns a t i s f y i n g , and must b e dismissed due t o an " i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y of moral percept i o n " (56, 803, my i t a l i c s ) and, more i m p o r t a n t , t o t h e f a c t t h a t Toots has
advanced beyond any f a l s e s o c i a l ambitions.

He h a s become, i n f a c t , a s much

an a n t a g o n i s t a s a s a t i r i s t of t h e Dombey philosophy:

...

'There i s one t h i n g , ' s a i d M r . Toots

' t h a t I hope y o u ' l l
b e a r i n mind, Captain G i l l s , and t h a t I s h o u l d wish L i e u t e n a n t
W a l t e r s t o be made a c q u a i n t e d with. I have q u i t e come i n t o my
p r o p e r t y now, you know, and --and I d o n ' t know what t o do w i t h i t .
I f I could b e a t a l l u s e f u l i n a pecuniary p o i n t of view, I s h o u l d
g l i d e i n t o t h e s i l e n t tomb w i t h e a s e and smoothness.' (50, 708)
Wishing t o u s e h i s c a p i t a l f o r something o t h e r t h a n "a b r i l l i a n t and d i s t i n g u i s h e d c a r e e r , " and i m p l i c i t l y a s s e r t i n g ( l i k e t h e C a p t a i n ) t h a t money

i s v a l u e l e s s w i t h o u t c o n t r i b u t i n g t o human w e l f a r e , M r . Toots r e v e a l s a
complete b r e a k w i t h t h e d i s t u r b i n g Dombey i n f l u e n c e s .

The s a t i r i c r e f l e c t o r

of s o c i a l impulses h a s become t h e i r symbolic c o u n t e r b a l a n c e .

A s noted e a r l i e r , a s i m i l a r complexity of f o o l - f u n c t i o n s , merging t h e

Dickensian i d i o t ' s s u s c e p t i b i l i t y and t h e Pickwickian f o o l ' s r e s i l i e n t moral
s t r e n g t h , i s e v i d e n t i n David C o p p e r f i e l d ' s M r . Dick.

I n M r . Dick, i n f a c t ,

Dickens e x t e n d s t h e i n n o v a t i o n developed i n T o o t s ; M r . Dick's s a t i r i c and

m i r r o r i n g f u n c t i o n s (though s t i l l p o s s e s s i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e m a t i c importance)
a r e n o t merely a l t e r e d b u t a r e e v e n t u a l l y subsumed by h i s c l o s e r l i n k s w i t h
t h e moral v i s i o n of t h e Holy Innocent convention.
Like T o o t s ' s , n o n e t h e l e s s , M r . Dick's b a s i c s a t i r i c a l f u n c t i o n s d e r i v e
from h i s connections w i t h e a r l i e r f o o l - l u n a t i c s .

Some d e r i v e , i n p a r t , from

Toots h i m s e l f , a s M r . Dick d i s p l a y s a s i m i l a r union of comic a b s u r d i t y and

penetrating s a t i r i c criticism:
'Ha! Phoebus!' s a i d M r . Dick, l a y i n g down h i s pen.
'How does t h e
world go? 1'11 t e l l you what,' h e added, i n a lower t o n e , 'I
s h o u l d n ' t wish i t t o b e mentioned, b u t i t ' s a--' h e r e h e beckoned
a mad world. Mad as
t o me, and p u t h i s l i p s c l o s e t o my e a r - - ' i t ' s
Bedlam, boy!' s a i d M r . Dick, t a k i n g s n u f f from a round box on t h e
t a b l e , and l a u g h i n g h e a r t i l y .
(14, 202)

M r . Dick's i r o n i c q u i b b l e , on "mad" and "Bedlam,

"

though obviously unconscious,

r e p r e s e n t s a comic y e t s c a t h i n g a t t a c k on t h o s e who, deeming him deranged,

t r e a t e d him w i t h c a l l o u s inhumanity.

Recalling another fool-lunatic antecedent,

moreover, M r . Dick's permanently damaged m e n t a l i t y d u p l i c a t e s Smike's

mnemonic r o l e , r e p r e s e n t i n g a c o n s t a n t image of human c r u e l t y and t h e limits
of philanthropic.benevo1ence t o remedy s o c i a l e v i l .

M r . Dick's mental abnor-

m a l i t y , f i n a l l y , a s w i t h many p r e v i o u s f o o l - l u n a t i c s ,

by r e d u c i n g h i s own

i n t e l l e c t u a l s t a b i l i t y , p e r m i t s him t o embody d i s p a r a t e , ambiguous, o r conf l i c t i n g forces.

M r . D i c k ' s power t o r e f l e c t , s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n t r o d u c e s s t i l l

f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n s on t h i s most p r o t e a n f o o l - f u n c t i o n ,

and h a s s i g n i f i c a n t

c o n n e c t i o n s t o Dickens's d e e p e s t p s y c h o l o g i c a l problems.

A s S t a n l e y Tick h a s

c o n v i n c i n g l y argued, M r . D i c k ' s c o n s t a n t s t r u g g l e t o f r e e h i e Memorial from

t h e t r o u b l e - l a d e n head of C h a r l e s I m i r r o r s D i c k e n s ' s own c e n t r a l concern i n
t h e s e m i - a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l David Copperfield--the
t h e a n x i e t i e s and h u m i l i a t i o n s of h i s youth.

need t o e x p r e s s and e x o r c i z e

hCo

b ~ 4,m

18

U l t i m a t e l y , however, M r . Dick's more t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l - l u n a t i c q u a l i t i e s

,a#
dl YUl

merge w i t h t h e uncorrupted moral c l a r i t y of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t , and M r . Dick's

(d n

i d i o t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n r e f l e c t i n g ambiguity o r c o r r u p t i o n , becomes

1111
1
It

:Xi4

t h e f o u n d a t i o n of h i s spontaneous i n t u i t i v e sympathy:
He was by n a t u r e s o e x c e e d i n g l y compassionate o f any one who seemed
t o be ill a t e a s e , and was s o q u i c k t o f i n d any such person o u t ,
t h a t h e shook hands w i t h M r . Micawber, a t l e a s t half-a-dozen t i m e s
i n f i v e minutes. To M r . Micawber, i n h i s t r o u b l e , t h i s warmth, on
t h e p a r t of a s t r a n g e r , was s o extremely t o u c h i n g , t h a t h e c o u l d
o n l y s a y , on t h e o c c a s i o n of each s u c c e s s i v e shake, 'My d e a r s i r ,
you overpower me!'
Which g r a t i f i e d M r . Dick s o much, t h a t he went
a t it a g a i n w i t h g r e a t e r v i g o u r t h a n b e f o r e .
( 4 8 , 708, my i t a l i c s )
Unlike Barnaby o r Veck, whose f o o l - l u n a t i c n a t u r e r e f l e c t e d d i s r u p t i v e s o c i a l
c o n f l i c t s , M r . Dick i s s e n s i t i v e t o a n o t h e r ' s i n n e r p a i n , d i s p l a y i n g an
immediate s y m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of M r . W i c k f i e l d ' s d i s t r a u g h t e m o t i o n a l
s t a t e , and responding t o t h e wayworn David w i t h a h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d f u s i o n
of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s humanity and t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s

susceptible intuition.

M r . Dick's a d v i c e t o Betsey Trotwood c o n c e r n i n g David--"I

s h o u l d wash him"

(13, 193); "I s h o u l d p u t him t o bed" (198); "Have him measured f o r a s u i t of

c h i l d i s h l y l i t e r a l , i s an i n s t i n c t i v e l y

c l o t h e s d i r e c t l y " (14, 212)--although

h o s p i t a b l e r e s p o n s e , e x p r e s s i n g t h e c a r e and compassion t h a t B e t s e y ' s more

t a c i t u r n n a t u r e cannot e x p l i c i t l y r e v e a l .

Even i n t h a t l i t e r a l n e s s , moreover,

M r . Dick's recommendations, c o n c e n t r a t i n g on immediate p h y s i c a l n e e d s , a r e

perhaps more comforting and meaningful t o t h e o u t c a s t c h i l d t h a n any more
a b s t r a c t a d v i c e o r s a g e c o u n s e l could be.

Edgar Johnson o b s e r v e s t h a t M r .

Dick i s a "laughing b u r l e s q u e of p a r e n t a l i n e p t i t u d e , " 1 9 and y e t , a s M r . Dick

s t a t e s , "I s h a l l b e d e l i g h t e d

. . . to

b e t h e guardian of David's sonv' ( 2 1 4 ) ,

f o r , c h i l d - l i k e h i m s e l f , and p o s s e s s i n g t h e d i v i n e i d i o t ' s i n s i g h t f u l i n t u i t i o n , M r . Dick i n s t i n c t i v e l y r e c o g n i z e s and s a t i s f i e s David's t r u e emotional

needs.
The most n o t a b l e example of M r . Dick's i n t u i t i v e compassion i s , of c o u r s e ,
h i s l o v i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Doctor and Annie S t r o n g and h i s r o l e i n t h e
r e s o l u t i o n of t h e i r m a r i t a l misunderstandings.

A s David o b s e r v e s , " t h e r e i s

a s u b t l e t y of p e r c e p t i o n i n r e a l a t t a c h m e n t , even when i t i s borne towards man

by one of t h e lower animals, which l e a v e s t h e h i g h e s t i n t e l l e c t behind.

To

t h i s mind of t h e h e a r t , i f I may c a l l i t s o , i n M r . Dick, some b r i g h t r a y of

t h e t r u t h s h o t s t r a i g h t f ' ( 4 2 , 623).

D e s p i t e t h e n o t e of condescension i n t h i s

passage (an a s p e c t of Dickens's response t o t h e Holy Innocent which w i l l be

examined l a t e r ) , David's judgment i s a c c u r a t e .

I n h i s " r e a l attachment" t o

t h e S t r o n g s , M r . Dick "became what no one e l s e could be--a

(623).

l i n k between them"

M r . Dick h i m s e l f r e c o g n i z e s t h i s s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n , and when David

acknowledges t h a t t h e problem i s " t o o d e l i c a t e and d i f f i c u l t a s u b j e c t f o r

..

[David's and B e t s e y ' s ] i n t e r f e r e n c e , " M r . Dick g r a s p s t h a t ( l i k e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l ) h i s simple-mindedness

g r a n t s him a p r i v i l e g e d l i c e n s e :

..

' A poor f e l l o w w i t h
'Then, I have g o t i t , boy!' s a i d M r . Dick.
a craze, sir
a s i m p l e t o n , a weak-minded person--present company,
you know!' s t r i k i n g h i m s e l f a g a i n , 'may do what wonderful people may
n o t do. 1'11 b r i n g them t o g e t h e r , boy.
I ' l l t r y . T h e y ' l l n o t blame

...

T h e y ' l l n o t o b j e c t t o me. T h e y ' l l n o t mind what I do,

i f i t ' s wrong, I ' m o n l y M r . Dick. And who minds ~ i c k ?
Dick's a nobody! Whoo!'
(45, 653-4)

me.
-

M r . Dick's a c t u a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e ; l e a d i n g Annie i n t o t h e
D o c t o r ' s s t u d y where s h e k n e e l s b e s i d e h e r husband's c h a i r , M r . Dick merely
s t a t e s , "Doctor1

. . . What

i s i t t h a t ' s amiss?

Look here!":

'Annie!' c r i e d t h e Doctor.
'Not a t my f e e t , my dear!'
'Yes!' s h e s a i d .
'I beg and pray t h a t no one w i l l l e a v e t h e room!
Oh, my husband and f a t h e r , b r e a k t h i s l o n g s i l e n c e . L e t u s b o t h know
(657)
what i t i s t h a t h a s come between us!'

M r . D i c k ' s a c t i o n , t h e n , however u n p r e t e n t i o u s , b r e a k s t h e b a r r i e r s between

t h e S t r o n g s by a l l o w i n g Annie t o r e v e a l h e r t r u e f e e l i n g s , an achievement
beyond t h e g r e a t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e of t h e u n l i c e n s e d non-simpletons.

M r . Dick's

b r i e f speech, f u r t h e r m o r e , is perhaps l e s s t r a n s p a r e n t t h a n i t i n i t i a l l y
a p p e a r s (a q u a l i t y f r e q u e n t l y found i n t h e u t t e r a n c e s of t h e o r a c u l a r f o o l l u n a t i c ) , h i s s i m p l e comment "look here" i n d i c a t i n g b o t h "what i s amiss"
(Annie's sorrow) and t h e remedy (Annie's l o v e ) .
Throughout Dickens's p r e s e n t a t i o n of T o o t s ' s and M r . Dick's c h a r a c t e r ,
t h e n , t h e i r f o o l - l u n a t i c qualities--comedy,
function--complement

s a t i r e , m i r r o r i n g power, mnemonic

and s u p p o r t t h e i r moral r o l e s .

Whereas Barnaby's and

Toby's t h e m a t i c importance d e r i v e d from t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e i r Holy

Innocent n a t u r e and t h e s o c i a l f o r c e s t h e y r e f l e c t e d , i n Toots and M r . Dick,
t h e two conventions a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y j o i n e d , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s

traditional

a t t r i b u t e s s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e moral i n s i g h t and r e s i l i e n c y of t h e Holy

Innocent.

I n one s e n s e , t h i s i n n o v a t i o n seems a p e r f e c t l y l o g i c a l development.

Throughout h i s u s e of t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , Dickens h a s s t r e s s e d t h e f o o l ' s r o l e

a s t h e o u t c a s t y e t redemptive opponent of s o c i a l e v i l ; and, a l t h o u g h t h e f o o l l u n a t i c p e r m i t s Dickens t o e x p l o r e h i s own ambivalent r e s p o n s e t o t h i s c o n f l i c t ,
I

t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s r o l e a s e v i l ' s symbolic c o u n t e r b a l a n c e remains t h e

Dickensian f o o l ' s dominant f u n c t i o n .

Toots and M r . Dick, whose f o o l - l u n a t i c

q u a l i t i e s become t h e means by which t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h a t f u n c t i o n , a r e

t h e a p o t h e o s i s of t h e d i v i n e i d i o t convention.
This development, however, whatever i t s s u c c e s s i n Toots and Mr. Dick,
p a r a d o x i c a l l y p r e s a g e s f u r t h e r t r o u b l e s i n , and t h e e v e n t u a l d e c l i n e o f , t h e
f o o l - l u n a t i c i n Dickens's f i c t i o n .

Specifically, i t indicates that, a s the

s o c i a l f o r c e s which t h e i d i o t r e f l e c t s become i n c r e a s i n g l y menacing, t h e

f o o l - l u n a t i c can o n l y s u r v i v e by p a r t a k i n g of t h e Pickwickian m o t i f , t h u s
l o s i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t y of h i s p a r t i c u l a r convention.

Those few manifesta-

t i o n s of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c motif f o l l o w i n g David C o p p e r f i e l d , f o r example,

cannot e q u a l t h e Toots-Dick p a t t e r n .

I n n o v e l s where even t h e Pickwickian

f o o l s (such a s Jarndyce and B o f f i n ) can no l o n g e r s u c c e s s f u l l y combat t h e

powerful f o r c e s of t h e i r moral a n t a g o n i s t s , t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c s become c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s a c t i v e , l e s s d i r e c t l y involved i n c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n .

Miss F l i t e , though a f f e c t i o n a t e and s y m p a t h e t i c , and performing a v a l u a b l e

satiric-mnemonic

f u n c t i o n , i s completely dominated by t h e d e s t r u c t i v e shadow

of Chancery, becoming a harmless y e t impotent human being.

Unlike t h e d i v i n e

i d i o t , moreover, possessed by heavenly i n s p i r a t i o n ( f o r example, Barnaby's

s p i r i t u a l communion w i t h n a t u r e ) , Miss F l i t e r e g a r d s t h e c o r r u p t Court i n

terms of r e l i g i o u s imagery and s u p e r n a t u r a l powers

i n t h e fool-seer's

mystic i n s i g h t .

( E ,3,

33). a s e v e r e d e c l i n e

Those l a t e r Dickensian i d i o t s and mental

defectives sharing the fool-lunatic's

unconscious s u s c e p t i b i l i t y c a r r y t h e

convention's d e g e n e r a t i o n s t i l l f u r t h e r , o f t e n embodying an unalloyed mimetic

image of p e r v e r s e s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s .
House

-1

Co-existing w i t h Miss F l i t e i n Bleak

f o r i n s t a n c e , i s t h e s e n i l e Grandmother Smallweed, a t o t a l l y u n a t t r a c -

t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c m o t i f , whose vacuous g a r r u l i t y r e f l e c t s
b o t h h e r own t a i n t e d h i s t o r y and t h e c o r r u p t e t h o s of h e r s o c i a l m i l i e u :
""Ibenty

thousand pounds, twenty twenty-pound n o t e s i n a money-box,

twenty

g u i n e a s , twenty m i l l i o n twenty p e r c e n t . twenty--'"

(21, 298).

More complex, t h e e q u a l l y s e n i l e Mrs. Gradgrind s h a r e s t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s

p a r o d i c and m i r r o r i n g q u a l i t i e s , b u t cannot r e s t o r e t h a t f i g u r e ' s p r e v i o u s l y
prominent p o s i t i o n ,

On t h e one hand, s h e s e r v e s t h e same c o m i c - s a t i r i c

func-

t i o n a s Toot6, m i r r o r i n g and parodying t h e e x c e s s e s of Gradgrind's f a c t dominated philosophy.

P r a i s i n g t h e v i r t u e of such c o l d - h e a r t e d " f a c t , "

Gradgrind is p l e a s e d t o n o t e t h a t h i s w i f e h a s "'no nonsense' about h e r , "

though, a8 Dickens o b s e r v e s , "by nonsense h e meant fancy, and t r u l y i t is proba b l e t h a t s h e w a s a s f r e e from any a l l o y of t h a t n a t u r e , a s any human b e i n g
n o t a r r i v e d a t t h e p e r f e c t i o n of an a b s o l u t e i d i o t , e v e r was" ( I , 4, 1 8 ) .
S i m i l a r l y , i n h e r confusion over how t o a d d r e s s M r . Bounderby ( " ' I
him J o s i a h , f o r t h e name i s i n s u p p o r t a b l e t o me.
of J o e , you very w e l l know.

cannot c a l l

You y o u r s e l f wouldn't h e a r

Am I t o c a l l my own son-in-law,

Mister?"'

[15,

103]), s h e , a l o n e among t h e n o v e l ' s major c h a r a c t e r s , i n t u i t i v e l y q u e s t i o n s

t h e n a t u r e of Bounderby's facade.

Her f o o l - l u n a t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o dominant

e x t e r n a l impulses, f u r t h e r m o r e , ( " ' I

room,'

t h i n k t h e r e ' s a p a i n somewhere i n t h e

s a i d Mrs. Gradgrind, ' b u t I c o u l d n ' t p o s i t i v e l y s a y t h a t I have g o t it"'

[11, 9, 1981) p e r m i t s h e r t o s e e and e x p e r i e n c e t h e f r u s t r a t i o n and s u f f e r i n g

rampant i n t h e Gradgrind-Coketown s o c i e t y .
Although having v i r t u a l l y " a r r i v e d a t t h e p e r f e c t i o n of an a b s o l u t e
i d i o t , ' ' however, Mrs. Gradgrind i s s c a r c e l y a Dickensian d i v i n e i d i o t .

Her

moral r o l e i n t h e novel i s n e g l i g i b l e , n e i t h e r o f f e r i n g any s e r i o u s o p p o s i t i o n

t o t h e Gradgrind philosophy, n o r producing any a m e l i o r a t i v e e f f e c t .

In fact,

s o thoroughly dominated and b a f f l e d by h e r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o t h a t world-view,

M r s . Gradgrind, d e s p i t e h e r deathbed remorse (11, 9 , 1 9 9 ) , e x e r t s a genuinely

p e r n i c i o u s e f f e c t on Louisa and Tom.

A t one l e v e l , Dickens emphasizes t h e

comic a b s u r d i t y of h e r p a r e n t a l mismanagement, h e r f r e q u e n t wish t h a t s h e had

never had a family ("'and

,[I, 8 ,
I 11

then you would have known what i t was t o do without

5 4 ] ) , and h e r obtuse i n j u n c t i o n s t o h e r c h i l d r e n t o "go and be

somethingological d i r e c t l y " (I, 4 , 1 7 ) .

H e r whining s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n , however,

+ .

coupled with h e r confused r e f l e c t i o n of Gradgrind's philosophy, undermining

whatever humane q u a l i t i e s s h e once possessed, c r e a t e s a more s e r i o u s image of
p a r e n t a l i n e p t i t u d e , preventing h e r from e x p r e s s i n g any proper comfort,
guidance, o r love.
L i t t l e D o r r i t ' s Maggy, i n c o n t r a s t , r e p r e s e n t s t h e most s u c c e s s f u l r e i t e r a t i o n i n t h e l a t e r works of a f o o l - l u n a t i c w i t h a non-ambiguous and p e r c e p t i v e
moral s e n s i t i v i t y .

Whereas many of t h e n o v e l ' s supposedly w i s e r c h a r a c t e r s

a r e o b l i v i o u s o r i n d i f f e r e n t t o L i t t l e D o r r i t ' s s e l f l e s s l a b o u r s , Maggy responds w i t h t h e g r a t e f u l , unaffected love of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Erasmian f o o l :

"'You c a n ' t t h i n k how good s h e i s , s i r , ' s a i d D o r r i t , w i t h i n f i n i t e tenderness.

'Good s h e i s , ' echoed Maggy, t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e pronoun i n a most e x p r e s s i v e way

from h e r s e l f t o h e r l i t t l e mother" ( I , 9 , 101).

Her l i m i t e d i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

moreover, l i k e Dick's, engenders an i n s i g h t f u l i n t u i t i o n i n t o a n o t h e r ' s mind

and emotions.

Although she cannot, f o r i n s t a n c e , f u l l y understand L i t t l e

D o r r i t ' s a l l e g o r i c a l t a l e of t h e P r i n c e s s , t h e t i n y woman, and t h e shadow ( I ,

24, 292-S), s h e i n s t i n c t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e s t h e s t o r y with Amy's f e e l i n g s f o r

Arthur ( I , 32, 382-3),

and f i n a l l y combines i t with h e r own i d y l l i c v i s i o n of

h o s p i t a l s and "chicking" t o express a confused y e t a p p r o p r i a t e image of L i t t l e

D o r r i t ' s r e g e n e r a t i v e e f f e c t on t h e p h y s i c a l l y and emotionally enervated
Clennam:
'Oh g e t him i n t o a h o s p i t a l ; do g e t him i n t o a h o s p i t a l , Mother!
H e ' l l never look l i k e h i s s e l f again, i f he a n ' t got i n t o a h o s p i t a l .
And then t h e l i t t l e woman a s was always a s p i n n i n g a t h e r wheel,
s h e can go t o t h e cupboard w i t h t h e P r i n c e s s and s a y , what do you
keep t h e Chicking t h e r e f o r ? and then they can t a k e i t o u t and g i v e
i t t o him, and then a l l be happy!' (11, 29, 761)

Even with h e r i n s i g h t f u l i n t u i t i o n , however, Maggy is n o t a p e r f e c t r e i t e r a t i o n

Among t h e most i n t e l l e c t u a l l y l i m i t e d of

of t h e Toots-Dick p a t t e r n .

Dickens's moral mental d e f e c t i v e s , s h e p l a y s o n l y a marginal r o l e i n L i t t l e

D o r r i t ' s c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t s , and cannot ( n o r does Dickens make any p r e t e n s e
t h a t s h e does) c a r r y a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of t h e n o v e l ' s moral and thematic
structure.

20

One might a l s o n o t e , moreover, t h a t t h i s re-statement

u n i f i e d fool-lunatic/Holy

of a

Innocent motif i s f u r t h e r q u a l i f i e d by t h e d i s t u r b i n g

p r e s e n c e i n L i t t l e D o r r i t of M r . F ' s Aunt, a f o o l - f i g u r e who, w h i l e occupying

an i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n a s t h e u n w i t t i n g embodiment of t h e n o v e l ' s dominant
i m p u l s e s , c o n t i n u e s t h e d e c l i n e of t h e Dickensian i d i o t c o n v e n t i o n ' s moral and
counterbalancing functions.
Like e a r l i e r fool-lunatics,

t h e unconscious spokesmen f o r d i s p a r a t e

f o r c e s , M r . F's Aunt p o s s e s s e s "a p r o p e n s i t y t o o f f e r remarks i n a deep warni n g v o i c e , which, b e i n g t o t a l l y u n c a l l e d f o r by a n y t h i n g s a i d by anybody and

t r a c e a b l e t o no a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s , confounded and t e r r i f i e d t h e mind" ( I ,
1 3 , 157).

S p e c i f i c a l l y , d i s p l a y i n g an "extreme s e v e r i t y and grim t a c i t u r n i t y , "

M r . F ' s Aunt, untouched by any Holy Innocent q u a l i t i e s , r e p r e s e n t s and exp r e s s e s a l l t h e r a g e , a n g e r , and b i t t e r n e s s rampant i n L i t t l e D o r r i t ' s s o c i a l
world (Rigaud, Mrs. Clennam, F l i n t w i n c h , Miss Wade, Gowan, Tattycoram, Mrs.
General, and t h e Marshalsea i t s e l f a r e a l l r e f l e c t e d i n h e r u n a p p e a s i b l e
hatred).

21

She i s , moreover, a h i g h l y complex image of t h e s e p e r n i c i o u s im-

p u l s e s , a t once a comic, p a t h e t i c , and t e r r i f y i n g embodiment of t h e i r s h e e r

power.

The a b s u r d i t y of h e r appearance and i r r a t i o n a l pronouncements may

s e r v e t o parody t h o s e d e s t r u c t i v e s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l f o r c e s , b u t t h e l a r g e r
e f f e c t o f h e r p r e s e n c e i n t h e work is f a r less comic.

The cumulative impact

of t h e f o r c e s s h e embodies h a s s t i f l e d and e r a d i c a t e d any s e n s e of h e r humanity;

o n l y h a l f - a l i v e i n a s t a t e of s e n i l e and mindless s p i t e f u l n e s s , s h e i s a cons t a n t mnemonic image of t h e s o c i a l w o r l d ' s d e s t r u c t i v e and d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s .

Not only does M r . F ' s Aunt r e p r e s e n t a p a s s i v e image of t h e s o c i a l world's

power t o v i c t i m i z e , moreover, b u t , i n h e r b a l e f u l and contemptuous a t t i t u d e
towards Arthur, she a c c u r a t e l y m i r r o r s and e x p r e s s e s t h e h a t r e d of t h e nonf o o l world f o r those c h a r a c t e r s n o t s h a r i n g i t s p e r v e r t e d e t h o s .

Even the

i d e a l i z e d f i g u r e of L i t t l e D o r r i t , a t whom M r . F ' s Aunt d i r e c t s "a s u s t a i n e d

g l a r e of defiance'' (11, 34, 8 2 0 ) , can n e i t h e r a m e l i o r a t e nor escape t h a t unm i t i g a t e d animosity.
Although M r . F's Aunt performs i l l u m i n a t i n g thematic f u n c t i o n s , however,
they a r e only achieved a t t h e expense of t h e f o o l ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e Holy
Innocent's c o n f l i c t with s o c i a l e v i l .

Her f o o l - l u n a t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , i n

f a c t , d e s t r o y i n g h e r w i l l , has reduced h e r t o a p e r f e c t mimetic r e f l e c t i o n

of t h a t e v i l , and, with h e r proclamation, "I h a t e a fool!" ( I , 13, l 5 9 ) , t h e
i n t u i t i v e sympathy and symbolic counterbalancing f u n c t i o n of t h e Dickensian
i d i o t have f i n a l l y wasted away.
The d e c l i n e of t h e Dickensian f o o l - l u n a t i c ,

then, i s a t once more com-

p l i c a t e d ( f o r t h e f i g u r e ' s power t o r e f l e c t e x t e r n a l f o r c e s continues r e l a t i v e l y unimpaired from Barnaby t o M r . F's Aunt), and y e t more c e r t a i n ( f o r
t h e r e a r e no Boffin-like pseudo-restatements)
Pickwickian c o u n t e r p a r t .
of t h i s fool-type.

than t h e descent of h i s

The novels following L i t t l e D o r r i t a r e q u i t e devoid

There is no Barnaby Rudge i n Tale of Two C i t i e s , repre-

s e n t i n g t h e ambiguity of s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n and v i o l e n c e ; no M r . Dick i n Great

Expectations,

LL

r e f l e c t i n g Dickens's confused f e e l i n g s about h i s p a s t ; no

M r . Toots i n Our Mutual Friend, m i r r o r i n g and s a t i r i z i n g t h e world of wealth.

One might argue t h a t Dickens has no f u r t h e r need f o r such symbolic f i g u r e s ,
t h a t h i s s o c i a l b e l i e f s have become more a r t i c u l a t e and c e r t a i n , no longer
r e q u i r i n g a spokesman f o r t h e i r ambivalence o r doubts.

Simultaneously, i t

i s arguable t h a t t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c cannot s u r v i v e i n a world where h i s addled

1 37
mind is s o l e l y possessed by f o r c e s of e v i l and c o r r u p t i o n .

Whatever t h e

p r e c i s e reason, t h e Dickensian i d i o t p l a y s a f a r l e s s c r u c i a l r o l e i n t h e
f i n a l n o v e l s , u l t i m a t e l y reduced, i n f a c t , t o a l i t e r a l l y p a r e n t h e t i c a l
appearance :
Betimes n e x t morning, t h a t h o r r i b l e old Lady Tippins ( r e l i c t of
t h e l a t e S i r Thomas Tippins, knighted i n mistake f o r somebody e l s e
by H i s Majesty King George t h e Third, who, w h i l e performing t h e
ceremony, w a s g r a c i o u s l y pleased t o observe, 'What, what, what?
Who, who, who? Why, why, why?') begins t o be dyed and varnished
f o r t h e i n t e r e s t i n g occasion.
(E,I , 1 0 , 118)
S t i l l r e f l e c t i n g and parodying the p e r v e r s e confusion of t h e non-fool world
without c o ~ r e h e n s i o n ,i n s i g h t , o r moral purpose, t h i s f i n a l f o o l - l u n a t i c
( a p p r o p r i a t e l y t h e u l t i m a t e l e a d e r of t h a t world) is t h e l o g i c a l culmination
of t h e Dickensian i d i o t convention.

NOTES:

CHAPTER THREE

See Leonard Manheirn, "Dickens'

F o o l s and Madmen."

V i r g i l G r i l l o , C h a r l e s Dickens' "Sketches by Boz":

(Boulder:

End i n t h e Beginning

The Colorado A s s o c i a t e d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 149, n. 11.

I can l o c a t e no p r e c i s e a n t e c e d e n t ' f o r t h i s f u n c t i o n .

L e a r ' s F o o l , who

p r e a c h e s b o t h t h e v i r t u e o f s e l f l e s s d e d i c a t i o n and t h e wisdom of mercenary

self-interest

( t h u s r e f l e c t i n g t h e c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s of t h e Lear

world) is perhaps t h e c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l t o Dickens's f o o l - l u n a t i c s .

"Bernaby Rudge,"

Dickens and t h e Twentieth Century,

p. 104.

The Fool, p. 76.

ti For a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of p o s s i b l e Shakespearean themes i n Barnaby

Rudge, see M. Rosario Ryan, " ~ i c k e n sand Shakespeare:

Probable Sources o f

Barnaby Rudge," E n g l i s h , 19 (1970), 43-8.

"Devils Abroad:

The Unity and S i g n i f i c a n c e of Barnaby>~ u d g e , " N i n e t e e n t h

Century F i c t i o n , 1 6 (1961), 137.

Dickens's b e l i e f t h a t t h e m e n t a l l y incompetent p o s s e s s some i n n a t e r e l i g i o u s impulse i s s i m i l a r l y e v i d e n t i n h i s a r t i c l e on i d i o t s i n Household Words.
V i s i t i n g an i n s a n e asylum, f o r example, Dickens observed a d e v o t i o n a l s e r v i c e :
"They a r e v e r y fond of a t t e n d i n g p r a y e r s i n a body.

What dim r e l i g i o u s impres-

s i o n s t h e y connect w i t h p u b l i c worship, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y b u t t h e s t r u g g l i n g s o u l would seem t o have some i n s t i n c t i v e a s p i r a t i o n s towards i t s Maker"

(315).
The Pool and H i s S c e p t e r , p. 235.

lo "Barnaby Rudge , I 1 100-1.

Gordon's and ~ a r n a b 'ys p h y s i c a l appearances,

moreover, a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r .

Both have r e d d i s h h a i r , l a r g e l u s t r o u s e y e s ,

melancholy e x p r e s s i o n s , and a r e s t l e s s , uneasy manner.

Barnaby is c a l l e d

"an i d i o t " and "a n a t u r a l , " w h i l e Gordon is s i m i l a r l y c o n s i d e r e d "a f o o l and

madman" (35, 269) by P a r l i a m e n t , Gashford, Dennis, and o t h e r s .
Although n e i t h e r Hugh n o r Dennis is a s e x p l i c i t l y d e r i v e d from t h e f o o l
t r a d i t i o n as Barnaby, a s u b t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p does e x i s t .

Hugh's w i l d n a t u r a l -

n e s s , s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n , r e b e l l i o u s n e s s , and c a u s t i c i n s i g h t a r e o f t e n a t t r i b u t e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l .

Dennis's s t i c k , " t h e knob of which was carved

I

i n t o a rough l i k e n e s s of h i s own v i l e face" (37, 283), i s an even more obvious

I
I.

connection t o t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n .

Dickens's i n t e n t i o n i s f a i r l y complex.

15'
li!&

Barnaby f o o l i s h l y embraces t h e r e b e l s ' c r u s a d e because of h i s l a c k of unders t a n d i n g and h i s misguided i d e a l i s m .

perceptive--foolishly

Hugh and Dennis--more

i n t e l l i g e n t and

seek vengeance and power through v i o l e n c e and death.

il!l
! iy.

;Di
I 11
't

T h e i r wisdom i s u l t i m a t e l y r e v e a l e d a s a debased f o l l y t h a t l e a d s t o t h e i r
d e s t r u c t i o n , w h i l e Barnaby's f o l l y - - t h e

h i g h e r wisdom of love--is

The c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ,
schematic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

h i s salvation.

however, c o m p l i c a t e s t h i s n e a t l y

Barnaby's innocence i s compromised by h i s r e l a t i o n -

s h i p w i t h Hugh and Dennis; innocence may f i n a l l y r e s c u e Barnaby from e x e c u t i o n ,

but i t has contributed t o the general violence.

By e x t e n d i n g t h e fool-metaphor

t o i n c l u d e Hugh and Dennis ( r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of n i h i l i s t i c d i s c o r d ) , Dickens

f u r t h e r enhances Barnaby's symbolic r o l e .

He n o t o n l y s t a n d s i n moral opposi-

t i o n t o such f i g u r e s , b u t s h a r e s t h e i r c o r r u p t i o n a s w e l l .

The l u n a t i c becomes,

i n e f f e c t , t h e n o v e l ' s dominant image; Barnaby becomes t h e ambiguous h e a r t of

an ambiguous work.
IL

C h a r l e s Dickens'

"Sketches by Boz", pp. 149-50.

140

l3 I t might b e o b j e c t e d t h a t Toby Veck, though c l e a r l y simple-minded,

is

n o t a s m e n t a l l y d e f e c t i v e a s o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e Dickensian f o o l l u n a t i c motif.

H i s p o s i t i o n i n t h a t m o t i f , t h e n , r a i s e s an i n t e r e s t i n g

c r i t i c a l i s s u e , namely, t h a t w h i l e more t r a d i t i o n a l a s p e c t s of t h e f o o l a r e
o f t e n u s e f u l i n d i c a t o r s , t h e d i v i s i o n s i n Dickens's u s e of v a r i o u s f o o l - t y p e s
a r e o f t e n b e s t d e l i n e a t e d by t h e m a t i c f u n c t i o n .

l4 Quoted i n P o r s t e r ' s The L i f e of C h a r l e s Dickens, ed. J. W. T. Ley

(London:

C e c i l Palmer, 1 9 2 8 ) , p. 352.

15 C a r l y l e and Dickens (Athens, Georgia:

U n i v e r s i t y of Georgia P r e s s ,

l 9 7 2 ) , p. 43.
Even Bunsby, however, a l t h o u g h a comic parody of t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ,
n o t w i t h o u t some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e n o v e l ' s t h e m a t i c concerns.
pronouncements, coming from a "voice w i t h i n him

. . . quite

is

H i s oracular

independent of

h i m s e l f , a s i f h e were possessed by a g r u f f s p i r i t " (23, 338), a r e heavy w i t h

q u e s t i o n s (338; 39, 5 5 3 ) , which, however a b s u r d , s i g n i f y a t o t a l incornprehens i o n of t h e world, h i s f u n c t i o n s , o r purposes.

And i t i s not i n c o n c e i v a b l e

t h a t Bunsby, w i t h t h e o r a c u l a r power of even a parodied f o o l - s e e r ,

penetrates

t h e outwardly s e l f - c o n f i d e n t Dombey world t o r e f l e c t i t s i n n e r confusion.

l7 Novels of t h e E i p h t e e n - F o r t i e s ,

p. 192.

l8 "The Memorializing of M r . Dick," Nineteenth Century F i c t i o n , 24 (1969),

142-53.
C h a r l e s Dickens:

H i s Tragedy and Triumph, Vol. 2 , 686.

20 One mfght, n o t e , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t t h e i n t e g r i t y of Maggy's

nature is not sacrosanct.

Holy Innocent

She is employed, f o r example, by M r . D o r r i t and h i s

son t o beg from A r t h u r , and, a l t h o u g h Clennam c o n s i d e r s h e r a c t i o n "a v e r y

i n n o c e n t commission," Amy (perhaps b e t t e r a c q u a i n t e d w i t h Maggy's s t r e n g t h s
and weaknesses) e x p r e s s e s a more s e r i o u s m i s g i v i n g t h a t h e r r e l a t i v e s can
" p e r v e r t " even t h e i n n o c e n t l u n a t i c - g i r l ( I , 22, 262)
Alan Wilde's ' M r .

P's Aunt and t h e A n a l o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e of L i t t l e ~ o r r i t , "

N i n e t e e n t h Century F i c t i o n , 19 (1964-5),

33-44,

p r e s e n t s t h e most i l l u m i n a t i n g

d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s c h a r a c t e r and h e r f u n c t i o n s , even r e l a t i n g h e r t o t h e
t r a d i t i o n of t h e t r u t h - t e l l i n g "babes and madmen" ( 3 7 ) ; my own b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n

is, i n p a r t , i n d e b t e d t o Wilde's a n a l y s i s .
22 It might b e argued t h a t J o e Gargery i s s u f f i c i e n t l y simple-minded t o b e

regarded a s a Dickensian f o o l - l u n a t i c .

The f o o l - t y p e ' s b a s i c a t t r i b u t e , how-

e v e r , t h e unconscious r e f l e c t i o n o f e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s , i s completely l a c k i n g ,
while J o e ' s p r i n c i p a l fool-functions

(as n o t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r ) more

d i r e c t l y d e r i v e from h i s r o l e a s a lower c l a s s v e r s i o n of t h e Pickwickian f o o l

--the

p a t e r n a l i s t i c f i g u r e who c o u n t e r b a l a n c e s s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n through h i s

adherence t o C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s .

A s observed i n my n o t e on Toby Veck, Dickens's

f o o l - t y p e s should be c l a s s i f i e d , e s s e n t i a l l y , by f u n c t i o n .

CHAPTER FOUR

The C h i l d , t h e Woman, and t h e Fool

No complete a n a l y s i s of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s r o l e i n Dickens's moral

v i s i o n can n e g l e c t t h e s p e c i a l prominence accorded t o c h i l d r e n and women
among t h e f o r c e s of goodness i n h i s w r i t i n g s .

From t h e morally i n c o r r u p t i -

b l e O l i v e r Twist, r e p r e s e n t i n g "the p r i n c i p l e of Good s u r v i v i n g through every

adverse circumstance" i n Bumble's workhouse and Fagin's den, t o t h e e q u a l l y
immaculate Amy D o r r i t , p r e s e r v i n g h e r f a i t h and v i r t u e i n t h e s q u a l o r and
d e s p a i r of t h e Marshalsea p r i s o n , t h e c h i l d and t h e woman a r e f r e q u e n t part i c i p a n t s i n t h e f o o l ' s c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t w i t h s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l e v i l .
Even a p a r t from t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e holy f o o l , and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
c h i l d and woman o c c a s i o n a l l y c o a l e s c e i n such c h a r a c t e r s a s N e l l T r e n t ,
Florence Dombey, and S i s s y Jupe, t h e s e two f i g u r e s a r e o f t e n t h e major
exponents of Dickens's moral philosophy, s h a r i n g s i m i l a r thematic-symbolic
f u n c t i o n s and embodying h i s humanistic C h r i s t i a n f a i t h .
has engendered widespread c r i t i c a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n .

This p a r t i c u l a r r o l e

Dismissing Dickens's

i d e a l i z e d c h i l d r e n a s "pious l i t t l e monsters," John Carey a s s e r t s t h a t a s

"the i n t e l l e c t drained o u t of C h r i s t i a n i t y , i t came t o be f e l t t h a t those with
l e a s t b r a i n were b e s t a b l e t o cope w i t h it,"' while even a more t o l e r a n t
c r i t i c l i k e Angus Wilson o b j e c t s t o Dickens's " l i t t l e housekeeper h e r o i n e s ,
whose e x i s t e n c e as human b e i n g s ( l e t alone a s p h y s i c a l , s e x u a l beings) is a l l
subordinated o r indeed f o r g o t t e n i n admiration f o r t h e i r q u a l i t i e s a s man's
help-meet.'12

While i t i s n o t my purpose h e r e t o j u s t i f y Dickens's o f t e n

mawkish excesses, h i s use of t h e s p i r i t u a l and symbolic elements of t h e c h i l d woman-fool t r i n i t y i s n o t a s s i m p l i s t i c o r s e n t i m e n t a l a s many c r i t i c s have

argued, and a v a r i e t y of f a c t o r s ( i n v o l v i n g t h e c r e d i b i l i t y of t h e
Dickensian f o o l and t h e t r u e importance of t h a t f i g u r e ' s symbolic q u a l i t i e s )
need f a r g r e a t e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n .
I n p a r t , f o r example, one must acknowledge t h a t ~ i c k e n s ' s emphasis on
childhood's moral c l a r i t y and imagination d e r i v e s from h i s i n t e n s e r e a c t i o n
a g a i n s t two p r e v a l e n t V i c t o r i a n p h i l o s o p h i e s :

f i r s t , t h e C a l v i n i s t i c doc-

t r i n e s of man's i n n a t e d e p r a v i t y , " t h e gloomy theology of t h e Murdstones

[which] made a l l c h i l d r e n o u t t o be a swarm of l i t t l e v i p e r s (though t h e r e was
a c h i l d once set i n t h e midst of t h e D i s c i p l e s ) , and h e l d t h a t they contamin a t e d one another" (DC,
- 4, 5 5 ) , and second, t h e e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s of t h e
u t i l i t a r i a n s , " t a k i n g childhood c a p t i v e , and dragging i t i n t o gloomy s t a t i s t i c a l dens by t h e h a i r "

(E, I ,

3, 9 ) .

Carey's argument w i l f u l l y overlooks

both t h e f a c t t h a t i n Dickens's view those w i t h "most b r a i n " t o o o f t e n rej e c t e d any r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s , and t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s s p e c i a l s p i r i t u a l power,
f a r from being a V i c t o r i a n i n n o v a t i o n , goes back ( a s David Copperfield acknowledges) t o t h e o r i g i n s of C h r i s t t a n i t y i t s e l f :

"Verily I s a y unto you, Except

ye be converted, and become a s l i t t l e c h i l d r e n , ye s h a l l not e n t e r i n t o t h e

kingdom of heaven" (Matthew 18:3).

Dickens may e r r i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n

from t h e Murdstones, Mrs. Clennam, o r M r . Gradgrind, i d e a l i z i n g t h e c h i l d ' s

a l l e g e d p u r i t y of moral i n s i g h t , b u t h i s "error" i s f i r m l y based i n t h e mains t r e a m of C h r i s t i a n thought and a t t a c k s t h e d e s t r u c t i v e p e r v e r s i t i e s o f t h e
opposing "gloomy theology1' and u t i l i t a r i a n r i g i d i t y .
Even Dickens's r e c u r r e n t o v e r - i d e a l i z a t i o n of t h e c h i l d , t h a t a s p e c t i n
h i s methods of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n most f r e q u e n t l y a t t a c k e d by c r i t i c s , is n o t
merely pious p o s t u r i n g ; and while i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e more extreme examples
of t h i s i d e a l i z a t i o n (the c h i l d - s a i n t s of t h e e a r l y novels) unquestionably
d i s p l a y s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s i n c r e d i b i l i t y , t h e i r symbolic n a t u r e r e p r e s e n t s
a v i t a l p a r t of h i s l a r g e r moral philosophy.

A s noted i n my c h a p t e r on t h e

Pickwickian character-type,

t h e c h i l d - l i k e a d u l t f o o l , t h e man ( o r woman)

who, a s t h e moral p r e c e p t s of Matthew's gospel demand, p r e s e r v e s t h e c h i l d ' s

symbolic s t a t e of grace and makes i t a n a c t i v e l y benevolent system of
e t h i c s i n t h e r e a l s o c i a l and human world, c o n s t i t u t e s t h e h i g h e s t expression
of t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent's moral n a t u r e .

L o g i c a l l y , t h i s motif i s

f u r t h e r developed i n Dickens's account of t h e child-woman-fool

h e s u b j e c t s i t s powers and l i m i t a t i o n s t o g r e a t e r s c r u t i n y .

t r i n i t y , as

On t h e one hand,

j u s t as t h e Pickwickian f o o l could n o t r e t a i n h i s moral power i n t h e f a c e of

increasingly severe external challenges, so, i n the f o o l ' s relationship with
t h e c h i l d and t h e woman (both thematic and p e r s o n a l ) , t h e Holy Innocent encounters even more d i s r u p t i v e a s s a u l t s on h i s moral n a t u r e .

H i s symbolic

v a l u e s a r e found wanting, while t e n s i o n s and impulses stemming from w i t h i n

t h e f o o l himself (and introduced by Dickens's e f f o r t s t o c r e a t e a psychologi-

\I

XY

#I

c a l l y r e a l i s t i c f o o l ) a c t u a l l y t h r e a t e n h i s symbolic n a t u r e .

On t h e o t h e r

hand, although h i s c r i t i c s seldom acknowledge t h i s a s p e c t of h i s a r t and

thought, Dickens i s c l e a r l y aware of t h e p o t e n t i a l l y d e b i l i t a t i n g weaknesses
and u n r e a l i s t i c n a t u r e of h i s s a i n t l y c h i l d r e n and f o o l s , and, through h i s
e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s , s e e k s t o c r e a t e a more p l a u s i b l e b a s i s f o r
h i s f o o l - f i g u r e s and t h e i r e t h o s .

Occasionally, t h i s e f f o r t g i v e s r i s e t o

s t i l l g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t i e s , y e t i t a l s o produces ( a l b e i t , o f t e n i n a t e n t a t i v e
form only) a p o s s i b l e r e s o l u t i o n , f i n a l l y merging i n c r e a s e d psychological
r e a l i s m and symbolic values.

This c h a p t e r , then, concluding my a n a l y s i s of

t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent, w i l l consider Dickens's v a r i e d e f f o r t s t o exp l o r e , q u e s t i o n , and s t r e n g t h e n t h e c r e d i b i l i t y of h i s f o o l s and t h e i r e t h o s .

The complex i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n between t h e c h i l d , t h e woman, and t h e f o o l ,
simultaneously expressing t h e essence of t h e Holy Innocent's moral-symbolic
power, h i s most s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s , and t h e p o t e n t i a l r e p l y t o t h e s e problems,

li

i s t h e i d e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i n which t o t r a c e t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r concepts.

1.

The Fool and t h e Normal World

Throughout t h i s s t u d y t h u s f a r my c e n t r a l argument has d e a l t w i t h

Dickens's uses of t h e Holy Innocent a s an e s s e n t i a l l y symbolic f i g u r e count e r b a l a n c i n g s o c i a l and i n d i v i d u a l e v i l .

Even a s Dickens p r e s e n t s t h i s

t r a d i t i o n a l thematic f u n c t i o n , however, h e does n o t n e g l e c t t h e q u e s t i o n of

t h e f o o l ' s psychological r e a l i t y , and h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e f o o l ' s i n n e r
l i f e (an i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r i m a r i l y c e n t e r e d on t h e Holy ~ n n o c e n t ' s p e r s o n a l
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e c h i l d and t h e woman) is c r u c i a l t o t h e i s s u e of t h e
f o o l ' s c r e d i b i l i t y a s an i d e a l human-type.
i n t e r m i n g l i n g of s t r e n g t h and weakness.

These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e a complex

On t h e one hand, f o r example, t h e

c h i l d and t h e f o o l form a union of shared innocence and mutual a f f e c t i o n l i n k i n g them i n t o a f i r m p e r s o n a l and moral bond; while, a s William Willeford's
The Fool and H i s S c e p t e r i n d i c a t e s ( s e e Chapter One of t h e p r e s e n t t h e s i s ) ,
t h e b a s e f o o l and t h e a n g e l i c p r i n c e s s c o n s t i t u t e a s i m i l a r personal-thematic
coalescence.

On t h e o t h e r hand, however, Angus Wilson s u g g e s t s t h a t "Dickens

s i n c e r e l y hoped t h a t t h e d i v i n e f o o l e x i s t e d , b u t he was n o t one himself ,"3

and perhaps w e should add t h a t h e would not wish t o be one.

For j u s t a s t h e

f o o l f a l t e r s i n h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e f o r c e s of darkness, s o even h i s d e a l i n g s
w i t h v i r t u o u s y e t "normal" human beings ( t h a t i s , t h o s e moral c h a r a c t e r s a t
a recognizably h i g h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l plane than t h e simple-minded o r simplesouled f o o l ) a r e f r e q u e n t l y f r a u g h t w i t h embarrassment and unease f o r both
c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s , a f a c t c l e a r l y i l l u m i n a t i n g Dickens's own i m p l i c i t reservat i o n s about h i s f o o l - f i g u r e s .

S t i l l more important, t h e Holy Innocent h i m s e l f ,

when s u b j e c t e d t o r i g o r o u s psychological a n a l y s i s and granted some psychosexual

realism, r e v e a l s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t r i n s i c l i m i t a t i o n s ; and t h e t e n s i o n s t h a t
r e s u l t from t h e f o o l ' s romantic and s e x u a l d e s i r e s , t h e p a i n and f r u s t r a t i o n
engendered by h i s awareness of h i s mental and s o c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y r e p r e s e n t
a f u r t h e r major t h r e a t t o t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s i d e a l n a t u r e .
The e a r l i e s t example o f Dickens's e f f o r t s t o probe i n t o t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s
psyche, N i c h o l a s Nickleby's Smike a l s o p r e s e n t s t h e most extreme image of t h e
m e n t a l l y and s o c i a l l y i n f e r i o r f o o l ' s anguished self-awareness.

Compare, f o r

example, Barnaby Rudge, an e q u a l l y d e f e c t i v e y e t more symbolic f o o l - l u n a t i c ,

who, l i k e t h e "merry-mouthed men" of Langland's P i e r s Plowman, e x p e r i e n c e s
n o t h i n g b u t joy from h i s " f e e b l e powers of mind":

"How o f t e n , on t h e i r journey,

d i d t h e widow remember w i t h a g r a t e f u l h e a r t , t h a t o u t of h i s d e p r i v a t i o n
Barnaby's c h e e r f u l n e s s and a f f e c t i o n sprung!

How o f t e n d i d s h e c a l l t o mind

t h a t b u t f o r t h a t , h e might have been s u l l e n , morose, unkind, f a r removed

from her--vicious,

p e r h a p s , and c r u e l " (39, 355).

The f o o l - l u n a t i c Smike,

i n c o n t r a s t , responding t o h i s c r i p p l e d i n t e l l e c t , can e x p e r i e n c e o n l y a n
overwhelming s e n s e of f r u s t r a t e d i n f e r i o r i t y and i s o l a t i o n .

A s Miss La

Creevy n o t e s ,
' I am s u r e t h a t s i n c e h e h a s been h e r e , h e h a s grown, from some
s t r o n g c a u s e , more c o n s c i o u s of h i s weak i n t e l l e c t . H e f e e l s i t
more.
It g i v e s him g r e a t e r p a i n t o know t h a t h e wanders sometimes,
I have watched him
and cannot understand v e r y simple t h i n g s .
s i t brooding by h i m s e l f , w i t h such a look of p a i n as I could
s c a r c e l y b e a r t o s e e , and t h e n g e t up and l e a v e t h e room: s o
s o r r o w f u l l y , and i n such d e j e c t i o n , t h a t I cannot t e l l you how i t
h a s h u r t me. Not t h r e e weeks ago, h e was a l i g h t h e a r t e d busy
c r e a t u r e , overjoyed t o b e i n a b u s t l e , and a s happy a s t h e day was
long. Mow, h e i s a n o t h e r being--the same w i l l i n g , h a r m l e s s ,
f a i t h f u l , l o v i n g c r e a t u r e - - b u t t h e same i n n o t h i n g e l s e . ' (38, 487)

...

Whereas Barnaby l a c k s any profound connections w i t h t h e normal world t o illumi n a t e h i s d e p r i v a t i o n , Smike, responding t o p r e c i s e l y such a " s t r o n g cause,''
namely, h i s f u t i l e d e v o t i o n t o Kate Nickleby, becomes p a i n f u l l y "more conscious
of h i s weak i n t e l l e c t . "

He does n o t become "unkind o r v i c i o u s , " b u t j e a l o u s y

and d e s p a i r , impulses e q u a l l y a l i e n t o t h e Holy I n n o c e n t , a r e a t l e a s t

i n c h o a t e l y e v i d e n t i n h i s " s u l l e n , morose1' r e a c t i o n t o Frank C h e e r y b l e l s
love f o r K a t e :
'Well now,' s a i d Mrs. Nickleby, ' h e i s t h e s t r a n g e s t c r e a t u r e !
L a s t Tuesday--was i t Tuesday? Yes t o b e s u r e i t was; you
r e c o l l e c t , Kate, my d e a r , t h e v e r y l a s t time young M r . Cheeryble
w a s h e r e - - l a s t Tuesday n i g h t h e went o f f i n j u s t t h e same s t r a n g e
way, a t t h e v e r y moment t h e knock came t o t h e door. It cannot b e
t h a t h e d o n ' t l i k e company, b e c a u s e h e i s always fond of people
who a r e fond of Nicholas, and I am s u r e young M r . Cheeryble is.
And t h e s t r a n g e s t t h i n g i s , t h a t h e does n o t go t o bed; t h e r e f o r e
i t cannot b e b e c a u s e h e i s t i r e d . I know h e d o e s n ' t go t o bed,
because my room i s t h e n e x t one, and when I went u p s t a i r s l a s t
Tuesday, h o u r s a f t e r him, I found t h a t he had n o t even t a k e n h i s
s h o e s o f f ; and he had no c a n d l e , s o he must have s a t moping i n t h e
dark a l l t h e t i m e .
Now, upon my word,' s a i d Mrs. Nickleby, 'when
I come t o t h i n k of i t , t h a t ' s very e x t r a o r d i n a r y ! ' (49, 641)

On t h e one hand, a t a s t r i c t l y symbolic l e v e l , when t h e b a s e f o o l wors h i p s t h e i d e a l i z e d maiden, h e r image e l e v a t e s him beyond h i s l i m i t a t i o n s ;

responding t o Newrnan Noggsls glowing p o r t r a i t of Kate, even Smike's h a b i t u a l
weakness was t r a n s c e n d e d , h i s "eyes were s p a r k l i n g w i t h unwonted f i r e , and
every f e a t u r e had been l i g h t e d up w i t h an e x c i t e m e n t which made him a p p e a r ,
f o r t h e moment, q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t person" (40, 512).

On t h e o t h e r hand,

Dickens's purpose i s n o t s t r i c t l y symbolic, and when t h e deeper impulses of

the fool-princess

r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e s u b j e c t e d t o a more r i g o r o u s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c

examination, t h e r e g e n e r a t i v e g l o r y of t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t v i s i o n i s s u b v e r t e d
by t h e f o o l ' s unavoidable i n f e r i o r i t y .

Commenting on Smike's d e c l i n e ,

N i c h o l a s , i n an unconsciously i r o n i c a l l u s i o n t o t h e p r e v i o u s passage, obs e r v e s t h a t "You grow a d i f f e r e n t c r e a t u r e , Smike" (49, 652), b u t Smike's

"unwonted f i r e and excitement1' have now c o l l a p s e d i n t o f i t f u l j e a l o u s y ("'but
though I would have d i e d t o make h e r happy, i t b r o k e my h e a r t t o see--I
h e l o v e s h e r dearly"'

158, 7631) and h o p e l e s s n e s s :

know

"Who w a s t h a t who, i n t h e

s i l e n c e of h i s own chamber, sunk upon h i s knees t o p r a y a s h i s f i r s t f r i e n d

had t a u g h t him, and f o l d i n g h i s hands and s t r e t c h i n g them w i l d l y i n t h e a i r ,

f e l l upon h i s f a c e i n a p a s s i o n of b i t t e r g r i e f ? " (43, 566).

Smike, then, Dickens's i n i t i a l e f f o r t t o e x p l o r e t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s
p s y c h o l o g i c a l make-up,
t i o n of t h i s fool-type.

r e v e a l s a fundamental problem i n t h e r e a l i s t i c depicWhereas t h e v i r t u e of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y c r e a t e s a

g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r joy i n Barnaby and Pickwick, o r h e i g h t e n e d moral i n s i g h t

i n t h e h o s t s of Erasmian-Dickensian f o o l s , s i m p l i c i t y i s a n a c t u a l d e t r i m e n t
t o Smike's h a p p i n e s s and well-being.

The impassable g u l f between t h e f o o l

and t h e p r i n c e s s , g e n e r a t i n g "a p a s s i o n of b i t t e r g r i e f

," s i g n i f i e s

t h e un-

a v o i d a b l e d i s p a r i t y between t h e m e n t a l l y i n f e r i o r Holy Innocent and even t h e

most moral r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e normal human world.

Steven Marcus s u g g e s t s

t h a t "Smike d i e s l i t e r a l l y because h e h a s never been loved and cannot withs t a n d an e x p e r i e n c e of l o v e , 114 b u t h i s argument does n o t do j u s t i c e t o t h e
complexity of t h e problem t h a t Dickens d i s c o v e r s , and i t i s Smike's t o r t u r e d
p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e b a s e f o o l i s f o r e v e r prevented from s h a r i n g f u l l human
l o v e i n a l o v i n g family group t h a t engenders h i s d e c l i n e .
Dickens, however, a l t h o u g h c l e a r l y i d e n t i f y i n g t h i s c e n t r a l problem, i s
not y e t prepared t o confront a l l i t s implications.

For a l l t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

r e a l i t y of h i s c h a r a c t e r , Smike i s an extreme image of t h e f o o l ' s a l i e n a t e d

c o n d i t i o n , a genuine mental d e f e c t i v e w i t h l i m i t e d moral f u n c t i o n s ; h i s p a i n
and i n c i p i e n t s e x u a l j e a l o u s y may i n t r o d u c e a n o t e of d i s c o r d i n t o Dickens's
d e p i c t i o n s of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t , b u t they cannot r e p r e s e n t a major t h r e a t t o
t h e f o o l ' s symbolic-moral n a t u r e .

Even h i s d e a t h , whatever i t s t h e m a t i c o r

p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n e v i t a b i l i t y , i s a form of e s c a p e f o r Dickens from t h e l a r g e r

i s s u e s r a i s e d by Smike's psychosexual t e n s i o n s .

And i n o r d e r t o f u l l y con-

s i d e r t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y c r e d i b l e , s y m b o l i c a l l y powerful
Holy I n n o c e n t , Dickens must e x p l o r e t h e s e i s s u e s i n more n e a r l y normal Holy
I n n o c e n t s performing s i g n i f i c a n t moral r o l e s .

I)l

'f

+I

i
I

ir

The degree t o which Dickens i s a s y e t unable o r u n w i l l i n g t o f u l l y

examine t h i s problem i s immediately d i s c e r n i b l e i n h i s n e x t novel, where
.

t h e f o o l ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e p r i n c e s s o p e r a t e s a t a s t r i c t l y thematicsymbolic l e v e l .

A s A. E Dyson observes, K i t Nubbles i s "a f a s c i n a t i n g c r o s s

of Knight and Fool," who "with none of t h e appearances of c h i v a l r y , h a s a l l

t h e r e a l i t y . "5

Dickens, i n f a c t , p r e s e n t s a convincing p o r t r a i t of K i t ' s

simple-hearted goodness and d i s i n t e r e s t e d love, b u t i n t h a t p r o c e s s , s a c r i f i c e s any e f f o r t t o probe i n t o t h e deeper f e e l i n g s t h a t a more psychologically

complex K i t would possess.

K i t ' s marriage t o Barbara, f o r example, i l l u s -

t r a t e s t h e problem Dickens f a c e s , both m o l l i f y i n g and i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e q u e s t i o n

of t h e f o o l ' s romantic-sexual impulses and impassable l i m i t a t i o n s .

On t h e one

hand, K i t e n t e r s some kind of normal human r e l a t i o n s h i p , showing t h a t h i s

1
I.
I

l o v e can be expressed i n a d i r e c t personal f a s h i o n and n o t simply i n h i s quasi-

r e l i g i o u s devotion t o t h e d i v i n e Nell.

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h i s marriage i s

only made p o s s i b l e a f t e r Dickens r e c o n s t r u c t s K i t ' s c h a r a c t e r , transforming

him from an uncouth semi-natural f o o l (1, 7-9),
the novel's l a t e r stages.

t o a more normal f i g u r e i n

The gulf between t h e f o o l and t h e normal world,

Dickens seems t o imply, i s only t r a v e r s e d through a u t h o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n , a

technique both a r t i s t i c a l l y unsound and h i g h l y unconvincing.
By s a f e l y d i s s i p a t i n g any romantic-sexual t e n s i o n s t h a t may occur i n

K i t ' s c h a r a c t e r , Dickens e l i m i n a t e s any p o s s i b i l i t y of a s e x u a l motive i n

it's f e e l i n g s towards L i t t l e Nell and any Smikean d e s p a i r t h a t might a r i s e

from h i s consciousness of h i s i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y .
s t a r of t h e simple f e l l o w ' s l i f e

. . . a bright

s e x u a l f e e l i n g s would be abhorrent:

N e l l remains "the b r i g h t

dream'' (61, 453) about whom

"'I have been used, you s e e

t a l k and t h i n k about h e r , almost a s i f s h e was an angel'"

. . . to

(69, 520).

Even

i n t h e l i t t l e d i r e c t a n a l y s i s of K i t ' s psychological make-up t h a t Dickens

e s s a y s , t h e p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e impulses g e n e r a t e d by t h e g u l f between
t h e f o o l and t h e p r i n c e s s a r e c a r e f u l l y p a l l i a t e d :
'Once, I c o u l d n ' t h e l p b e i n g a f r a i d t h a t i f s h e came back w i t h
f r i e n d s about h e r s h e might f o r g e t , o r b e ashamed of having
known, a humble l a d l i k e me, and s o might speak c o l d l y , which
would have c u t m e , Barbara, deeper t h a n I can t e l l . But when
I came t o t h i n k a g a i n , I f e l t s u r e t h a t I was doing h e r wrong
i n t h i s ; and s o I went on, as I d i d a t f i r s t , hoping t o s e e h e r
once more, j u s t a s s h e used t o be.'
(520)
A t t h e s t r i c t l y t h e m a t i c l e v e l a t which t h e Nell-Kit r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s , t h e
t r a n s c e n d e n t v i s i o n t h a t i n s p i r e s t h e f o o l ' s l o v e is beyond any d i s t u r b i n g
impulses o r f r u s t r a t i o n s :

"'Hoping t h i s , and remembering what s h e was, h a s

made me f e e l as i f I would always t r y t o p l e a s e h e r , and always b e what I

s h o u l d l i k e t o seem t o h e r i f I was s t i l l h e r s e r v a n t .
that--and

I don't t h i n k I ' m t h e worse--I

and honour h e r t h e more'"

(520).

If I'm the better for

am g r a t e f u l t o h e r f o r i t , and l o v e

While Smike must d i e because t h e f o o l ' s

s e n s e of inadequacy d e s t r o y s t h e v i s i o n and h i s s p i r i t , K i t , a less d e t a i l e d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l p o r t r a i t b u t a more s y m b o l i c a l l y powerful one, r e t a i n s and prof , i t s from h i s h i g h e r l i n k s w i t h t h e a n g e l i c p r i n c e s s .
Although K i t ' s f e a r s t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l r e j e c t him a r e s u f f o c a t e d i n
t h i s paean t o N e l l ' s heavenly q u a l i t i e s , however, h i s r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e "angel" and t h e "humble l a d " i s p o t e n t i a l l y one of
p a i n i s c l e a r l y s u g g e s t i v e of more sombre c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , r e c a l l i n g Smike's
s e l f - t o r m e n t and a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e embarrassment and condescension t h a t t h e
c h i l d r e n ( s i g n i f i c a n t l y , q u i t e normal c h i l d r e n ) of Dombey and Son, David
C o p p e r f i e l d , and Great E x p e c t a t i o n s f e e l towards t h e i r simpleton-companions.
Dickens makes i t c l e a r , moreover, t h a t K i t ' s r o l e a s c o u r t j e s t e r , "the

comedy of t h e c h i l d ' s l i f e " (1, 7 ) , b r i g h t e n s L i t t l e N e l l ' s b l e a k e x i s t e n c e

and i s a s o u r c e of joy t o b o t h c h a r a c t e r s .

But whether even t h e symbolic

f o o l , i f Dickens had p r e s e n t e d h i s i n n e r l i f e w i t h g r e a t e r d e t a i l , would b e

c o n t e n t w i t h t h i s almost demeaning r o l e ("'She

always laughs a t poor K i t " '

[7]) c o n s t a n t l y s t r e s s i n g h i s i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y , i s a q u e s t i o n r e q u i r i n g
further elucidation.

And i n Tom Pinch, t h e most p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y complex of

Dickens's Holy I n n o c e n t s , t h e b a s i c i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y between t h e f o o l ' s

symbolic f u n c t i o n s and h i s psychosexual r e a l i t y i s s e a r c h i n g l y e x p l o r e d .
On t h e one hand, as a symbolic Holy Innocent who g a i n s s t r e n g t h from

h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h d u p l i c i t y and e v i l w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g h i s i n n a t e innocence
and goodwill, Tom occupies a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n i n Martin Chuzzlewit's moral
structure.

A s Michael S t e i g s u g g e s t s , on t h e o t h e r hand, Tom "is t h e most

f u l l y developed c h a r a c t e r i n t h e work, a s he i s t h e o n l y one w i t h a d i s c e r n i b l e

i n n e r l i f e , and t h e o n l y one whose p s y c h o l o g i c a l development i s p r e s e n t e d i n
d e t a i 1 . 1 ' ~and w h i l e S t e i g does n o t r e f e r t o t h e f o o l t r a d i t i o n , h i s a n a l y s i s ,

I
I

p r e s e n t i n g a q u a s i - o e d i p a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Tom's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Mary and

Pecksniff, i l l u s t r a t e s the f o o l ' s sexual f r u s t r a t i o n .

Tom's simple-hearted

moral v a l u e s animate h i s symbolic r o l e i n t h e n o v e l , b u t , a s Tom (and Dickens)

a t t e m p t t o come t o terms w i t h t h e f o o l ' s mental-sexual l i m i t a t i o n s , h e pres e n t s a p o i g n a n t image of t h e i n a d e q u a t e f o o l a s a s o l i t a r y , u n a s s i m i l a t e d
figure

Like any t r u e Dickensian Holy Innocent, Tom i s a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o t h e

e v i l s of h i s s o c i a l m i l i e u , h i s major f o o l - f u n c t i o n s r e v e a l i n g o r d e f l a t i n g
t h e p r e t e n s i o n s of t h e "wise" world.

H i s innocent r e j o i n e r t o Martin's s e l f -

aggrandizement, f o r example, a q u a l i t y of unconscious t r u t h - t e l l i n g t h a t Tom

shares with various fool-figures,

r e p r e s e n t s a d i r e c t s a t i r i c a t t a c k on t h a t

world's corrupt values:

'Now you must b e a r i n mind, Pinch, t h a t I am n o t o n l y d e s p e r a t e l y
fond of h e r ( f o r though s h e i s poor, h e r b e a u t y and i n t e l l e c t would
r e f l e c t g r e a t c r e d i t on anybody, I d o n ' t c a r e of what p r e t e n s i o n s ,
who might become h e r husband), b u t t h a t a c h i e f i n g r e d i e n t i n my
composition i s a most determined-'

'Obstinacy,' s u g g e s t e d Tom i n p e r f e c t good f a i t h . But t h e

(6, 95)
s u g g e s t i o n was n o t s o w e l l r e c e i v e d as h e had e x p e c t e d .

...

D i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed t o t h e s o r t of c a l l o u s e g o c e n t r i c i t y t h a t M a r t i n embod-

ies, moreover, Tom i s ~ i c k e n s ' smost well-developed example of t h e touchstone

m o t i f , a f i g u r e whose simple-hearted innocence unconsciously r e v e a l s a n o t h e r ' s
moral s t r e n g t h and weaknesses.

A s Dickens n o t e s , "some would have s e i z e d

him by h i s h o n e s t hand, and thanked him f o r t h e l e s s o n t h a t h i s simple n a t u r e

. . . o t h e r s would have laughed a t him"

t a u g h t them

( 9 2 ) , a motif c o n s t a n t l y

reiterated:
No s l i g h t c i r c u m s t a n c e , p e r h a p s , could have b e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e d t h e
d i f f e r e n c e i n c h a r a c t e r between John Westlock and M a r t i n Chuzzlewit,
t h a n t h e manner i n which e a c h of t h e young men contemplated Tom
Pinch
There was a c e r t a i n amount of j o c u l a r i t y i n t h e looks
of b o t h , no doubt, b u t t h e r e a l l resemblance ceased. The o l d p u p i l
could n o t do enough t o show Tom how c o r d i a l l y h e f e l t towards him,
and h i s f r i e n d l y r e g a r d seemed of a g r a v e r and more t h o u g h t f u l k i n d
t h a n b e f o r e . The new one, on t h e o t h e r hand, had no impulse b u t t o
laugh a t t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n of Tom's extreme a b s u r d i t y ; and mingled
w i t h h i s amusement t h e r e was something s l i g h t i n g and contemptuous,
i n d i c a t i v e , a s i t appeared, of h i s o p i n i o n t h a t M r . Pinch was much
t o o f a r gone i n s i m p l i c i t y t o b e admitted a s t h e f r i e n d , on s e r i o u s
and e q u a l terms, of any r a t i o n a l man.
(12, 203-4)

....

Old M a r t i n , l i k e w i s e , " d i s g u s t e d by what i n h i s s u s p i c i o u s n a t u r e h e c o n s i d e r ed a shameless and fulsome puff of M r . P e c k s n i f f , " r e g a r d s Tom a s "a d e c e i t f u l ,
s e r v i l e , m i s e r a b l e fawner," and y e t cannot h e l p b u t f e e l some m i s g i v i n g s ,
" f o r h e had f e l t k i n d l y towards Tom a t f i r s t , and had been i n t e r e s t e d by h i s
seeming s i m p l i c i t y " ( 2 4 , 390).

I n a more extreme f a s h i o n , Merry's view of

Tom a s t h e " u g l i e s t , awkwardest, f r i g h t f u l l e s t b e i n g , you can imagine" (9, 132)

i n d i c a t e s h e r c a l l o u s l a c k of p e r c e p t i o n , w h i l e Jonas Chuzzlewit's

self-

b l i n d e d m a l i c e i s r e v e a l e d when h e l u d i c r o u s l y i n t e r p r e t s Tom's g u i l e l e s s
c h a r a c t e r i n terms of h i s own m i s t r u s t f u l cunning:

"'I've

h e a r d something

of you, my f r i e n d , and your meek ways; and I recommend you t o f o r g e t ' e m

t i l l I a m married t o one of P e c k s n i f f ' s g a l s , and n o t t o c u r r y f a v o u r among

my r e l a t i o n s , b u t t o l e a v e t h e c o u r s e c l e a r " '

(391).

Dickens, f u r t h e r m o r e ,

employs a c h a r a c t e r ' s changing a t t i t u d e s towards Tom t o i l l u s t r a t e moral

development.

Young arti in's p a t r o n i z i n g contempt i s transformed t o r e s p e c t -

f u l admiration (33, 528), w h i l e o l d Martin, who e v e n t u a l l y transcends h i s

1'

s u s p i c i o u s n a t u r e , " r e v e a l s h i s moral growth through h i s r e c o g n i t i o n of

"And when h e spoke of Tom, h e s a i d God b l e s s him; and

Tom's i n n a t e v i r t u e :

t h e t e a r s w e r e i n h i s e y e s ; f o r he s a i d t h a t Tom, m i s t r u s t e d and d i s l i k e d by
him a t f i r s t , had come l i k e summer r a i n upon h i s h e a r t ; and had disposed i t
t o b e l i e v e i n b e t t e r t h i n g s " (52, 808-9).

A s o l d M a r t i n ' s p r a i s e a s s e r t s , Tom not only r e v e a l s moral s t r e n g t h s

and f a i l i n g s , b u t i s an a c t i v e agent of redemptive goodness, a moral f o r c e
t h a t counterbalances and a m e l i o r a t e s t h e p r e v a i l i n g social-moral corruption.
I n a novel whose "main o b j e c t , " Dickens s t a t e s , i s " t o show how S e l f i s h n e s s
propagates i t s e l f , l t 7 t h e Holy Innocent's s e l f l e s s n e s s i s a s i g n i f i c a n t countertheme.

H i s f r i e n d l y devotion t o John Westlock and Martin, h i s love f o r h i s

s i s t e r , and h i s p r o t e c t i v e concern f o r Mary Graham a l l c l e a r l y t e s t i f y t o h i s

s e l f l e s s moral v a l u e s .

Even h i s i n i t i a l f a i l u r e t o recognize P e c k s n i f f ' s

d u p l i c i t y , while augmenting h i s h y p o c r i t i c a l m a s t e r ' s p o s i t i o n , r e p r e s e n t s

t h e more engaging and p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s of Tom's nature--his
i n human goodness.

steadfast belief

The complete moral a n t i t h e s i s of t h e Pecksniff-Chuzzlewit-

Tigg world, Tom is t h e a r c h e t y p a l Holy Innocent, t h e Pauline-Erasmian c h i l d

of God whose moral v a l u e s a r e both a reproach t o t h e c o r r u p t world and i t s
p o t e n t i a l redemption.

The n o v e l ' s v e r s i o n of t h e fool-princess r e l a t i o n s h i p ,

f i n a l l y , a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e o v e r a l l impact of Tom's moral r o l e s .

"Remem-

b e r i n g a l l my means of happiness," Tom s a y s of h i s love f o r Mary, "I h a r d l y

d a r e t o c a l l t h i s l u r k i n g something a sorrow; b u t whatever name i t may j u s t l y
b e a r , I thank Heaven t h a t i t renders me more s e n s i b l e of a f f e c t i o n and a t t a c h ment, and s o f t e n s m e i n f i f t y ways" (50, 768), while Mary i s s i m i l a r l y sus-

t a i n e d by Tom's u n f l a g g i n g d e v o t i o n :

"'Without t h e s i l e n t c a r e and f r i e n d -

s h i p I have experienced from you, my l i f e h e r e would have been unhappy.

But

you have been a good a n g e l t o me; f i l l i n g m e w i t h g r a t i t u d e of h e a r t , hope,

and courage"'

(31, 490).

Together, t h e f o o l and t h e p r i n c e s s c o n s t i t u t e a

mutually r e i n f o r c i n g symbolic u n i t y t h a t f u r t h e r c o u n t e r b a l a n c e s t h e s o c i a l
w o r l d ' s widespread h y p o c r i s y and shallowness.
Although Tom's symbolic r o l e s a r e s t r o n g l y d e l i n e a t e d , however, t h a t
" l u r k i n g something" i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Mary Graham g e n e r a t e s c o n s i d e r a b l e a r t i s t i c and t h e m a t i c d i f f i c u l t y .

"I am i n l o v e , " s a i d Don Quixote,

"and, b e i n g s o , I am n o t one of t h o s e depraved l o v e r s , b u t of t h e c o n t i n e n t

and p l a t o n i c s o r t .

"'

Sharing Q u i x o t e ' s c h i v a l r i c i d e a l , Tom t e l l s Mary,

"you s h o u l d t h i n k no more of me, b l e s s you, t h a n i f I were an o l d f r i a r " (490),

f o r t h e Holy Innocent can d i s p l a y such "depraved" impulses o n l y a t t h e expense
of h i s major f o o l - f u n c t i o n s .

And y e t , i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Mary and

Martin, Tom r e v e a l s d e f i n i t e l y l e s s h o l y and l e s s i n n o c e n t impulses--impulses

towards s e x u a l i t y , a n g e r , and a g g r e s s i o n .
One passage i n p a r t i c u l a r c l e a r l y s u g g e s t s t h i s counter-tendency i n
Tom' s c h a r a c t e r :
But h e f e l l a s l e e p a t l a s t , and dreamed--new s o u r c e of waking
uneasiness--that h e had b e t r a y e d h i s t r u s t , and run away w i t h Mary
Graham.
It must b e acknowledged t h a t , a s l e e p o r awake, Tom's p o s i t i o n
i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s young l a d y was f u l l of u n e a s i n e s s . The more
h e saw of h e r , t h e more he admired h e r b e a u t y , h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
t h e amiable q u a l i t i e s t h a t even won on t h e d i v i d e d house of
P e c k s n i f f , and i n a few days r e s t o r e d a t a l l e v e n t s t h e semblance
of harmony and k i n d n e s s between t h e angry s i s t e r s . When s h e spoke,
Tom h e l d h i s b r e a t h , s o e a g e r l y h e l i s t e n e d ; when s h e sang, he s a t
l i k e one e n t r a n c e d . She touched h i s organ, and from t h a t b r i g h t
epoch, even i t , t h e o l d companion of h i s h a p p i e s t h o u r s , i n c a p a b l e
a s h e had thought of e l e v a t i o n , began a new and d e i f i e d e x i s t e n c e .
(24, 395)
Although t h i s s e x u a l pun i s undoubtedly i n a d v e r t e n t , "Dickens was aware,'' S t e i g
o b s e r v e s , " a t some secondary l e v e l of c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t he h a s p r e s e n t e d Tom

a s e n t e r i n g a b e l a t e d ( o r second?) puberty,"g a s e x u a l response i n i m i c a l t o

t h e pure Holy Innocent.

Tom's r e a c t i o n t o arti in's unconsciously c r u e l con-

d e s c e n s i o n , l i k e w i s e , i s e q u a l l y incongruous, s u g g e s t i n g powerful emotions

raging beneath h i s p l a c i d surface.

A s Martin p a i n t s a glowing p o r t r a i t of

h i s f u t u r e l i f e w i t h Mary, Tom's i n i t i a l l y d e l i g h t e d r e s p o n s e becomes i n creasingly restrained :

'She would t a k e t o you uncommonly, Tom; and would understand you
f a r more d e l i c a t e l y t h a n I e v e r s h a l l ; and would o f t e n s a y , I know,
t h a t you were a h a r m l e s s , g e n t l e , w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d , good f e l l o w . '
How s i l e n t Tom Pinch was!
' I n honour of o l d t i m e s , ' s a i d M a r t i n , 'and of h e r having h e a r d
you p l a y t h e organ i n t h i s damp l i t t l e church here--for n o t h i n g too-w e w i l l have one i n t h e house. I s h a l l b u i l d an a r c h i t e c t u r a l musicroom on a p l a n of my own
and many's t h e summer evening s h e and
I w i l l s i t and l i s t e n t o you, Tom; b e s u r e of t h a t ! '
It may have r e q u i r e d a s t r o n g e r e f f o r t on Tom Pinch's p a r t t o
l e a v e t h e s e a t on which he s a t , and shake h i s f r i e n d by b o t h hands,
w i t h n o t h i n g b u t s e r e n i t y and g r a t e f u l f e e l i n g p a i n t e d on h i s f a c e ;
i t may have r e q u i r e d a s t r o n g e r e f f o r t t o perform t h i s simple a c t
w i t h a pure h e a r t , t h a n t o a c h i e v e many and many a deed t o which t h e
d o u b t f u l trumpet blown by Fame h a s l u s t i l y resounded.
(12, 193-4)

...

The p o t e n t i a l v i o l e n c e and anger aroused i n Tom by M a r t i n ' s d e n i a l of P i n c h ' s

manhood a r e i m p l i c i t l y s u g g e s t e d .
A c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t i n g Tom's deeper i m p u l s e s , t h e s e b r i e f s c e n e s r e p r e s e n t
a s e v e r e t h r e a t t o Dickens's conception of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t , a f i g u r e whose
primary symbolic r o l e s would b e completely s u b v e r t e d by i n c h o a t e f e e l i n g s of
s e x u a l i t y o r aggression.

F r u s t r a t e d i n h i s one s e r i o u s l o v e a f f a i r and s e x u a l

i n f a t u a t i o n , moreover, and f o r c e d t o spend a c e l i b a t e l i f e i n h i s s i s t e r ' s

husband's household, Tom would l i k e l y e x p e r i e n c e some d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n - - i f
n o t complete embitterment; and, w h i l e Dickens could e x p l o r e t h e anguish of
Smike's s e l f - a w a r e n e s s ,

Tom, who performs more v a l u a b l e moral r o l e s , must be

rescued from h i s s e l f - t o r m e n t .

A s S t e i g s u g g e s t s , t h e n , Dickens's e l a b o r a t e

r h e t o r i c a l a d d r e s s e s t o Tom a r e designed t o obscure t h e s e deeper problems;

u s w i t h any c o n v i c t i o n " t h a t Tom remains happy and
" s i n c e Dickens cannot t e l l f u l f i l l e d , ' h e must preach t o Tom about what h i s h e a r t should be--and

of course

i t must n o t b e r e s e n t f u l , j e a l o u s , o r envious":

10

Thy l i f e i s t r a n q u i l , calm, and happy, Tom. I n t h e s o f t s t r a i n

which e v e r and a g a i n comes s t e a l i n g back upon t h e e a r , t h e memory
of t h i n e o l d l o v e may f i n d a v o i c e perhaps; b u t i t i s a p l e a s a n t ,
s o f t e n e d , w h i s p e r i n g memory, l i k e t h a t i n which w e sometimes h o l d
t h e dead, and does n o t p a i n o r g r i e v e t h e e , God b e thanked! (54, 836)
G a r r e t t Stewart o f f e r s a s u c c i n c t ( y e t p o s s i b l y m i s l e a d i n g ) i n s i g h t i n t o t h e
n a t u r e of Tom's f i n a l i s o l a t i o n , n o t i n g t h a t " i n s o f a r a s Tom's amending
r e f u g e h a s become a f o r t i f i c a t i o n a g a i n s t l i f e

. . . an

u n c r e a t i v e 'solace"'

c u t t i n g " h i m o f f from t h e a n x i e t i e s and i n t i m a c i e s of m a t u r i t y , t h e n M r . Pinch

i s n o t s o much an a r t i s t a s a mere t a c t i c i a n of e s c a p e . "I1

stewart correctly

i d e n t i f i e s Tom's withdrawal a s escape from " t h e a n x i e t i e s and i n t i m a c i e s of

m a t u r i t y , " b u t i s Tom t h e " t a c t i c i a n of e s c a p e , " o r h a s Dickens, i n f a c t ,
l e f t h i m s e l f no a l t e r n a t i v e b u t t o r e s i g n Pinch t o t h i s s e c u r e p r i s o n ?

If

Tom i s Dickens's most p e r f e c t example of t h e t o u c h s t o n e m o t i f , then s u r e l y

Dickens's own response t o h i s c r e a t i o n i s r e v e a l i n g .

Denied any a c t i v e o u t l e t

f o r h i s energy o r d e s i r e s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e i m p u l s e s ) ,
Tom must b e s a f e l y r e l e g a t e d t o a l o v i n g and untroublesome c e l i b a c y i n which,
Dickens i n s i s t s , t h e r e i s no p a i n o r g r i e f , "God be thanked."
Tom Pinch, t h e n , b r i n g s t h e problem of t h e f o o l ' s psychosexual r e a l i t y
t o a r a t h e r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y y e t perhaps i n e v i t a b l e conclusion.

A s a counter-

b a l a n c e t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g v i c e s of h i s s o c i e t y , s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e redemptive innocence needed t o r e v i v i f y i t s s t a g n a n t moral s e n s e , t h e
Holy Innocent i s a s u c c e s s f u l f i g u r e .

A s a simple-hearted c h a r a c t e r who c a n

g a i n a s t r o n g e r , more i n s i g h t f u l p e r c e p t i o n from h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h e v i l , t h e
Holy Innocent r e p r e s e n t s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d image of Dickens's e t h o s .

And y e t ,

as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y b e l i e v a b l e f o o l - f i g u r e whose s e x u a l and a g g r e s s i v e
e n e r g i e s must b e f o r c i b l y subdued i n t h e normal world, Tom, a t t h e n o v e l ' s
end, must p l a y h i s f u t i l e l y e l e v a t e d organ i n s o l i t u d e .

Dickens's a n a l y s i s of Pinch's deeper impulses comes p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e

t o undermining t h e Holy ~ n n o c e n t ' s primary symbolic n a t u r e , a danger t h a t
Dickens never again confronts d i r e c t l y .

I n M r . T o o t s ' s serio-comic yearn-

i n g s f o r Florence Dombey, f o r example, t h e c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l t o t h e Tom-Mary

r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e subsequent n o v e l s , Dickens i s c a r e f u l t o e l i m i n a t e any
d i s r u p t i v e s e x u a l o r a g g r e s s i v e overtone.12

Even Susan Nipper, Toots's

e v e n t u a l w i f e , can only laughingly regard him a s "the devotedest and innocentest i n f a n t " (56, 780) i n whom s e x u a l f e e l i n g s a r e u t t e r l y unexpected:
But i n s t e a d of walking up s t a i r s , t h e b o l d Toots [ a c t i n g on t h e advice
of t h e Game Chicken t o c o n c i l i a t e Susan] made an awkward plunge a t Susan
when t h e door was s h u t , and embracing t h a t f a i r c r e a t u r e , k i s s e d h e r
on t h e cheek.
'Go along with you!' c r i e d Susan, ' o r 1'11 t e a r your eyes o u t . '
' J u s t another!' s a i d M r . Toots.
'Innocents
'Go along w i t h you!' exclaimed Susan, g i v i n g him a push.
l i k e you, too! Who'll begin n e x t ? Go along, S i r ! ' ( 2 2 , 316)
Toots's c h i v a l r i c d e c l a r a t i o n s of love a r e made e q u a l l y l u d i c r o u s :
'Captain G i l l s , ' s a i d M r . Toots, g e s t i c u l a t i n g v i o l e n t l y w i t h t h e
hand i n which he h e l d h i s h a t , 'Admiration i s n o t t h e word. Upon my
honour, you have no conception what my f e e l i n g s a r e . I f I could be
dyed b l a c k , and made M i s s Dombey's s l a v e , I should consider i t a
compliment. I f , a t t h e s a c r i f i c e of a l l my p r o p e r t y , I could g e t
r e a l l y t h i n k I should
transmigrated i n t o Miss Dombey's dog--1-1
never l e a v e o f f wagging my t a i l . ' ( 3 9 , 545)
The poignant s e l f - e f f a c i n g a t t i t u d e of Tom, o r t h e d e p a i r i n g torment of Smike
a r e completely a b s e n t , Dickens's new emphasis on t h e comic elements i n Toots's
hopeless devotion defending a g a i n s t t h e i n n e r pathos of t h e Holy Innocent's
p a i n f u l self-awareness.

Even Smike's mortal d e s p a i r i s reduced t o Toots's

absurd i n v o c a t i o n s of t h e " s i l e n t ~ o m b , "w h i l e h i s marriage t o Susan Nipper,

a woman below him i n s o c i a l rank b u t many l e v e l s above him i n i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

i s a r a t h e r unbelievable means of avoiding t h e p a i n and g r i e f t h a t Tom

supposedly d i d n o t experience:

"'She was t h e only person who could have stood

between me and t h e s i l e n t Tomb, and she d i d i t , i n a manner t o command my

e v e r l a s t i n g admiration"'

(62, 876).

The i s s u e of t h e f o o l ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e normal world, n e v e r t h e l e s s ,

although s e r i o u s l y diminished, i s n o t e c l i p s e d .

Toots's r e l a t i o n s h i p with

F l o r e n c e , a s noted i n my l a s t c h a p t e r , s t i m u l a t e s h i s moral growth, and t h e

t r a n s c e n d e n t v i s i o n remains i n t a c t :

"'She i s t h e same b r i g h t v i s i o n t o me,

a t p r e s e n t , t h a t s h e was b e f o r e I made W a l t e r ' s a c q u a i n t a n c e

. . . t h e most

b e a u t i f u l , t h e most amiable, t h e most a n g e l i c of h e r s e x t 1 ' (876).

But, on

o c c a s i o n , Dickens's e f f o r t s t o d i m i n i s h t h e p o t e n t i a l p a i n i n M r . T o o t s ' s
s o r r o w f u l awareness of h i s p e r s o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s through t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of
incongruous comic elements o r c h i v a l r i c m o t i f s cannot o b s c u r e t h e deeper
reality:
And g e n t l e M r . Toots, who wanders a t a d i s t a n c e , l o o k i n g w i s t f u l l y
towards t h e f i g u r e t h a t he d o t e s upon, and h a s followed t h e r e , b u t
cannot i n h i s d e l i c a c y d i s t u r b a t such a time, l i k e w i s e h e a r s t h e
requiem of l i t t l e Dombey on t h e w a t e r s , r i s i n g and f a l l i n g i n t h e
l u l l s of t h e i r e t e r n a l madrigal i n p r a i s e of Florence. Yes! and he
f a i n t l y u n d e r s t a n d s , poor M r . Toots, t h a t t h e y a r e s a y i n g something
of a time when he was s e n s i b l e of b e i n g b r i g h t e r and n o t addleb r a i n e d ; and t h e t e a r s r i s i n g i n h i s eyes when h e f e a r s t h a t h e i s
d u l l and s t u p i d now, and good f o r l i t t l e b u t t o b e laughed a t ,
diminish h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e i r s o o t h i n g reminder t h a t h e i s
r e l i e v e d from p r e s e n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t h e Chicken, by t h e absence
of t h a t game head of p o u l t r y i n t h e c o u n t r y , t r a i n i n g ( a t T o o t s ' s c o s t )
(41, 577)
f o r h i s g r e a t m i l l w i t h t h e Larkey Boy.
The sudden appearance of t h a t "game head of p o u l t r y " somewhat d e f l a t e s t h e
impact of T o o t s ' s i n n e r pathos (a s a d n e s s p e r f e c t l y r e a l i s t i c ) , b u t does n o t
J u s t a s Toots i s p a i n f u l l y aware of h i s p e r s o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s ,

eliminate it.

moreover, s o F l o r e n c e ' s response t o h e r unequal s u i t o r r e v e a l s t h e p o t e n t i a l

discomfort t h a t t h e f o o l c r e a t e s i n even t h e most h i g h l y v i r t u o u s Dickensian
characters.

When " t h e f r i e n d s h i p of M r . Toots, of whom s h e could h a r d l y speak

i n h e r d i s t r e s s w i t h o u t a t e a r f u l smile" (35, 506), becomes a t e n t a t i v e prop o s a l of m a r r i a g e , F l o r e n c e ' s r e a c t i o n i s immediately one of shock and embarrassment:

"'Oh,

i f you p l e a s e , d o n ' t ! '

alarmed and d i s t r e s s e d .

c r i e s F l o r e n c e , f o r t h e moment q u i t e

'Oh, pray d o n ' t , M r . Toots.

S t o p , i f you p l e a s e .

Don't s a y any more.

As a k i n d n e s s and a favour t o m e , don't"'

(581).

As

Susan a l s o o b s e r v e s , "Immediately I s e e t h a t Innocent i n t h e H a l l , Miss Floy,

I b u r s t o u t l a u g h i n g f i r s t , and t h e n I choked"'

(18, 2 5 0 )

F l o r e n c e ' s and Susan's l a u g h t e r , though s c a r c e l y d i s d a i n f u l , s u g g e s t s

a s u b t l e problem i n ~ i c k e n s ' sown a t t i t u d e towards h i s f o o l - f i g u r e s , namely,
t h a t t h e normal world, whatever i t s moral e x c e l l e n c e and genuine a f f e c t i o n
f o r t h e f o o l , cannot f u l l y a c c e p t t h e s e s i m p l e c h a r a c t e r s a s e q u a l s .

This

problem i s no more e a s i l y r e s o l v e d f o r Dickens t h a n t h e i s s u e of t h e f o o l ' s

psychosexual r e a l i t y , and Dickens i s b o t h r e l u c t a n t and w i l l i n g t o c o n f r o n t

its implications.

A s a r e s u l t , h e employs an i n t r i g u i n g compromise, p r e s e n t -

i n g t h e d i s c o m f o r t of t h e normal world p r i n c i p a l l y through t h e f o o l ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c h i l d o r youth, a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t e n a b l e s Dickens t o

examine and reduce t h e problem s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

On t h e one hand, w e need n o t

t a k e t h e c h i l d ' s embarrassed response very s e r i o u s l y , r e g a r d i n g i t a s merely

a s i g n of immaturity o r l a c k of moral development.

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e

c h i l d i s o f t e n t h e v o i c e of t r u t h i n Dickens's f i c t i o n (even an autobiographi c a l v o i c e on o c c a s i o n ) and a s such h i s r e a c t i o n s r e q u i r e s e r i o u s consideration.

F r e q u e n t l y , of c o u r s e , t h e f o o l ' s p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c h i l d

--Toots,

who "had somehow c o n s t i t u t e d himself p r o t e c t o r and guardian of

[Paul] Dombey" (14, 1 8 2 ) , C u t t l e , who s h e l t e r s F l o r e n c e , Dick, " d e l i g h t e d

...

t o b e t h e guardian" of David C o p p e r f i e l d (14, 214), and Joe, P i p ' s major moral

guardian--has

important thematic content.

v i c t i m s of t h e n o n - f o o l / u n c h i l d - l i k e

Both c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s a r e o f t e n t h e

f o r c e s i n t h e i r s o c i a l world, and t h e i r

bond of innocence ( l i k e t h e f o o l - p r i n c e s s r e l a t i o n s h i p ) enhances t h e Holy

I n n o c e n t ' s r o l e a s a symbolic c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o such f o r c e s .

I n several varia-

t i o n s on t h i s p a t t e r n , however, t h e t h e m a t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s a r e s e r i o u s l y
q u a l i f i e d by some d i s r u p t i v e p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s .
Though h a r d l y i n d i c a t i v e of any deep-rooted ambivalence, t h e l a u g h t e r of

N e l l , F l o r e n c e , and Susan i n t r o d u c e s t h e b a s i c problem, t h e uneasy recognit i o n t h a t t h e f o o l i s an u n f i t companion f a r below t h e normal world i n

This i s , however, a simple r e c o g n i t i o n of

s t a t i o n and p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s .

t h e t r u t h and Dickens does n o t p e r m i t us t o condemn t h e c h a r a c t e r s who exp e r i e n c e such f e e l i n g s of embarrassment o r condescension.

Walter Gay, f o r

example, a f f e c t i o n a t e l y devoted t o t h e simple-hearted Captain C u t t l e , e v i n c e s

a t o t a l l y r e a l i s t i c and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e ambivalence about C u t t l e ' s a b i l i t i e s
t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n normal a f f a i r s :

" I f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n must be t o M r . Dombey

a t a l l [ f o r f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e ] , which was awful t o t h i n k o f , Walter f e l t

h e would r a t h e r p r e f e r i t a l o n e and u n a s s i s t e d , than backed by t h e p e r s o n a l
i n f l u e n c e of Captain C u t t l e , t o which he h a r d l y thought M r .
a t t a c h much weight'' (9, 1 2 3 ) .
t h e teaspoons, sugar-tongs,

Dombey would

When t h e C a p t a i n , moreover, arms h i m s e l f w i t h

and s i l v e r watch "with a view, a s Walter thought,

w i t h h o r r o r , t o making a gorgeous i m p r e s s i o n on M r . Dombey" ( 1 2 3 ) , W a l t e r ' s

w o r r i e s about Dombey's response t o t h e uncouth s i m p l e t o n do n o t e n t i r e l y mask
h i s own p e r s o n a l embarrassment.

During t h e i n t e r v i e w , l i k e w i s e , Walter i s

e x p l i c i t l y a p o l o g e t i c about his u n r e f i n e d companion:

'It i s e n t i r e l y a p r i v a t e and p e r s o n a l m a t t e r , t h a t h a s brought
m e h e r e , S i r , ' c o n t i n u e d W a l t e r , f a l t e r i n g , 'and Captain Cuttle--'
'Here!' i n t e r p o s e d t h e C a p t a i n , a s an a s s u r a n c e t h a t h e was a t
hand, and might b e r e l i e d upon.
'Who i s a v e r y o l d f r i e n d of my poor u n c l e ' s , and a most e x c e l l e n t
man, S i r , ' pursued Walter, r a i s i n g h i s e y e s w i t h a look of e n t r e a t y
i n t h e C a p t a i n ' s b e h a l f , 'was s o good a s t o o f f e r t o come w i t h m e ,
which I c o u l d h a r d l y r e f u s e . ' (10, 130)

Walter, n e v e r t h e l e s s , i s s u r e l y n o t g u i l t y of c a l l o u s n e s s i n h i s unexpressed
d i s c o m f o r t o v e r C u t t l e ' s p r e s e n c e ; f o r a l l h i s warm-hearted s u p p o r t and
symbolic c o n t r a s t t o Dombey, C u t t l e i s an u n q u e s t i o n a b l y l i m i t e d f i g u r e t o t a l l y o u t of p l a c e among h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r s .
with

One can o n l y sympathize

alter's h e s i t a n t r e s p o n s e t o t h e C a p t a i n ' s deluded enthusiasms:

"In

s p i t e of h i s r e s p e c t f o r C a p t a i n C u t t l e , Walter could n o t h e l p inwardly re-

j o i c i n g a t t h e absence of t h i s s a g e [ t h e i m b e c i l i c Bunsby], and d e v o u t l y

hoping t h a t h i s l i m p i d i n t e l l e c t might n o t b e brought t o b e a r on h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s u n t i l t h e y were q u i t e s e t t l e d " (15, 212).
A t a n o t h e r l e v e l , David C o p p e r f i e l d ' s response t o h i s simple-minded o r
simple-hearted companions s u g g e s t s more s e r i o u s r e s e r v a t i o n s .

A s noted

earlier, i n t h e m i d s t of a n e a r n e s t eulogy t o M r . Dick's "mind of t h e h e a r t , "

David ( a p p a r e n t l y unconsciously) r e f e r s t o Dick w i t h almost b i t i n g c r u e l t y

as "one of t h e lower animals" (42, 6 2 3 ) .

d e s c r i p t i o n is s i g n i f i c a n t :

The unconscious element i n t h i s

even though David and Dick a r e devoted f r i e n d s ,

a t a deep l e v e l of David's mind Dick i s indeed a subhuman c r e a t u r e , a s t r i k i n g

example of t h e o f t e n unacknowledged y e t u n b r i d g e a b l e g u l f between t h e f o o l
and t h e normal world.

Equally s i g n i f i c a n t , David i s a q u a s i - a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

image of Dickens h i m s e l f , and t h e degree t o which Dickens i s s e p a r a t e from

h i s p e r s o n a i n t h i s passage i s l e s s t h a n c l e a r .

For t h a t m a t t e r , Dickens i s

13
almost P e c k s n i f f i a n i n h i s s e n t i m e n t a l l y p a t r o n i z i n g a d d r e s s e s t o Tom Pinch,
a p a t t e r n r e c u r r i n g i n h i s condescending a p o s t r o p h e s t o Twemlow ("Ah,
Twemlow!
to-day"

my

Say, l i t t l e f e e b l e grey personage, what t h o u g h t s a r e i n t h y b r e a s t

[OMF,

11, 1 6 , 4 0 9 ] ) , and i t i s n o t e n t i r e l y i m p l a u s i b l e t h a t some h a l f -

c o n s c i o u s ambivalence on Dickens's own p a r t o c c a s i o n a l l y m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f .

More f r e q u e n t l y , of c o u r s e , Dickens i s w e l l aware of such condescending
a t t i t u d e s , and employs them, through t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s touchstone f u n c t i o n s ,
t o demonstrate a c h a r a c t e r ' s moral development.

David's b e l i t t l i n g r e s p o n s e

t o t h e i n n o c e n t Tommy T r a d d l e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , c l e a r l y s i g n i f i e s h i s s t i l l
immature moral s e n s i t i v i t y :

I promised Traddles t h a t he s h o u l d h e a r Dora s i n g , and s e e some of

h e r flower-painting.
He s a i d h e should l i k e i t very much, and we
went home arm i n arm i n g r e a t good humour and d e l i g h t . 1 encouraged
him t o t a l k about Sophy, on t h e way; which h e d i d w i t h a l o v i n g
r e l i a n c e on h e r t h a t I very much admired. I compared h e r i n my mind
w i t h Dora, w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e inward s a t i s f a c t i o n ; b u t I c a n d i d l y

a d m i t t e d t o myself t h a t s h e seemed t o be a n e x c e l l e n t k i n d of
g i r l f o r T r a d d l e s , too.
(41, 602)
w h i l e Dickens's o t h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l p e r s o n a , P i p , d i s p l a y s a s i m i l a r l y
s l i g h t i n g condescension.

A t t h e same t i m e , moreover, Dickens's s a t i r i c

d e p i c t i o n s of p r i d e c o n t i n u e t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e awkward p o s i t i o n of s i m p l i c i t y
i n t h e normal world.

Dickens s p a r e s Traddles t h e knowledge of David's deeper

f e e l i n g s , b u t t h e r e a d e r c l e a r l y o b s e r v e s t h e f o o l ' s l a c k of s t a t u s even i n
t h e minds of t h o s e a f f e c t i o n a t e l y disposed towards him, and may j u s t l y specu l a t e on T r a d d l e s ' s p a i n had h e known David's unexpressed opinion.

Dickens

h i m s e l f e v i d e n t l y s h a r e s t h i s s p e c u l a t i o n , and i n h i s f i n a l v e r s i o n of t h e
f o o l - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p , he d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t s J o e ' s and P i p ' s p a i n f u l recogn i t i o n t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e Holy Innocent and t h e normal world i s
indeed impassable

While W a l t e r ' s embarrassment o v e r C u t t l e ' s uncouth c h a r a c t e r i s more

comic t h a n d i s t r e s s i n g , P i p must e x p e r i e n c e t h e f u l l pangs of t h e d i s p a r i t y
between h i m s e l f and h i s simpleton-companion.
t h e d e a r good fellow--I

know I

"I am a f r a i d I was ashamed of

was ashamed of him--"

(13, 95), P i p s a y s of

J o e ' s i n t e r v i e w w i t h Miss Havisham, and, a s Q. D. Leavis s t a t e s , a l t h o u g h

many r e a d e r s h a r s h l y condemn P i p ' s a t t i t u d e s i n t h i s s c e n e , t h e s i t u a t i o n
has "nothing t o do w i t h any c o n c e i v a b l e snobbery on P i p ' s p a r t , and t h e
anguish P i p s u f f e r e d t h e n i s what anyone i n t h e circumstances a t h i s age must
have f e l t .

Dickens indeed makes us f e e l i t w i t h him. "14 I n London, l i k e w i s e ,

when P i p a n t i c i p a t e s J o e ' s v i s i t "with c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t u r b a n c e , some m o r t i f i c a t i o n , and a keen s e n s e of i n c o n g r u i t y " ( 2 7 , 206), P i p ' s r e a c t i o n s t o t h e

f o o l ' s g a u c h e r i e s a r e more p a i n f u l than contemptuous, an improper b u t u n w i l l i n g
and thoroughly understandable r e s p o n s e .

While C u t t l e , moreover, was b l i s s f u l l y

unaware of Walter's d i s c o m f o r t and Dombey's d i s d a i n , J o e ( l i k e P i p ) i s painf u l l y conscious of P i p ' s ambivalent f e e l i n g s and h i s own i n n a t e l i m i t a t i o n s :

' P i p , d e a r o l d chap, l i f e i s made of e v e r s o many p a r t i n g s welded

t o g e t h e r , a s I may s a y , and one man's a b l a c k s m i t h , and o n e ' s a
w h i t e s m i t h , and o n e ' s a goldsmith, and o n e ' s a coppersmith.
Diwisions among such must come, and must b e m e t a s t h e y come. I f
t h e r e ' s been any f a u l t a t a l l to-day, i t ' s mine. You and m e i s n o t
two f i g u r e s t o be t o g e t h e r i n London; n o r y e t anywheres e l s e b u t
what i s p r i v a t e , and beknown, and understood among f r i e n d s .
It
a i n ' t t h a t I am proud, b u t t h a t I want t o b e r i g h t , as you s h a l l
n e v e r s e e m e no more i n t h e s e c l o t h e s . I ' m wrong i n t h e s e c l o t h e s .
I ' m wrong o u t of t h e f o r g e , t h e k i t c h e n , o r o f f t h ' meshes. You
won't f i n d h a l f s o much f a u l t i n me i f you t h i n k of me i n my f o r g e
d r e s s , w i t h my hammer i n my hand, o r even my p i p e . You won't f i n d
h a l f s o much f a u l t i n me i f , supposing a s you s h o u l d e v e r wish t o
s e e m e , you come and p u t your head i n a t t h e f o r g e window and s e e J o e
t h e b l a c k s m i t h , t h e r e , a t t h e o l d a n v i l , i n t h e o l d b u r n t apron,
s t i c k i n g t o t h e o l d work. I ' m awful d u l l , b u t I hope I ' v e b e a t o u t
something n i g h t h e r i g h t s of t h i s a t last. And s o GOD b l e s s you,
d e a r o l d P i p , o l d chap, GOD b l e s s you!' (212)
The s o c i a l d i v i s i o n between P i p and J o e undoubtedly c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e t e n s i o n s
i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p ; however, i f an a n a l y s i s of c l a s s snobbery were Dickens's
s o l e i n t e n t i o n h e could no doubt d e p i c t J o e ' s s o c i a l backwardness w i t h o u t
Gargery's e x p l i c i t l i n k s t o t h e d o c t r i n e of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y .

By doing b o t h ,

Dickens t h u s e x t e n d s t h e c e n t r a l concerns of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n t e n s i f y i n g

i t s t h e m a t i c import.

Regardless of c l a s s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , p a i n and f r u s t r a t i o n

(both t h e f o o l ' s and t h e y o u t h ' s ) ,

Dickens seems t o s u g g e s t , a r e t h e most

c e r t a i n r e s u l t s of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e c l e a r e s t s i g n i n h i s w r i t i n g s t h a t
t h e e f f o r t t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e Holy Innocent i n t o t h e normal world i s doomed
t o failure.
Like C u t t l e , J o e i s a symbolic c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n , h i s
Christian values representing Pip's salvation.

And y e t , i n h i s s e v e r e l y res-

t r i c t e d scope, h i s l a c k of a m b i t i o n , s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i m i t a t i o n s , i s
h e a n a p p r o p r i a t e model f o r P i p t o emulate?

A s A. E. Dyson n o t e s , "Pip i s

no Tom Pinch o r Tim Linkinwater; nor was Dickens, who t o some degree i d e n t i f i e s himself w i t h Pip. "I5 Both Dickens and P i p a r e i n t e l l i g e n t and a m b i t i o u s ,
and, w h i l e v a l u i n g J o e ' s innocence, b o t h a r e f u l l y conscious of h i s l i m i t a tions.

John Lucas o b s e r v e s t h a t " t h e t r o u b l e w i t h P i p ' s a s p i r a t i o n s i s t h a t

t h e y a r e n o t worth t h e e f f o r t .
t o be a g r e a t n o v e l i s t ?

But suppose t h e y were?

Suppose h e wanted

The problem of J o e would n o t b e l e s s e n e d . "I6 P i p ' s

a t t i t u d e s , i n f a c t , e x p r e s s a fundamental a s p e c t of Dickens's own c h a r a c t e r ,

and a l t h o u g h Dickens honours t h e i n t e g r i t y of J o e ' s h o l y s i m p l i c i t y , h i s
admission t h a t J o e i s a l i m i t e d i n d i v i d u a l who can never accompany Pip i n t o
t h e normal world is uncompromising.
While t h e f o o l ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c h i l d o r youth i s ( f o r r e a s o n s
a l r e a d y n o t e d ) t h e most f r e q u e n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h i s theme, the r e s p o n s e of
t h e moral a d u l t o c c a s i o n a l l y i l l u m i n e s t h e d i s p a r i t y .
Weller-Pickwick

Even i n t h e e a r l y

r e l a t i o n s h i p , perhaps t h e most s u c c e s s f u l union of a simple-

s o u l e d f o o l and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e normal world, t h e i n t e l l i g e n t s e r v a n t mentor must c o r r e c t t h e e x c e s s e s of h i s m a s t e r ' s s i m p l i c i t y i n o r d e r t o accommodate him i n t h a t world.

I n a l a t e r n o v e l , where t h i s problem i s e x p l o r e d

more d e e p l y , Betsey Trotwood and M r . Dick f u r t h e r demonstrate t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s

i n v o l v e d i n any a t t e m p t t o b r i d g e t h i s g u l f .

Betsey a c c e p t s M r . Dick i n t o

h e r home and r e g a r d s him a s a near-normal a s s o c i a t e ("'Nobody

man's mind i s , except myself'''

knows what t h a t

[14, 2043 and indeed Mr. Dick p o s s e s s e s con-

s i d e r a b l e n a t u r a l wisdom), and y e t , n o t o n l y does M r . Dick remain t o t a l l y dependent on h e r g r e a t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t B e t s e y ' s a d m i r a t i o n f o r h i s mental

prowess is e i t h e r a disingenuous o r unconscious s e l f - d e l u s i o n .

Even when

bound by l o v e , t h e f o o l can b e accepted a s a member of t h e normal world ( i f

merely i n appearance) o n l y through a s u s p e n s i o n of d i s b e l i e f .

David's and

P i p ' s p a i n f u l condescension i s a l e s s a t t r a c t i v e , y e t f a r more h o n e s t and t h u s

r e a l i s t i c , response.
D e s p i t e t h e obvious r e l u c t a n c e occasioned by h i s d e v o t i o n t o t h e f o o l ' s
symbolic r o l e s , t h e n , Dickens's e f f o r t s t o c r e a t e a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y r e a l i s t i c
p o r t r a i t of t h e Holy Innocent--a

p o r t r a i t t h a t grants t h i s figure a believable

i n n e r l i f e by acknowledging h i s deeper impulses and d e l i n e a t i n g h i s s e l f image--nonetheless

i l l u m i n a t e t h e f o o l ' s most s e v e r e handicaps.

The r e a l i s t i c

f o o l i s r e v e a l e d a s a f i g u r e of c o n s i d e r a b l e i n n e r p a t h o s , whose s e x u a l romantic e n e r g i e s and s e l f - e s t e e m can b e p a r a l y s e d by f e e l i n g s of inadequacy

and f r u s t r a t i o n , and whose s u c c e s s a s a symbolic f i g u r e o f t e n depends upon
t h e a u t h o r ' s c a p a c i t y t o n u l l i f y such d i s r u p t i v e elements.

The f o o l ' s f u t i l e

a t t e m p t s t o t r a n s c e n d h i s s i m p l e t o n - n a t u r e through c l o s e p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h more normal f i g u r e s o n l y a c c e n t u a t e h i s i n a d e q u a c i e s ; whether

c o n s c i o u s l y o r unconsciously, even t h e f o o l ' s c l o s e s t f e l l o w - s p i r i t s i n t h e
normal world can n e i t h e r deny n o r overlook t h e d i s p a r i t y between t h e i r n a t u r e s
and p o t e n t i a l .
Dickens i s an avowedly d i d a c t i c w r i t e r w i t h t h e Holy Innocent a s h i s
p r i n c i p a l moral v e h i c l e , and y e t t h i s a n a l y s i s of t h e f o o l ' s i n n e r l i f e h a s
c a l l e d t h e e n t i r e d o c t r i n e of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y i n t o doubt, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e
f o o l ' s moral q u a l i t i e s can o p e r a t e only i n a world of romance f a t a l l y vulnera b l e t o any i n t r u s i v e r e a l i t y .

We have s e e n t h a t t h e Pickwickian f o o l cannot

w i t h s t a n d t h e menace of s o c i a l - m o r a l c o r r u p t i o n , h i s powers of redemption

reduced t o an i s o l a t e d s a n c t u a r y ; we now s e e t h a t t h e f o o l h i m s e l f , o f t e n
w i t h i n such a s a n c t u a r y , cannot w i t h s t a n d t h e t r u t h about h i s own n a t u r e , and
t h a t h i s t h e m a t i c r o l e s can b e p r e s e r v e d o n l y through o v e r t a u t h o r i a l i n t e r vention.

I n l i g h t of t h i s accumulation of i n n a t e weaknesses, t h e e f f e c t i v e -

n e s s of t h e h o l y f o o l a s a paradigm f o r human behaviour and an i d e a l v e h i c l e

f o r moral t r u t h i s c l e a r l y q u e s t i o n a b l e .
t h a n a f o o l " ( I . 4 , 181-2) exclaims

"I had r a t h e r b e any k i n d o ' t h i n g

ear's j e s t e r about t h e f o o l ' s p a i n f u l l y

i n d e t e r m i n a t e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , s e n t i m e n t s s h a r e d by t h e r e a l i s t i c Dickensian
Holy I n n o c e n t , who, f o r e v e r i s o l a t e d by h i s i n t r i n s i c s o c i a l and mental
l i m i t a t i o n s , cannot t r u l y f u l f i l l Dickens's primary moral purposes.

2.

The Child-Fool

Although t h e simple-minded o r simple-souled

f o o l proves i n s u f f i c i e n t ,

t h e d o c t r i n e of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y remains v i t a l t o Dickens's e t h o s , and even

a s Dickens d i s c u s s e s t h e f o o l ' s l i m i t a t i o n s , h e e x p l o r e s p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a tives.

The p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s of t h e f o o l ' s d i s r u p t i v e s e x u a l i t y and i n n e r

p a t h o s remain u n r e s o l v e d , b u t t h e l a r g e r problem comprising them--the

t a n c e between t h e f o o l and t h e normal world--is,
another fool-type,

dis-

through t h e agency of y e t

open t o r e c o n c i l i a t i o n .

Perhaps unexpectedly i t i s t h e c h i l d and t h e h e r o i n e , t h e same c h a r a c t e r s

who s e r v e t o q u e s t i o n t h e f o o l ' s n a t u r e , who p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y union.
F i r s t , whereas t h e innocence of t h e h o l y f o o l , t h e a d u l t who does n o t mature,

i s an abnormal a t t r i b u t e , t h e innocence of t h e c h i l d , w h i l e no less morally

i n s i g h t f u l , i s a p e r f e c t l y normal q u a l i t y of an i n e x p e r i e n c e d i n d i v i d u a l , a
f a c t g r a n t i n g t h e c h i l d t h e s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n of a b r i d g e between t h e f o o l and
t h e normal world.

Second, and more i m p o r t a n t , throughout h i s u s e s of t h e f o o l

t r a d i t i o n , Dickens h a s emphasized t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s psychological-moral

opment.

devel-

I n t h e c h i l d - f o o l m o t i f , t h i s p r o c e s s i s p l a c e d on a f i r m e r b a s i s ,

and t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s c h i l d - l i k e o r f o o l - l i k e q u a l i t i e s
i n t o adulthood through a p r o c e s s of moral e d u c a t i o n t r a v e r s e s t h e g u l f between
t h e f o o l and t h e normal world by forming a m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g union of
p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m and symbolic v a l u e s .
I n one s e n s e , i t might b e argued t h a t Dickens circumvents r a t h e r t h a n
resolves the question:

t h e c h i l d - f o o l e n a b l e s Dickens t o avoid c o n f r o n t i n g

t h e f o o l ' s ungovernable s e x u a l i t y , w h i l e t h e c h i l d ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l n o r m a l i t y

e l i m i n a t e s t h e problem of t h e s i m p l e t o n ' s despondent awareness of h i s mental
limitation.

I n t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l m o t i f , n o n e t h e l e s s , Dickens

encounters v i r t u a l l y t h e same problem found i n o t h e r f o o l - t y p e s :

a disrup-

t i v e t e n s i o n between r e a l i t y and romance, a f a t a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o m o n o l i t h i c

social evils.

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t e a d i l y d e c l i n i n g Pickwickian and l u n a t i c

f o o l s , t h e more v e r s a t i l e c h i l d - f o o l

(with h i s g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r

psychological-moral m a t u r a t i o n ) i s t h e o n l y f o o l - t y p e t o advance from weakn e s s t o s t r e n g t h , t h e p u r e l y symbolic forms g i v i n g way t o a u n i f i e d f i g u r e

i n whom t h e d o c t r i n e of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y is given s i g n i f i c a n t c r e d i b i l i t y .

It should a l s o be n o t e d , however, t h a t t h i s movement towards r e a l i s m b e g i n s

w i t h some of t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent c o n v e n t i o n ' s most e l a b o r a t e mythic
o r romantic s p i r i t u a l e l e m e n t s , t h e image p a t t e r n s t h a t l i n k t h e c h i l d r o m a n f o o l t r i n i t y t o g e t h e r p r e s e n t i n g an e x p l i c i t l y o t h e r w o r l d l y n a t u r e .
On t h e one hand, whatever t h e i n n a t e u n r e a l i t y of t h e s e s h a r e d i m a g i s t i c
p a t t e r n s , t h e s p i r i t u a l e s s e n c e of t h e s e f i g u r e s remains a v i t a l a s p e c t of
t h e i r thematic import, r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e u n d e r l y i n g f o u n d a t i o n of t h e i r moral
roles,

Deriving h i s i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e c h i l d ' s s p e c i a l s p i r i t u a l i t y j o i n t l y

from t h e B i b l i c a l and Romantic-Victorian c o n c e p t i o n s of childhood, Dickens

responds t o the a g e ' s need f o r a s e n s e of t h e immanence of a l o v i n g d e i t y .
Like t h e innocent p r o t a g o n i s t of Wordsworth's " I n t i m a t i o n s of I m m o r t a l i t y , "
who comes " t r a i l i n g c l o u d s of g l o r y

. . . From

God, who i s o u r home,"

Dickens's i d e a l i z e d c h i l d r e n , "so f r e s h from God" (OCS,

- 1, 4 ) , r e p r e s e n t a
n e c e s s a r y l i n k with a p u r e r s t a t e of e x i s t e n c e .

A s Rose Maylie watches over

O l i v e r Twist, and "her t e a r s f e l l upon h i s forehead,"

The boy s t i r r e d , and smiled i n h i s s l e e p , as though t h e s e marks o f
p i t y and compassion had awakened some p l e a s a n t dream of a l o v e o r
a f f e c t i o n he had never known. Thus, a s t r a i n of g e n t l e music, o r
t h e r i p p l i n g of water i n a s i l e n t p l a c e , o r t h e odour of a f l o w e r ,
o r t h e mention of a f a m i l i a r word, w i l l sometimes c a l l up sudden dim
remembrances of s c e n e s t h a t never were, i n t h i s l i f e ; which v a n i s h
l i k e a b r e a t h ; which some b r i e f memory of a h a p p i e r e x i s t e n c e , l o n g
gone by, would seem t o have awakened; which no v o l u n t a r y e x e r t i o n
(30, 216)
of t h e mind can e v e r r e c a l l .

Even t h e stronger-minded Jenny Wren s h a r e s t h i s s e m i n a l Romantic m o t i f :

' F o r when I was a l i t t l e c h i l d , ' [says Jenny] i n a t o n e a s though i t
were ages ago, ' t h e c h i l d r e n t h a t I used t o s e e e a r l y i n t h e morning
were very d i f f e r e n t from any o t h e r s t h a t I e v e r saw. They were n o t
l i k e me: t h e y were n o t c h i l l e d , a n x i o u s , ragged, o r b e a t e n ; t h e y
were never i n pain. They were n o t l i k e t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e neighbours;
t h e y never never mocked me.
Such numbers of them, too! A l l i n w h i t e
d r e s s e s , and w i t h something s h i n i n g on t h e b o r d e r s , and on t h e i r heads,
t h a t I have never been a b l e t o i m i t a t e w i t h my work, though I know
i t s o w e l l . They used t o come down i n l o n g b r i g h t s l a n t i n g rows, and
s a y a l l t o g e t h e r , "Who i s t h i s i n p a i n ? Who i s t h i s i n p a i n ? " When
I t o l d them who i t was, t h e y answered, "Come and play w i t h us!"
When
I s a i d , "I never p l a y ! I c a n ' t play!" t h e y swept about m e and took
m e up, and made me l i g h t . Then i t w a s a l l d e l i c i o u s e a s e and r e s t
t i l l t h e y l a i d me down, and s a i d a l l t o g e t h e r , "Have p a t i e n c e , and
w e w i l l come again." Whenever t h e y came back, I used t o know t h e y
were coming b e f o r e I saw t h e l o n g b r i g h t rows, by h e a r i n g them a s k ,
a l l t o g e t h e r a l o n g way o f f , "Who i s t h i s i n p a i n ? Who i s t h i s i n
pain?" And I used t o c r y o u t , "Oh, my b l e s s e d c h i l d r e n , i t ' s poor
(OMF,
me ! Have p i t y on me ! Take me up and make me l i g h t !I1'
- 11, 2 ,
239-40)
"The Angels a r e a l l children,""

s a y s C h r i s t himself i n The L i f e of Our Lord,

a theme p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n Dickens's r e c u r r e n t d e p i c t i o n s of t h e c h i l d ' s

death-bed i n s i g h t s :

Dick i n O l i v e r Twist i s aware of h i s approaching d e a t h

because he dreams "so much of Heaven, and Angels, and k i n d faces" ( 7 , 49);
t h e " r u s t l i n g of an Angel's wings" a t t e n d s t h e d e a t h of C h a r l e s and Lucie
Darnay's young son i n A T a l e of Two C i t i e s (11, 21, 201); P a u l Dombey i s
g r a n t e d a v i s i o n of C h r i s t ; and "a whisper went about" a t L i t t l e N e l l ' s
f u n e r a l " t h a t s h e had s e e n and t a l k e d w i t h a n g e l s " (72, 5 4 3 ) , w h i l e , a s t h e
n o v e l ' s f i n a l i l l u s t r a t i o n i n d i c a t e s , s h e i s borne i n t o Heaven by a n g e l s a s
child-like as herself.

Whatever t h e s e n t i m e n t a l embellishments of such s c e n e s

and passages, t h e i r deeper symbolic meaning--linking

i n a n image of immortality--enriches

t h e human and t h e d i v i n e

Dickens's moral v i s i o n .

Evoking e q u a l c r i t i c a l d i s d a i n , Dickens's p u r e and e t h e r e a l i z e d young

women s h a r e t h e w i s e c h i l d ' s r e l i g i o u s - m o r a l v a l u e s .
Son's
-

Although Dombey and

P o l l y Toodle may n o t compare w i t h t h e s e more s p i r i t u a l h e r o i n e s i n

Dickens's works, s h e p o s s e s s e s t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r , "a n a t u r e t h a t

i s e v e r , i n t h e mass, b e t t e r , t r u e r , h i g h e r , n o b l e r , q u i c k e r t o f e e l , and
much more c o n s t a n t t o r e t a i n , a l l t e n d e r n e s s and p i t y , s e l f - d e n i a l and
d e v o t i o n , t h a n t h e n a t u r e of men" (3, 27).

J u s t a s t h e Pickwickian f o o l

i s t h e p a t e r n a l head of t h e l o v i n g f o o l community, s o such c h a r a c t e r s as

Kate Nickleby, F l o r e n c e Dombey, E s t h e r Summerson, and B e l l a W i l f e r a r e t h e
h e a r t o f i t s domestic' warmth and harmony.

The s p e c t r a l f i g u r e i n

C r i c k e t on t h e Hearth compels John P e e r y b i n g l e t o remember " t h e h e a r t h which,

b u t f o r h e r [ h i s w i f e , Mary], were o n l y a few s t o n e s and b r i c k s and r u s t y
b a r s , b u t which h a s been, through h e r , t h e Altar of [ h i s ] Home" (CB,
- iii, 211).
Like t h e c h i l d , t h e female s a i n t s who o f f i c i a t e a t t h i s domestic a l t a r a r e
r e p l e t e w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e l y r e l i g i o u s imagery.

D e s c r i b i n g Rose Maylie, Dickens

s t a t e s t h a t " i f e v e r a n g e l s b e f o r God's good purposes enthroned i n m o r t a l

forms, they may b e , w i t h o u t i m p i e t y , supposed t o a b i d e i n such a s h e r s , " and
t h a t " t h e very i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t shone i n h e r deep b l u e eyes, and was stamped

- 29,
upon h e r noble head, seemed s c a r c e l y of h e r a g e , o r of t h e world" (OT,
212).

A s t h i s passage i m p l i e s , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c h i l d and t h e woman, n o t o n l y

s h a r i n g s i m i l a r symbolic r o l e s and image p a t t e r n s , a r e o f t e n u n i t e d i n a

single character.

This i s n o t , of c o u r s e , unequivocally s u c c e s s f u l (David

C o p p e r f i e l d ' s "child-wife,"

Dora, f o r i n s t a n c e , i s a somewhat s t r a i n e d r e p r e -

s e n t a t i v e of t h i s m o t i f ) , b u t f i g u r e s l i k e N e l l , F l o r e n c e , and Amy D o r r i t ,
d e s p i t e t h e animus of v a r i o u s c r i t i c s , e x e r t a s i g n i f i c a n t symbolic-moral
e f f e c t , which, l i k e t h a t of t h e a m e l i o r a t i v e s p i r i t s i n Jenny Wren's f a n t a s y v i s i o n , i s o v e r t l y messianic:
' I f you have s e e n t h e p i c t u r e - g a l l e r y of any one o l d family, you
w i l l remember how t h e s a m e f a c e and f i g u r e - - o f t e n t h e f a i r e s t and
s l i g h t e s t of them all--come upon you i n d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a t i o n s ;
and how you t r a c e t h e same sweet g i r l through a l o n g l i n e of
p o r t r a i t s - - n e v e r growing o l d o r changing--the Good Angel of t h e
race--abiding by them i n a l l reverses--redeeming a l l t h e i r sins--'
(E,69, 524)

Once a g a i n , t h e merging of t h e human and t h e d i v i n e i n t h e child-woman's

a n g e l i c n a t u r e produces h i g h l y s e n t i m e n t a l i z e d y e t n o n e t h e l e s s powerfully
symbolic f i g u r e s .
I n l i g h t of t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s of t h e image p a t t e r n s o u t l i n e d
above, t h e c h i l d ' s and woman's connection w i t h t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent

i s immediately m a n i f e s t .

Ranging from Scrooge, who would " r a t h e r b e a baby,"

and Toby Veck, t h e " c h i l d e s t - h e a r t e d man, t h a t e v e r drew t h e b r e a t h of l i f e , "

t o Captain C u t t l e , whom "no c h i l d could have s u r p a s s e d

. . . in

inexperience,"

and J o e Gargery, a p t l y regarded by t h e young P i p a s "a l a r g e r s p e c i e s of c h i l d "

(2, 7 ) , t h e image of t h e s a i n t l y " c h i l d " l i e s behind ( o r w i t h i n ) v i r t u a l l y

every Dickensian Holy Innocent.

The woman's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c power t o make t h e

h e a r t h an a l t a r o f warmth and l o v e , l i k e w i s e , is r e f l e c t e d i n t h e f o o l ' s

c a p a c i t y t o o f f e r s o l a c e and p r o t e c t i o n through h i s community s a n c t u a r y , a
p a r a l l e l which, on a t l e a s t one o c c a s i o n , Dickens makes e x p l i c i t :
Long may i t remain i n t h i s mixed world a p o i n t n o t e a s y of d e c i s i o n ,
which i s t h e more b e a u t i f u l e v i d e n c e of t h e Almighty's goodness-t h e d e l i c a t e f i n g e r s t h a t a r e formed f o r s e n s i t i v e n e s s and sympathy
of touch, and made t o m i n i s t e r t o p a i n and g r i e f , o r t h e rough h a r d
C a p t a i n C u t t l e hand, t h a t t h e h e a r t t e a c h e s , g u i d e s , and s o f t e n s i n
a moment! (48, 678)
For, l i k e t h e c h i l d and t h e woman, such f o o l s a s Pickwick, an "angel i n t i g h t s
and g a i t e r s , " Toots, "a g r e a t l y overgrown cherub," and J o e Gargery, P i p ' s
" m i n i s t e r i n g a n g e l , I' a l l seem " s c a r c e l y of t h e world" i n t h e i r pure embodiment
and e x p r e s s i o n of fundamental C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s .
Together t h e s e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s become t h e major r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
Dickens's most a b s t r a c t moral thought, t h e i r "angelic" image p a t t e r n s , f a r
from b e i n g mere l i t e r a r y embellishments, i n d i c a t i n g ( f o r Dickens a t l e a s t )
t h e i r genuine c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s .

A s Sherman H. Eoff

s u g g e s t s , Dickens's r e l i g i o u s views a r e dominated by t h e concept of "A

F a t h e r l y World According t o Design," a v i s i o n of "a w i s e God who l o o k s down

on H i s c h i l d r e n ' s s t r u g g l e s and s u p p l i e s enough s t r e n g t h f o r t h e triumph of

good over e v i l , " 1 8 a p a t e r n a l i s t i c d e i t y whose a g e n t , providence, a i d s t h e
pure-in-heart.

While E o f f ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n does n o t t a k e i n t o account t h e

f r e q u e n t f a i l u r e s of "good" i n Dickens's works, he i d e n t i f i e s t h e o f t e n

n e g l e c t e d f a c t t h a t d e s p i t e Dickens's apparent i n d i f f e r e n c e t o r e l i g i o u s
o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e o l o g i c a l concerns play a v i t a l and r e a l r o l e i n h i s moral
thought and a r t i s t i c v i s i o n .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s e c u l a r e t h o s of an a g n o s t i c

t h i n k e r l i k e George E l i o t , Dickens's moral b e l i e f s i m p l i c i t l y a s s e r t t h e cont i n u e d presence of d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n and guidance i n human a f f a i r s .

Steven

Marcus makes a s i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n , n o t i n g t h a t "Dickens' s moral and r e l i g i o u s

f e e l i n g s f i n d o v e r t expression i n a kind of p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y , " and t h a t
"it a b i d e s i n t h e n a t u r e of t h i n g s , t h e s e e a r l y novels seem t o a s s e r t , t h a t

good f o r t u n e w i l l e v e n t u a l l y come t o t h e good-in-heart,

t h a t t h e world i s s o

arranged t h a t somehow, without any i n o r d i n a t e e f f o r t of w i l l , t h i n g s w i l l t u r n

o u t a s they i d e a l l y should. "I9 Although e v e n t u a l l y r e q u i r e d t o be more a c t i v e
than Marcus's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s u g g e s t s , t h e c h i l d , t h e woman, and t h e f o o l a r e
c l e a r l y t h e most powerful f i g u r e s through which d i v i n e grace and wisdom a r e
t r a n s m i t t e d i n Dickens's a r t .

Their s p e c i a l s p i r i t u a l powers and s u p e r n a t u r a l

connotations o f f e r s o l a c e f o r t h e age's c r i s i s of f a i t h by s e r v i n g a s "evidence

of t h e Almighty's goodness," r e p r e s e n t a powerful l i n k between t h e human and
t h e d i v i n e , and provide a f i r m moral b a s i s f o r t h e more r e a l i s t i c a d a p t a t i o n s
t h a t l a t e r develop.

On t h e o t h e r hand, however, p r i o r t o t h e e v e n t u a l development of t h e s e

more r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e s , t h e h i s t o r y of t h e child-woman-fool
of u n i n t e r r u p t e d success.

t r i n i t y i s n o t one

I n f a c t , when t h i s p a r t i c u l a r motif i s t r a n s l a t e d

i n t o t h e r e a l world, t h a t i s , when t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l symbols become i n t r i c a t e l y

involved i n t h e s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l a c t i o n of Dickens's novels, t h e i m p l i c i t

t e n s i o n s between r e a l i s m and romance engender s e r i o u s c r i t i c a l problems.

The dominant concern i n Dickens's u s e s of t h e c h i l d - f o o l i s t o e x p l o r e and
acknowledge t h e s e t e n s i o n s w h i l e p r e s e r v i n g t h e f i g u r e ' s symbolic v a l u e s ,
r e c o n c i l i n g h i s deep i n t e r e s t i n r e a l i s t i c a n a l y s i s w i t h h i s f e r v e n t r e ligious-moral b e l i e f s .

T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n f o l l o w s complex and o f t e n c o n t r a -

d i c t o r y l i n e s of development, a f f i r m i n g and q u e s t i o n i n g t h e c h i l d - f o o l
s i ~ r m l t a n e o u s l y . I n o r d e r t o comprehend t h e f u l l n a t u r e of t h e problem and

i t s r e s o l u t i o n , w e must c o n s i d e r t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s

actual roles within

Dickens's f i c t i o n , examining n o t o n l y h i s i m a g i s t i c l i n k s t o t h e Holy Innocent

t r a d i t i o n b u t h i s thematic-dramatic f u n c t i o n s a s w e l l .
D i s c u s s i n g Barnaby Rudge, Joseph Gold s t a t e s t h a t i t s d i v i n e i d i o t h e r o
I'

p l a y s t h e r 6 l e t h a t c h i l d r e n p l a y elsewhere i n Dickens's f i c t i o n

i n n o c e n t , t h e t o u c h s t o n e and t h e moral m i r r o r . "20

. . the

For t h e c h i l d ' s r e l a t i o n -

s h i p w i t h t h e f o o l i s mutually complementary, and j u s t a s t h e f o o l remains

e s s e n t i a l l y "child-like,"

s o t h e c h i l d can perform t h e f o o l ' s t r a d i t i o n a l

r o l e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s r o l e a s t h e t r u t h - t e l l i n g onlooker s e p a r a t e from t h e
c o r r u p t s o c i a l ( o r a d u l t ) world.

Dickens l a t e r acknowledges t h a t a d e p r i v e d

o r l o v e l e s s background i s more l i k e l y t o produce moral c o r r u p t i o n t h a n i n s i g h t , b u t t h e i s o l a t i o n (whether s o c i a l o r emotional) of h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y

u n b e l i e v a b l e c h i l d - s a i n t s n o n e t h e l e s s f u l f i l l s a s i g n i f i c a n t purpose:

in

a d d i t i o n t o t h e obvious f u n c t i o n of c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e pathos of Dickens's

s o c i a l propaganda, such i s o l a t i o n , when s e e n i n terms of t h e c h i l d ' s supern a t u r a l imagery, c l e a r l y h e i g h t e n s h i s symbolic r o l e a s moral a n t a g o n i s t of
a corrupt s o c i a l milieu.

N e l l T r e n t and O l i v e r Twist a r e t h e a r c h e t y p e s o f t h e Dickensian c h i l d f o o l , t h e i r moral wisdom d i r e c t l y stemming from t h e i r immature innocence and
outcast position.

F i r s t , acknowledging t h e b i b l i c a l p r e c e p t t h a t wisdom o f t e n

speaks "out of t h e mouths of babes and s u c k l i n g s " (Psalm 8:2), a p r e c e p t

e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o c h i l d and f o o l , Dickens i n v e s t s t h e s e i d e a l i z e d c h i l d s a i n t s w i t h s e n s i t i v e moral p e r c i p i e n c e .

"You t h i n k l i k e a c h i l d , poor boy,"

s a y s M r s . Maylie, when O l i v e r comforts h e r w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n bel i e f s about d i v i n e j u s t i c e , "But you t e a c h me my d u t y , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g " (33,

242).

One may add t h a t Mrs. Maylie's q u a l i f i c a t i o n , " n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , " i s ,

i n l i g h t of Dickens's moral philosophy, c l e a r l y e x t r a n e o u s ; O l i v e r t e a c h e s

because, r a t h e r t h a n i n s p i t e , of h i s uncorrupted immaturity.

In Little N e l l ,

a t once c h i l d and woman, t h e s p i r i t u a l powers of t h e s e two f i g u r e s merge t o

c r e a t e an ameliorative sympathetic imagination:

"Nature o f t e n e n s h r i n e s

g a l l a n t and n o b l e h e a r t s i n weak bosoms--oftenest,

breasts--and

God b l e s s h e r , i n female

when t h e c h i l d , c a s t i n g h e r t e a r f u l e y e s upon t h e o l d man, re-

membered how weak h e was, and how d e s t i t u t e and h e l p l e s s h e would i f s h e

f a i l e d him, h e r h e a r t s w e l l e d w i t h i n h e r , and animated h e r w i t h new s t r e n g t h
and f o r t i t u d e " (24, 180).
Second, l i k e t h e h o l y f o o l , t h e c h i l d r e p r e s e n t s t h e moral a n t i t h e s i s of
t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l - a d u l t w o r l d , an o u t c a s t o r i s o l a t e d f i g u r e s y m b o l i c a l l y
c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g t h e e v i l s t h a t surround him.

A l i e n a t e d from t h e c o r r u p t

world, t h e Pickwickian f o o l e s t a b l i s h e d an opposing a n t i - s o c i e t y honouring

t h e v a l u e s t h a t h i s a d v e r s a r i e s renounced; t h e o u t c a s t c h i l d - f o o l s i m i l a r l y
s e e k s t o t r a n s c e n d h i s i s o l a t i o n and d i s c o v e r h i s t r u e s p i r i t u a l home where
h i s moral n a t u r e can f i n d f r e e e x p r e s s i o n .

Lying a t t h e h e a r t of h i s p a r t i c -

u l a r t h e m a t i c r o l e s , O l i v e r T w i s t ' s complex l e v e l s of i s o l a t i o n exemplify

t h i s motif.

Dickens p r e s e n t s , f o r example, t h e i r o n i c f a c t t h a t O l i v e r ' s

t r u e s p i r i t u a l homeland--the
Maylies--from

i d y l l i c world of M r . Brownlow and t h e p a s t o r a l

which he i s p h y s i c a l l y i s o l a t e d , i s i n t u r n an e x p l i c i t image

of t h e h o l y f o o l ' s a n t i - s o c i e t y ,
s o c i a l order.

a community always i s o l a t e d from t h e l a r g e r

Even a s O l i v e r i s p h y s i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d from t h i s community,

however, h e r e t a i n s h i s h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l l i n k s t o i t , and i s t h u s m o r a l l y
s e p a r a t e d from t h e world i n which h e t r u l y e x i s t s .

The i r o n i c n a t u r e of

t h i s p a t t e r n i s underscored by O l i v e r ' s i l l e g i t i m a c y ; he i s , a s Steven Marcus

s u g g e s t s , " t h e c h i l d of l o v e , b o r n o u t s i d e t h e s a n c t i o n s of s o c i e t y , " 2 1 and
h e can f i n a l l y t r a n s c e n d t h e f a l s e i s o l a t i o n t h a t h i s b a s t a r d y e n t a i l s through
h i s continued moral i s o l a t i o n from t h e o s t e n s i b l y " l e g i t i m a t e " world.
It

c h i l d of love" who p r e s e r v e s h i s c a p a c i t y f o r l o v e i n t h e l o v e l e s s y e t l e g a l

environment of Bumble, M r s . Mann, and t h e Sowerberrys, O l i v e r b o t h confirms

h i s own moral n a t u r e and i m p l i c i t l y c r i t i c i z e s t h e v a l u e s of a s o c i e t y t h a t
condemns him a s i l l e g i t i m a t e .
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , O l i v e r ' s b a s t a r d y a s s o c i a t e s him w i t h t h e n o v e l ' s
e x t e n s i v e c r i m i n a l elements, and t h e f i n a l i r o n y i n t h e complex p a t t e r n s o f
h i s i s o l a t e d s t a t u s i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i r s t community t o t r u l y a c c e p t him
i s i t s e l f an o u t c a s t group r e p r e s e n t i n g ( l i k e O l i v e r ) an i l l e g i t i m a t e a n t a g o n i s t of t h e l e g a l world.

The s u b t l e s i m i l a r i t i e s

s o c i e t y and t h e Brownlow-Maylie

between F a g i n ' s a n t i -

f o o l community, i n f a c t , h o l d c o n s i d e r a b l e

t h e m a t i c importance, f o r O l i v e r ' s major p e r s o n a l t e s t ( a v a r i a t i o n on

Pickwick's p r o c e s s of m a t u r a t i o n ) i s t o t r a n s c e n d t h i s tempting y e t c o r r u p t
r e f u g e from t h e Bumble-Fang world.

On t h e one hand, O l i v e r responds favour-

a b l y t o F a g i n ' s community i n s o f a r a s i t r e f l e c t s t h e v a l u e s and n a t u r e of h i s

t r u e s p i r i t u a l home, t h e companionship and l a u g h t e r among t h e t h i e v e s (two
elements e n t i r e l y l a c k i n g i n t h e workhouse) touching h i s love-starved

spirit.

The "game" played by Fagin and h i s s t u d e n t s i s performed " i n such a v e r y

f u m y and n a t u r a l manner, t h a t O l i v e r laughed till t h e t e a r s r a n down h i s f a c e "

(9, 6 2 ) , w h i l e " a t o t h e r times t h e o l d man would t e l l them s t o r i e s o f robberies h e had committed i n h i s younger days:

mixed up w i t h s o much t h a t was d r o l l

and c u r i o u s , t h a t O l i v e r could n o t h e l p l a u g h i n g h e a r t i l y , and showing t h a t

175

h e was amused i n s p i t e of a l l h i s b e t t e r f e e l i n g s " (18, 1 3 4 ) .

The l o g i c of

O l i v e r ' s symbolic r o l e , however, i n e l u c t a b l y demands t h a t h e embrace a community honouring t h o s e " b e t t e r f e e l i n g s , " and a l t h o u g h F a g i n ' s s e d u c t i v e
a n t i - s o c i e t y can d e l i g h t O l i v e r ' s r e p r e s s e d emotions and p r o v i d e a r e f u g e
from t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y , i t cannot f u l f i l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h a t l a r g e r
symbolic p a t t e r n .

Confronting t h e c h i l d - s a i n t ' s

s p i r i t u a l powers and t h e

s p e c i a l p r o t e c t i o n of Providence, F a g i n ' s e f f o r t s t o e n l i s t t h e boy i n h i s

c r i m i n a l company a r e t o t a l l y impotent.

The v e r y means t h e t h i e f employs t o

s t i m u l a t e t h o u g h t s of c o r r u p t i o n (e.g.,

t h e h i s t o r y of infamous c r i m i n a l s )

produce t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t on t h e m o r a l l y s e n s i t i v e c h i l d - f o o l :

"In a

paroxysm of f e a r , t h e boy c l o s e d t h e book, and t h r u s t i t from him" (20, 146).

Like Pinch o r Pickwick, O l i v e r l a c k s t h e p r o t e c t i o n of w o r l d l y e x p e r i e n c e
(and i s t h u s i n i t i a l l y b l i n d t o t h e machinations of Fagin and h i s c o h o r t s ) ,
b u t t h e g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n of h i s s p i r i t u a l g r a c e guards him a g a i n s t any temptation.

The mere s u g g e s t i o n of wrongdoing, when f i n a l l y brought t o l i g h t i n

h i s n a i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , evokes (however m e l o d r a m a t i c a l l y ) an i n t e n s e , almost

physical, revulsion:
I n an i n s t a n t t h e whole mystery of t h e h a n d k e r c h i e f s , and t h e
watches, and t h e j e w e l s , and t h e J e w , rushed upon t h e boy's mind.
He s t o o d , f o r a moment, w i t h t h e blood s o t i n g l i n g through a l l
h i s v e i n s from t e r r o r , t h a t he f e l t a s i f h e were i n a b u r n i n g
fire
(10, 66)

....

And now, f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , O l i v e r , well-nigh mad w i t h g r i e f and

t e r r o r , saw t h a t housebreaking and robbery, i f n o t murder, were
t h e o b j e c t s of t h e e x p e d i t i o n . He c l a s p e d h i s hands t o g e t h e r , and
i n v o l u n t a r i l y u t t e r e d a subdued exclamation of h o r r o r . A m i s t came
b e f o r e h i s eyes; t h e c o l d sweat s t o o d upon h i s ashy f a c e ; h i s limbs
f a i l e d him; and h e sank upon h i s knees.
(22, 161-2)
O l i v e r does n o t d i s p l a y any profound growth of c h a r a c t e r , b u t h i s d e v o t i o n
t o b a s i c moral p r i n c i p l e s , a t once a s i g n and c a u s e of h i s p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n
under Providence, g r a n t s him t h e i n s i g h t and s t r e n g t h t o r e s i s t t h e s e d u c t i o n s
of F a g i n ' s f a l s e a n t i - s o c i e t y .

Having maintained h i s moral i s o l a t i o n i n t h e

midst of impure i s o l a t i o n , O l i v e r g a i n s h i s s p i r i t u a l - t e m p o r a l reward, a

r e f u g e d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d a s an i s o l a t e d c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o t h e l a r g e r
society:

M r . Brownlow adopted O l i v e r a s h i s son. Removing w i t h him and

t h e o l d housekeeper t o w i t h i n a m i l e of t h e parsonage-house,
where h i s d e a r f r i e n d s r e s i d e d , h e g r a t i f i e d t h e o n l y remaining
wish of O l i v e r ' s w a r m and e a r n e s t h e a r t , and t h u s l i n k e d t o g e t h e r
a l i t t l e s o c i e t y , whose c o n d i t i o n approached a s n e a r l y t o one of
p e r f e c t happiness a s can e v e r b e known i n t h i s changing world.
(52, 412-3)
O l i v e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e foremost e x p r e s s i o n of Dickens's p u r e l y symbolic c h i l d f o o l , embodying, a s Dickens s t a t e s , " t h e p r i n c i p l e of Good" (my i t a l i c s ) .

"It

was i m p o s s i b l e t o doubt him; t h e r e was t r u t h i n e v e r y one of [ h i s f a c e ' s ] t h i n

and sharpened lineaments" (12, 8 1 ) , and a l l of F a g i n ' s blandishments and
S i k e s ' s t h r e a t s cannot s u b v e r t t h e symbolic power of h i s s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s .
H i s c h a r a c t e r and t h e m a t i c r o l e s may seem t o t a l l y u n r e a l i s t i c , b u t h i s o v e r a l l

impact i n t h e novel i s one of i m p r e s s i v e moral s t r e n g t h d e m o n s t r a t i n g Dickens's

b e l i e f i n t h e power of l o v e and goodness t o " s u r v i v e through e v e r y a d v e r s e
circumstance."
Whatever O l i v e r ' s symbolic-moral s t r e n g t h , however, a d i s t u r b i n g n o t e
immediately i n t r u d e s i n t o t h e i d y l l .

O l i v e r ' s supra-normal innocence can

s u r v i v e o n l y i n t h e world of myth where c h i l d - a n g e l s e x i s t i n human form on

e a r t h , a world i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e grim r e a l i t i e s w i t h which
Dickens i n v e s t s h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e London slums and c r i m i n a l l i f e .

That

O l i v e r can s u r v i v e i n such c o r r u p t i o n undoubtedly t e s t i f i e s t o Dickens's

fervent belief i n the child-fool's

v a l u e s , b u t i f t h o s e v a l u e s can b e main-

t a i n e d o n l y through t h e c h i l d ' s mythic n a t u r e , t h e n t h e i r c r e d i b i l i t y and

e f f e c t i v e n e s s are c l e a r l y q u e s t i o n a b l e .

Even w h i l e e x p r e s s i n g a l a r g e p a r t

of h i s t h e m a t i c meaning, t h e complex l e v e l s of O l i v e r ' s i s o l a t e d s t a t u s

h e i g h t e n t h i s atmosphere of u n r e a l i t y .

I n a r e v e r s a l of t h e Pickwickian m o t i f ,

O l i v e r i s removed from t h e mainstream of human a f f a i r s ; h i s i d y l l i c comrnun i t y r e p r e s e n t s a p a s s i v e r a t h e r t h a n a c t i v e moral f o r c e , and although one

may a r g u e t h a t t h e s u r v i v a l o f good i s f a r more p r e c a r i o u s i n t h e savage
world of O l i v e r Twist t h a n i n t h e comic Pickwick Papers, O l i v e r ' s p a t t e r n s
of e s c a p e and p a s s i v i t y v i o l a t e Dickens's most b a s i c moral b e l i e f s .
may conclude i n a powerful a s s e r t i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s

The novel

idealized nature,

b u t t h e c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t between r e a l i t y and romance remains u n j u s t i f i a b l y

n e g l e c t e d , and when t h i s same i s s u e n e x t a r i s e s i n t h e complex moral q u e s t i o n s
of The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, t h e "changing world" t h a t O l i v e r ' s " l i t t l e s o c i e t y ' '
was designed t o evade h a s i t s revenge.
Few c r i t i c s a r e l i k e l y t o s t i l l e n d o r s e Oscar Wilde's o p i n i o n t h a t a man
22
must have a h e a r t of s t o n e t o r e a d t h e d e a t h of L i t t l e N e l l w i t h o u t laughing,

b u t N e l l ' s c h a r a c t e r and symbolic r o l e s a r e s t i l l f r e q u e n t l y judged e x t r a v a g a n t l y s e n t i m e n t a l and c o n t r i v e d .

Even a s o p h i s t i c a t e d psychosexual i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n l i k e Leonard Manheim's s t a t e m e n t t h a t "Nell could n e v e r b e p e r m i t t e d

t o a t t a i n an age a t which t h e c o a r s e n e s s of t h e g r o s s world might s u l l y h e r , 123
i m p l i c i t l y a s s e r t s t h a t Dickens i s engaged i n some form of s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e ,

and c r i t i c i z e s him f o r p r e s e r v i n g h i s c h i l d - h e r o i n e from a f a t e t h a t h e could

n o t endure h e r t o undergo.

While Dickens's s t y l i s t i c and e m o t i o n a l e x c e s s e s

a r e u n d e n i a b l e , however, t h e s e c h a r g e s do l i t t l e t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e n o v e l ' s
t o t a l meaning, and, i n f a c t , do a s e r i o u s i n j u s t i c e t o t h e t r u e c o m p l e x i t i e s
and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of Dickens's v i s i o n .
t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l ,

I f we c o n s i d e r N e l l a s one s t a g e i n

advancing t h e p a t t e r n s developed i n O l i v e r

Twist and p r e s a g i n g l a t e r f i g u r e s , a more a c c u r a t e and i m p o r t a n t judgment

can b e made.
A key t o much of N e l l ' s t h e m a t i c r o l e can b e found i n one of The Old
C u r i o s i t y Sho2's most f r e q u e n t l y n o t e d f e a t u r e s - - i t s

pervasive indebtedness

t o King

ear. 24

Dickens' s contemporary, F r a n c i s J e f f r e y , s u g g e s t e d t h a t

t h e r e had been "nothing s o good a s N e l l s i n c e ~ o r d e l i a , "an

~ ~o p i n i o n which,
however unreasonably h y p e r b o l i c , l i k e l y r e f l e c t s a c e n t r a l p a r t of Dickens's
own i n t e n t i o n , f o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of N e l l and h e r g r a n d f a t h e r w i t h C o r d e l i a
and Lear i s fundamental t o t h e n o v e l ' s t h e m a t i c s t r u c t u r e .

I n l i g h t of

Dickens's emphasis on t h e c h i l d - s a i n t a s moral a g e n t , an i m p o r t a n t connection

between C o r d e l i a and N e l l i s immediately d i s c e r n i b l e .

Throughout King L e a r ,

Cordelia's messianic q u a l i t i e s a r e s t r o n g l y accentuated:

"holy water" f a l l s

from h e r "heavenly eyes" (IV. 3 , 30); s h e "redeems n a t u r e from t h e g e n e r a l

c u r s e / Which twain have brought h e r t o " ( 4 , 302-4); w h i l e h e r exclamation,
"0 d e a r f a t h e r ! / I t i s t h y b u s i n e s s t h a t I go about" (23-4),

an e x p l i c i t

a l l u s i o n t o Luke 2:49, d i r e c t l y connects h e r t o C h r i s t h i m s e l f .

N e l l ' s quasi-

r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e , a l r e a d y b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d , i s e q u a l l y dominant, h e r image
11

a b i d i n g by them i n a l l reverses--redeeming

a l l t h e i r s i n s " (69, 524).

I n Dickens's i d i o s y n c r a t i c a d a p t a t i o n of L e a r ' s s t r u c t u r e , moreover, N e l l

i s a c t u a l l y a n amalgam of C o r d e l i a and the Fool, a m e s s i a n i c p r i n c e s s performi n g t h e r o l e of servant-mentor, accompanying and e d u c a t i n g t h e d i s t r a u g h t o l d

man through h i s tempestuous wanderings.

Her g r a n d f a t h e r , i n f a c t , r e g a r d s

h e r a s "an a n g e l messenger s e n t t o l e a d him where s h e would" (42, 318), and

w h i l e s h e does n o t p o s s e s s t h e F o o l ' s c a u s t i c w i t ( a t t h i s s t a g e a q u a l i t y
f a r removed from Dickens's conception o f t h e c h i l d - s a i n t ) ,

"Foolish Nell"

( 1 , 7) s h a r e s h i s b a s i c d r a m a t i c f u n c t i o n s , a s s u a g i n g h e r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s s e l f b l i n d i n g mania.

The Fool e x p r e s s e s t h e t r u t h f o r Lear through j e s t s , r i d d l e s ,

songs, and p r o v e r b s ; N e l l ' s r e p e r t o i r e i s more l i m i t e d , b u t s h e t o o can employ

s u b t l e v a r i a t i o n s on t h e F o o l ' s d i d a c t i c f a b l e s :
dream,'
before.

said the child

...

"'I have had a d r e a d f u l

' A d r e a d f u l , h o r r i b l e dream.

I have had i t once

It is a dream of grey-haired men l i k e you, i n darkened rooms by n i g h t ,

robbing t h e s l e e p e r s of t h e i r gold" (318).

More o f t e n , of c o u r s e , i t i s

simply L i t t l e Nell's unshakeable d e v o t i o n and redemptive l o v e t h a t s e r v e t h i s

c o r r e c t i v e purpose, t h e v i g i l a n t moral i n s i g h t ( a s i n s t i n c t i v e a s O l i v e r ' s )
t h a t emanates from "her own h e a r t , and i t s s e n s e of t h e t r u t h and r i g h t of
what s h e d i d " (45, 334) u l t i m a t e l y r e s c u i n g him from h i s s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n ,
and o b l i g i n g him t o renounce h i s former d e l u s i o n s :
'Hush!' s a i d t h e o l d man, motioning h a s t i l y t o h e r w i t h h i s hand
and l o o k i n g o v e r h i s s h o u l d e r ; 'no more t a l k of t h e dream, and a l l
'Tis a quiet
t h e miseries i t brought. There a r e no dreams h e r e .
p l a c e , and they keep away. L e t u s n e v e r t h i n k about them, l e s t they
s h o u l d pursue us a g a i n . Sunken e y e s and hollow cheeks--wet, c o l d ,
and famine--and h o r r o r s b e f o r e them a l l , t h a t were even worse--we
must f o r g e t such t h i n g s i f we would b e t r a n q u i l h e r e . '
'Thank Heaven!' inwardly exclaimed t h e c h i l d , ' f o r t h i s most
happy change ! '
'I w i l l b e p a t i e n t , ' s a i d t h e o l d man, 'humble, v e r y t h a n k f u l and
o b e d i e n t , i f you w i l l l e t me s t a y . But do n o t h i d e from m e ; do n o t
s t e a l away a l o n e ; l e t me keep b e s i d e you. Indeed, I w i l l b e v e r y
t r u e , and f a i t h f u l , N e l l . ' (54, 407)
Lear i s e v e n t u a l l y brought t o an awareness of h i s s e l f - b l i n d e d e g o c e n t r i c i t y
and i n j u s t i c e through t h e combined a m e l i o r a t i v e a g e n c i e s of t h e F o o l ' s p o i n t e d
j e s t s and C o r d e l i a ' s f i d e l i t y .

N e l l ' s g r a n d f a t h e r , l i k e w i s e , responding t o

h i s redemptive Cordelia-Fool,

"awoke t o a s e n s e of what h e owed h e r , and what

t h o s e m i s e r i e s had made h e r .

Never, no, n e v e r once, i n one unguarded moment

from t h a t t i m e t o t h e e n d , d i d any c a r e f o r h i m s e l f , any thought of h i s own

comfort, any s e l f i s h c o n s i d e r a t i o n o r r e g a r d d i s t r a c t h i s thoughts from t h e
g e n t l e o b j e c t of h i s love" (55, 409).
k n e e l t o t h e i r child-redeemers

(Lear
-9

embrace t h e n a t u r e of t h e h o l y f o o l .

I n each work, moreover, a s t h e o l d men

IV.

7. 58; OCS, 1 2 , 93; 4 2 , 318), they

Lear becomes "a very f o o l i s h fond o l d

man" ( 6 0 ) , w h i l e N e l l ' s g r a n d f a t h e r , d e s c r i b e d e a r l y i n t h e n o v e l a s "a mere

child--a

poor, t h o u g h t l e s s , v a c a n t creature--a

218), g a i n s some of t h e f o o l ' s g r e a t e r i n s i g h t .

harmless fond o l d man" (29,

Like h e r Shakespearean

c o u n t e r p a r t , N e l l o c c u p i e s a pre-eminent p o s i t i o n among t h e work's moral

f o r c e s , combining t h e h i g h e r wisdom of t h e f o o l and t h e l o v e of t h e c h i l d s a i n t i n a powerful image of redemptive innocence.

N e i t h e r Lear n o r The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, however, d e s p i t e t h e moral

power of C o r d e l i a and N e l l , concludes w i t h t h e h o p e f u l v i s i o n of O l i v e r
Twist, and, a s I n o t e d e a r l i e r , a l t h o u g h O l i v e r escaped t h e i n t r u s i v e presence
of t h e "changing world," t h e c o n f l i c t between r e a l i t y and romance i n N e l l ' s
world i s c o n s i d e r a b l y more i n t e n s e .

Once a g a i n , d e s p i t e t h e obvious d i f f e r -

ence i n l i t e r a r y q u a l i t y between t h e two works, t h e n o v e l ' s a f f i n i t i e s w i t h

Lear a r e
-

illuminating.

L e a r , f o r example, having been r e - u n i t e d w i t h h i s

abandoned d a u g h t e r and c a p t u r e d by Edmund, h o p e f u l l y a n t i c i p a t e s an i d y l l i c

refuge w i t h Cordelia:

........

Come, l e t ' s away t o p r i s o n ;

W e two a l o n e w i l l s i n g l i k e b i r d s i ' t h ' c a g e :
When t h o u d o s t a s k m e b l e s s i n g , I ' l l k n e e l down,
And a s k of t h e e f o r g i v e n e s s : s o w e ' l l l i v e ,
And pray, and s i n g , and t e l l o l d t a l e s , and laugh
A t g i l d e d b u t t e r f l i e s , and h e a r poor rogues
Talk of c o u r t news; and w e ' l l t a l k w i t h them t o o ,
Who l o s e s and who wins; who's i n , who's o u t ;
And t a k e upon's t h e mystery of t h i n g s ,
A s i f we were God's s p i e s : and w e ' l l wear o u t ,
I n a w a l l ' d p r i s o n , packs and s e c t s o f g r e a t ones
That ebb and flow by th'moon
(V.

3. 8-18)

I n Dickens's v e r s i o n of t h i s s c e n e , N e l l ' s g r a n d f a t h e r d e s c r i b e s a s i m i l a r l y
p r o t e c t e d Edenic r e t r e a t :
'We w i l l , ' answered t h e o l d man, 'we w i l l t r a v e l a f o o t through
t h e f i e l d s and woods, and by t h e s i d e of r i v e r s , and t r u s t ourL e t us s t e a l
s e l v e s t o God i n t h e p l a c e s where He d w e l l s
away tomorrow morning--early and s o f t l y , t h a t w e may n o t b e s e e n
o r heard--and l e a v e no t r a c e o r t r a c k f o r them t o f o l l o w by.
Poor N e l l ! Thy cheek i s p a l e , and t h y eyes a r e heavy w i t h watching
and weeping f o r me--1 know--for m e ; b u t thou w i l t b e w e l l a g a i n ,
and merry t o o , when we a r e f a r away. To-morrow morning, d e a r ,
w e ' l l r u m o u r f a c e s from t h i s s c e n e of sorrow, and b e a s f r e e and
happy as t h e b i r d s . ' (12, 94)

....

N e i t h e r p a s t o r a l , however, i s s e c u r e from t h e d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t s of l a r g e r

s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l f o r c e s .

I n O l i v e r Twist, Dickens might be j u s t l y charged

w i t h an unwarranted r o s e a t e v i s i o n , b u t , i n t h e h i s t o r y of N e l l , h e c o n f r o n t s
t h i s theme d i r e c t l y , acknowledging t h e grimmer f a c t s of L e a r .

Even t h e notor-

i o u s s e n t i m e n t a l i t y of N e l l ' s d e a t h s c e n e does n o t o b s c u r e Dickens's recognit i o n t h a t t h e c h i l d - s a i n t must p e r i s h i n t h e "changing world," and i t might

b e argued t h a t Dickens's v i s i o n i s a s t r u l y i n s i g h t f u l a s l a d e n w i t h f a l s e l y
cloying sentiment.
A s i g n i f i c a n t s i g n of t h e d i s t a n c e Dickens h a s t r a v e l l e d between O l i v e r
Twist and The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop can be s e e n i n h i s d i f f e r e n t response t o t h e
r o l e of Providence i n human a f f a i r s .

"I am no gambler," s a y s N e l l ' s grand-

f a t h e r , and

' I c a l l Heaven t o w i t n e s s t h a t I n e v e r played f o r g a i n of mine, o r

l o v e of p l a y ; t h a t a t e v e r y p i e c e I s t a k e d , I whispered t o myself
t h a t orphan's name and c a l l e d on Heaven t o b l e s s t h e venture;-which i t n e v e r d i d . Whom d i d i t p r o s p e r ? Who were t h o s e w i t h whom
I played? Men who l i v e d by p l u n d e r , p r o f l i g a c y , and r i o t ;
squandering t h e i r gold i n doing ill, and p r o p a g a t i n g v i c e and e v i l .
My winnings would have been from them, my winnings would have been
bestowed t o t h e l a s t f a r t h i n g on a young s i n l e s s c h i l d whose l i f e
t h e y would have sweetened and made happy. What would t h e y have
c o n t r a c t e d ? The means of c o r r u p t i o n , wretchedness, and misery. Who
would n o t have hoped i n such a cause? T e l l me t h a t ! Who would n o t
have hoped a s I d i d ? ' ( 9 , 74)
I n h i s mind, N e l l ' s "image s a n c t i f i e s t h e game" (31, 233) :

"Look a t them,"

he s a y s , begging money from N e l l t o gamble w i t h L i s t and Groves, "See what

they a r e and what thou a r t .

Who doubts t h a t we must win!"

(29, 223).

Such

l o g i c i s p e r f e c t l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e world of O l i v e r Twist where Providence

c o n s p i r e s t o e n s u r e O l i v e r ' s w e l l - b e i n g , b u t i n t h e L e a r - l i k e world of The

Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, Providence g u a r a n t e e s n e i t h e r t h e o l d man's s u c c e s s , n o r ,

f o r t h a t m a t t e r , even

ell's s u r v i v a l .

"The Gods defend h e r ! " (V.

3. 254)

exclaims Albany, immediately b e f o r e ~ o r d e l i a ' s l i f e l e s s body i s borne on

s t a g e by Lear, and t h e o l d s c h o o l m a s t e r , hoping t o a s s i s t N e l l and h e r grandf a t h e r , o p i n e s , "We s h a l l b e s u r e t o succeed.

. . . The

cause i s t o o good a

one t o f a i l " (46, 345).

The Gods, however, a r e o b l i v i o u s t o C o r d e l i a ' s

d e a t h , and, whatever t h e j u s t i c e of N e l l ' s c a u s e , Heaven's a s s i s t a n c e i s

withheld.
Although Dickens's prose-poetry i s l e s s r e s t r a i n e d t h a n Shakespeare's,

h e remains f a i t h f u l t o L e a r ' s more sombre v i s i o n , and, a s Jerome Meckier

observes, " N e l l

. . . finds herself,

t o p r e v e n t h e r s u r v i v a l . "26

a s d i d C o r d e l i a , i n a world o r g a n i z e d

O l i v e r was r e q u i r e d t o r e t a i n h i s moral i s o l a t i o n

i n a h o s t i l e s o c i a l m i l i e u u n t i l h e a t t a i n e d h i s t r u e s p i r i t u a l home--an
i s o l a t e d community s e c u r e from c o r r u p t i n g f o r c e s .
from London's " i n t e r m i n a b l e

..

. black

Nell, equally alienated

towers, n e v e r c e a s i n g i n t h e i r b l a c k

vomit, b l a s t i n g a l l t h i n g s , l i v i n g o r i n a n i m a t e , s h u t t i n g o u t t h e f a c e of
day, and c l o s i n g i n on a l l t h e s e h o r r o r s w i t h a dense b l a c k cloud'' (45, 336),
a l s o s e e k s t o d i s c o v e r an e d e n i c r e t r e a t .

But, w h i l e Providence p r o t e c t s

O l i v e r , N e l l i s f a r more s u s c e p t i b l e t o h e r environment's d e s t r u c t i v e power:

"She f e l t a h o p e l e s s n e s s of t h e i r e v e r b e i n g e x t r i c a t e d t o g e t h e r from t h a t
f o r l o r n p l a c e ; a d u l l c o n v i c t i o n t h a t s h e was v e r y ill, perhaps dying" ( 3 3 7 ) ,
and although they reach an a p p a r e n t haven, N e l l ' s d e a t h i s preordained.
implacable h o s t i l i t y of r e a l i t y towards t h e c h i l d - s a i n t ,
r e p r e s s e d i n O l i v e r Twist, i s h e r e brought t o completion.

The

an i s s u e l a r g e l y
Nell's grandfather

sought "the p l a c e s where [God] dwells,'' t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e s e could b e found

beyond t h e c o n f i n e s of London.

Even t h e r u r a l r e t r e a t , however, i s n o t f a r

enough removed from t h e m o r t a l world t o p r o t e c t N e l l from danger, and t h e

p l a c e s where God dwells--the
saint--are

t r u e s p i r i t u a l home f o r t h e i d e a l i z e d c h i l d -

approachable o n l y through d e a t h .

Dickens's e a r n e s t d e v o t i o n t o

t h e a n g e l i c c h i l d u n q u e s t i o n a b l y produces s e n t i m e n t a l e f f u s i o n s , b u t h i s
conscious r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e moral c o n f l i c t can have b u t one l o g i c a l outcome c l e a r l y s u g g e s t s some s i g n i f i c a n t growth i n h i s mature i n s i g h t .

Nell's more r e a l i s t i c r o l e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e Dickensian c h i l d f o o l , however, i s o n l y one s t a g e i n t h a t e v o l u t i o n .

While q u a l i f y i n g t h e

u n r e a l i t y of O l i v e r Twist, Nell's d e a t h l y r e t r e a t i s b u t a n o t h e r v a r i a t i o n
on t h e f o o l ' s r e t r e a t from r e a l i t y , r e c a l l i n g Smike's d e c l i n e and P i n c h ' s
e n f o r c e d c e l i b a c y , and Dickens must s t i l l s e e k t o p r e s e r v e t h e c h i l d ' s
s p e c i a l s p i r i t u a l powers a s a c e n t r a l element i n h i s moral v i s i o n , w h i l e
e n s u r i n g t h a t t h i s a p p a r e n t l y d e f e n s e l e s s f i g u r e remains an i n t e g r a l p a r t of
human m o r a l i t y i n t h e r e a l world.
assume d i v e r s e forms.

Dickens's e f f o r t s t o answer t h i s problem

The i d e a l i z e d q u a l i t i e s of O l i v e r and N e l l ( i n t h e i r

h i g h e s t symbolic form and w i t h a l l t h e i n t r i n s i c u n r e a l i t y t h a t t h a t form

e n t a i l s ) r e c u r i n a l l h i s subsequent c h i l d - f o o l s .

A t t h e same time, t h e

i n s i g h t s developed i n N e l l ' s h i s t o r y a r e a l s o c o n t i n u e d , a s Dickens endeavours

t o document t h e d e s t r u c t i v e impact of r e a l i t y on t h e symbolic c h i l d - s a i n t .
Providence no l o n g e r governs t h e Dickensian world, and Dickens must seek t o
c r e a t e a more v e r s a t i l e and r e s i l i e n t c h i l d - f o o l who can p r e s e r v e t h e O l i v e r N e l l vision y e t possess s u f f i c i e n t innate s t r e n g t h t o withstand r e a l i t y ' s

malign i n f l u e n c e , a development t h a t h a s an obvious s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r Dickens's

l a r g e r conception of t h e Holy Innocent and h i s e t h o s .
This more r e s i l i e n t c h i l d - f o o l i s , however, a somewhat l a t e development,
and a l t h o u g h i t s s e e d s a r e p l a n t e d e a r l y ,

''

Dickens's immediately subsequent

e f f o r t s t o c o n f r o n t t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d i n The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop a r e f a r from

consistent.

I n Dombey and Son, f o r example, F l o r e n c e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h e r

f a t h e r p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r image of t h e Cordelia-Lear m o t i f , though i n t h i s c a s e

a f t e r t h e s e l f - b l i n d e d p a r e n t s e e k s f o r g i v e n e s s from t h e c h i l d whose l o v e h e
h a s s p u m e d , Dickens r e v e r s e s t h e grim Shakespearean p a t t e r n and t h e p r e v i o u s l y
inexorable tragedy is averted.

When compared w i t h t h e more h o n e s t p r e s e n t a -

t i o n of N e l l ' s h i s t o r y , Dombey and Son seems more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o T a t e t h a n

Shakespeare.

One cannot, of c o u r s e , i s s u e a b l a n k e t condemnation of F l o r e n c e ' s presence i n the novel.

She i s an i m p o r t a n t moral a g e n t , s h a r i n g t h e a f f e c t i o n

and i n s i g h t o f t h e Dickensian f o o l and s y m b o l i c a l l y c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g t h e

c o l d n e s s and r i g i d i t y of t h e Dombey world.

F l o r e n c e , i n f a c t , might b e con-

s i d e r e d a k i n d of g e n t l e r S t u l t i t i a , t h e h e a r t ( l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y )
of t h e n o v e l ' s f o o l - f o r c e s ,

i n whose s e r v i c e a l l t h e o t h e r f o o l - f i g u r e s - -

C u t t l e , Toots, P a u l , Susan--act,

i n d i f f e r e n t ways, a s b e n e f a c t o r s o r d i s c i p l e s .

Dombey and Son, f u r t h e r m o r e , i s n o t a t o t a l r e v e r s a l of t h e L e a r m o t i f ,

f o r t h e i d y l l i c v i s i o n r e - a s s e r t e d i n F l o r e n c e i s q u a l i f i e d by t h e more comp l e x n a t u r e of h e r b r o t h e r Paul.

A t one l e v e l , P a u l c o n t i n u e s t h e p a t t e r n

f i r s t e n u n c i a t e d i n The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, t h e c h i l d - s a i n t whom t h e world

conspires t o destroy:
Such s p i r i t s a s h e had i n t h e o u t s e t , P a u l soon l o s t of c o u r s e . But
he r e t a i n e d a l l t h a t was s t r a n g e , and o l d , and t h o u g h t f u l i n h i s
c h a r a c t e r : and under circumstances s o f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e development
of t h o s e t e n d e n c i e s , became even more s t r a n g e , and o l d , and t h o u g h t f u l ,
than before.
The s o l i t a r y c h i l d l i v e d on
and no one
understood him.
( 1 2 , 166)

...

That i n e f f a b l y "old-fashioned"

...

q u a l i t y i n h i s c h a r a c t e r i s o l a t e s him from h i s

m i l i e u and i t s l a r g e r s o c i a l f o r c e s ; l i k e N e l l , P a u l must journey towards t h e

p l a c e s where God d w e l l s t o d i s c o v e r h i s t r u e s p i r i t u a l home, s e e k i n g d e a t h i n
t h e u b i q u i t o u s waves.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e l i n k s w i t h N e l l , P a u l d i s p l a y s a g r e a t e r d e g r e e of
p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m , and (although i n t e n t a t i v e form o n l y ) some s i g n i f i c a n t
i n d i c a t i o n s of g r e a t e r i n n a t e s t r e n g t h , e x t e n d i n g Dickens's b a s i c image of
the child-fool.

Paul's relationship with h i s father, i n particular, presents

a complex amalgam of f o o l - f u n c t i o n s :
They were t h e s t r a n g e s t p a i r a t such a time t h a t e v e r f i r e l i g h t shone
upon. M r . Dombey s o e r e c t and solemn, gazing a t t h e b l a z e ; h i s l i t t l e
image, w i t h an o l d , o l d f a c e , p e e r i n g i n t o t h e r e d p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h t h e
f i x e d and r a p t a t t e n t i o n of a sage. M r . Dombey e n t e r t a i n i n g complicated
w o r l d l y schemes and p l a n s ; t h e l i t t l e image e n t e r t a i n i n g Heaven knows

what w i l d f a n c i e s , half-formed t h o u g h t s , and wandering s p e c u l a t i o n s .

M r . Dombey s t i f f w i t h s t a r c h and a r r o g a n c e ; t h e l i t t l e image by
i n h e r i t a n c e , and i n unconscious i m i t a t i o n . The two s o v e r y much
a l i k e , and y e t s o monstrously c o n t r a s t e d .
(8, 91-2)
Two m o t i f s a r e h e r e combined.

F i r s t , a s Dombey's " l i t t l e image

unconscious i m i t a t i o n , " P a u l s h a r e s t h e f o o l - l u n a t i c ' s

power of s a t i r i c r e -

f l e c t i o n , u n w i t t i n g l y parodying h i s f a t h e r ' s a r r o g a n t c h a r a c t e r :
gave abundant promise of b e i n g imperious i n a f t e r - l i f e ;

. . . in
" H i s temper

and h e had as h o p e f u l

an a p p r e c i a t i o n of h i s own importance, and t h e r i g h t f u l s u b s e r v i e n c e of a l l

o t h e r t h i n g s and p e r s o n s t o i t , a s h e a r t could d e s i r e " ( 9 1 ) .

J u s t a s Toots's

i m b e c i l i c b u r l e s q u e s of t h e s o c i a l world d e f l a t e d i t s c u l t u r a l p r e t e n s i o n s ,
s o Paul's c h i l d i s h self-importance

('"No,

I won't,'

r e p l i e d P a u l , composing

h i m s e l f i n h i s arm-chair a g a i n , l i k e t h e m a s t e r of t h e house" [94]) o f f e r s

an i n f a n t i l e image of Dombey's p r i d e f u l h a u t e u r .
Second, P a u l i s a l s o "a sage" w i t h "wild f a n c i e s , half-formed t h o u g h t s ,
and wandering s p e c u l a t i o n s , " a f i g u r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e w i s e c h i l d - f o o l
of O l i v e r Tvist and The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop.

P a u l i s n o t , however, a n o t h e r

"pious l i t t l e monster" of a b s o l u t e moral p e r c i p i e n c e , b u t , i n c o n t r a s t t o h i s

e t h i c a l l y i n f a l l i b l e p r e d e c e s s o r s , r e p r e s e n t s a r e a l i s t i c p o r t r a i t of c h i l d i s h confusion, t h e immature c h i l d s e e k i n g t o d e c i p h e r an incomprehensible
a d u l t world.

Paul, i n f a c t , although a s vulnerable a s Nell t o t h e world's

d e s t r u c t i v e power, a t t e m p t s t o p e n e t r a t e i t s d i s t o r t e d v a l u e s , p r i n c i p a l l y ,
i n h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h h i s f a t h e r and Mrs. P i p c h i n , i t s d i s t o r t e d a t t i x u d e s
towards l o v e .

Another echo of Lear i s obvious.

Both Dombey and Mrs. P i p c h i n

a r e b l i n d t o genuine a f f e c t i o n , b a s i n g t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s on f e e l i n g s
c o r r u p t e d by o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

P a u l , who s e e k s t h e l o v e t h a t h i s world

d e n i e s , i n s t i n c t i v e l y a t t e m p t s t o comprehend t h e u n d e r l y i n g b a s i s of t h e
Dombey-Pipchin p e r v e r s i o n .

A s s e v e r a l c r i t i c s have observed, moreover, a major p a r t of P a u l ' s t h e m a t i c

f u n c t i o n i n h i s d e a l i n g s w i t h Dombey and P i p c h i n i s t o perform t h e F o o l ' s

i n q u i s i t i o n a l r o l e , a t t a c k i n g t h e i r L e a r - l i k e s e l f - d e l u s i o n . l8

Such a con-

n e c t i o n between c h i l d and f o o l p o s s e s s e s a f i r m b a s i s i n t h e h i s t o r y of t h e
f o o l t r a d i t i o n ; "Children & f o o l e s they s a y can n o t l [ y ] , " and l i k e t h e
i n n o c e n t s a t i r i s t i n t h e legend of t h e Emperor's New C l o t h e s , t h e c h i l d o f t e n
s h a r e s t h e debunking v i s i o n of t h e l i c e n s e d c o u r t j e s t e r :
'Papa! w h a t ' s money?'
The a b r u p t q u e s t i o n had such immediate r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s u b j e c t
o f M r . Dombey's t h o u g h t s , t h a t M r . Dombey was q u i t e d i s c o n c e r t e d .
'What i s money, P a u l ? ' he answered, 'Money?'
'Yes,' s a i d t h e c h i l d , l a y i n g h i s hands upon t h e elbows of h i s l i t t l e
c h a i r , and t u r n i n g t h e o l d f a c e up towards M r . Dombey's; 'what i s money?'
M r . Dombey was i n a d i f f i c u l t y . He would have l i k e d t o g i v e him some
e x p l a n a t i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e terms circulation-medium, c u r r e n c y ,
d e p r e c i a t i o n of c u r r e n c y , p a p e r , b u l l i o n , r a t e s of exchange, v a l u e of
p r e c i o u s metals i n t h e market, and s o f o r t h ; b u t l o o k i n g down a t t h e
l i t t l e c h a i r , and s e e i n g what a l o n g way down i t was, h e answered:
"Gold, and s i l v e r , and copper. Guineas, s h i l l i n g s , half-pence.
You
know what t h e y a r e ? '
'Oh y e s , I know what t h e y a r e , ' s a i d Paul.
'I d o n ' t mean t h a t , Papa.
I mean what's money a f t e r a l l ? ' (92)
Unlike L e a r ' s Fool, P a u l h a s no conscious i n t e n t i o n of e d u c a t i n g h i s unenl i g h t e n e d f a t h e r , b u t h i s u n t u t o r e d q u e s t i o n s , s e e k i n g a d e f i n i t i o n of money
t h a t i s o u t s i d e t h e scope of Dombey's thoughts and language, r e p r e s e n t a
similar s a t i r i c attack:
'Why d i d n ' t money s a v e me my Mama?' r e t u r n e d t h e c h i l d .
'It i s n ' t
c r u e l , is i t ? '
'Cruel!' s a i d M r . Dombey, s e t t l i n g h i s n e c k c l o t h , and seeming t o
r e s e n t the idea.
'No. A good t h i n g c a n ' t b e c r u e l . '
' I f i t ' s a good t h i n g , and can do a n y t h i n g , ' s a i d t h e l i t t l e f e l l o w ,
t h o u g h t f u l l y , a s h e looked back a t t h e f i r e , ' I wonder why i t d i d n ' t
s a v e m e my Mama. ' ( 9 3)
P a u l ' s c o n f u s i o n , a p e r p l e x i t y t h a t n e i t h e r O l i v e r nor N e l l could s h a r e , a l s o
p r e s e n t s a more s u b t l y d e f l a t i n g comment:

Dombey cannot p r o p e r l y respond t o

P a u l ' s q u e s t i o n s because h e i s , fundamentally, a s bewildered a s h i s s o n , h i s

" a d u l t " i n t e l l i g e n c e no more s o p h i s t i c a t e d o r i n s i g h t f u l t h a n P a u l ' s c h i l d ishness.

Even i n h i s c o n f u s i o n P a u l unknowingly s p e a k s more of t h e t r u t h

t h a n h i s f a t h e r , f o r Dombey, r u l e d by t h e m e r c a n t i l e s o c i e t y ' s world-view,

f a i l s t o recognize t h a t Paul's questions a r e philosophic r a t h e r than l i t e r a l .

H e can o f f e r o n l y a laboured e x p l a n a t i o n of how money "caused u s t o be

honoured, f e a r e d , r e s p e c t e d , c o u r t e d , and admired," a r e s p o n s e immediately
d i s p e l l e d by P a u l ' s i n n o c e n t y e t p o i g n a n t r e j o i n e r :
and q u i t e w e l l , e i t h e r , Papa, can i t ? " '

(93).

" ' I t c a n ' t make me s t r o n g

Whereas ~ o r n b e y ' s p e r v e r t e d

a f f e c t i o n , r e g a r d i n g h i s son a s an e x t e n s i o n of h i s b u s i n e s s empire, obscures

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between money and l o v e , P a u l ' s c h i l d i s h v i s i o n p a r a l l e l s t h e
more C h r i s t i a n a t t i t u d e s of C u t t l e and Toots, and i n s t i n c t i v e l y "knows" t h a t
money (without l o v e ) can n e i t h e r r e s t o r e h i s mother t o l i f e n o r himself t o
health.
P a u l ' s unconscious s a t i r i c i n s i g h t i n t o Dombeyism's
developed i n h i s d e a l i n g s w i t h Mrs. Pipchin.

world-view i s f u r t h e r

Dickens employs an i d e n t i c a l

p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g f o r t h i s second c o n f r o n t a t i o n , o b v i o u s l y s u g g e s t i n g a fundamental p a r a l l e l , and i n d e e d , i n l i g h t of t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e i n s i g h t f u l

and debunking c h i l d - f o o l ,

Dombey and P i p c h i n might b e j u s t l y regarded a s

thematic alter-egos:
A t t h i s exemplary o l d l a d y , Paul would s i t s t a r i n g i n h i s l i t t l e
arm-chair by t h e f i r e , f o r any l e n g t h of time. H e never seemed t o
know what w e a r i n e s s was, when he was l o o k i n g f i x e d l y a t M r s . P i p c h i n .
H e was n o t fond of h e r ; he was n o t a f r a i d of h e r ; b u t i n t h o s e o l d ,
o l d moods of h i s , s h e seemed t o have a g r o t e s q u e a t t r a c t i o n f o r him.
There he would s i t , l o o k i n g a t h e r , and warming h i s hands, and l o o k i n g
a t h e r , u n t i l h e sometimes q u i t e confounded Mrs. P i p c h i n , Ogress a s
s h e was. Once s h e asked him, when they were a l o n e , what h e w a s t h i n k i n g
about.
'You,' s a i d P a u l , w i t h o u t t h e l e a s t r e s e r v e .
'And what a r e you t h i n k i n g about me?' asked Mrs. Pipchin.
' I ' m t h i n k i n g how o l d you must b e , ' s a i d P a u l .
'You mustn't s a y such t h i n g s a s t h a t , young gentleman,' r e t u r n e d
t h e dame. ' T h a t ' l l n e v e r do. '
'Why n o t ? ' asked Paul.
'Because i t ' s n o t p o l i t e , ' s a i d Mrs. P i p c h i n , s n a p p i s h l y .
'Not p o l i t e , ? ' s a i d Paul.
'No. '
'It's n o t p o l i t e , ' s a i d P a u l , i n n o c e n t l y , ' t o e a t a l l t h e muttonchops and t o a s t , Wickam s a y s . '

'Wickam,' r e t o r t e d Mrs. P i p c h i n , c o l o u r i n g , ' i s a wicked,

impudent, bold-faced hussy.'
'What's t h a t ? ' i n q u i r e d P a u l .
'Never you mind, S i r , ' r e t o r t e d M r s . P i p c h i n .
'Remember t h e
s t o r y of t h e l i t t l e boy t h a t was gored t o d e a t h by a mad b u l l f o r
asking questions.'
' I f t h e b u l l was mad,' s a i d P a u l , 'how d i d he know t h a t t h e boy
had asked q u e s t i o n s ? Nobody can go and w h i s p e r s e c r e t s t o a mad
I don't believe t h a t story.'
bull.
'You d o n ' t b e l i e v e i t , S i r ? ' r e p e a t e d Mrs. P i p c h i n , amazed.
'No,' s a i d Paul.
'Not i f i t should happen t o have been a tame b u l l , you l i t t l e
I n f i d e l ? ' s a i d Mrs. P i p c h i n .
As P a u l had n o t c o n s i d e r e d t h e s u b j e c t i n t h a t l i g h t , and had
founded h i s c o n c l u s i o n s on t h e a l l e g e d lunacy of t h e b u l l , h e allowed
h i m s e l f t o b e put down f o r t h e p r e s e n t . But h e s a t t u r n i n g i t o v e r
i n h i s mind, w i t h such an obvious i n t e n t i o n of f i x i n g Mrs. P i p c h i n
p r e s e n t l y , t h a t even t h a t hardy o l d l a d y deemed i t p r u d e n t t o r e t r e a t
u n t i l h e s h o u l d have f o r g o t t e n t h e s u b j e c t . (8, 103-4)
Although t h e c o m i c - s a t i r i c e f f e c t of P a u l ' s p r e c o c i t y and c h i l d i s h t r u t h f u l n e s s
dominates t h i s s c e n e , a s i n h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Dombey, P a u l ' s i n s i g h t s a r e
d e f l a t i n g and d i s c o n c e r t i n g , w h i l e l i k e Dombey, Mrs. P i p c h i n i s h e l p l e s s t o
a d e q u a t e l y answer P a u l ' s q u e s t i o n s , f l o u n d e r i n g b e n e a t h h i s u n c o r r u p t t r u t h .
~ a u i ' s"innocent" a t t a c k on h e r h y p o c r i t i c a l d e v o t i o n t o " p o l i t e " behavi o u r , i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s l a t e r developed i n t o a more s e a r c h i n g c r i t i c i s m ,
c o n t i n u i n g h i s r e a l concern w i t h c o r r u p t forms of human emotion and r e l a t i o n ships.

E s s e n t i a l l y a v a r i a t i o n on Dombey h i m s e l f , Mrs. Pipchin r e p r e s e n t s a

c o r r u p t surrogate-mother a s l o v e l e s s and unable t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n normal human

r e l a t i o n s a s P a u l ' s t r u e y e t e q u a l l y c o r r u p t f a t h e r , and P a u l , who h a s endured
t h i s k i n d of emotional p e r v e r s i o n w i t h Dombey, i n t u i t i v e l y r e c o g n i z e s i t s
re-appearance:
' B e r r y ' s v e r y fond of you, a i n ' t s h e ? ' P a u l once asked Mrs. P i p c h i n
when t h e y were s i t t i n g by t h e f i r e w i t h t h e c a t .
'Yes,' s a i d Mrs. P i p c h i n .
'Why?' asked Paul.
(11, 137)
The p o i n t of P a u l ' s q u e s t i o n i s made c l e a r immediately p r i o r t o t h i s conversat i o n , when Dickens informs us t h a t Berry (Mrs. P i p c h i n ' s n i e c e and maid) had
once r e c e i v e d an o f f e r of m a r r i a g e which M r s . P i p c h i n , "with contumely and

s c o r n , r e j e c t e d , " and had now "lapsed i n t o a s t a t e of h o p e l e s s s p i n s t e r h o o d "

(137) i n h e r a u n t ' s s e r v i c e .

P a u l i s l i k e l y unaware of t h e s e f a c t s , b u t h i s

own e x p e r i e n c e of emotional s t a g n a t i o n h e i g h t e n s h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e
s t r a i n e d atmosphere of Mrs. P i p c h i n ' s e s t a b l i s h m e n t :
'How can you a s k such
'Why!' r e t u r n e d t h e d i s c o n c e r t e d o l d lady.
t h i n g s , S i r ! why a r e you fond of your s i s t e r Florence?'
' ~ e c a u s es h e ' s v e r y good,' s a i d Paul.
' T h e r e ' s nobody l i k e F l o r e n c e . '
'Well!' r e t o r t e d M r s . P i p c h i n , s h o r t l y , 'and t h e r e ' s nobody l i k e me,
I suppose.'
' A i n ' t t h e r e r e a l l y though?' asked P a u l , l e a n i n g forward i n h i s c h a i r ,
and l o o k i n g a t h e r v e r y h a r d .
'No,' s a i d t h e o l d lady.
' I am v e r y g l a d of t h a t , ' observed P a u l , rubbing h i s hands t h o u g h t f u l l y .
' T h a t ' s a v e r y good t h i n g . '
Mrs. P i p c h i n d i d n ' t d a r e t o a s k him why, l e s t s h e s h o u l d r e c e i v e some
p e r f e c t l y a n n i h i l a t i n g answer.
(137)
A s F. R. Leavis s u g g e s t s , P a u l ' s p e n e t r a t i n g q u e s t i o n s touch t h e core of

M r s . P i p c h i n ' s c h a r a c t e r and unexpressed f e a r s , t h e f a c t t h a t "while s h e n e i t h e r i s loved n o r wants t o be

. . she

r e l i e s w i t h u t t e r c o n v i c t i o n on devoted

s e r v i c e s t h a t imply l o v e , " and t h a t i f f o r c e d t o c o n f r o n t t h e u n d i s g u i s e d

t r u t h of h e r l o v e l e s s e x i s t e n c e , "she f e e l s h e r own supreme r e a l i t y

...

suddenly menaced w i t h d e s t r ~ c t i o n . ' ' * ~ ( T h i s i s , i n e s s e n c e , Dombey's e v e n t u a l

fate.)

Dickens h a s t h u s extended t h e concerns developed i n P a u l ' s d i a l o g u e

w i t h h i s f a t h e r ; P a u l ' s i n s t i n c t i v e response t o t h e Dombey-like emotional corr u p t i o n of M r s . P i p c h i n n o t only d e f l a t e s i t s p r e t e n s i o n s , b u t s a t i r i z e s i t s

b a s i c weaknesses by r e v e a l i n g t h e " a n n i h i l a t i n g " danger t h a t t h e s i m p l e t r u t h
h o l d s f o r i t s facades.
These s c e n e s , f i n a l l y , have a f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n , s u b t l y
d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g P a u l from h i s c h i l d - f o o l p r e d e c e s s o r s .

Although t h e emotional

emptiness of t h e Dombey world e v e n t u a l l y d e s t r o y s P a u l ( f o r t h e r e a r e , i n f a c t ,

many people l i k e M r s . P i p c h i n i n t h a t w o r l d ) , P a u l ' s response t o t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of p e r v e r t e d emotion d i s p l a y s l i t t l e of t h e p a s s i v i t y and p a t h o s
of O l i v e r and N e l l .

P a u l ' s more p r e c o c i o u s f o o l - f u n c t i o n s ,

i n f a c t , the sharp

b a r b s h u r l e d a g a i n s t h i s moral a n t a g o n i s t s , q u e l l i n g t h e d e s p o t i c M r s . P i p c h i n
( h e r s e l f a "child-cjueller"
cent Mr.

18, 991 ) and d e f l a t i n g t h e pompously self-compla-

Dombey, a r e f a r more a c t i v e and engaging.

T h i s s a t i r i c power may

b e l a r g e l y u n w i t t i n g , b u t i t i n t r o d u c e s an added dimension t o t h e c h i l d - f o o l ,
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g P a u l from t h e b l a n d e r c h a r a c t e r s of O l i v e r and N e l l , and pres a g i n g t h e c o n s c i o u s l y c a u s t i c w i t and i n t e l l i g e n c e of Jenny Wren.
Other i n n o v a t i o n s developed i n Dombey and Son a l s o c o n t i n u e t o i n f l u e n c e
Dickens's u s e o f t h e c h i l d - f o o l .

Although P a u l s h a r e s p a r t of t h e u n r e a l i t y

of N e l l and O l i v e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s r e v e r i e s about d e a t h , h i s i n n e r l i f e

i s more l u c i d l y a n a l y s e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d emphasis on t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s
of an e m o t i o n a l l y s t u n t e d childhood.

T h i s p a t t e r n n a t u r a l l y produces a g r e a t -

e r concern w i t h t h e d e s t r u c t i v e impact of s o c i a l f o r c e s on t h e v u l n e r a b l e
c h i l d , and s e v e r a l of Dickens's l a t e r c h i l d r e n ( n o t a b l y , J o , t h e Smallweeds,
Tom Gradgrind, and Charley Hexam) a r e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y o r morally damaged by
such f o r c e s . 30 The importance of t h e morally s e n s i t i v e c h i l d - f o o l i n Dickens's
e t h o s n o n e t h e l e s s remains i n t a c t , and t h e works s u c c e e d i n g Dombey and Son cont i n u e h i s e f f o r t s t o combine r e a l i t y and romance, s t r e n g t h of c h a r a c t e r and
symbolic q u a l i t i e s , i n a u n i f i e d f i g u r e .

Once a g a i n , t h e s e e f f o r t s a r e n o t

f u l l y c o n s i s t e n t ; a l t h o u g h t h e p a t t e r n s brought f o r t h i n P a u l Dombey a r e ret a i n e d , i d e a l i z e d c h i l d - s a i n t s l i k e t h e young Agnes i n David C o p p e r f i e l d and

Charley Neckett i n Bleak House r e t u r n us t o t h e mythic n a t u r e of t h e d i v i n e
Nell.

I n a more complex image of t h e c h i l d - f o o l , however, Hard Times's S i s s y

Jupe s h a r e s b o t h t h e symbolic n a t u r e of t h e Nell-Florence v i s i o n and t h e

g r e a t e r r e a l i t y and s h a r p n e s s of P a u l , a symbolic c h i l d - s a i n t capable of withs t a n d i n g t h e p e r n i c i o u s e f f e c t s of Gradgrindism and vanquishing t h e pseudos o p h i s t i c a t e d James Harthouse, w h i l e d i s p l a y i n g some p s y c h o l o g i c a l c r e d i b i l i t y
and a F o o l - l i k e c a p a c i t y f o r d e f l a t i n g s a t i r e .

Like F l o r e n c e ' s , even S i s s y ' s more symbolic r o l e s p o s s e s s some s i g n i f i cance, i m p a r t i n g added f o r c e t o t h e n o v e l ' s moral c o n f l i c t s .

I n a world

where childhood i s crushed by e d u c a t i o n a l and s o c i a l b l i n d n e s s , i t i s n o t

unexpected t h a t t h e Wordsworthian-New Testament " c h i l d " is t h e c e n t r e of t h e
work's c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g f o r c e s .

I n d i r e c t contrast t o the destructive nature

of Gradgrind's system, S i s s y i s an e x p l i c i t symbol of t h e v a l u e s needed t o

redeem human l i f e i n t h e s p i r i t u a l decay of Coketown--the
t i o n , innocence, and sympathy.

"child's"

imagina-

Her triumph o v e r Harthouse, f o r i n s t a n c e ,

l i k e P a u l ' s " a n n i h i l a t i n g " a t t a c k s on Dombey and M r s . P i p c h i n , r e v e a l s t h e

e s s e n t i a l weakness of t h a t w o r l d ' s s u p e r c i l i o u s facade:
The c h i l d - l i k e ingenuousness w i t h which h i s v i s i t o r spoke, h e r
modest f e a r l e s s n e s s , h e r t r u t h f u l n e s s which p u t a l l a r t i f i c e a s i d e ,
h e r e n t i r e f o r g e t f u l n e s s of h e r s e l f i n h e r e a r n e s t q u i e t h o l d i n g
t o t h e o b j e c t w i t h which s h e had come; a l l t h i s , t o g e t h e r w i t h h e r
r e l i a n c e on h i s e a s i l y g i v e n promise--which i n i t s e l f shamed him-p r e s e n t e d something i n which h e was s o i n e x p e r i e n c e d , and a g a i n s t
which h e knew any of h i s u s u a l weapons would f a l l powerless; t h a t
(111, 2 , 231)
n o t a word could he r a l l y t o h i s r e l i e f .

M r . Gradgrind i s s i m i l a r l y d e f e n s e l e s s a g a i n s t S i s s y ' s f o o l - n a t u r e ,
weapons f a l l i n g e q u a l l y powerless:

h i s usual

"Somehow o r o t h e r , he had become possessed

by an i d e a t h a t t h e r e was something i n t h i s g i r l which could h a r d l y be s e t

f o r t h i n a t a b u l a r form

. . . he

was n o t s u r e t h a t i f h e had been r e q u i r e d ,

f o r example, t o t i c k h e r o f f i n a p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e t u r n , h e would have q u i t e

known how t o d i v i d e h e r " ( I , 1 4 , 9 2 ) .
While t h e r e i s unquestionably a f a i r measure of t h e i d e a l i z e d c h i l d - s a i n t
i n such f u n c t i o n s , S i s s y ' s moral r e s i l i e n c y i s n o t e n t i r e l y d e r i v e d from t h e
same symbolic s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m of O l i v e r o r N e l l .
nowledges ( " ' I

R a t h e r , a s Gradgrind ack-

can o n l y suppose t h a t t h e circumstances of your e a r l y l i f e were

t o o unfavourable t o t h e development of your r e a s o n i n g powers, and t h a t we began

t o o l a t e " [ g l ] ) , S i s s y ' s i m a g i n a t i o n and c h i l d - l i k e C h r i s t i a n i t y were n u r t u r e d
by h e r a n t i - u t i l i t a r i a n background i n S l e a r y ' s c i r c u s ; s h e is less an inex-

p l i c a b l e s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g t h a n a r e a l i s t i c c h i l d whose symbolic q u a l i t i e s
have a l e g i t i m a t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a s i s .

C l e a r l y , Dickens i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t

w h i l e t h e " c h i l d " may p o s s e s s l i n k s t o a p u r e r s t a t e of m o r a l - s p i r i t u a l

e x i s t e n c e , t h o s e q u a l i t i e s can b e s e v e r e l y r e t a r d e d o r d e s t r o y e d , and t h e
c o n t r a s t between t h e "childw-enhancing n a t u r e of S l e a r y ' s c i r c u s and t h e
"childw-choking philosophy of u t i l i t a r i a n Gradgrindism p r o v i d e s t h e f u l l e s t
account of Dickens's l i f e - l o n g concern f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e c h i l d ' s
"better feelings."

As noted e a r l i e r , w h i l e t h e c i r c u s cannot hope t o d e f e a t

t h e f o r c e s of Coketown, i t can r e s i s t t h e u t i l i t a r i a n s ' c o r r u p t i n g i n f l u e n c e .

S i s s y i s n o t a panacea, b u t l i k e many Dickensian f o o l s , s h e i s a s u c c e s s f u l
counterbalance.
The r e a l i s t i c b a s i s of S i s s y ' s moral n a t u r e , moreover, i n a d d i t i o n t o
s u b s t a n t i a t i n g h e r r e s i l i e n t c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g r o l e , a l s o augments h e r most
e x p l i c i t fool-function--the

c h i l d - f o o l ' s s a t i r i c mode.

Like t h e c o n f l i c t be-

tween Paul Dombey's metaphysics and h i s f a t h e r ' s o b t u s e l i t e r a l n e s s , S i s s y ' s

c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h M'Choakumchild d e r i v e s from t h e d i s p a r i t y between t h e n a t u r e
of t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l - e t h i c a l p r o c e s s e s .

Comparing t h e schoolroom t o a n a t i o n

w i t h " f i f t y m i l l i o n s of money," f o r example, ~ ' C h o a k u m c h i l d asked, s a y s S i s s y ,

I'

a i n ' t t h i s a prosperous n a t i o n , and a ' n ' t you i n a t h r i v i n g s t a t e ? " :

'What d i d you s a y ? ' asked Louisa.
'Miss L o u i s a , I s a i d I d i d n ' t know. I thought I c o u l d n ' t know
whether i t was a prosperous n a t i o n o r n o t , and whether I was i n a
t h r i v i n g s t a t e o r n o t , u n l e s s I knew who had g o t t h e money, and
whether any of i t was mine. But t h a t had n o t h i n g t o do w i t h i t .
It w a s n o t i n t h e f i g u r e s a t a l l , ' s a i d S i s s y , wiping h e r eyes.
'That was a g r e a t m i s t a k e of y o u r s , ' observed Louisa.
'Yes, Miss Louisa, I know i t was, now. Then M r . MIChoakumchild
s a i d h e would t r y m e again. And h e s a i d , This schoolroom i s an
immense town, and i n i t t h e r e a r e a m i l l i o n of i n h a b i t a n t s , and o n l y
five-and-twenty a r e s t a r v e d t o d e a t h i n t h e s t r e e t s , i n t h e c o u r s e
of a y e a r . What i s your remark on t h a t p r o p o r t i o n ? And my remark
was--for I c o u l d n ' t t h i n k of a b e t t e r one--that I thought i t must be
j u s t as h a r d upon t h o s e who were s t a r v e d , whether t h e o t h e r s were a
m i l l i o n , o r a m i l l i o n m i l l i o n . And t h a t was wrong, too.' ( I , 9 , 57)

J u s t as P a u l ' s l a c k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g p a r o d i e s ~ o r n b e y ' s and Mrs. P i p c h i n ' s

moral c o n f u s i o n , s o S i s s y ' s "mistakes" i m p l i c i t l y s a t i r i z e t h e more l e t h a l
e r r o r s of h e r t e a c h e r s :
' I f i n d (Mr. M'Choakurnchild s a i d ) t h a t i n a given time a hundred
thousand p e r s o n s went t o s e a on l o n g voyages, and o n l y f i v e
hundred of them were drowned o r b u r n t t o d e a t h . What i s t h e
percentag&? And I s a i d , Miss;' h e r e S i s s y f a i r l y sobbed a s conf e s s i n g w i t h extreme c o n t r i t i o n t o h e r g r e a t e s t e r r o r ; 'I s a i d
i t w a s nothing.'
'Nothing, S i s s y ? '
'Nothing, Miss--to t h e r e l a t i o n s and f r i e n d s of t h e people who
(57-8)
were k i l l e d . I s h a l l n e v e r l e a r n , ' s a i d S i s s y .
As i n L e a r , "nothing"

i s t h e o n l y response of a f o o l t o a q u e s t i o n i n v o l v i n g

a c o l d l y o b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o human l i f e and l o v e , f o r t h e opposing p o i n t s

of view cannot engage i n any meaningful cormnunication.

Sissy, defining

M'Choakumchildls s c i e n t i f i c a l l y formulated P o l i t i c a l Economy i n e x c l u s i v e l y

m o r a l - r e l i g i o u s terms ("'What

i s t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e of t h i s s c i e n c e ? '

'To do u n t o o t h e r s a s I would t h a t they s h o u l d do unto me'

...

[55]), s h a r e s t h e

Fool's higher metaphysical vision.

As noted above, moreover, t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m of S i s s y ' s c h a r a c t e r

( t o g e t h e r w i t h h e r avowedly C h r i s t i a n n a t u r e ) s t r e n g t h e n s h e r connection w i t h
t h e s a t i r i c child-fool.

P a u l Dombey's " a n n i h i l a t i n g " i n s i g h t s , whatever t h e i r

s a t i r i c impact, a r e e n t i r e l y i n s t i n c t i v e , h i s p a r o d i c confusion stemming from

t h e l a c k of any g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s i n h i s development.

S i s s y ' s more d i f f i d e n t

a t t i t u d e c e r t a i n l y obscures t h i s f a c t , b u t h e r e q u a l l y d e f l a t i n g r e s p o n s e s
t o M'Choakumchild and Gradgrind, i n c o n t r a s t t o P a u l ' s e x c l u s i v e l y i n t u i t i v e
animus, d e r i v e from h e r firmly-held moral b e l i e f s , and t h u s e x p r e s s h e r cons c i o u s ( i f somewhat t i m i d ) o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e u t i l i t a r i a n s c h o o l of thought.
S i s s y may n o t e q u a l t h e F o o l ' s b r i l l i a n t and d e l i b e r a t e l y s a r d o n i c w i t , b u t
h e r s a t i r i c t h r u s t s seem on o c c a s i o n t o b e b u t one s t e p away from i n t e n t i o n a l :
' I a m almost ashamed,' s a i d S i s s y , w i t h r e l u c t a n c e .
'But to-day,
f o r i n s t a n c e , M r . M'Choakumchild was e x p l a i n i n g t o u s about N a t u r a l

Prosperity.'
' N a t i o n a l , I t h i n k i t must have been have b e e n , ' s a i d L o u i s a ,
' Y e s , i t was.--But i s n ' t i t t h e same?' s h e t i m i d l y asked.
'Then M r . M'Choakumchild s a i d h e would t r y m e once more.
h e s a i d , Here a r e t h e s t u t t e r i n g s - '
' S t a t i s t i c s , ' s a i d Louisa.
'Yes, M i s s Louisa--they always remind me of s t u t t e r i n g s .

And

. . .'

(57)

Although less p r e c o c i o u s t h a n P a u l , S i s s y moves u s c l o s e r t o a f u l l y u n i f i e d

child-fool.

Dickens's d e p i c t i o n of h e r c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s a continued

advance i n t h e r e a l i t y of h i s c h i l d - f o o l s ,

p r o g r e s s i n g from t h e mythic N e l l

t o a f i g u r e whose v a l i d p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a s i s , r a t h e r t h a n undermining h e r
symbolic-thematic f u n c t i o n s , a c t u a l l y enhances t h e d r a m a t i c e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
those fool-roles.
I n Dickens's e f f o r t s t o f i n a l l y r e s o l v e t h e s e fundamental q u e s t i o n s of
r e a l i t y v e r s u s romance, p s y c h o l o g i c a l depth v e r s u s mythic symbolism,

Our

Mutual F r i e n d ' s Jenny Wren, combining t h e i n s i g h t s developed i n P a u l and S i s s y

w i t h t h e r e - i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e s y n t h e s i z i n g comic j e s t e r , approaches t h e
ideal.

A s p i r i t u a l c h i l d - f o o l whose t h e m a t i c r o l e s l i n k h e r w i t h Dickens's
Jenny i s n o n e t h e l e s s a c h a r a c t e r of d e t a i l e d psycho-

symbolic c h i l d - s a i n t s ,

l o g i c a l r e a l i s m , whose f o o l - f u n c t i o n s ( l i k e P a u l ' s and S i s s y ' s ) a r e l a r g e l y

expansive and dynamic.

Jenny, i n f a c t , f a r from p o s s e s s i n g t h e s e n t i m e n t a l

u n r e a l i t y of t h e heavenly O l i v e r and N e l l r e p r e s e n t s a major q u a l i f i c a t i o n

of t h e i r e l e v a t e d n a t u r e , and y e t t h e g r a d u a l growth of h e r c h a r a c t e r and
moral s e n s e ( i n a p r o c e s s i m p o r t a n t l y s i m i l a r t o Dick S w i v e l l e r ' s ) r e v e a l s
how t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s

s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s can b e s t r e n g t h -

ened r a t h e r t h a n d e s t r o y e d through c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e a l world.

Even a p a r t from Jenny, Our Mutual F r i e n d c o n t a i n s Dickens's most s a r d o n i c
r e - a p p r a i s a l of h i s own i d e a l i z e d c h i l d - s a i n t s .

D e s c r i b i n g t h e Headstone-

Peecher s c h o o l , Dickens c a u s t i c a l l y n o t e s t h a t
a l l t h e p l a c e w a s pervaded by a grimly l u d i c r o u s p r e t e n c e t h a t e v e r y
p u p i l was c h i l d i s h and i n n o c e n t . This p r e t e n c e , much favoured by t h e

l a d y - v i s i t o r s , l e d t o t h e g h a s t l i e s t a b s u r d i t i e s . Young women
o l d i n t h e v i c e s of t h e commonest and w o r s t l i f e , were expected
t o p r o f e s s themselves e n t h r a l l e d by t h e good c h i l d ' s book, t h e
Adventures of L i t t l e Margery, who r e s i d e d i n t h e v i l l a g e c o t t a g e
by t h e m i l l ; s e v e r e l y reproved and m o r a l l y squashed t h e m i l l e r
when s h e was f i v e and h e w a s f i f t y ; d i v i d e d h e r p o r r i d g e w i t h
s i n g i n g b i r d s ; denied h e r s e l f a new nankeen b o n n e t , on t h e ground
t h a t t h e t u r n i p s d i d n o t wear nankeen b o n n e t s , n e i t h e r d i d t h e
sheep who a t e them; who p l a i t e d straw and d e l i v e r e d t h e d r e a r i e s t
So
o r a t i o n s t o a l l comers, a t a l l s o r t s of unseasonable times.
unwieldy young dredges and h u l k i n g mudlarks were r e f e r r e d t o t h e
e x p e r i e n c e s of Thomas Twopence, who, having r e s o l v e d n o t t o rob
(under circumstances of uncommon a t r o c i t y ) h i s p a r t i c u l a r f r i e n d
and b e n e f a c t o r , of e i g h t e e n p e n c e , p r e s e n t l y came i n t o s u p e r n a t u r a l
p o s s e s s i o n of t h r e e and s i x p e n c e , and l i v e d a s h i n i n g l i g h t e v e r
afterwards.
(11, 1, 214-5)
The p a r o d i c a l l u s i o n s t o t h e immaculate moral s e n s e of t h e p a s t o r a l N e l l and
t h e d i v i n e l y rewarded h o n e s t y of O l i v e r Twist a r e i m p l i c i t , demonstrating
Dickens's awareness t h a t t h e c h i l d - s a i n t i s a g r o t e s q u e l y romanticized f i g u r e .
Jenny, f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h i s p a s s a g e , c o n t i n u e s Dickens's rea p p r a i s a l i n a more s e v e r e f a s h i o n .

Whereas t h e s a i n t l y Tiny Tim, f o r example,

i s p l e a s e d t o t h i n k t h a t h i s p h y s i c a l handicap reminds people of C h r i s t ' s

- 111, 4 5 ) , Jenny i s pained and e m b i t t e r e d by h e r bad back and

m i r a c l e s (CB,
q u e e r l e g s , w h i l e , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e l o v i n g p a t i e n c e of t h e C o r d e l i a - l i k e
N e l l and F l o r e n c e , s h e i s almost v i n d i c t i v e l y d i s d a i n f u l towards h e r drunken

father:

'"I wish you had been t a k e n up, and locked up,'

t h e house.

s a i d t h e person of

'I wish you had been poked i n t o c e l l s and b l a c k h o l e s , and run

o v e r by r a t s and s p i d e r s and b e e t l e s .
and they'd have t i c k l e d you n i c e l y .

I know t h e i r t r i c k s and t h e i r manners,

-

A i n ' t you ashamed of yourself?"'

( 2 , 241).

Although J e n n y ' s r e a l i s t i c responses o f f e r a n e c e s s a r y and h e a l t h y q u a l i f i c a t i o n of h e r o v e r - i d e a l i z e d

p r e d e c e s s o r s , however, i n moving towards

g r e a t e r c r e d i b i l i t y , Dickens has come c l o s e t o s u b v e r t i n g t h e c h i l d - f o o l convention.

J e n n y ' s a n g e r undoubtedly h a s a v a l i d p s y c h o l o g i c a l basis--the

burdens of p o v e r t y , d e f o r m i t y , t h e s c o r n o f t h e neighbours' c h i l d r e n , and h e r

f a t h e r ' s a l c o h o l i c a b d i c a t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y have a l l hardened Jenny's

s p i r i t , f o r c i n g h e r t o s t r i k e back w i t h sarcasm and contempt--but

h e r exces-

s i v e vindictiveness is c l e a r l y i n c o n f l i c t with the child-fool's

moral n a t u r e .

Edgar Johnson c a l l s h e r "a c r e a t u r e h a l f s o r r o w f u l c h i l d and h a l f a c i d

shrew,"31

and A. E. Dyson o b s e r v e s t h a t w h i l e s h e h a s "the c e l e s t i a l imagina-

t i o n of t h e c h i l d , " "some of h e r f a n t a s i e s a r e s t r i k i n g l y s a d i s t i c " :

32

"'When h e was a s l e e p , I ' d make a spoon r e d h o t , and I ' d have some b o i l i n g

l i q u o r b u b b l i n g i n a saucepan, and I ' d t a k e i t o u t h i s s i n g , and I ' d open h i s
mouth w i t h t h e o t h e r hand
i t and choke him'"

. . . and

(243).

I ' d pour i t down h i s t h r o a t , and b l i s t e r

I n an a p p a r e n t paradox, moreover, even a s Dickens

a c c e n t u a t e s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y r e a l i s t i c foundation of J e n n y ' s d i s t u r b i n g
b i t t e r n e s s , he does n o t n e g l e c t t o emphasize h e r " c e l e s t i a l imagination";

and,

i n s p i r e d by t h e s p l e n d o u r of t h o s e quasi-Wordsworthian "long b r i g h t s l a n t i n g
rows" of a n g e l i c c h i l d r e n , Jenny i s s p i r i t u a l l y t r a n s f i g u r e d , seeming t o e n t e r
a p u r i f i e d s t a t e of p r e - e x i s t e n c e :

"By d e g r e e s , a s s h e progressed i n t h i s

remembrance, t h e hand was r a i s e d , t h e l a t e e c s t a t i c look r e t u r n e d , and s h e

became q u i t e b e a u t i f u l " (240) o n l y t o have i t s h a t t e r e d by h e r acrimonious
response t o h e r f a t h e r ' s p r o f l i g a c y .
Onceagain we s e e t h e c o n f l i c t between r e a l i t y and romance f i r s t enuncia t e d i n The Old C u r i o s i t y Shop, t h e p r e c a r i o u s s t r u g g l e of t h e s p i r i t u a l c h i l d
i n a corrupt s o c i a l milieu.
t h a t N e l l was s p a r e d :

On t h e one hand, i n f a c t , Jenny e n a c t s t h e f a t e

" t h i s poor a i l i n g l i t t l e c r e a t u r e h a s come t o b e what

s h e i s , surrounded by drunken people from h e r cradle'' (1, 227), a hardened

c h a r a c t e r "of t h e world, w o r l d l y ; of t h e e a r t h , earthy''
hand, a s a c e l e s t i a l c h i l d - s a i n t ,

( 2 , 243).

On t h e o t h e r

Jenny a l s o p a r t a k e s of Nell's s e a r c h f o r t h e

p l a c e s where God d w e l l s , s e e k i n g t o evade h e r s o r d i d environment.

Imagina-

t i v e l y transforming R i a h ' s r o o f t o p i n t o an e d e n i c p a r a d i s e , Jenny, l i k e N e l l ,

d e l i g h t s i n t h i s pseudo-pastoral haven where "you can s e e t h e clouds r u s h i n g

on above t h e narrow s t r e e t s , n o t minding them, and you s e e t h e golden arrows

p o i n t i n g a t t h e mountains i n t h e sky from which t h e wind comes, and f e e l a s
i f you were dead"

(4, 281).

G a r r e t t Stewart suggests t h a t " t h i s has nothing

i n common w i t h N e l l ' s a c t u a l death-wishes,"

arguing t h a t ~ e n n y ' srepeated c r y ,

"Come up and b e dead," i s n o t one "of d e a t h and non-being, b u t of r e b i r t h . 1133

And y e t , a l t h o u g h J e n n y ' s v i s i o n i s i n n a t e l y t r a n s c e n d e n t , h e r N e l l - l i k e
d e s i r e t o e s c a p e from a b l i g h t e d r e a l i t y i n t o some s e c u r e heavenly r e t r e a t i s
c e r t a i n l y evident:
'How do you f e e l when you a r e dead?' asked Fledgeby, much perplexed.
'Oh, s o t r a n q u i l ! ' c r i e d t h e l i t t l e c r e a t u r e , s m i l i n g .
'Oh, s o
p e a c e f u l and s o t h a n k f u l ! And you h e a r t h e people who a r e a l i v e ,
c r y i n g , and working, and c a l l i n g t o one a n o t h e r down i n t h e c l o s e d a r k
s t r e e t s , and you seem t o p i t y them s o ! And such a c h a i n h a s f a l l e n
from you, and such a s t r a n g e good s o r r o w f u l h a p p i n e s s comes upon you!'
(281)
Like N e l l , t h e n , Jenny c o n f r o n t s t h e c h i l d - s a i n t ' s i n e v i t a b l e d e a t h l p u r i t y l i f e l c o r r u p t i o n dilemma, and y e t , w h i l e t h e a n g e l i c N e l l i s s o o t h e r w o r l d l y
i n n a t u r e t h a t h e r f a t e i s p r e o r d a i n e d , t h e more r e a l i s t i c Jenny e x i s t s i n an
i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n , e q u a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o c o r r u p t i o n and p u r i t y , l i f e and
death.

She i s l e s s a paradox than a c r e d i b l e human b e i n g , compacted of natu-

r a l l y c o n f l i c t i n g impulses, and c a p a b l e e i t h e r of growth o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n .

This v e r y f l e x i b i l i t y , i n f a c t , a s i g n of Dickens's more s o p h i s t i c a t e d
v i s i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l ,

proves Jenny's s a l v a t i o n , a l l o w i n g h e r t o r e s i s t

b o t h t h e w o r l d ' s d e s t r u c t i v e r e a l i t y and t h e t e m p t a t i o n of a d e a t h l y asylum.

T h i s r e s i l i e n c y i s n o t , of c o u r s e , a n o t h e r r e t u r n t o t h e u n r e a l i s t i c immacul a t e p u r i t y of O l i v e r o r N e l l ( a s we have s e e n , Jenny i s s e r i o u s l y t h r e a t e n e d
by t h e p e r v e r t i n g n a t u r e of h e r s o r d i d world and a t some level of h e r mind
t h e retreat i n t o d e a t h i s a s compelling f o r h e r a s f o r N e l l ) .

R a t h e r , Jenny

undergoes a g r a d u a l p r o c e s s of moral m a t u r a t i o n , g a t h e r i n g s t r e n g t h b o t h from

w i t h i n h e r own c h a r a c t e r and from e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s , t o f u n c t i o n i n t h e r e a l

world w i t h o u t moral c o l l a p s e o r N e l l - l i k e death-wishes.

John Carey s p e a k s of J e n n y ' s Wordsworthian r e l i g i o u s f a n t a s y as a
"maudlin v i s i o n , worthy of P a u l Dombey" and " f o i s t e d o n t o h e r by Dickens, 1134
b u t s u r e l y one can b e t t e r see i t a s a s i g n of J e n n y ' s i m a g i n a t i v e l i f e , stunt e d b y h e r background y e t s t i l l s e e k i n g e x p r e s s i o n .

Like S i s s y , whose l i f e -

s u s t a i n i n g i m a g i n a t i o n and sympathy were n u r t u r e d throughout h e r childhood,

Jenny h a s " a r t " a s a s a v i n g grace.

A s S t e w a r t n o t e s , " t h e g i r l who h a t e s

c h i l d r e n f o r t h e fun they have made of h e r , " i s s t i l l one "who h a s devoted

h e r l i f e t o d r e s s i n g d o l l s f o r children,"35

a c r e a t i v e way of k e e p i n g a l i v e

b o t h "childhood" and t h e "fancy" s o c r u c i a l t o t h e emotional h e a l t h of t h e

Dickensian c h i l d - f o o l .

"The d e x t e r i t y o f h e r nimble f i n g e r s was remarkable1'

( 1 , 222), and t h e r e s u l t of J e n n y ' s s k i l l , "a d a z z l i n g s e m i - c i r c l e of d o l l s

i n a l l t h e c o l o u r s of t h e rainbow" (111, 2 , 4 3 5 ) - i s a t once a b r i g h t c o n t r a s t
t o t h e gloom of h e r h a r s h childhood and a t a n g i b l e a r t i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
her fantasy's angelic children.
Jenny, f u r t h e r m o r e , s c a r c e l y a "maudlin" f i g u r e , e x t e n d s t h e p a t t e r n s
developed i n P a u l and S i s s y , h e r most s i g n i f i c a n t f o o l - f u n c t i o n s ( l i k e t h o s e
of L e a r ' s w i t t i l y s a t i r i c j e s t e r ) i n c l u d i n g a conscious c r i t i c i s m of s o c i a l
e v i l and moral b l i n d n e s s .

Many of J e n n y ' s i n s i g h t f u l b a r b s a r e , of c o u r s e ,

a d e f e n s i v e s h i e l d a g a i n s t p a i n (we s e e h e r , f o r example, "laughing s a t i r i c a l l y t o h i d e t h a t s h e had been c r y i n g "

[lo,

5331 ) , b u t , a l t h o u g h h e r s o r d i d

world may have hardened and saddened h e r p e r s o n a l i t y , i t h a s a l s o h e i g h t e n e d

h e r knowledge of i t s c o r r u p t n a t u r e .

Even h e r a r t becomes a v i t a l means of

e x p r e s s i n g h e r antagonism t o s o c i a l p r e t e n s i o n .

Haunting "a Drawing Room, o r

a grand day i n t h e Park, o r a Show, o r a ~ & e , ' ' Jenny s e a r c h e s f o r " g r e a t

l a d i e s " t o s e r v e a s models f o r h e r c r e a t i o n s :
'There was Lady B e l i n d a Whitrose. I made h e r do double d u t y i n one
n i g h t . I s a i d when s h e came o u t of t h e c a r r i a g e , "You'll do, my dear!"

and I r a n s t r a i g h t home and c u t h e r o u t and b a s t e d h e r . Back I

came a g a i n , and w a i t e d behind t h e men t h a t c a l l e d t h e c a r r i a g e s .
Very bad n i g h t t o o . A t l a s t "Lady Belinda W h i t r o s e ' s c a r r i a g e !
Lady Belinda Whitrose coming down!" And I made h e r t r y on--oh!
and t a k e p a i n s about i t too--before s h e got s e a t e d . T h a t ' s Lady
B e l i n d a hanging up by t h e w a i s t , much t o o n e a r t h e g a s l i g h t f o r
a wax one, w i t h h e r t o e s turned i n . ' ( 4 3 6 )
Not o n l y a r e " g r e a t l a d i e s " p a r o d i c a l l y reduced t o waxwork f i g u r e s , moreover,
b u t J e n n y ' s d o l l s become l i v i n g b e i n g s , s a t i r i z i n g c u l t u r a l and f a s h i o n a b l e
caprice.

D i s c u s s i n g t h e demands of h e r work w i t h Bradley Headstone and

Charley Hexam, Jenny assumes a tone of disingenuous innocence i n i m p a r t i n g

l i f e t o h e r wayward c r e a t i o n s :
'I had a d o l l m a r r i e d , l a s t week, and was o b l i g e d t o work a l l n i g h t .
And i t ' s n o t good f o r m e , on account of my back b e i n g s o bad and my
l e g s s o queer.'
They looked a t t h e l i t t l e c r e a t u r e w i t h a wonder t h a t d i d n o t
d i m i n i s h , and t h e schoolmaster s a i d : ' I am s o r r y t h a t your f i n e
ladies are s o inconsiderate.'
' I t ' s t h e way w i t h them,' s a i d t h e person of t h e house, shrugging
h e r shoulders again.
'And t h e y t a k e no c a r e of t h e i r c l o t h e s , and
t h e y n e v e r keep t o t h e same f a s h i o n s a month. I work f o r a d o l l w i t h
t h r e e d a u g h t e r s . B l e s s you, s h e ' s enough t o r u i n h e r husband!'
The person of t h e house gave a weird l i t t l e laugh h e r e , and gave
them a n o t h e r look o u t of t h e c o r n e r s of h e r e y e s . ( 2 2 3 )

Unlike P a u l ' s and S i s s y ' s u n w i t t i n g c r i t i c i s m s , J e n n y ' s s l y laugh and g l a n c e

a f t e r t h e assumed g r a v i t y of h e r speech c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h e conscious p l e a s u r e
s h e d e r i v e s from h e r i m a g i n a t i v e s a t i r e :
'Are you always a s busy a s you a r e now?'
I ' m s l a c k j u s t now. I f i n i s h e d a l a r g e mourning o r d e r t h e
'Busier.
(223)
day b e f o r e y e s t e r d a y .
Doll I work f o r l o s t a canary-bird.'
The f a c t t h a t Headstone s e e s none of t h e whimsical parody i n such speeches
o b v i o u s l y adds a n e x t r a s p i c e t o Jenny's d e l i g h t ; and although s h e r e c o g n i z e s
t h e u n c o n t r o l l a b l e p a s s i o n s of t h e s c h o o l m a s t e r ' s s p i r i t ("'He wouldn't blow
up a l o n e .

He'd c a r r y me up w i t h him'

I'

[ l l , 3471 ) , he t o o f a l l s under t h e

s a r d o n i c s c r u t i n y of Jenny's s a t i r i c c r e a t i o n s .

J u s t a s L e a r ' s Fool d e s c r i b e s

h i m s e l f a s t h e f i g u r e of " t r u t h " t h a t "must b e whipped out" when f a l s e h o o d

r u l e s t h e s o c i a l world ( I . 4 . 1 0 9 - l l ) , s o Jenny, r e v e a l i n g t h e s e l f - d e l u d e d

mania of Headstone's psyche, employs a s u r r o g a t e - t o u c h s t o n e i n h e r d e a l i n g s

w i t h t h e schoolmaster.

"I don' t l i k e Hexam," s a y s Jenny,

' S e l f i s h . Thinks o n l y of h i m s e l f . The way w i t h a l l of you.'

'The way w i t h a l l of us? Then you d o n ' t l i k e me?'
'Don't
'So-so, ' r e p l i e d Miss Wren, w i t h a s h r u g and a i a u g h .
know much about you. '
'But I was n o t aware i t was t h e way w i t h a l l of u s , ' s a i d
Bradley, r e t u r n i n g t o t h e a c c u s a t i o n , a l i t t l e i n j u r e d .
'Won't
you s a y , some of u s ? '
'Meaning,' r e t u r n e d t h e l i t t l e c r e a t u r e , 'every one of you,
b u t you. Hah! Now look t h i s l a d y i n t h e f a c e . T h i s i s Mrs. Truth.
The Honourable. F u l l - d r e s s e d . '
Bradley glanced a t t h e d o l l s h e h e l d up f o r h i s o b s e r v a t i o n , - which had been l y i n g on i t s f a c e on h e r bench, w h i l e w i t h a n e e d l e
and t h r e a d s h e f a s t e n e d t h e d r e s s on a t t h e back--and looked from i t
t o her.
'I s t a n d t h e Honourable Mrs. T. on my bench i n t h i s c o r n e r a g a i n s t
t h e w a l l , where h e r b l u e eyes can s h i n e upon you,' pursued M i s s Wren,
doing s o , and making two l i t t l e dabs a t him i n t h e a i r w i t h h e r n e e d l e ,
a s i f s h e p r i c k e d him w i t h i t i n h i s own e y e s ; 'and I d e f y you t o t e l l
me, w i t h M r s . T. f o r a w i t n e s s , what you have come h e r e f o r . '
'To s e e Hexam's sister.'
'But on
'You d o n ' t s a y so!' r e t o r t e d M i s s Wren, h i t c h i n g h e r chin.
whose account?'
'Her own. '
'Oh, Mrs. T.!' exclaimed Miss Wren.
'You h e a r him?'
'To reason w i t h h e r , ' pursued Bradley, h a l f humouring what was
' f o r h e r own s a k e . '
p r e s e n t , and h a l f angry w i t h what was n o t p r e s e n t :
'Oh, Mrs. T.!' exclaimed t h e dressmaker.
'For h e r own s a k e , ' r e p e a t e d Bradley, warming, 'and f o r h e r
b r o t h e r ' s , a s a p e r f e c t l y d i s i n t e r e s t e d person.'
' R e a l l y , Mrs. T . , ' remarked t h e dressmaker, ' s i n c e i t comes t o t h i s ,
(342-3)
we must p o s i t i v e l y t u r n you w i t h your f a c e t o t h e w a l l . '
Jenny, t h e n , l i k e a t r u e c h i l d - f o o l , h a s a p e n e t r a t i n g s e n s e of t r u t h .

Even

Eugene Wrayburn, accustomed t o dominating a l l p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s through

h i s impassable v e r b a l e l a n , i s "half-amused

and half-vexed" by Jenny's d i s -

cerning vision:
'And s o , Miss Wren,' s a i d M r . Eugene Wrayburn, ' I cannot persuade you
t o d r e s s me a d o l l ? '
'No,' r e p l i e d Miss Wren, s n a p p i s h l y ; ' i f you want one, go and buy
one a t t h e shop. '
'And my charming goddaughter,' s a i d M r . Wrayburn, p l a i n t i v e l y ,
'down i n H e r t f o r d s h i r e - - '
('Humbugshire you mean, I t h i n k , ' i n t e r p o s e d Miss Wren.) (111, 10, 532)
Jenny's i n s i g h t s i n t o Wrayburn's c h a r a c t e r , i n f a c t , p e n e t r a t e i n t o areas of

which h e h i m s e l f i s unaware.

Having s e c u r e d ~ i z z i e ' spromise t h a t s h e w i l l

a l l o w him t o f i n a n c e some l e s s o n s f o r h e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , Eugene u n w i t t i n g l y

r e v e a l s a p a r t o f h i s motives and a t t i t u d e s t h a t Jenny immediately d i s c e r n s :
Then
setting
'You
'Why
'You

'I think of
h e f e l l t o t a l k i n g p l a y f u l l y w i t h Jenny Wren.
up a d o l l , M i s s Jenny,' he s a i d .
had b e t t e r n o t , ' r e p l i e d t h e dressmaker.
not?'
are s u r e t o break i t . A l l you c h i l d r e n do.'
(11, 2 , 238)

Eugene's unconscious view of t h e lower-class L i z z i e a s a p l a y t h i n g f o r h i s

amusement i s underscored and countered by Jenny's a s s e r t i o n (which Eugene

misses e n t i r e l y ) t h a t h e i s s t i l l a n i r r e s p o n s i b l e c h i l d .
T h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t , however, t h a t Jenny's power of t r u t h i s r e l a t e d
t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l moral s e n s e of O l i v e r o r N e l l ; r a t h e r , a s h e r o f t e n rep e a t e d e x c l a m a t i o n , "I know t h e i r t r i c k s and t h e i r manners," i n d i c a t e s , i t i s
t h e n a t u r a l consequence of h e r l o n g a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e most degraded elements
i n h e r s o c i a l world t h a t h a s s t i m u l a t e d J e n n y ' s p e r c e p t i o n .

Thus, although

Jenny h a s grown m o r a l l y i n s i g h t f u l , s h e i s n o t , a s some c r i t i c s s u g g e s t , poss e s s e d of "a s u r e i n s t i n c t of moral d i s c r i ~ n i n a t i o n , " f~o~r h e r c o r r u p t e d background h a s made h e r s u s p i c i o u s a s w e l l a s d i s c e r n i n g .

She may r e c o g n i z e

Fledgeby a s an e g r e g i o u s f i g u r e , d e r i d i n g him a s " L i t t l e Eyes" and n o t i n g t h a t

h e "don't

l o o k l i k e anybody's master'' ( 5 , 280), y e t , d e s p i t e h e r a f f e c t i o n f o r

M r . Riah, Fledgeby's f a l s e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e J e w i s a h e a r t l e s s l y mercenary

c h a r a c t e r e v i d e n t l y f i n d s a r e l u c t a n t y e t receptive audience i n t h e worldly
Jenny.
Jenny's s a t i r i c w i t and i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e n , a l t h o u g h n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e
s u r v i v a l of h e r moral s e n s e , . a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o o f f s e t a l l t h e c o r r u p t i n g
i n f l u e n c e s of h e r s o c i a l world; Dickens r e a l i s t i c a l l y acknowledges t h e d a n g e r s
t h a t menace even t h e s e l f - p o s s e s s e d c h i l d - f o o l .

Jenny, however, l i k e Dick

S w i v e l l e r , t h e w i s e f o o l who combines t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s moral n a t u r e and

i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h a g r e a t e r knowledge of human e v i l t o a c h i e v e a u n i f i e d whole,

i s c a p a b l e of growth and change, and t h e s h a r p n e s s and s u s p i c i o n i n h e r

n a t u r e , p a r t l y b a l a n c e d by h e r fancy and i n s i g h t , a r e f i n a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d
i n t o a c o h e s i v e union of " f o l l y " and "wisdom."
Jenny must, i n e f f e c t , t r a n s c e n d h e r s e l f - p r e o c c u p a t i o n ,

a c t i v e l y engag-

i n g i n p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a c c e p t i n g and e x p r e s s i n g love.
L i z z i e Hexam i s perhaps t h e major f i g u r e i n t h i s m a t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s , e x e r t i n g
b o t h a conscious and unconscious e f f e c t i n s o o t h i n g and animating Jenny's
embittered s p i r i t .

The l o v e s h e b r i n g s i n t o Jenny's l i f e , e x p r e s s e d (as Jenny

n o t e s ) i n "a h e a r t t h a t never h a r d e n s , and a temper t h a t never t i r e s , and a

touch t h a t never h u r t s " (111, 2 , 438), n o t o n l y s e r v e s t o a s s u a g e Jenny's p a i n
b u t s t i m u l a t e s h e r moral growth a s w e l l .

Thus, having fathomed b o t h L i z z i e ' s

l o v e f o r Wrayburn and h e r b e l i e f t h a t h e r humble s o c i a l o r i g i n s a r e an i n s u p e r a b l e b a r r i e r , Jenny's l a t e n t s y m p a t h e t i c i m a g i n a t i o n i s a c t i v e l y evoked, g i v i n g

h e r h e r f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e of a n o t h e r ' s sorrow.

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , as i n S w i v e l l e r ' s

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e Marchioness, t h i s awakened sympathy i s augmented by t h e

f o o l ' s a m e l i o r a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n ; i n f a c t , i t i s Jenny's c e l e s t i a l v i s i o n i t s e l f t h a t s h e wishes t o impart:

"'My L i z z i e , my poor L i z z i e !

0 my b l e s s e d

c h i l d r e n , come back i n t h e l o n g b r i g h t s l a n t i n g rows, and come f o r h e r , n o t me.

She wants h e l p more t h a n I , my b l e s s e d children!"'

(11 1

349).

Responding

t o b o t h L i z z i e ' s l o v e and need f o r s o l a c e , J e n n y ' s moral n a t u r e i s n u r t u r e d ,

h e r b i t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e and t r u t h - s e n s e made more e x p a n s i v e and humane.

She

r e p e n t s h e r s u s p i c i o u s a t t i t u d e t o Riah and s h e l t e r s him when h e i s dismissed

by Fledgeby ( I V , 9, 729), w h i l e h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h , b r i n g i n g t o mind h e r h a r s h
t r e a t m e n t of t h i s s h a t t e r e d i n d i v i d u a l , s t i m u l a t e s a s i m i l a r l y h e a l t h y remorse:
"'He s u f f e r e d h e a v i l y , d i d my u n f o r t u n a t e boy.

times.

And I c a l l e d him a q u a n t i t y of names;'

He was v e r y , v e r y ill somes h a k i n g h e r head o v e r h e r work,

dropping tears.

me"'

'I d o n ' t know t h a t h i s going wrong was much t h e worse f o r

(732).
The f i n a l c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n J e n n y ' s moral growth, h e r r o l e i n t h e

i n j u r e d Eugene Wrayburn's r e c o v e r y , i s a t once a s i g n of i t s c u l m i n a t i o n ,

and a complex r e s o l u t i o n of many problems and concerns developed throughout
Dickens's a n a l y s i s of t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s

evolution.

I have s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e

c h i l d - f o o l i s an image of t h e d i v i n e i n human form and a b r i d g e between t h e

Holy I n n o c e n t and t h e normal world.

Jenny, through t h e two c o n v e r s i o n s i n

which s h e p a r t i c i p a t e s ( h e r own and Eugene's), d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t a u n i f i e d

symbolic-psychologically c r e d i b l e f i g u r e can g i v e b o t h r o l e s a f i r m l y r e a l i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y enhancing t h e i r t h e m a t i c power and e f f e c t .
While r e c a l l i n g t h e Marchioness's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S w i v e l l e r (where t h e
f e v e r e d Richard s h a r e s h i s i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n w i t h t h e g i r l who r e s t o r e s him
t o l i f e ) , Jenny's m i n i s t r a t i o n s t o Wrayburn a c t u a l l y o f f e r a more i n t r i c a t e
and s o p h i s t i c a t e d image of t h i s b a s i c p a t t e r n .

Jenny becomes "an i n t e r p r e t e r

between t h i s s e n t i e n t world and t h e i n s e n s i b l e man'' (IV, 10, 739), combining

t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s of t h e Marchioness's and S w i v e l l e r ' s r o l e s t o emerge as
b o t h redeemer and v i s i o n a r y p o e t , h e a l e r and s e e r :

. .

. Ask h e r i f s h e h a s
'Ask h e r i f s h e h a s s e e n t h e c h i l d r e n
smelt the flowers?'
' I understand him now
You mean
'Oh! I know!' c r i e d Jenny.
my l o n g b r i g h t s l a n t i n g rows of c h i l d r e n , who used t o b r i n g me e a s e
and r e s t ? You mean t h e c h i l d r e n who used t o t a k e me up, and make me
light?'
Eugene s m i l e d , 'Yes.'
' I have n o t s e e n them s i n c e I saw you. I n e v e r see them now, b u t
I a m h a r d l y e v e r i n p a i n now.'
'It was a p r e t t y f a n c y , ' s a i d Eugene.
'But I have heard my b i r d s s i n g , ' c r i e d t h e l i t t l e c r e a t u r e , 'and
I have smelt my f l o w e r s . Yes, indeed I have! And b o t h were most
b e a u t i f u l and most Divine!'
' S t a y and h e l p t o n u r s e me,' s a i d Eugene, q u i e t l y .
'I should l i k e
you t o have t h e fancy h e r e , b e f o r e I d i e . '
(IV, 10, 737)

...

Whereas e a r l i e r c h i l d - s a i n t s ,

descended from God i n t o a f a t a l l y c o r r u p t world,

must r e t r e a t i n t o d e a t h o r s e c l u s i o n , Jenny i n t e r p r e t s between heaven and

e a r t h , g i v i n g form and substance t o h e r s p i r i t u a l i t y , b r i n g i n g God's grace
t o man.

She has ceased t o s e e h e r a n g e l i c c h i l d r e n f o r she has become one

h e r s e l f ; " a l l s o f t e n e d compassion now," Jenny, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e u n r e a l i t y

and p a s s i v i t y of O l i v e r o r N e l l , e x e r c i s e s a r e a l and a c t i v e redemptive power.
The very s k i l l by which she h a s s u s t a i n e d h e r l i f e and imagination and given
form t o h e r v i s i o n , " t h e n a t u r a l l i g h t n e s s and d e l i c a c y of touch, which had
been r e f i n e d by p r a c t i c e i n h e r m i n i a t u r e work," now becomes t h e means by
which h e r m i n i s t r a t i o n s a r e made p r a c t i c a l and b e n e f i c e n t , and h e r s p i r i t u a l l y
e d i f y i n g v i s i o n i s complemented by t a n g i b l e physical-emotional c a r e .

Jenny

"would change t h e d r e s s i n g of a wound, o r e a s e a l i g a t u r e , o r t u r n h i s f a c e ,

o r a l t e r t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e bed-clothes on him, w i t h an a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y
of doing r i g h t " ( 7 3 9 ) , w h i l e , a s " v i g i l a n t a s e v e r i n h e r watch" (741), she
i s t h e only c h a r a c t e r with t h e s e n s i t i v i t y and i n s i g h t t o d i s c o v e r t h e word

Eugene s e e k s i n h i s d e l i r i u m ("wife")
through h i s marriage t o L i z z i e .

and t h u s e n s u r e s h i s moral s a l v a t i o n

I n A Midsummer Night's Dream Theseus a s s e r t s

t h a t " t h e l u n a t i c , t h e l o v e r , and t h e poet" s h a r e a common n a t u r e , apprehendi n g "more than cool reason e v e r comprehends" (V. 1. 5-8); throughout Dickens's
works, l i k e w i s e , t h e t r i p l e elements of f o l l y , love, and imagination have been
c o n t i n u a l l y equated and i n t e r t w i n e d .

Jenny, who s h a r e s h e r imagination and

l o v e w i t h Eugene, making him a g i f t of h e r fool-nature,

provides one of t h e

h i g h e s t and most r e a l i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n s of t h i s theme.

As w e l l a s forming a more r e a l i s t i c b a s i s f o r t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s

symbolic

r o l e s , Jenny, i n t h a t same process, e s t a b l i s h e s a necessary l i n k between t h e

Holy Innocent and t h e normal world, transcending t h e i r seemingly impassable
gulf.

Even a s Jenny e x e r t s a h e a l i n g i n f l u e n c e on Eugene, h e r a c t i o n s i n h i s

recovery, f u l l y evoking h e r l a t e n t sympathies, continue and confirm h e r own

maturation.

I n h e a l i n g , Jenny i s h e a l e d .

P o s s e s s i n g none of t h e s i m p l e t o n ' s

mental l i m i t a t i o n s , b u t s t i l l s h a r i n g h i s e s s e n t i a l e t h o s and moral r o l e s ,

Jenny r e v e a l s t h a t t h e " f o o l , " w i t h h i s moral i n s i g h t , c e l e s t i a l i m a g i n a t i o n ,
s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s , and h o l y s i m p l i c i t y , can e n t e r t h e normal world through
t h e development of c h i l d t o a d u l t and a c t u a l l y g a i n s t r e n g t h i n t h i s t r a n s i tion.

Jenny t h u s r e - i n t r o d u c e s

t h e most n o t a b l e f u n c t i o n of t h e comic j e s t e r ,

c o n t r i b u t i n g a s e n s e of v i t a l i t y t o t h e o f t e n p a s s i v e f o r c e s of goodness,
w h i l e h e r more a d a p t a b l e c h i l d - f o o l n a t u r e r e c o n c i l e s i t s p o t e n t i a l l y d i s r u p t i v e tensions.

The c h i l d - f o o l ' s

e v o l u t i o n does n o t d i r e c t l y answer t h e ques-

t i o n s of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s psychosexual f r u s t r a t i o n and i n n e r p a t h o s , o r

s e r v e t o e n t i r e l y n u l l i f y t h e a g g r e s s i v e c o r r u p t i o n of t h e s o c i a l w o r l d ' s
e g r e g i o u s f o r c e s , b u t i t p r o v i d e s an e f f e c t i v e r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e r e a l i t y romance c o n f l i c t , merging s t r e n g t h and v i r t u e i n a u n i f i e d f i g u r e .
Like N e l l , f i n a l l y , a c h i l d who i s "old i n a d v e r s i t y and t r i a l " (OCS,
-

52, 390), Jenny i s a " c h i l d i n y e a r s

(439).

. . . woman i n

s e l f - r e l i a n c e and t r i a l "

I n l i g h t of t h e e x t e n s i v e p a r a l l e l s between N e l l and Jenny, i t i s n o t

i m p l a u s i b l e t h a t t h e s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e of t h e s e two passages i s a conscious

t e c h n i q u e on Dickens's p a r t t o mark t h e e v o l u t i o n and c u l m i n a t i o n of t h e c h i l d f o o l motif.

Both N e l l and Jenny a r e c h i l d r e n s u b j e c t e d t o " t r i a l s , " b u t

w h i l e N e l l succumbs t o

II

a d v e r s i t y , " Jenny grows i n " s e l f - r e l i a n c e , "

interpre-

t i n g between Heaven and e a r t h , h o l y s i m p l i c i t y and t h e normal w o r l d , repres e n t i n g t h e power of t h e "fool" t o s u r v i v e t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h r e a l i t y .

Tom

Pinch o r J o e Gargery could n e v e r r i s e above t h e i r i n n a t e l i m i t a t i o n s , b u t

Jenny, a u n i f i e d c h i l d - f o o l ,
have changed me w i s e r "

can p r e s e r v e t h e i r v a l u e s i n t o m a t u r i t y .

(439) s a y s Jenny t o Riah; and through t h e p r o c e s s of

m a t u r a t i o n t h a t Jenny undergoes, s h e becomes a f i g u r e " w i s e "

i n the experience

needed t o f u n c t i o n i n t h e normal w o r l d , w h i l e s t i l l e q u a l l y " w i s e "

v i r t u e of h o l y f o l l y .

"You

i n the

3.

Conclusion

Not even t h e most a r d e n t admirer of t h e f o o l i s l i k e l y t o h o l d up t h i s

f i g u r e a s a paradigm f o r human b e h a v i o u r , an i d e a l t o b e emulated i n a l l
ways.

The f o o l ' s psychosexual f r u s t r a t i o n and o s t r a c i z i n g i n a d e q u a c i e s a r e

b o t h s e r i o u s d e f e c t s , w h i l e from Pickwick Papers on Dickens h a s acknowledged

t h a t u n t u t o r e d innocence i s an i n s u f f i c i e n t r e s p o n s e t o s o c i a l e v i l .

Simul-

t a n e o u s l y , t h e f o o l ' s C h r i s t i a n v a l u e s , d e v o t i o n t o community, moral i n s i g h t ,

and s y m p a t h e t i c i m a g i n a t i o n remain t h e paramount f e a t u r e s of Dickens's own
moral philosophy.

Throughout h i s w r i t i n g s , t h e n , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h h i s

a n a l y s i s of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y ' s l i m i t a t i o n s , Dickens has endeavoured t o e x p l o r e ,

t e s t , and s t r e n g t h e n t h e power of t h e Holy Innocent i n c o n f l i c t w i t h s o c i a l
and i n d i v i d u a l e v i l , s e e k i n g a r e a l i s t i c and f e a s i b l e b a s i s f o r t h e s u r v i v a l
and f r u i t i o n of t h e f o o l ' s e t h o s .

Much of h i s s u c c e s s i n t h i s v e n t u r e i s

r e v e a l e d i n t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e c h i l d - f o o l , which, w i t h i t s g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y
f o r growth and a d a p t a t i o n , r e v e r s e s t h e d e c l i n e of t h e v a r i o u s f o o l - t y p e s i n
Dickens's works, and, by u n i f y i n g t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s symbolic n a t u r e and
p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y , demonstrates t h a t t h e s e two f a c t o r s can be mutually
reinforcing.

The s t r e n g t h s of t h e c h i l d - f o o l m o t i f , moreover, a r e n o t merely

an i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e of t h i s more s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n ; Dickens i s concerned

w i t h d i s s e m i n a t i n g t h e v a l u e s of t h e Holy Innocent throughout t h e normal world,
and t h e p a t t e r n s w e have observed i n t h e c h i l d - f o o l motif have s i g n i f i c a n t
c o n n e c t i o n s and p a r a l l e l s with o t h e r c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s and m o t i f s i n Dickens's
fiction.
The most obvious p a r a l l e l - c o n n e c t i o n is t h e a n g e l i c h e r o i n e .

A s we have

s e e n , whatever t h e t e n s i o n s of t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e child-womanf o o l t r i n i t y a r e l i n k e d a t i m p o r t a n t i m a g i s t i c and t h e m a t i c l e v e l s , w h i l e from

N e l l and F l o r e n c e , t o S i s s y and Jenny, t h e c h i l d and t h e woman have been

completely i d e n t i f i e d .

Both c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s ,

moreover, s h a r e a p o s i t i v e

e v o l u t i o n a r y growth, advancing from p u r e l y symbolic forms t o a s t r o n g e r ,

more u n i f i e d f i g u r e .

Rachael i n Hard Times, t h e a d u l t c o u n t e r p a r t t o S i s s y

Jupe, c l a r i f i e s t h i s growth.

A s Stephen Blackpool e x c l a i m s ,

'Thou a r t an Angel, B l e s s t h e e , b l e s s thee!'

' I am, a s I have t o l d t h e e , Stephen, t h y poor f r i e n d . Angels a r e
n o t l i k e m e . Between them, and a working woman f u ' of f a u l t s , t h e r e
i s a deep g u l f s e t .
My l i t t l e sister i s among them, b u t s h e i s
changed.' ( I , 1 3 , 86)
I n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from Rose Maylie, who may b e c o n s i d e r e d , "without i m p i e t y , "
t h e abode of a n g e l s , t o "a working woman f u ' of f a u l t s , " whose c h a r a c t e r and
a c t i o n s a r e n o n e t h e l e s s p u r e l y a n g e l i c , t h e Dickensian h e r o i n e g a i n s g r e a t e r
r e a l i t y and s t r e n g t h w h i l e s t i l l p r e s e r v i n g h e r c e n t r a l s p i r i t u a l q u a l i t i e s .
Just a s the child-fool's

f o o l - f u n c t i o n s become more r e a l i s t i c a s they become

i n c r e a s i n g l y dynamic, s o a g r e a t e r emphasis on a c t i v e , s e l f - r e l i a n t c a p a c i t y
dominates t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s

a d u l t counterparts i n the l a t e r novels.

Bleak

House d e c l a r e s t h a t one must " t r u s t i n n o t h i n g b u t i n Providence and [one's]

own e f f o r t s " (13, 180)--an
n a t u r a l O l i v e r o r Nell--and

i m p o r t a n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n of t h e s t r i c t l y supert h e growth of E s t h e r Summerson i n t h e n o v e l r e p r e -

s e n t s a m u t u a l l y r e i n f o r c i n g union between d i v i n e g r a c e and p r o d u c t i v e human

action.

"Thou changest me from bad t o good," s a y s Stephen t o Rachael, "thou

mak'st m e humbly w i s h f o ' t o b e more l i k e t h e e , and f e a r f o t t o l o s e t h e e when

t h i s l i f e i s mer, and a ' t h e muddle c l e a r e d awa'.
b e , thou h a s t saved my s o u l a l i v e ! " (88).

Thou'rt an Angel; i t may

"Dear g i r l .

Dear h e a r t .

Good

Angel!" s a y s A r t h u r Clennam t o Amy D o r r i t (11, 34, 816) who r e s t o r e s him t o

p h y s i c a l and emotional h e a l t h through h e r c a p a c i t y ( l i k e Jenny's) t o u n i t e
tangible physical care with a s p i r i t u a l l y ameliorative vision:
Clennam, l i s t e n i n g t o t h e v o i c e t h a t r e a d t o him, h e a r d i n i t a l l t h a t
g r e a t Nature was doing, heard i n i t a l l t h e s o o t h i n g songs s h e s i n g s t o

man. A t no Mother's knee b u t h e r s , had h e e v e r dwelt i n h i s

youth on h o p e f u l promises, on p l a y f u l f a n c i e s , on t h e h a r v e s t s
of t e n d e r n e s s and h u m i l i t y t h a t l i e h i d d e n i n t h e e a r l y - f o s t e r e d
s e e d s of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ; on t h e oaks of r e t r e a t from b l i g h t i n g
winds, t h a t have t h e germs of t h e i r s t r o n g r o o t s i n n u r s e r y acorns.
But, i n t h e t o n e s of t h e v o i c e t h a t r e a d t o him, t h e r e were
memories of an o l d f e e l i n g of such t h i n g s , and echoes of e v e r y
m e r c i f u l and l o v i n g whisper t h a t had e v e r s t o l e n t o him i n h i s
l i f e . (815)
And L i z z i e Hexam, f i n a l l y , g i v i n g s o l a c e t o t h e dying B e t t y Higden, "very
s o f t l y r a i s e d t h e w e a t h e r - s t a i n e d grey head, and l i f t e d h e r a s h i g h a s Heaven"
1 1 8, 514).

J. H i l l i s M i l l e r i n s i s t s t h a t Amy D o r r i t i s " t h e mystery of

incarnate goodne~s,"~w
' h i l e John Lucas c o u n t e r s t h a t s h e "was born i n t h e
Marshalsea and n o t i n Heaven, and i f s h e symbolizes a n y t h i n g i t i s t h e power
of t h e human t o cope w i t h t h e worst t h a t s o c i e t y i s and does. "38

The t r u t h ,

f o r Amy and o t h e r Dickensian h e r o i n e s , l i e s i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o r e c o n c i l e

t h e s e two p o s i t i o n s .

Like Jenny Wren who u n i f i e s t h e f o o l ' s c e l e s t i a l irnagi-

n a t i o n and g i v e s i t form and s u b s t a n c e i n t h e r e a l world, t h e women i n t h e

p r e v i o u s passages " i n t e r p r e t " between heaven and e a r t h , a n g e l and human, redeeming man from s o c i a l c o r r u p t i o n and d e s p a i r , and g u i d i n g him t o s a l v a t i o n .
They become c o n d u i t s f o r d i v i n e grave o r " i n c a r n a t e goodness" p r e c i s e l y because
t h e i r r o l e s and c h a r a c t e r s a r e a c t i v e , s e l f - r e l i a n t ,

a m e l i o r a t i n g t h e worst

that reality offers.

While s h a r i n g t h e c h i l d - f o o l ' s e v o l u t i o n , however, t h e woman i s n o t s i m p l y a r e i t e r a t i o n of t h a t b a s i c p a t t e r n .

Rather, j u s t a s t h e c h i l d gives the

f o o l a more r e a l i s t i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n , s o t h e woman g i v e s t h e c h i l d
a f u l l e r e x p r e s s i o n , embodying t h e n e x t s t a g e i n t h e c h i l d ' s growth--the

adult

who h a s p r e s e r v e d t h e c h i l d ' s innocence and made i t a v i t a l p a r t of a mature

moral s e n s e .

The c h i l d p o s s e s s e s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r u n i f y i n g t h e d o c t r i n e of

h o l y s i m p l i c i t y and t h e normal world; c h a r a c t e r s l i k e E s t h e r , Rachael, Amy,

and L i z z i e a r e t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of t h a t p a t t e r n .

The " f o o l , " i n e f f e c t , from

t h e e x p l i c i t l y simple-minded o r simple-souled i n d i v i d u a l s t o t h e normal y e t

i n n a t e l y i n n o c e n t c h i l d , almost i m p e r c e p t i b l y b l e n d s i n t o f u l l y normal a d u l t s ,
a movement t h a t e l i m i n a t e s t h e f o o l ' s i n t r i n s i c l i m i t a t i o n s w h i l e augmenting
and d i s s e m i n a t i n g h i s e t h o s .
I n Dickens's i n n o v a t i v e v i s i o n of t h e f o o l , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s p r o c e s s of
d i s s e m i n a t i o n i s c a r r i e d on i n t o s t i l l wider a r e a s .

D i s c u s s i n g t h e n a t u r e of

Shakespearean comedy, William W i l l e f o r d s t a t e s t h a t Shakespeare's f o o l s

I1

g e n e r a l l y remain unmoved by t h e t r a i n of m a r r i a g e s i n t h e comic denouement,"

because t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o o l i s , above a l l , " f u l l of s e l f - f u r t h e r i n g l i f e , "

a s t a t i c c h a r a c t e r i n c a p a b l e of development. 39

Dickens's u s e s of t h e f o o l

t r a d i t i o n , however, r e v e r s e b o t h of t h e s e p a t t e r n s , h i s Holy I n n o c e n t s and

t h e i r r e l a t e d f i g u r e s p o s s e s s i n g both t h e c a p a c i t y f o r d i r e c t p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and p e r s o n a l growth.

F i r s t , a s i s customary i n comedy, marriage

s i g n i f i e s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of l i f e , t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of harmony.

For Dickens

i t becomes a f u r t h e r means through which t h e d o c t r i n e of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y can

b e extended.

As noted e a r l i e r , l o v i n g p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e an expres-

s i o n of t h e s p i r i t of t h e Dickensian Holy I n n o c e n t , an o r i g i n a l v a r i a t i o n on
t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l image of t h e f o o l a s p e r e n n i a l s o c i a l o u t c a s t .

Even t h e nor-

mally c e l i b a t e and unmarried Pickwickian f o o l i s t h e p a t e r n a l i s t i c p r o t e c t o r

of t h e f o o l ' s a n t i - s o c i e t y ,
communion.

e x t e n d i n g h i s warmth and humanity i n a t r u e s o c i a l

Although t h e a c t u a l m a r r i a g e s among Dickensian f o o l s may be few

( f o r t h e psychosexual t e n s i o n s of many f o o l - f i g u r e s n u l l i f y any romantic

impulses and i n some e a r l y c a s e s marriage seems more l i t e r a r y convenience than
believable relationship4'),

i n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s , such a s Traddles and Sophy,

Pocket and C l a r a , J o e and Biddy, t h e r e a l i s t i c romantic bonds a r e a s i g n i f i cant extension of t h e f o o l ' s nature.

Like t h e i r b e s t e a r l y p r o t o t y p e , t h e

marriage of S w i v e l l e r and t h e Marchioness, t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f f e r a neces-

s a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n of t h e i d e a l i z e d f o o l - p r i n c e s s u n i o n , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t

i t s t h e m a t i c meaning can b e p r e s e r v e d w i t h o u t t h e u n r e a l i t y t h a t mars i t s

t o t a l impact.

The l a t e r fool-marriages,

i n e f f e c t , a r e g e n u i n e l y human w h i l e

s t i l l e v i n c i n g an e l e v a t e d symbolic e s s e n c e , an i m p o r t a n t r e c o g n i t i o n ( a s i n
t h e c h i l d and t h e woman) of t h e s p i r i t u a l w i t h i n t h e human.

Once a g a i n ,

t h e movement from e x p l i c i t f o o l - f i g u r e s t o f o o l - l i k e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e normal

world e x t e n d s t h e s e b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

As i n t h e c a s e of t h e f o o l s , t h e

e a r l i e s t examples of t h e m a r r i a g e s between h e r o and h e r o i n e may seem r a t h e r

shadowy (Nicholas and Madeline, Harry and Rose M a y l i e ) , b u t t h e l a t e r bonds,
o f t e n r e q u i r i n g some s i g n i f i c a n t growth o r m a t u r a t i o n i n t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n v o l v e d , a r e more g e n u i n e l y r e s o l v i n g .

E s t h e r and Woodcourt, Amy and Clennam,

B e l l a and Harmon, L i z z i e and Wrayburn e n t e r "a modest l i f e of u s e f u l n e s s and

happiness" (LD,
- 11, 3 4 , 826), c o n t i n u i n g t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s primary r o l e of
c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g s o c i a l e v i l by e s t a b l i s h i n g a bond ( o r community) of mutual
love.
Second, i n c o n t r a s t t o W i l l e f o r d ' s v i s i o n of t h e f o o l a s a s t a t i c b e i n g ,
Dickens acknowledges t h a t moral growth i s f r e q u e n t l y a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r any
c h a r a c t e r ( i n c l u d i n g t h e f o o l ) t o e n t e r t h e s e r e a l i s t i c - s y m b o l i c bonds.

We

have s e e n throughout t h i s s t u d y , i n f a c t , t h a t many Dickensian f o o l s undergo

such m a t u r a t i o n , a p r o c e s s i n v o l v i n g t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n and s t r e n g t h e n i n g of
t h e "child"

(and i t s concomitant f o o l - l i k e q u a l i t i e s ) i n t o adulthood.

One of

Aldous Huxley's more absurd a t t a c k s on Dickens i s r e l e v a n t i n t h i s connection.

Observing t h a t t h e " i n f a n t i l e " o r " c h i l d i s h " man i s "one who h a s n o t developed
a t a l l , o r who h a s r e g r e s s e d towards t h e womb, i n t o a comfortable unawareness,"
and t h a t t h e " c h i l d - l i k e "

man i s "one who h a s given h i m s e l f a chance of con-

t i n u i n g t o develop l o n g a f t e r most a d u l t s have muffled themselves i n t h e cocoon

of middle-aged h a b i t and convention," Huxley condemns Dickens f o r c r e a t i n g and

e n d o r s i n g o n l y t h e former type:

"There w a s something r a t h e r wrong w i t h a

man who could t a k e t h i s lachrymose and tremulous p l e a s u r e i n a d u l t i n f a n t i l ity.

lf41

And y e t , perhaps t h e l a r g e s t concerns i n Dickens's uses of t h e f o o l

and h i s r e l a t e d f i g u r e s a r e t h e p r e c i s e i s s u e s on which Huxley b a s e s h i s

criticism:

t h e t r u e n a t u r e of Dickensian h o l y s i m p l i c i t y and t h e c a p a c i t y of

i n d i v i d u a l s t o a c h i e v e t h i s moral s t a t e through a p r o c e s s of continued development.

F a r from e n d o r s i n g " a d u l t i n f a n t i l i t y , " Dickens i s i n e n t i r e agreement
w i t h Huxley's judgment t h a t t h e " i n f a n t i l e " i s " s t u p i d and unaware and subhuman. "42

F i g u r e s l i k e Grandmother Smallweed and Mrs. Gradgrind, f o r example,

r e p r e s e n t p e r v e r t e d images of t r u l y i n s i g h t f u l and a d a p t a b l e childhood.

"Where, i n t h e d u l l eyes of d o a t i n g men," a s k s Dickens, " a r e t h e l a u g h i n g
l i g h t and l i f e of childhood?":

"Send f o r t h t h e c h i l d and t h e c h i l d i s h man

t o g e t h e r , and b l u s h f o r t h e p r i d e t h a t l i b e l s o u r own o l d happy s t a t e , and

g i v e s i t s t i t l e t o an ugly and d i s t o r t e d image" (OCS, 12, 92-3).

Dickens, i n

f a c t , seems t o have a n t i c i p a t e d Huxley's i l l u m i n a t i n g d i s t i n c t i o n , and h i s

a l l e g e d l y "lachrymose and tremulous p l e a s u r e " i n t h e s e "ugly and d i s t o r t e d "
images i s conspicuously a b s e n t .

Affirming t h a t such t h o u g h t l e s s n a i v e t g and

mental s t a g n a t i o n i s a p e r v e r s i o n of man's p r o p e r moral s t a t e , Dickens a l s o

a s s e r t s t h a t man can and must grow from h i s "comfortable unawareness" t o a
f u l l e r child-like consciousness.

Throughout Dickens's e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e

r e s i l i e n c y and a d a p t a b i l i t y of t h e Holy I n n o c e n t ' s e t h o s , f o o l s l i k e Pickwick,

S w i v e l l e r , P i n c h , and Jenny Wren have undergone a p r o c e s s of s t r e n g t h e n i n g
and r e b i r t h , t h e i r innocence enhanced by e x p e r i e n c e , t h e i r n a i v e t i tempered
by i n s i g h t .

Embodying Huxley's c h i l d i s h / c h i l d - l i k e p o l a r i t y , ~ i c k e n s ' s f o o l s

transcend t h e i r i n f a n t i l e self-blindness t o achieve a morally perceptive y e t

s t i l l b e n e v o l e n t philosophy.

N e i t h e r s t a t i c n o r "muffled i n h a b i t and con-

v e n t i o n , " even such f i g u r e s a s Barnaby, C u t t l e , and Toots s h a r e t h i s p a t t e r n ,

responding t o t h e n e g a t i v e f o r c e s of s o c i a l e v i l and t h e p o s i t i v e f o r c e s of
human l o v e w i t h a genuine p o t e n t i a l f o r p e r s o n a l growth.
T h i s emphasis on t h e f o o l ' s p o t e n t i a l f o r moral m a t u r a t i o n h a s s t i l l
greater significance.

Not merely l i m i t e d t o e x p l i c i t f o o l - f i g u r e s

( o r even

t h o s e who s h a r e t h e f o o l ' s e t h o s ) , such p a t t e r n s of e d u c a t i o n o r conversion

r e c u r throughout Dickens's works, f u r t h e r d i s s e m i n a t i n g t h e d o c t r i n e of h o l y
s i m p l i c i t y and g r a n t i n g i t g r e a t e r c r e d i b i l i t y .

Dickens a s s e r t s , i n e f f e c t ,

t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e r v e t h e " f o o l " from childhood t o m a t u r i t y , t h a t

i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t r a n s f o r m s e l f - b l i n d i n g n a i v e & i n t o h o l y innocence, and,

f i n a l l y , t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e g a i n a p u r e r moral s e n s e .

Eugene Wrayburn,

a "child" t o Jenny Wren i n h i s t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s and bored l a s s i t u d e , i s r e b o r n

through Jenny's " c h i l d - l i k e "

v i s i o n ; and, having been e n l i s t e d i n t h e ranks

of t h e f o o l s , c h a l l e n g e s t h e "Voice of S o c i e t y " and Podsnappery by marrying

t h e lower c l a s s L i z z i e Hexam ( t h e "Voice's" v e r d i c t , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , i s
"Madness and moonshine"

[819], s i g n i f y i n g i t s own unenlightened o b t u s e n e s s

and t h e d i v i n e madness of Wrayburn's newly a c q u i r e d f o o l - n a t u r e ) .

p a t t e r n s of moral conversion a r e e v i d e n t i n d i v e r s e c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s .

Similar
Martin

Chuzzlewit e v e n t u a l l y r e c o g n i z e s t h e v i r t u e of Tom Pinch; Scrooge embraces

t h e "child's"

v i s i o n ; Dombey e n t e r s t h e f o o l community; David C o p p e r f i e l d ' s

i m p r e s s i o n a b l e n a i v e & and " u n d i s c i p l i n e d h e a r t " a r e s t r e n g t h e n e d and temp e r e d ; Louisa and Gradgrind l e a r n t h e importance of childhood fancy; Sidney
Carton r e p e a t s t h e s a c r i f i c e of C h r i s t ; P i p l e a r n s from t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f
Joe; B e l l a and Eugene a r e r e b o r n through love.

As S a i n t P a u l s t a t e s , " i f any

man among you seemeth t o b e w i s e i n t h i s w o r l d , l e t him become a f o o l t h a t h e

may b e wise," and, by having t h e " f o o l , " i n some form o r o t h e r , p a r t i c i p a t e
i n t h e s e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s , Dickens p r e s e n t s t h e P a u l i n e d o c t r i n e i n a c t i o n .

I s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r t h a t i f t h e moral n a t u r e o f t h e Holy I n n o c e n t could

e x i s t o n l y a t an e l e v a t e d mythic l e v e l , t h e n t h e o v e r t d i d a c t i c purpose o f
D i c k e n s ' s work would b e s e r i o u s l y diminished.

A s Dickens h i m s e l f observed

i n h i s s e l f - p a r o d y i n g account of L i t t l e Margery and Thomas Twopence, a char-

acter's s u p e r n a t u r a l l y i n f a l l i b l e moral s e n s e i s u n l i k e l y t o r e p r e s e n t a
credible d i d a c t i c device.

By p r e s e n t i n g r e a l i s t i c human b e i n g s engaged i n

moral c o n f l i c t , however, approaching a s t r o n g e r moral s e n s e through e d u c a t i o n ,

h e i g h t e n e d i m a g i n a t i v e sympathy, and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s , growing i n
r e s p o n s e t o , r a t h e r t h a n d e s p i t e , t h e i r environments i n t h e r e a l w o r l d ,
Dickens g i v e s t h e d o c t r i n e of h o l y s i m p l i c i t y i t s most c o n v i n c i n g b a s i s and
broadest application.
fool-figures,

Advancing from p u r e l y symbolic forms t o more r e a l i s t i c

t o f i g u r e s wholly i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e normal world w h i l e s t i l l

s h a r i n g t h a t d o c t r i n e , t o f i g u r e s who r e g a i n o r a c c e p t t h e " f o o l , " t h e Holy

I n n o c e n t and h i s moral v a l u e s a r e r e v e a l e d a s an e s s e n t i a l element i n man's
moral n a t u r e , a n e c e s s a r y a l t e r n a t i v e t o human and s o c i a l e v i l t h a t need n o t
p e r i s h o r r e t r e a t when c h a l l e n g e d by c o r r u p t i o n .
F o o l s a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e enemies of d e f i n i t i o n , l i m i t a t i o n , and conclusion.

L e a r ' s Fool simply v a n i s h e s half-way

through t h e drama; Touchstone

m a r r i e s t h e unsavoury Audrey though warned by Hymen t h a t h i s " l o v i n g voyage/

Is b u t f o r two months v i c t u a l l e d " (AYL.

- V. 4. 188-9); F e s t e i s abandoned o u t s i d e t h e p a l a c e w a l l s ; and Erasmus's S t u l t i t i a , upon completing h e r encomium,
l e a p s from t h e podium e x c l a i m i n g , "I s e e you e x p e c t an Epilogue, b u t g i v e me
l e a v e t o t e l l ye you a r e much mistaken i f you t h i n k I remember any t h i n g o f
what I have s a i d , h a v i n g f o o l i s h l y b o l t e d o u t such a hodg podg of words. 1143
The h i s t o r y of t h e Dickensian Holy Innocent i s s i m i l a r l y complex, i n v o l v i n g
m u l t i p l e i n t e r - p e n e t r a t i n g m o t i f s and d i v e r s e complementary o r c o n t r a d i c t o r y
l i n e s o f development, a l l seemingly moving e v e r f u r t h e r away from e x p l i c i t

fool-figures.

I n a c t u a l f a c t , a s L e a r ' s Fool l a m e n t s , " l o r d s and g r e a t men

and l a d i e s too" begrudge t h e Fool h i s monopoly on f o l l y :

"they w i l l n o t l e t

m e have a l l t h e f o o l t o myself; t h e y ' l l be s n a t c h i n g " (I. 4. 146-52).

Dickens's f o o l s need n o t lament, f o r t h e q u a l i t i e s t h a t t h e normal world cont i n u a l l y a s s i m i l a t e s from t h e Holy Innocent a r e t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e s of Dickens's
moral v i s i o n .

NOTES:

CHAPTER FOUR

The V i o l e n t E f f i g y :

A Study of Dickens's Imagination (London:

Faber

and Faber, 1973), pp. 131, 139.

The World of C h a r l e s Dickens, pp. 173-4.
Ibid

., p.

Dickens:

296.

From Pickwick t o Dombey, p. 123.

The I n i m i t a b l e Dickens:

A Reading of t h e Novels (London:

Macmillan,

1970) , pp. 31-2.

% a r t i n Chuzzlewit :

Pinch and Pecksnif f

," S t u d i e s

i n t h e Novel, I (1969)

181.
"Preface1' t o Penguin e d i t i o n of Martin Chuzzlewit, ed. by P. N.

Furbank,

(Harmondsworth , Penguin Books, 1968) , p. 39.

* Don Quixote, p.

675.

"Pinch and P e c k s n i f f , " p. 184.

lo -*I b i d

p. 185.

l1 Dickens and the T r i a l s of I m a g i n a t i o n , p. 178.

l2 John Chivery's d e v o t i o n t o L i t t l e D o r r i t , s t r i p p e d of any s e x u a l o r

moral c o n n o t a t i o n s , i s a p a l e r e f l e c t i o n of t h e e a r l i e r problem.
l3As J. H i l l i s Miller o b s e r v e s , "the s e n t i m e n t a l i t y " i n such a d d r e s s e s
"is i t s e l f a sign of Dickens's u n e a s i n e s s .

He wants t o p r e s e n t Tom a s an

a t t r a c t i v e f i g u r e , b u t h e cannot h e l p b e t r a y i n g by h i s p a t r o n i z i n g t o n e t h e

f a c t t h a t h e would r a t h e r sympathize a t some d i s t a n c e from such a c h a r a c t e r ,

t h a n a c t u a l l y b e such a person" ( C h a r l e s Dickens:

The World of H i s Novels,

pp. 121-2).

l 4 "How We Must Read G r e a t E x p e c t a t i o n s , " Dickens t h e N o v e l i s t , pp. 392-3.

l5 The I n i m i t a b l e Dickens, p. 230.

The Melancholy Man, p. 297.

l7 The L i f e of Our Lord, p. 59.

l8 The Modern Spanish Novel:

Comparative Essays Examining t h e P h i l o s o p h i c a l

Impact of S c i e n c e on F i c t i o n (New York:

l9 Dickens:

New York U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961),

Pickwick t o Dombey, p. 73.

20 C h a r l e s Dickens : R a d i c a l M o r a l i s t (Minneapolis : U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota

P r e s s , 1 9 7 2 ) , p. 119.

21 Dickens:

Pickwick t o Dombey, p . 86.

22 Quoted by Hesketh Pearson, Oscar Wilde:

H i s L i f e and W i t ( ~ e wYork:

Harper and B r o t h e r s , 1946), p. 208.

23 "Thanatos : The Death I n s t i n c t i n Dickens 's L a t e r ~ o v e l s", Psychoanalysis

and t h e P s y c h o a n a l y t i c Review, 47, No. 4 (1960), 19.

24

See, f o r example, F l e i s s n e r , Dickens and Shakespeare, pp. 258-73;

George

H. Ford, Dickens and H i s Readers (New York:

W. W. Norton and Co., 1955)

pp. 69-70;

A Myth f o r V i c t o r i a n England,"

pp. 80-3.

b c k i e r , "Dickens and King Lear:

25 Quoted by F o r s t e r , p , 174.

26 "Dickens and King L e a r ," p. 80.

27 One might n o t e , f o r example, t h a t t h e Marchioness, a l t h o u g h a s l i g h t
r e f l e c t i o n of N e l l ' s symbolic n a t u r e , i s a d e c i d e d l y r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e ; s h e
performs l i m i t e d f o o l - f u n c t i o n s ( o t h e r t h a n h e r r o l e i n S w i v e l l e r ' s r e b i r t h ) ,
b u t h e r p o t e n t i a l f o r a f f e c t i o n a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a s n o t been d e s t r o y e d by
h e r h a r s h childhood, a c l e a r foreshadowing of Dickens's l a t e r c h i l d - f o o l s .

28 See, f o r example, Meckier's a r t i c l e , and P h i l i p C o l l i n s ' s Dickens and

Education (London:

Macmillan, 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 201.

29 "The F i r s t Major Novel:

Dombey and Son," Dickens t h e N o v e l i s t , p. 40.

30 Even t h e s e f i g u r e s , however, can s h a r e t h e c h i l d - f o o l q s c h a r a c t e r and

functions.

J o i n Bleak House, f o r example, i s a thoroughly o u t c a s t f i g u r e ,

I1

moved on" u n t i l death--the

o n l y "home" h e , l i k e N e l l , can p o s s e s s .

Jo,

f u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h f a r l e s s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a c t i v e t h a n t h e major represent a t i v e s of t h e Dickensian c h i l d - f o o l , s h a r e s t h e c h i l d ' s r o l e as unconscious

truth-teller:
lodgings

"'They d i e s everywheres,' s a i d t h e boy.

. . . and

they d i e s down i n Tom-all-Alone's

more t h a n they l i v e s , a c c o r d i n g t o what I see"'

31 C h a r l e s Dickens:

'They d i e s i n t h e i r

i n heaps.

(31, 432).

H i s Tragedy and Triumph, Vol. 2, 1024.

32 The I n i m i t a b l e Dickens, pp. 265-6.

33 Dickens and t h e T r i a l s of I m a g i n a t i o n , 214.

34 The V i o l e n t E f f i g y , p. 109.

They d i e s

35 Dickens and t h e T r i a l s of I m a g i n a t i o n , p. 205.

36 A. E. Dyson, p. 89.
37 C h a r l e s Dickens:

The World o f H i s Novels, p. 244.

38 The Melancholy Man, p. 251.

39 The Fool and H i s S c e p t e r , p. 174.
40

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e a r l y examples o f s u c h u n s a t i s f a c t o r y m a r r i a g e s ( K i t

Nubbles and B a r b a r a , Toots and Susan N i p p e r ) , t h i s p a t t e r n even p e r s i s t s i n t o

t h e s t o r y o f Jenny Wren.

Sloppy, a r a t h e r minor f o o l - f i g u r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

e a r l y p a r t o f t h e book a s a n e a r mental d e f e c t i v e o r " n a t u r a l " and c l e a r l y a

most u n a t t r a c t i v e f i g u r e , i s suddenly brought f o r t h n e a r t h e end a s a p o s s i b l e
f u t u r e husband f o r Jenny, and o n l y D i c k e n s ' s e f f o r t s t o reduce t h e grotesquen e s s of Sloppy's c h a r a c t e r make t h i s u n l i k e l y c o n c l u s i o n even moderately
acceptable.

41 V u l g a r i t y i n L i t e r a t u r e (London:
42 I b i d .

43 P r a i s e of F o l l y , p . 253.

C h a t t o and Windus, 1930), p. 55.

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