Labour economics

Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning

and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour
markets function through the interaction of workers and
employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of
labour services (workers), the demands of labour services
(employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income.
In economics, labour is a measure of the work done by
human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with such
other factors of production as land and capital. There are
theories which have developed a concept called human
capital (referring to the skills that workers possess, not
necessarily their actual work).
Job advertisement board in Shenzhen.

Macro and micro analysis of

labour markets

ple currently employed divided by the adult population

(or by the population of working age). In these statistics,
self-employed people are counted as employed.

There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of
microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the
labour market. Microeconomic techniques study the role
of individuals and individual rms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the
money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at
how these interactions inuence macro variables such as
employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income
and gross domestic product.

Variables like employment level, unemployment level,

labour force, and unlled vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time.
They can be contrasted with ow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the
labour force are due to ow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements from the labour force. Changes in unemployment
depend on: inows made up of non-employed people
starting to look for jobs and of employed people who lose
their jobs and look for new ones; and outows of people
who nd new employment and of people who stop looking for employment. When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identied, including:

The macroeconomics of labour

markets

Frictional unemployment This reects the fact

that it takes time for people to nd and settle into
new jobs. If 12 individuals each take one month
before they start a new job, the aggregate unemployment statistics will record this as a single unemployed worker. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment, for example:
internet search engines have reduced the cost and
time associated with locating employment.

The labour force is dened as the number of people of

working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work. The participation rate is the number of
people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult
civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population
of working age that is not institutionalised). The nonlabour force includes those who are not looking for work,
those who are institutionalised such as in prisons or psychiatric wards, stay-at home spouses, children, and those
serving in the military. The unemployment level is dened as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The unemployment rate is dened as
the level of unemployment divided by the labour force.
The employment rate is dened as the number of peo-

Structural unemployment This reects a mismatch between the skills and other attributes of
the labour force and those demanded by employers. If 4 workers each take six months o to retrain before they start a new job, the aggregate un1

3 NEOCLASSICAL MICROECONOMICS OF LABOUR MARKETS

employment statistics will record this as two unemployed workers. Rapid industry changes of a
technical and/or economic nature will usually increase levels of structural unemployment, for example: widespread implementation of new machinery or software will require future employees to be
trained in this area before seeking employment. The
process of globalisation has contributed to structural changes in labour, some domestic industries
such as textile manufacturing have expanded to cope
with global demand, whilst other industries such as
agricultural products have contracted due to greater
competition from international producers.

people have a limited amount of time in the day, and people are not manufactured.
The labour market also acts as a non-clearing market.
While according to neoclassical theory most markets
have a point of equilibrium without excess surplus or demand, this may not be true of the labour market: it may
have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting
the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent
compensating dierentials among similar workers.
Models that assume perfect competition in the labour
market, as discussed below, conclude that workers earn
their marginal product of labour.[1]

Natural rate of unemployment This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment, 3.1 Neoclassical microeconomic model
that excludes cyclical contributions of unemploySupply
ment e.g. recessions. It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to See also: Labour supply
achieve, seeing as some frictional and structural un- Households are suppliers of labour. In microeconomic
employment is inevitable. Economists do not agree
on the natural rate, with estimates ranging from
1% to 5%, or on its meaning some associate
it with non-accelerating ination". The estimated
rate varies from country to country and from time
to time.
Demand decient unemployment In Keynesian
economics, any level of unemployment beyond the
natural rate is most likely due to insucient demand in the overall economy. During a recession,
aggregate expenditure, is decient causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour). Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased, according
to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C),
increasing investment spending (I), increasing government spending (G), or increasing the net of ex- The neoclassical model analyzes the trade-o between leisure
hours and working hours
ports minus imports (XM).
{AD = C + I + G + (XM)}

Neoclassical microeconomics of
labour markets

Neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and
demand jointly determine price (in this case the wage
rate) and quantity (in this case the number of people employed).
However, the labour market diers from other markets
(like the markets for goods or the nancial market) in
several ways. Perhaps the most important of these dierences is the function of supply and demand in setting price
and quantity. In markets for goods, if the price is high
there is a tendency in the long run for more goods to be
produced until the demand is satised. With labour, overall supply cannot eectively be manufactured because

Railroad work.

theory, people are assumed to be rational and seeking

to maximize their utility function. In the labour market
model, their utility function expresses trade-os in preference between leisure time and income from time used

3.1

Neoclassical microeconomic model Supply

for labour. However, they are constrained by the hours utility of income (MUY ), one can conclude:
available to them.
Let w denote the hourly wage, k denote total hours available for labour and leisure, L denote the chosen number of working hours, denote income from non-labour
sources, and A denote leisure hours chosen. The individuals problem is to maximise utility U, which depends on
total income available for spending on consumption and
also depends on time spent in leisure, subject to a time
constraint, with respect to the chooses of labour time and
leisure time:

maximize U (wL + , A)

MUL
dY
,
=
MUY
dL

to subject L + A k.

This can be shown in a graph that illustrates the tradeo between allocating time between leisure activities and
income-generating activities. The linear constraint indicates that there are only 24 hours in a day, and individuals
must choose how much of this time to allocate to leisure
activities and how much to working. This allocation decision is informed by the indierence curve labelled IC.
where Y is total income and the right side is the wage rate.
The curve indicates the combinations of leisure and work
that will give the individual a specic level of utility. The
point where the highest indierence curve is just tangent
to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the optimum
for this supplier of labour services.

Eects of a wage increase

If the wage rate increases, this individuals constraint line
pivots up from X,Y1 to X,Y2 . He/she can now purchase
more goods and services. His/her utility will increase
The Income/Leisure trade-o in the short run
from point A on IC1 to point B on IC2 . To understand
what eect this might have on the decision of how many
If consumption is measured by the value of income ob- hours to work, one must look at the income eect and
tained, this diagram can be used to show a variety of in- substitution eect.
teresting eects. This is because the absolute value of The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can
the slope of the budget constraint is the wage rate. The be decomposed into two separate eects. The pure inpoint of optimisation (point A) reects the equivalency come eect is shown as the movement from point A to
between the wage rate and the marginal rate of substi- point C in the next diagram. Consumption increases from
tution[2] of leisure for income (the absolute value of the YA to YC and since the diagram assumes that leisure
slope of the indierence curve). Because the marginal is a normal good leisure time increases from XA to
rate of substitution of leisure for income is also the ratio XC. (Employment time decreases by the same amount as
of the marginal utility of leisure (MUL ) to the marginal leisure increases.)

3 NEOCLASSICAL MICROECONOMICS OF LABOUR MARKETS

The Labour Supply curve

The Income and Substitution eects of a wage increase

But that is only part of the picture. As the wage rate rises,
the worker will substitute away from leisure and into the
provision of labourthat is, will work more hours to take
advantage of the higher wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher opportunity
cost. This substitution eect is represented by the shift
from point C to point B. The net impact of these two effects is shown by the shift from point A to point B. The
relative magnitude of the two eects depends on the circumstances. In some cases, such as the one shown, the
substitution eect is greater than the income eect (in
which case more time will be allocated to working), but
in other cases the income eect will be greater than the
substitution eect (in which case less time is allocated to
working). The intuition behind this latter case is that the
individual decides that the higher earnings on the previous amount of labour can be spent by purchasing more
leisure.

If the substitution eect is greater than the income eect,

the labour supply curve (in the diagram to the left) will
slope upwards to the right, as it does at point E for example. This individual will continue to increase his supply
of labour services as the wage rate increases up to point
F where he is working HF hours (each period of time).
Beyond this point he will start to reduce the amount of
labour hours he supplies (for example at point G he has
reduced his work hours to HG) because the income eect
of the wage rate has come to dominate the substitution
eect. Where the supply curve is sloping upwards to the
right (showing a positive wage elasticity), the substitution
eect is greater than the income eect. Where it slopes
upwards to the left (showing a negative wage elasticity),
the income eect is greater than the substitution eect.
The direction of slope may change more than once for
some individuals, and the labour supply curve is dierent
for dierent individuals.
Other variables that aect the labour supply decision, and
can be readily incorporated into the model, include taxation, welfare, work environment, and income as a signal
of ability or social contribution.

3.2 Neoclassical microeconomic model

Demand
See also: Labour demand
This article has examined the labour supply curve which
illustrates at every wage rate the maximum quantity of
hours a worker will be willing to supply to the economy
per period of time. Economists also need to know the
maximum quantity of hours an employer will demand at
every wage rate. To understand the quantity of hours demanded per period of time it is necessary to look at product production: labour demand is a derived demand, it is

3.3

Neoclassical microeconomic model Equilibrium

derived from the output levels in the goods market. Other

aggregate methods of assessing demand include survey
metrics and sources of real-time Labor Market Information.

clining (law of diminishing returns). That is, as more

and more units of labour are employed, their additional
output begins to decline. This is reected by the slope
of the MPPL curve in the diagram to the right. If the
A rms labour demand is based on its marginal physical marginal physical product of labour is multiplied by the
product of labour (MPPL). This is dened as the addi- value of the output that it produces, we obtain the Value
tional output (or physical product) that results from an of marginal physical product of labour:
increase of one unit of labour (or from an innitesimal
increase in labour). (If you are not familiar with these
concepts, you might want to look at production theory M P PL .PQ = V M P PL
basics before continuing with this article)
Labour demand is a derived demand; that is, hiring labour The value of marginal physical product of labour (
is not desired for its own sake but rather because it aids V M P PL ) is the value of the additional output produced
in producing output, which contributes to an employers by an additional unit of labour. This is illustrated in the
revenue and hence prots. The demand for an addi- diagram by the VMPPL curve that is above the MPPL.
tional amount of labour depends on the Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) and the marginal cost (MC) of the
worker. The MRP is calculated by multiplying the price
of the end product or service by the Marginal Physical
Product of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a rms
Marginal Cost, then the rm will employ the worker since
doing so will increase prot. The rm only employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, and not beyond, in
neoclassical economic theory.[2]

In perfectly competitive industries, the VMPPL is in

identity with the marginal revenue product of labour
(MRPL). This is because in competitive markets price
is equal to marginal revenue, and marginal revenue product is dened as the marginal physical product times the
marginal revenue from the output (MRP = MPP * MR).
The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as
the demand for labour curve for this rm in the short run.

The MRP of the worker is aected by other inputs to

production with which the worker can work (e.g. ma- 3.3
chinery), often aggregated under the term "capital". It is
typical in economic models for greater availability of capital for a rm to increase the MRP of the worker, all else
equal. Education and training are counted as "human capital". Since the amount of physical capital aects MRP,
and since nancial capital ows can aect the amount
of physical capital available, MRP and thus wages can
be aected by nancial capital ows within and between
countries, and the degree of capital mobility within and
between countries.[3]

Neoclassical microeconomic model

Equilibrium

A rms labour demand in the short run (D) and an

horizontal supply curve (S)
The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as
the demand for labour curve for this rm in the short run.
In competitive markets, a rm faces a perfectly elastic
supply of labour which corresponds with the wage rate
and the marginal resource cost of labour (W = SL =
The Marginal Physical Product of Labour
MFCL). In imperfect markets, the diagram would have
to be adjusted because MFCL would then be equal to
According to neoclassical theory, over the relevant range
the wage rate divided by marginal costs. Because opof outputs, the marginal physical product of labour is detimum resource allocation requires that marginal factor

5 INFORMATION APPROACHES

costs equal marginal revenue product, this rm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram.
The demand for labour of this rm can be summed with
the demand for labour of all other rms in the economy
to obtain the aggregate demand for labour. Likewise, the
supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned
above) can be summed to obtain the aggregate supply of
labour. These supply and demand curves can be analysed
in the same way as any other industry demand and supply
curves to determine equilibrium wage and employment
levels.
Wage dierences exist, particularly in mixed and
fully/partly exible labour markets. For example, the
wages of a doctor and a port cleaner, both employed by
the NHS, dier greatly. There are various factors concerning this phenomenon. This includes the MRP of the
worker. A doctors MRP is far greater than that of the
port cleaner. In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner.
To become a doctor takes a lot of education and training
which is costly, and only those who excel in academia can
succeed in becoming doctors. The port cleaner however
requires relatively less training. The supply of doctors is
therefore signicantly less elastic than that of port cleanAn advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in
ers. Demand is also inelastic as there is a high demand Jalan Petaling, Kuala Lumpur.
for doctors and medical care is a necessity, so the NHS
will pay higher wage rates to attract the profession.

Monopsony

Main article: Monopsony

Some labour markets have a single employer and thus do
not satisfy the perfect competition assumption of the neoclassical model above. The model of a monopsonistic
labour market gives a lower quantity of employment and
a lower equilibrium wage rate than does the competitive
model.

pected of acting to over-inate share values to the detriment of the long-run welfare of the rm. Another solution, foreshadowed by the rise of temporary workers in
Japan and the ring of many of these workers in response
to the nancial crisis of 2008, is more exible job contracts and terms that encourage employees to work less
than full-time by partially compensating for the loss of
hours, relying on workers to adapt their working time in
response to job requirements and economic conditions instead of the employer trying to determine how much work
is needed to complete a given task and overestimating.

Another aspect of uncertainty results from the rms imperfect knowledge about worker ability. If a rm is unsure about a workers ability, it pays a wage assuming
5 Information approaches
that the workers ability is the average of similar workers.
This wage undercompenstates high ability workers and
In many real-life situations the assumption of perfect in- may drive them away from the labour market. Such pheformation is unrealistic. The rm does not necessarily nomenon is called adverse selection and can sometimes
know how hard a worker is working or how productive lead to market collapse.
they are. This provides an incentive for workers to shirk There are many ways to overcome adverse selection
from providing their full eort since it is dicult for in labour market. One important mechanism is called
the employer to identify the hard-working and the shirk- signalling, pioneered by Michael Spence.[4] In his clasing employees, there is no incentive to work hard and sical paper on job signalling, Spence showed that even
productivity falls overall, leading to more workers being if formal education does not increase productivity, high
hired and a lower unemployment rate.
ability workers may still acquire it just to signal their abilOne solution used recently (stock options) grants employees the chance to benet directly from the rms success.
However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock option packages have been sus-

ities. Employers can then use education as a signal to infer worker ability and pay higher wages to better educated
workers. It may appear to an external observer that education has raised the marginal product of labor, without

7.1

Wage slavery

this necessarily being true.

5.1

Search models

Main articles: Search theory and Matching theory

(macroeconomics)

7
designated as the economics of the family, has sought to
study within household decision making, including joint
labour supply, fertility, child raising, as well as other areas
of what is generally referred to as home production.[8]

7.1 Wage slavery

One of the major research achievements of the last 20 Main article: Wage slavery
years has been the development of a framework with dy- Further information:
Economic exploitation and
namic search, matching, and bargaining.[5]
Contemporary slavery

Personnel economics: hiring and

incentives

At the micro level, one sub-discipline eliciting increased

attention in recent decades is analysis of internal labour
markets, that is, within rms (or other organisations),
studied in personnel economics from the perspective of
personnel management. By contrast, external labour
markets imply that workers move somewhat uidly between rms and wages are determined by some aggregate process where rms do not have signicant discretion over wage setting.[6] The focus is on how rms establish, maintain, and end employment relationships and
on how rms provide incentives to employees, including models and empirical work on incentive systems and
as constrained by economic eciency and risk/incentive
tradeos relating to personnel compensation.[7]

Criticisms

Many sociologists, political economists, and heterodox

economists claim that labour economics tends to lose
sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions. These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are
often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and a
purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions
of the process, such as social benets of a high income
or wage rate regardless of the marginal utility from increased consumption or specic economic goals.
From the perspective of mainstream economics, neoclassical models are not meant to serve as a full description
of the psychological and subjective factors that go into
a given individuals employment relations, but as a useful
approximation of human behavior in the aggregate, which
can be eshed out further by the use of concepts such as
information asymmetry, transaction costs, contract theory etc.
Also missing from most labour market analyses is the role
of unpaid labour. Even though this type of labour is unpaid it can nevertheless play an important part in society.
The most dramatic example is child raising. However,
over the past 25 years an increasing literature, usually

The labour market, as institutionalised under todays

market economic systems, has been criticised,[9] especially by both mainstream socialists and anarchosyndicalists,[10][11][12][13] who utilise the term wage slavery[14][15] as a pejorative for wage labour. Socialists draw
parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and
slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such
parallels.[16]
According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the
Enlightenment era. In his 1791 book On the Limits of
State Action, classical liberal thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt explained how whatever does not spring from a
mans free choice, or is only the result of instruction and
guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not
perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness and so when the labourer works under external control, we may admire what he does, but
we despise what he is.[17] Both the Milgram and Stanford
experiments have been found useful in the psychological
study of wage-based workplace relations.[18]
The American philosopher John Dewey posited that
until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by industrial
democracy, politics will be the shadow cast on society
by big business.[19] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in
his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs
of investors coalesce and compete to control the state.[20]
As per anthropologist David Graeber, the earliest wage
labour contracts we know about were in fact contracts for
the rental of chattel slaves (usually the owner would receive a share of the money, and the slave, another, with
which to maintain his or her living expenses.) Such arrangements, according to Graeber, were quite common in
New World slavery as well, whether in the United States
or Brazil. C. L. R. James argued that most of the techniques of human organisation employed on factory workers during the industrial revolution were rst developed
on slave plantations.[21]
Additionally, Marxists posit that labour-as-commodity,
which is how they regard wage labour,[22] provides
an absolutely fundamental point of attack against
capitalism.[23] It can be persuasively argued, noted

10 FURTHER READING

one concerned philosopher, that the conception of the [18] Thye & Lawler 2006.
workers labour as a commodity conrms Marxs stigmatisation of the wage system of private capitalism as 'wage- [19] As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big
business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change
slavery;' that is, as an instrument of the capitalists for
the substance, in The Need for a New Party (1931),
reducing the workers condition to that of a slave, if not
Later Works 6, p163
below it.[24]
[20] Ferguson 1995.

8
9

See also
References

[1] Gustav Ranis (February 1997). The Micro-Economics

of Surplus Labour (PDF). Yale University.
[2] Frank, Robert H.; Microeconomics and Behavior.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 6th Edition: 2006
[3] Hacker, R. Scott (2000). The Impact of International Capital Mobility on the Volatility of Labour Income. Annals of Regional Science 34 (2): 157172.
doi:10.1007/s001689900005.
[4] Job Market Signaling. Quarterly Journal of Economics (The MIT Press) 87 (3): 355374. 1973.
doi:10.2307/1882010. JSTOR 1882010.
[5] 2010 Prize in Economic Sciences in Honor of Alfred Nobel Press Release
[6] Edward P. Lazear and Paul Oyer, 2004. Internal and
External Labor Markets: A Personnel Economics Approach, Labour Economics, 11(5), pp. 527 and 528. [Pp.
527554.]
JEL Classication Codes Guide: M per JEL:M5].
[7] Paul Oyer and Scott Schaefer, 2011. Personnel Economics: Hiring and Incentives, ch. 20, Handbook of Labor Economics, v. 4B, pp. 17691823. Abstract and prepub PDF.
[8] (Sandiaga S. Unno, Anindya N Bakrie, Rosan Perkasa,
Morendy Octora : The Young Strategic Renaissances In
Asia)
[9] Ellerman 1992.

[21] Graeber 2004, p. 37.

[22] Marx 1990, p. 1006: "[L]abour-power, a commodity sold
by the worker himself.
[23] Another one, of course, being the capitalists alleged theft
from workers via surplus-value.
[24] Nelson 1995, p. 158. This Marxist objection is what motivated Nelsons essay, which claims that labour is not, in
fact, a commodity.

10 Further reading
Richard Blundell and Thomas MaCurdy, 2008.
labour supply, The New Palgrave Dictionary of
Economics, 2nd Edition Abstract.
Freeman, R.B., 1987. Labour economics, The
New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp.
7276.
John R. Hicks, 1932, 2nd ed., 1963. The Theory of
Wages. London, Macmillan.
Handbook of Labor Economics. Elsevier. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Links to one-page chapter
previews for each volume:
Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard, ed.,
1986, v. 1 & 2;
Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 1999,
v. 3A, 3B, and 3C
Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 2011,
v. 4A & 4B.

[10] Thompson 1966, p. 599.

[11] Thompson 1966, p. 912.
[12] Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
[13] Lazonick 1990, p. 37.
[14] wage slave. merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 March
2013.
[15] wage slave. dictionary.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
[16] "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen
whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill;
for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of
their slavery." De Ociis
[17] Chomsky 1993, p. 19.

Mark R. Killingsworth, 1983. Labour Supply. Cambridge: Cambridge Surveys of Economic Literature.
Jacob Mincer, 1974. Schooling, Experience, and
Earnings. New York: Columbia University Press.
Anindya Bakrie & Morendy Octora, 2002. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York, Singapore National University : Columbia University
Press.
Nicola Acocella,Giovanni Di Bartolomeo and Douglas A. Hibbs, 2008, Labor market regimes and the
eects of monetary policy, in: Journal of Macroeconomics, 30: 13456.

9
Glen G. Cain, 1976, The Challenge of Segmented
Labor Market Theories to Orthodox Theory: A
Survey Journal of Economic Literature, 14(4), pp.
12151257.
Assar Lindbeck and Dennis J. Snower 1986. Wage
Setting, Unemployment, and Insider-Outsider Relations, American Economic Review, 76(2), pp. 235
239.
E McGaughey, 'Behavioural Economics and Labour
Law', 2014, SSRN
Simon Head, The New Ruthless Economy. Work and
Power in the Digital Age, Oxford UP 2005, ISBN 019-517983-8
L. Ali Khan, The Dignity of Labour, 2011
Miller, Doug, Towards Sustainable Labour Costing
in UK Fashion Retail (February 5, 2013). Available
at SSRN

11

External links

Ageing workers EU-OSHA

The Labour Economics Gateway Collection of Internet sites that are of interest to labour economists
Labour & Worklife Program at Harvard Law
School, Changing Labour Markets Project
W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research
ILO: Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM).
5. ed. Sept. 2007
LabourFair Resources Link to Fair Labour Practices
Labour Research Network Labour research programme treating various elds
Labour Research Department Independent labour
economics research organisation

10

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Some jerk on the Internet, Turkuun, BualoBill90, CarsracBot, Bassbonerocks, , Zorrobot, Legobot, Tartarus, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
AnakngAraw, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Sbugs, Gallowolf, Materialscientist, Clark89, Jordiferrer, Autorads, Erud, J04n, ,
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ReubenET, Locomotive999, ClueBot NG, JaymesKeller, CocuBot, Widr, Dtellett, Yadvik, Guest2625, BG19bot, AvocatoBot, Takeshi-br,
Piero Testa, BattyBot, Fmveblen, Tomrobb4567, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, StarBucking22, Junglejill, Walkerkv, Graphium, Sarah helm,
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