Sociological issues of race and ethnicity?

Within sociology, the terms race, ethnicity, minority, and dominant group all have very specific
and different meanings. To understand the sociological perspective on race and ethnicity, it is
important to understand the meanings of these concepts.
An ethnic group is a social category of people who share a common culture, such as a common
language, a common religion, or common norms, customs, practices, and history. Ethnic groups
have a consciousness of their common cultural bond. An ethnic group does not exist simply
because of the common national or cultural origins of the group, however. They develop because
of their unique historical and social experiences, which become the basis for the groups ethnic
identity. For example, prior to immigration to the United States, Italians did not think of
themselves as a distinct group with common interests and experiences.
However, the process of immigration and the experiences they faced as a group in the United
States, including discrimination, created a new identity for the group. Some examples of ethnic
groups include Italian Americans, Polish Americans, Mexican Americans, Arab Americans, and
Irish Americans. Ethnic groups are also found in other societies, such as the Pashtuns in
Afghanistan or the Shiites in Iraq, whose ethnicity is based on religious differences.
Like ethnicity, race is primarily, though not exclusively, a socially constructed category. A race is
a group that is treated as distinct in society based on certain characteristics. Because of their
biological or cultural characteristics, which are labeled as inferior by powerful groups in society,
a race is often singled out for differential and unfair treatment. It is not the biological
characteristics that define racial groups, but how groups have been treated historically and
socially. Society assigns people to racial categories (White, Black, etc.) not because of science or
fact, but because of opinion and social experience. In other words, how racial groups are defined
is a social process; it is socially constructed.
A minority group is any distinct group in society that shares common group characteristics and is
forced to occupy low status in society because of prejudice and discrimination. A group may be
classified as a minority on the basis of ethnicity, race, sexual preference, age, or class status. It is
important to note that a minority group is not necessarily the minority in terms of numbers, but it
is a group that holds low status in relation to other groups in society (regardless of the size). The
group that assigns a racial or ethnic group to subordinate status in society is called the dominant
group.
Major Sociological Theories of Race and Ethnicity
There are several sociological theories about why prejudice, discrimination, and racism exist.
Current sociological theories focus mainly on explaining the existence of racism, particular
institutional racism. The three major sociological perspectives (functionalist theory, symbolic
interaction theory, and conflict theory) each have their own explanations to the existence of
racism.

Functionalist theorists argue that in order for race and ethnic relations to be functional and
contribute to the harmonious conduct and stability of society, racial and ethnic minorities must
assimilate into that society. Assimilation is a process in which a minority becomes absorbed into
the dominant society socially, economically, and culturally.
Symbolic interaction theorists look at two issues in relation to race and ethnicity. First, they look
at the role of social interaction and how it reduces racial and ethnic hostility. Second, they look at
how race and ethnicity are socially constructed. In essence, symbolic interactionists ask the
question, What happens when two people of different race or ethnicity come in contact with one
another and how can such interracial or interethnic contact reduce hostility and conflict?
The basic argument made by conflict theorists is that class-based conflict is an inherent and
fundamental part of society. These theorists thus argue that racial and ethnic conflict is tied to
class conflict and that in order to reduce racial and ethnic conflict, class conflict must first be
reduced.
In general, the functionalist perspective views society as a complex system and focuses on
different phenomena's contributions to social solidarity and stability. Classic structural
functionalism did not develop particularly critical analyses of race or ethnicity per se, instead
seeing race as another constituent element within the larger whole of society that was integrated
into its relatively smooth functioning. As noted sociologist Michael Omi observes, "The
structural-functionalist framework generally stressed the unifying role of culture, and particularly
American values, in regulating and resolving conflicts. This approach was notably in evidence in
respect to the sociology of race" (Coulhan 2007, Sociology in America, p.559). From this
perspective, societies are seen as coherent, bounded, and fundamentally relational constructs that
function like organisms, with their various parts (such as race) working together in an
unconscious, quasi-automatic fashion toward achieving an overall social equilibrium.
Given this emphasis on equilibrium and harmony, the functionalist perspective easily allows for
specific macro-analyses of more contentious race-related issues such as power inequalities and
racial conflict. It also allows for the micro-analyses that much of modern sociology is oriented
around, such as identity formation and the socially constructed nature of race. It is less welladapted to understanding individual discrimination because it ignores the inequalities that cause
tension and conflict.
During the turbulent 1960s, functionalism was often called "consensus theory," criticized for
being unable to account for social change or structural contradictions and conflict, including
inequalities related to race, gender, class, and other social factors that are a source of oppression
and conflict.
The classical conflict perspective pioneered by Karl Marx saw all forms of inequality subsumed
under class conflict. For Marx, issues related to race and ethnicity are secondary to class
struggle.

Other early conflict theorists saw racial and ethnic conflict as more central. Sociologist Ludwig
Gumplowicz, in Grundriss der Soziologie (Outlines of Sociology, 1884), described how
civilization has been shaped by conflict between cultures and ethnic groups, theorizing that large
complex human societies evolved from war and conquest.
Since the social, political, and cultural upheavals of the 1960s, there has been a wellspring of
conflict theory-inspired analyses of race and ethnicity, many of which eventually developed into
an overlapping focus on the intersectional nature of various forms of conflict and oppression.
Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a feminist sociological theory first highlighted by leading critical theorist
thinker Kimberl Crenshaw (1989). The theory proposes that different biological, social, and
cultural factors, such as as gender, race, and class, do not operate in isolation of one antoher.
Rather, they are interrlated, forming a system of oppression that consists of different forms of
discrimination. This theory will be further discussed under the feminist perspective of gender
stratification in the chapter, "Understanding Gender Stratification and Inequality".
W. E. B. Du Bois theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might
explain certain aspects of Black political economy. Sociologist Patricia Hill Collins writes "Du
Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social
hierarchies that shaped African American access to status, poverty, and power" (2000 Black
Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment, 42).
Following founding symbolic interactionist George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer claimed that
people interact with each other by attaching meaning to each other's actions instead of merely
reacting to them. Human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols and signification, by
interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of one another's actions.

One of the most influential symbolic interactionist theorists on race and ethnic relations was
Robert Park. Evolving out of the mid-20th century "Chicago School" of urban sociology, Park
created the term human ecology, which borrowed the concepts of symbiosis, invasion,
succession, and dominance from the science of natural ecology.
Using the city of Chicago as an example, he proposed that cities were environments like those
found in nature. Park and fellow sociologist Ernest Burgess suggested that cities were governed
by many of the same forces of Darwinian evolution evident in ecosystems. They felt the most
significant force was competition. Competition was created by groups fighting for urban
resources, like land, which led to a division of urban space into ecological niches. Within these
niches people shared similar social characteristics because they were subject to the same
ecological pressure.

This theory served as a foundation for his influential theory of racial assimilation known as the
"race relation cycle". The cycle has four stages: contact, conflict, accommodation, and
assimilation. The first step is contact, followed by competition. Then, after some time, a
hierarchical arrangement can prevailone of accommodationin which one race is dominant
and others dominated. In the end assimilation occurs. Park declared that it is "a cycle of events
which tends everywhere to repeat itself," also seen in other social processes.

One of the most important social psychological findings concerning race relations is that
members of stereotyped groups internalize those stereotypes and thus suffer a wide range of
harmful consequences.
Stereotype Threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the
potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. Since its introduction into the
academic literature in 1995, Stereotype Threat has become one of the most widely studied topics
in the field of social psychology. First described by social psychologist, Claude Steele and his
colleagues, Stereotype Threat has been shown to reduce the performance of individuals who
belong to negatively stereotyped groups. If negative stereotypes are present regarding a specific
group, they are likely to become anxious about their performance, which in turn may hinder their
ability to perform at their maximum level.
Stereotype Threat is a potential contributing factor to long-standing racial and gender gaps in
academic performance. However, it may occur whenever an individual's performance might
confirm a negative stereotype. This is because Stereotype Threat is thought to arise from the
particular situation rather than from an individual's personality traits or characteristics. Since
most people have at least one social identity which is negatively stereotyped, most people are
vulnerable to Stereotype Threat if they encounter a situation in which the stereotype is relevant.
Situational factors that increase Stereotype Threat can include the difficulty of the task, the belief
that the task measures their abilities, and the relevance of the negative stereotype to the task.
Individuals show higher degrees of Stereotype Threat on tasks they wish to perform well on and
when they identify strongly with the stereotyped group. These effects are also increased when
they expect discrimination due to their identification with negatively stereotyped group.
Repeated experiences of Stereotype Threat can lead to a vicious circle of diminished confidence,
poor performance, and loss of interest in the relevant area of achievement.
The opposite of Stereotype Threat is known as Stereotype Enhancement, which entails an
individual's potential to confirm a positive stereotype about their social group, and a subsequent
increase in performance ability in the related task as compared to their ability prior to their
exposure to the stereotype.
Advocates of Stereotype Threat explanation have been criticized for exaggerating it and for
misrepresenting evidence as more conclusive than it is.

I.

How to Think about Racial and Ethnic Inequality

A. Minority and Majority Groups

Different racial and ethnic groups are unequal in power, resources, prestige, and
presumed worth. The basic reason is power -- power derived from superior numbers,
technology, weapons, property, or economic resources.

1.

Majority Groups

Those holding superior power in a society -- the majority group -- establish a system of
inequality by dominating less-powerful groups. This system of inequality is then
maintained and perpetuated through social forces.

2.

Minority Groups

Various social characteristics denote minority status. They include race, ethnicity,
religious preferences, and age.
Ultimately, however, the terms majority and minority describe power differences. The
critical feature of the minority group's status is its inferior social position, in which its
interests are not effectively represented in the political, economic, and social institutions
of the society (Eitzen et al., 2011:209).
B. Racial stratification
Racial privilege reaches far back into America's past. The racial hierarchy, with White
groups of European origin at the top and people of color at the bottom, serves important
functions for society and for certain categories of people. It ensures, for example, that
some people are available to do society's dirty work at low wages. The racial hierarchy
has positive consequences for the status quo: It enables the powerful to retain their
control and their advantages. Racial stratification also offers better occupational
opportunities, income, and education to White people. These advantages constitute
racial privilege (Eitzen et al., 2011:209).
C. Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Because majority-minority relations operate basically as a power relationship, conflict
(or at least the potential for conflict) is always present. Overt conflict is most likely when
subordinate groups attempt to alter the distribution of power. Size is not crucial in
determining whether a group is the most powerful. A numerical minority may in fact have
more political representation than the majority, as was the case in South Africa (Eitzen
et al., 2011:210).
Determining who is a minority is largely a matter of history, politics, and judgment -- both
social and political. Population characteristics other than race and ethnicity such as age,
gender, or religious preference are sometimes used to designate minority status.
5

However, race and ethnicity are the characteristics used most often to define the
minority and majority populations in contemporary U.S. society (Eitzen et al., 2011:210).
The different experiences of racial groups are structurally embedded in society even
though races, per se, do not exist. What does exist is the idea that races are distinct
biological categories. Most scientists reject race as a valid way to divide human groups.
Although there is no such thing as biological race, races are real insofar as they are
socially defined (Eitzen et al., 2011:210).
D. Racial Categories
1. Racial Formation
Racial formation refers to how society continually creates and transforms its definitions
of racial categories.
Groups that were previously self-defined in terms of specific ethnic background (such as
Mexican Americans and Japanese Americans) have become racialized as "Hispanics"
and "Asian Americans."
2. The Census and Multi-race Identification
Even the U.S. Census Bureau, which measures race on the basis of self-identification,
has revised the way racial and ethnic statistics will be collected in the 2000 census. For
the first time, people will now be able to identify themselves as members of more than
one racial group on census and other federal forms (Eitzen, 2000:215).
3. Ethnicity
Whereas race is used for socially marking groups based on physical differences,
ethnicity allows for a broader range of affiliation. Ethnic groups are distinctive on the
basis of national origin, language, religion, and culture. Ethnic groups experience a
high degree of interaction among its members. They see themselves as a cultural unit.
The contemporary world is replete with examples of newly constructed ethnicities. In the
United States, people started to affiliate along ethnic lines such as Italian American or
German American much more frequently after the civil rights movement. In Europe, as
the Western countries move toward economic and political integration, there is a
proliferation of regional identification -- people may no longer identify as Italian, but as
Lombardians, Sicilians, or Romans, as these regions lose economic resources to a
larger entity: the European community (Eitzen, 2000:217).
E. Racism
Racism refers to attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors that favor one group over another. The
minority group might be seen as biologically (innately) inferior and, therefore, practices
involving their domination and exploitation are justified.

II.

Patterns of Race and Ethnic Relations

A. Assimilation
Assimilation is the process of being absorbed into the mainstream of the dominate
culture. The assimilation model demands that other groups conform to the dominant
culture. New comers are to be socialized into the dominant culture that is already
present.
B. Pluralism (multiculturalism)
In a pluralist society unique groups coexist side by side. The uniqueness of each group
is considered a trait worth having in the dominant culture.
C. Segregation
Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people.
D. Genocide
Genocide is the systematic killing of one category of people by another.

III.

General Observations Concerning Prejudice

The following material explores prejudice. Theories that explain prejudice focus on:

personality needs

social learning and conformity

A.

Prejudice and Discrimination

1.

Prejudice

Prejudice refers to a positive or a negative attitude or belief directed toward certain

people based on their membership in a particular group. The root word of prejudice is
"pre-judge." It is "a set of attitudes which causes, supports, or justifies discrimination.
Prejudice refers to a tendency to "over categorize." Prejudiced people respond to others
in a more or less fixed way (Farley, 2012:20).
2. Discrimination
Discrimination refers to actions (behaviors) against a group of people.
B. Forms of Prejudice
Farley (2012:21) calls attention to three kinds of prejudice.
1. Cognitive Prejudice
Cognitive prejudice refers to what people believe is true

2. Affective Prejudice
Affective prejudice points to peoples likes and dislikes
3. Conative Prejudice
Conative prejudice refers to how people are inclined to behave. Note that this is still an
attitude because people don't actually act on their feelings. An example of conative
prejudice might be found in the statement "If I were in charge I'd send all the Wallonians
back to where ever they came from."
While these three types of prejudice are correlated, they don't have to all be present in a
particular individual. Someone, for example, might believe a particular group possesses
low levels of intelligence, but harbor no ill feelings toward that group. On the other hand,
one might not like a group because of intense competition for jobs, but still recognize no
inherent differences between groups.

IV.

Theories about Personality and Prejudice

A. Is Prejudice Generalized?
Prejudice probably resides within the individual. Sometimes, prejudiced people (i.e.,
those with antagonistic attitudes toward different groups) tend to be antagonistic toward
any out-group.
Adorno contends that people are prejudice because their prejudice meets certain needs
associated with their personality. People do not become prejudiced simply based on
negative encounters with members of different groups. Further, prejudiced people tend
to be prejudiced towards a wide variety of groups. Adorno contends that the
tendencies to be prejudice is associated with the authoritarian personality.
If prejudice is associated with a personality pattern then a prejudice person should be
prejudiced regardless of who or what the group is (Farley, 2012:23-24).
Farley (2012:23-24) notes that prejudice is not associated with conservatism. While
conservatives show slightly higher rates of prejudice than do liberals, there are many
examples of conservatives who are not prejudice and many liberals who are prejudiced.
B. Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to view one's own group as the norm. Other groups
are not only viewed as different, but they are seen as strange and sometimes inferior.
C. Stereotyping
A stereotype us a mental image, or an exaggerated belief, which assumes that
whatever is believed about a group is typical for the entire group. Stereotypical thinking
is unavoidable in social life and it is not automatically bad. "The essence of prejudicial
thinking, however, is that the stereotype is not checked against reality. It is not modified
by experiences that counter the rigid image (Farley, 2000:19).
8

One might note that even positive stereotypes are a mixed blessing. On one hand,
positive stereotypes justify the use of more negative stereotypes. On the other hand,
they provide unrealistic attributes that the individual has to try to live up to.
D. Authoritarian Personalities
Theodore Adorno contends that many prejudiced people have a distinct set of
personality traits.

They are centered around conformity, intolerance, and insecurity (Farley, 2012:25).

People with an authoritarian personality are superstitious and engage in stereotypical

thinking.

They tend to project in that they see inappropriate behavior in others but not in
themselves.

The authoritarian personality results from family environment. Parents are "cold, aloof,
disciplinarian, and themselves bigots" (see Farley, 2012:25). People who have an
authoritarian personality are prone to prejudice because prejudice meets certain
personality needs.
F. Scapegoating and Projection
Adorno, borrowing from Freud, argues that people with authoritarian personalities have
an unusually strong need to scapegoat and to project (Farley, 2012:26-27). These
behaviors are the result of unique childhood experiences.
1. Scapegoating (Displaced Aggression)
Scapegoating occurs when one blames one's troubles on someone else who is
relatively powerless. This may occur when one group feels threatened, but are
themselves powerless to act against the actual source of the threat (Farley, 2012:2627).
Example: A fellow has a low level of education and can't find a job. Rather than
acknowledging that his lack of education is the problem, he blames his inability to find a
job on minorities and immigrants.
2. Projection
Projection is a concept where the individual denies particular characteristics in him/her
self but notices them in others (2012:27).
Example: Continuing with the example above, the fellow with little education will not
acknowledge his own educational deficiencies. Instead, he will call attention to others
who do not have sufficient education.

V.

Social Learning and Conformity as a Cause of Prejudice

The above discussion of prejudice is rather psychological. There is also the social
context to consider when one attempts to understand prejudice. Social scientists who
study social learning and conformity as causes of prejudice focus on the social
environment within which people live.
People learn to be prejudice through socialization processes like internalization,
modeling, and reward and punishment.
A. Agents of Socialization
Values are internalized as people encounter various agents of socialization. Attitudes
and behaviors are learned within a social context where agents of socialization are
important (Farley, 2012:30-31).
1. The Family
The family is probably the most important of the agents of socialization. Family is
responsible for, among other things, determining one's attitudes toward religion and
establishing career goals.
2. The School
This agency is responsible for socializing groups of young people in particular skills and
values in our society.
3. Peer Groups
Peers refer to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social
characteristics (e.g., students in a college class).
4. Media
The effect on prejudice of television and the movies is substantial. The media's
portrayal of racial and ethnic groups may be a person's principal source of information.
Therefore, since the media communicates primarily in stereotypes and if the viewer has
little opportunity for personal contact with members of that minority, the probability of the
stereotype becoming the reality for the viewer is high.
Hollywood movies have thoroughly dehumanized the nonwhite world. The whites, who
are the exploiters, consistently show up as the "good guys." Whites are portrayed as
the bearers of civilization and all that is just and humane. Their superiority is taken as
the natural order of things, and their "justified" extermination of the nonwhites provides a
"happy" ending (Kitano, 1985:52).
B. Selective Exposure and Modeling
Farley (2012:33) notes that "if a child is exposed to one set of values over time, the child
will eventually come to view that set of vales as the "natural way." This is especially true
10

when the models are someone whom the child is especially close to like parents or
close relatives.
C. Reward and Punishment
All agents of socialization reward behavior and expression of attitude that conform to
their norms and punish those that do not. These rewards and punishments are
sometime very formal. Other types of rewards and sanctions are informal and
impromptu (Farley, 2012:33).

VI. Reducing Prejudice:

Some Principles and Approaches
Given that there are many causes of prejudice: personality, social, and structural, the
solutions are going to be varied also. If, for example, prejudice is related to a personality
trait, then education might not eliminate prejudice. On the other hand, if prejudice is due
to social learning, education and personal contact may reduce prejudice (Farley,
2012:43-44).
A. Persuasive Communication
1. Description
Persuasive communication refers to any form of communication (written, verbal, visual)
specifically intended to influence attitudes. A couple of considerations are in order
(Farley, 2012:44-47).

Success depends, in part, on who is giving the message.

A communication must be heard. The credibility of the source is important in bringing

about long-term change in attitudes.

The message must be understood

Receiving the message must be a positive experience.

The message must be retained. A failure at any points means that no persuasion will
take place.

2. Drawbacks
It appears that people who receive and understand antiprejudiced messages tend to be
people who are already antiprejudiced (Farley, 2012:44-47).

People who are highly prejudiced tend to not hear the messages. One explanation is
that most people tend to not like to have their beliefs seriously challenged. When this
happens they either ignore or rationalize away the message.

11

Whether one hears the message depends on why the person is prejudiced in the first
place. For example, people who are prejudiced as a result of an authoritarian
personality will not hear the message.

Prejudiced people tend to not view themselves as prejudiced. Therefore, when the
message is heard, it is assumed that it applies to someone else.

A further concern is that as prejudice becomes more subtle, it becomes easier to

rationalize it away (Farley, 2012:44-47).

B. Education
1. Description
Intergroup education is similar to persuasive communication. The big difference is that
education's purpose is not to change attitudes, but rather to impart information,
although the latent goal of changing minds might be there. Education is most successful
when it causes the least amount of stress. I.e., education should not put people on the
defensive. One way to facilitate a positive environment is to make students feel that
they are participants in the process (Farley, 2012:47-50).
2. Drawbacks
Education has difficulties reducing prejudice, in part, because there is some selfselecting taking place in that the most prejudiced people probably do not take the
courses designed to increase the understanding of majority/minority issues. On the
other hand, required courses in inter-group relations might avoid the problem of selfselection.
Teachers, like other people, are some times prejudiced. If the teacher is prejudiced
against minorities, then it would be difficult to promote a non-prejudiced environment.
In general, education appears to be most beneficial in reducing prejudice when
prejudice is not very intense and when personality disorders are not dominant (Farley,
2012:47-50).
If a person is prejudiced as a result of social learning, then education (combined with
change of environment) may be successful in reducing prejudice.
C. Intergroup Contact: The Contact Hypothesis
1. Description
Intergroup contact appears more effective in reducing prejudice than communication
and education. This "contact hypothesis" receives support in public housing projects
where people have to live in close proximity to each another. It also receives support in
the military. It appears, for example, that school desegregation is associated with
decreasing levels of prejudice (Farley, 2012:50-56). This is the philosophy behind
school-busing.
12

For intergroup contact to be successful in reducing prejudice, the contact has to be

more than superficial. Casual contact will have little impact on reducing prejudice.
2. Drawbacks
a. A primary problem here is that the lessening of prejudice appears to only take
place in the environment where the contact takes place (e.g., the school or work place)
b. The contact hypothesis does not always receive support. Examples are the school
desegregation problems found in Boston and Pontiac, MI. It appears that a precondition
for intergroup contact to work in reducing prejudice is that the two groups be of similar
social status. For example, prejudice is reduced when the two groups are working on
the same job for the same pay or living in a housing project where each pays the same
rent. If people are not of equal status, contact may foster resentment (Farley, 2012:5056).
D. Simulation Exercises
The simulation exercise devises a situation where people, who don't normally
experience prejudice and discrimination, experience discrimination. They learn about
the feelings that result from being discriminated against. They see in a direct way the
irrationality of prejudice and discrimination (Farley, 2012:56-57).
E. Therapy
1. Description
Communication, education, and intergroup contact are not effective when a prejudiced
person suffers from personality disorders. Many argue that personality problems are
best dealt with through therapy (either individual or group therapy). The goal of therapy
is to:

Resolve the problem that caused people to be prejudiced in the first place.

Convince prejudiced people that prejudice is not an appropriate way of dealing with
one's insecurities (Farley, 2012:57-59).

2. Drawbacks
The authoritarian personality is an example of prejudice that results from personality
disorders. Unfortunately, a characteristic of the authoritarian personality is AntiIntraception, or a rejection of self analysis. If one doesn't acknowledge they have a
problem requiring therapy, then they won't see a need to seek therapy.

VII.

A.

How Important is Prejudice?

LaPiere Study

There is substantial evidence which suggests that the prejudice and discrimination are
not always linked.
13

B. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Can Behavior Determine Attitudes?

The general answer is yes. Behavior can determine attitudes. Farley (2012:62-63)
calls upon Cognitive Dissonance Theory for an explanation of why this can be true. He
argues that people prefer to have their attitudes and behavior in sync. The theory
argues that if behavior does not match attitudes then people will slowly, unconsciously,
change their attitudes.
2. The Deep South Today
Farley (2012:62-63) contends that cognitive dissonance theory explains why the South
desegregation was so successful. He argues that Southerners, not being able to
discriminate any longer, changed their attitudes toward discrimination.

VIII.

Explanations of Racial and Ethnic Inequality

A. Bias Theories
Bias theories blame the members of the majority. In particular, bias theories blame
individuals who are prejudiced or racist (Eitzen, 2000:223).
B. Structural-Discrimination Theories
The alternative view is that racial inequality is not fundamentally a matter of what is in
people's heads, not a matter of their private individual intentions, but rather a matter of
public institutions and practices that create or perpetuate discrimination (Eitzen,
2000:225).
1. Individual Discrimination
Individual discrimination consists of overt acts by individuals that harm other
individuals or their property. This type of action is usually publicly decried.
Examples:

A homeowner refusing to see to Jews

A taxi driver refusing to pick up Black fares

An employers who pays lower wages to Mexicans

Institutional racism is more injurious than individual racism to more minority-group

members, but it is not recognized by the dominant-group members as racism.
2. Institutional Discrimination
Institutional discrimination refers to those "processes which, intentionally, or not,
result in the continued exclusion of a subordinate group [and... activities and practices
which are intended to protect the advantages of the dominant group and/or maintain or
widen the unequal position of a subordinate group."

14

Some times individuals and groups discriminate whether they are bigots or not. These
individuals and groups operate within a social milieu that ensures racial dominance. The
social milieu includes laws, customs, religious beliefs, and the stable arrangements and
practices through which things get done in society. The major sectors of society -- the
system of law and the administration of justice, the economic system, the formal
educational structure, and health care are all possible discriminators. Thus, the term
institutional discrimination is a useful one.
The institutions of society:
have great power to reward and penalize. They reward by providing career
opportunities for some people and foreclosing them for others. They reward as well by
the way social goods and services are distributed by deciding who receives training and
skills, medical care, formal education, political influence, moral support and self-respect,
productive employment, fair treatment by the law, decent housing, self-confidence, and
the promise of a secure future for self and children (see Eitzen, 2000:226).
C. Four Basic Themes of Institutional Discrimination
1. The Importance of History
Historically, institutions defined and enforced norms and roles that were racially distinct.
The United States was founded and its institutions established when Blacks were
slaves, uneducated, and differed culturally from the dominant Whites.
From the beginning, Blacks were considered inferior (the original Constitution, for
example, counted a slave as three-fifths of a person).
Religious beliefs buttressed this notion of the inferiority of Blacks and justified the
differential allocation of privileges and sanctions in society.
Laws, customs, and traditions usually continue to reinforce current thinking. Institutions
have an inertial quality: Once set in motion, they tend to continue on the same course.
Thus, institutional discrimination is extremely difficult to change without a complete
overhaul of society's institutions (Eitzen, 2000:226).
2. Discrimination Without Conscious Bigotry
With or without malicious intent, racial discrimination is the "normal" outcome of the
system. Even if "racism-in-the-head" disappeared, then "racism-in-the-world" would not,
because it is the system that disadvantages.
a. Minorities suffer if the law continues to favor the owners of property over renters and
debtors.
b. Job opportunities remain unequal if employers hire people with the most conventional
training and experience.
15

c. Poor children get an inferior education if

we continue tracking,

using class-biased tests,

making education irrelevant in their work,

rewarding children who conform to the teachers' middle-class concepts of the good
student,

paying disproportionately less for their education (buildings, supplies, teachers,

counselors).

a. In other words, all that is needed to perpetuate discrimination in the United States is to
pursue a policy of business as usual (Eitzen, 2000:227).

3. Institutional Discrimination Is More Invisible

Institutional discrimination is more subtle and less intentional than individual acts of
discrimination. As a result, establishing blame for this kind of discrimination is extremely
difficult (Eitzen, 2000:227).
4. Institutional Discrimination Is Reinforced Because Institutions Are Interrelated
The exclusion of minorities from the upper levels of education, for example, is likely to
affect their opportunities in other institutions (type of job, level of remuneration).
Similarly, poor children will probably receive an inferior education, be propertyless,
suffer from bad health, and be treated unjustly by the criminal justice system. These
inequities are cumulative (Eitzen, 2000:227).

IX. Contemporary Trends and Issues

in U.S. Racial and Ethnic Relations
A. Nativism
Social scientists use the term nativism to denote hostility toward immigrants. Here, and
in other countries, racial diversity is marked by growing conflicts (Eitzen, 2000:237).
Racial violence is often associated with uncertain economic conditions. Lack of jobs,
housing, and other resources can add to fear. It can also lead to minority scapegoating
on the part of Whites. Despite evidence that immigrants actually strengthen the social
fabric, immigrants are becoming a scapegoat for social problems. In Florida and many
parts of the West and Southwest, perceptions that Cubans, Mexicans, and other
Hispanics are taking jobs from Anglos have touched off racial tensions (Eitzen,
2000:238):

16

1. More Racially Based Groups and Atrocities

The Southern Poverty Law Center documented an increase in U.S. hate groups. Their
research found 474 hate groups involved in racist behavior in 1997, a 20 percent rise
over the previous year. The jump reflects continued growth of racially-based separatism,
religion, and hate, along with the fervor produced by the approaching millennium.
Groups include White supremacist groups with such diverse elements as the Ku Klux
Klan, Nazi-identified parties, and skinheads. With many hate sites on the Internet and
increasing popularity of White power rock, racist organizers are reaching more young
people.

I.

How to Think about Racial and Ethnic Inequality

A. Minority and Majority Groups

Different racial and ethnic groups are unequal in power, resources, prestige, and
presumed worth. The basic reason is power -- power derived from superior numbers,
technology, weapons, property, or economic resources.

1.

Majority Groups

Those holding superior power in a society -- the majority group -- establish a system of
inequality by dominating less-powerful groups. This system of inequality is then
maintained and perpetuated through social forces.

2.

Minority Groups

Various social characteristics denote minority status. They include race, ethnicity,
religious preferences, and age.
Ultimately, however, the terms majority and minority describe power differences. The
critical feature of the minority group's status is its inferior social position, in which its
interests are not effectively represented in the political, economic, and social institutions
of the society (Eitzen et al., 2011:209).
B. Racial stratification
Racial privilege reaches far back into America's past. The racial hierarchy, with White
groups of European origin at the top and people of color at the bottom, serves important
functions for society and for certain categories of people. It ensures, for example, that
some people are available to do society's dirty work at low wages. The racial hierarchy
has positive consequences for the status quo: It enables the powerful to retain their
control and their advantages. Racial stratification also offers better occupational
opportunities, income, and education to White people. These advantages constitute
racial privilege (Eitzen et al., 2011:209).

17

C. Racial and Ethnic Minorities

Because majority-minority relations operate basically as a power relationship, conflict
(or at least the potential for conflict) is always present. Overt conflict is most likely when
subordinate groups attempt to alter the distribution of power. Size is not crucial in
determining whether a group is the most powerful. A numerical minority may in fact have
more political representation than the majority, as was the case in South Africa (Eitzen
et al., 2011:210).
Determining who is a minority is largely a matter of history, politics, and judgment -- both
social and political. Population characteristics other than race and ethnicity such as age,
gender, or religious preference are sometimes used to designate minority status.
However, race and ethnicity are the characteristics used most often to define the
minority and majority populations in contemporary U.S. society (Eitzen et al., 2011:210).
The different experiences of racial groups are structurally embedded in society even
though races, per se, do not exist. What does exist is the idea that races are distinct
biological categories. Most scientists reject race as a valid way to divide human groups.
Although there is no such thing as biological race, races are real insofar as they are
socially defined (Eitzen et al., 2011:210).
D. Racial Categories
1. Racial Formation
Racial formation refers to how society continually creates and transforms its definitions
of racial categories.
Groups that were previously self-defined in terms of specific ethnic background (such as
Mexican Americans and Japanese Americans) have become racialized as "Hispanics"
and "Asian Americans."
2. The Census and Multi-race Identification
Even the U.S. Census Bureau, which measures race on the basis of self-identification,
has revised the way racial and ethnic statistics will be collected in the 2000 census. For
the first time, people will now be able to identify themselves as members of more than
one racial group on census and other federal forms (Eitzen, 2000:215).
3. Ethnicity
Whereas race is used for socially marking groups based on physical differences,
ethnicity allows for a broader range of affiliation. Ethnic groups are distinctive on the
basis of national origin, language, religion, and culture. Ethnic groups experience a
high degree of interaction among its members. They see themselves as a cultural unit.
The contemporary world is replete with examples of newly constructed ethnicities. In the
United States, people started to affiliate along ethnic lines such as Italian American or
German American much more frequently after the civil rights movement. In Europe, as
18

the Western countries move toward economic and political integration, there is a
proliferation of regional identification -- people may no longer identify as Italian, but as
Lombardians, Sicilians, or Romans, as these regions lose economic resources to a
larger entity: the European community (Eitzen, 2000:217).
E. Racism
Racism refers to attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors that favor one group over another. The
minority group might be seen as biologically (innately) inferior and, therefore, practices
involving their domination and exploitation are justified.

II.

Patterns of Race and Ethnic Relations

A. Assimilation
Assimilation is the process of being absorbed into the mainstream of the dominate
culture. The assimilation model demands that other groups conform to the dominant
culture. New comers are to be socialized into the dominant culture that is already
present.
B. Pluralism (multiculturalism)
In a pluralist society unique groups coexist side by side. The uniqueness of each group
is considered a trait worth having in the dominant culture.
C. Segregation
Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people.
D. Genocide
Genocide is the systematic killing of one category of people by another.

III.

General Observations Concerning Prejudice

The following material explores prejudice. Theories that explain prejudice focus on:

personality needs

social learning and conformity

A.

Prejudice and Discrimination

1.

Prejudice

Prejudice refers to a positive or a negative attitude or belief directed toward certain

people based on their membership in a particular group. The root word of prejudice is
"pre-judge." It is "a set of attitudes which causes, supports, or justifies discrimination.
Prejudice refers to a tendency to "over categorize." Prejudiced people respond to others
in a more or less fixed way (Farley, 2012:20).

19

2. Discrimination
Discrimination refers to actions (behaviors) against a group of people.
B. Forms of Prejudice
Farley (2012:21) calls attention to three kinds of prejudice.
1. Cognitive Prejudice
Cognitive prejudice refers to what people believe is true
2. Affective Prejudice
Affective prejudice points to peoples likes and dislikes
3. Conative Prejudice
Conative prejudice refers to how people are inclined to behave. Note that this is still an
attitude because people don't actually act on their feelings. An example of conative
prejudice might be found in the statement "If I were in charge I'd send all the Wallonians
back to where ever they came from."
While these three types of prejudice are correlated, they don't have to all be present in a
particular individual. Someone, for example, might believe a particular group possesses
low levels of intelligence, but harbor no ill feelings toward that group. On the other hand,
one might not like a group because of intense competition for jobs, but still recognize no
inherent differences between groups.

IV.

Theories about Personality and Prejudice

A. Is Prejudice Generalized?
Prejudice probably resides within the individual. Sometimes, prejudiced people (i.e.,
those with antagonistic attitudes toward different groups) tend to be antagonistic toward
any out-group.
Adorno contends that people are prejudice because their prejudice meets certain needs
associated with their personality. People do not become prejudiced simply based on
negative encounters with members of different groups. Further, prejudiced people tend
to be prejudiced towards a wide variety of groups. Adorno contends that the
tendencies to be prejudice is associated with the authoritarian personality.
If prejudice is associated with a personality pattern then a prejudice person should be
prejudiced regardless of who or what the group is (Farley, 2012:23-24).
Farley (2012:23-24) notes that prejudice is not associated with conservatism. While
conservatives show slightly higher rates of prejudice than do liberals, there are many
examples of conservatives who are not prejudice and many liberals who are prejudiced.

20

B. Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism refers to a tendency to view one's own group as the norm. Other groups
are not only viewed as different, but they are seen as strange and sometimes inferior.
C. Stereotyping
A stereotype us a mental image, or an exaggerated belief, which assumes that
whatever is believed about a group is typical for the entire group. Stereotypical thinking
is unavoidable in social life and it is not automatically bad. "The essence of prejudicial
thinking, however, is that the stereotype is not checked against reality. It is not modified
by experiences that counter the rigid image (Farley, 2000:19).
One might note that even positive stereotypes are a mixed blessing. On one hand,
positive stereotypes justify the use of more negative stereotypes. On the other hand,
they provide unrealistic attributes that the individual has to try to live up to.
D. Authoritarian Personalities
Theodore Adorno contends that many prejudiced people have a distinct set of
personality traits.

They are centered around conformity, intolerance, and insecurity (Farley, 2012:25).

People with an authoritarian personality are superstitious and engage in stereotypical

thinking.

They tend to project in that they see inappropriate behavior in others but not in
themselves.

The authoritarian personality results from family environment. Parents are "cold, aloof,
disciplinarian, and themselves bigots" (see Farley, 2012:25). People who have an
authoritarian personality are prone to prejudice because prejudice meets certain
personality needs.
F. Scapegoating and Projection
Adorno, borrowing from Freud, argues that people with authoritarian personalities have
an unusually strong need to scapegoat and to project (Farley, 2012:26-27). These
behaviors are the result of unique childhood experiences.
1. Scapegoating (Displaced Aggression)
Scapegoating occurs when one blames one's troubles on someone else who is
relatively powerless. This may occur when one group feels threatened, but are
themselves powerless to act against the actual source of the threat (Farley, 2012:2627).

21

Example: A fellow has a low level of education and can't find a job. Rather than
acknowledging that his lack of education is the problem, he blames his inability to find a
job on minorities and immigrants.
2. Projection
Projection is a concept where the individual denies particular characteristics in him/her
self but notices them in others (2012:27).
Example: Continuing with the example above, the fellow with little education will not
acknowledge his own educational deficiencies. Instead, he will call attention to others
who do not have sufficient education.

V.

Social Learning and Conformity as a Cause of Prejudice

The above discussion of prejudice is rather psychological. There is also the social
context to consider when one attempts to understand prejudice. Social scientists who
study social learning and conformity as causes of prejudice focus on the social
environment within which people live.
People learn to be prejudice through socialization processes like internalization,
modeling, and reward and punishment.
A. Agents of Socialization
Values are internalized as people encounter various agents of socialization. Attitudes
and behaviors are learned within a social context where agents of socialization are
important (Farley, 2012:30-31).
1. The Family
The family is probably the most important of the agents of socialization. Family is
responsible for, among other things, determining one's attitudes toward religion and
establishing career goals.
2. The School
This agency is responsible for socializing groups of young people in particular skills and
values in our society.
3. Peer Groups
Peers refer to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social
characteristics (e.g., students in a college class).
4. Media
The effect on prejudice of television and the movies is substantial. The media's
portrayal of racial and ethnic groups may be a person's principal source of information.
Therefore, since the media communicates primarily in stereotypes and if the viewer has

22

little opportunity for personal contact with members of that minority, the probability of the
stereotype becoming the reality for the viewer is high.
Hollywood movies have thoroughly dehumanized the nonwhite world. The whites, who
are the exploiters, consistently show up as the "good guys." Whites are portrayed as
the bearers of civilization and all that is just and humane. Their superiority is taken as
the natural order of things, and their "justified" extermination of the nonwhites provides a
"happy" ending (Kitano, 1985:52).
B. Selective Exposure and Modeling
Farley (2012:33) notes that "if a child is exposed to one set of values over time, the child
will eventually come to view that set of vales as the "natural way." This is especially true
when the models are someone whom the child is especially close to like parents or
close relatives.
C. Reward and Punishment
All agents of socialization reward behavior and expression of attitude that conform to
their norms and punish those that do not. These rewards and punishments are
sometime very formal. Other types of rewards and sanctions are informal and
impromptu (Farley, 2012:33).

VI. Reducing Prejudice:

Some Principles and Approaches
Given that there are many causes of prejudice: personality, social, and structural, the
solutions are going to be varied also. If, for example, prejudice is related to a personality
trait, then education might not eliminate prejudice. On the other hand, if prejudice is due
to social learning, education and personal contact may reduce prejudice (Farley,
2012:43-44).
A. Persuasive Communication
1. Description
Persuasive communication refers to any form of communication (written, verbal, visual)
specifically intended to influence attitudes. A couple of considerations are in order
(Farley, 2012:44-47).

Success depends, in part, on who is giving the message.

A communication must be heard. The credibility of the source is important in bringing

about long-term change in attitudes.

The message must be understood

Receiving the message must be a positive experience.

23

The message must be retained. A failure at any points means that no persuasion will
take place.

2. Drawbacks
It appears that people who receive and understand antiprejudiced messages tend to be
people who are already antiprejudiced (Farley, 2012:44-47).

People who are highly prejudiced tend to not hear the messages. One explanation is
that most people tend to not like to have their beliefs seriously challenged. When this
happens they either ignore or rationalize away the message.

Whether one hears the message depends on why the person is prejudiced in the first
place. For example, people who are prejudiced as a result of an authoritarian
personality will not hear the message.

Prejudiced people tend to not view themselves as prejudiced. Therefore, when the
message is heard, it is assumed that it applies to someone else.

A further concern is that as prejudice becomes more subtle, it becomes easier to

rationalize it away (Farley, 2012:44-47).

B. Education
1. Description
Intergroup education is similar to persuasive communication. The big difference is that
education's purpose is not to change attitudes, but rather to impart information,
although the latent goal of changing minds might be there. Education is most successful
when it causes the least amount of stress. I.e., education should not put people on the
defensive. One way to facilitate a positive environment is to make students feel that
they are participants in the process (Farley, 2012:47-50).
2. Drawbacks
Education has difficulties reducing prejudice, in part, because there is some selfselecting taking place in that the most prejudiced people probably do not take the
courses designed to increase the understanding of majority/minority issues. On the
other hand, required courses in inter-group relations might avoid the problem of selfselection.
Teachers, like other people, are some times prejudiced. If the teacher is prejudiced
against minorities, then it would be difficult to promote a non-prejudiced environment.
In general, education appears to be most beneficial in reducing prejudice when
prejudice is not very intense and when personality disorders are not dominant (Farley,
2012:47-50).

24

If a person is prejudiced as a result of social learning, then education (combined with

change of environment) may be successful in reducing prejudice.
C. Intergroup Contact: The Contact Hypothesis
1. Description
Intergroup contact appears more effective in reducing prejudice than communication
and education. This "contact hypothesis" receives support in public housing projects
where people have to live in close proximity to each another. It also receives support in
the military. It appears, for example, that school desegregation is associated with
decreasing levels of prejudice (Farley, 2012:50-56). This is the philosophy behind
school-busing.
For intergroup contact to be successful in reducing prejudice, the contact has to be
more than superficial. Casual contact will have little impact on reducing prejudice.
2. Drawbacks
a. A primary problem here is that the lessening of prejudice appears to only take
place in the environment where the contact takes place (e.g., the school or work place)
b. The contact hypothesis does not always receive support. Examples are the school
desegregation problems found in Boston and Pontiac, MI. It appears that a precondition
for intergroup contact to work in reducing prejudice is that the two groups be of similar
social status. For example, prejudice is reduced when the two groups are working on
the same job for the same pay or living in a housing project where each pays the same
rent. If people are not of equal status, contact may foster resentment (Farley, 2012:5056).
D. Simulation Exercises
The simulation exercise devises a situation where people, who don't normally
experience prejudice and discrimination, experience discrimination. They learn about
the feelings that result from being discriminated against. They see in a direct way the
irrationality of prejudice and discrimination (Farley, 2012:56-57).
E. Therapy
1. Description
Communication, education, and intergroup contact are not effective when a prejudiced
person suffers from personality disorders. Many argue that personality problems are
best dealt with through therapy (either individual or group therapy). The goal of therapy
is to:

Resolve the problem that caused people to be prejudiced in the first place.

Convince prejudiced people that prejudice is not an appropriate way of dealing with
one's insecurities (Farley, 2012:57-59).
25

2. Drawbacks
The authoritarian personality is an example of prejudice that results from personality
disorders. Unfortunately, a characteristic of the authoritarian personality is AntiIntraception, or a rejection of self analysis. If one doesn't acknowledge they have a
problem requiring therapy, then they won't see a need to seek therapy.

VII.

A.

How Important is Prejudice?

LaPiere Study

There is substantial evidence which suggests that the prejudice and discrimination are
not always linked.
B. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Can Behavior Determine Attitudes?
The general answer is yes. Behavior can determine attitudes. Farley (2012:62-63)
calls upon Cognitive Dissonance Theory for an explanation of why this can be true. He
argues that people prefer to have their attitudes and behavior in sync. The theory
argues that if behavior does not match attitudes then people will slowly, unconsciously,
change their attitudes.
2. The Deep South Today
Farley (2012:62-63) contends that cognitive dissonance theory explains why the South
desegregation was so successful. He argues that Southerners, not being able to
discriminate any longer, changed their attitudes toward discrimination.

VIII.

Explanations of Racial and Ethnic Inequality

A. Bias Theories
Bias theories blame the members of the majority. In particular, bias theories blame
individuals who are prejudiced or racist (Eitzen, 2000:223).
B. Structural-Discrimination Theories
The alternative view is that racial inequality is not fundamentally a matter of what is in
people's heads, not a matter of their private individual intentions, but rather a matter of
public institutions and practices that create or perpetuate discrimination (Eitzen,
2000:225).
1. Individual Discrimination
Individual discrimination consists of overt acts by individuals that harm other
individuals or their property. This type of action is usually publicly decried.
Examples:

A homeowner refusing to see to Jews

A taxi driver refusing to pick up Black fares

26

An employers who pays lower wages to Mexicans

Institutional racism is more injurious than individual racism to more minority-group

members, but it is not recognized by the dominant-group members as racism.
2. Institutional Discrimination
Institutional discrimination refers to those "processes which, intentionally, or not,
result in the continued exclusion of a subordinate group [and... activities and practices
which are intended to protect the advantages of the dominant group and/or maintain or
widen the unequal position of a subordinate group."
Some times individuals and groups discriminate whether they are bigots or not. These
individuals and groups operate within a social milieu that ensures racial dominance. The
social milieu includes laws, customs, religious beliefs, and the stable arrangements and
practices through which things get done in society. The major sectors of society -- the
system of law and the administration of justice, the economic system, the formal
educational structure, and health care are all possible discriminators. Thus, the term
institutional discrimination is a useful one.
The institutions of society:
have great power to reward and penalize. They reward by providing career
opportunities for some people and foreclosing them for others. They reward as well by
the way social goods and services are distributed by deciding who receives training and
skills, medical care, formal education, political influence, moral support and self-respect,
productive employment, fair treatment by the law, decent housing, self-confidence, and
the promise of a secure future for self and children (see Eitzen, 2000:226).
C. Four Basic Themes of Institutional Discrimination
1. The Importance of History
Historically, institutions defined and enforced norms and roles that were racially distinct.
The United States was founded and its institutions established when Blacks were
slaves, uneducated, and differed culturally from the dominant Whites.
From the beginning, Blacks were considered inferior (the original Constitution, for
example, counted a slave as three-fifths of a person).
Religious beliefs buttressed this notion of the inferiority of Blacks and justified the
differential allocation of privileges and sanctions in society.
Laws, customs, and traditions usually continue to reinforce current thinking. Institutions
have an inertial quality: Once set in motion, they tend to continue on the same course.
Thus, institutional discrimination is extremely difficult to change without a complete
overhaul of society's institutions (Eitzen, 2000:226).
27

2. Discrimination Without Conscious Bigotry

With or without malicious intent, racial discrimination is the "normal" outcome of the
system. Even if "racism-in-the-head" disappeared, then "racism-in-the-world" would not,
because it is the system that disadvantages.
a. Minorities suffer if the law continues to favor the owners of property over renters and
debtors.
b. Job opportunities remain unequal if employers hire people with the most conventional
training and experience.
c. Poor children get an inferior education if

we continue tracking,

using class-biased tests,

making education irrelevant in their work,

rewarding children who conform to the teachers' middle-class concepts of the good
student,

paying disproportionately less for their education (buildings, supplies, teachers,

counselors).

a. In other words, all that is needed to perpetuate discrimination in the United States is to
pursue a policy of business as usual (Eitzen, 2000:227).

3. Institutional Discrimination Is More Invisible

Institutional discrimination is more subtle and less intentional than individual acts of
discrimination. As a result, establishing blame for this kind of discrimination is extremely
difficult (Eitzen, 2000:227).
4. Institutional Discrimination Is Reinforced Because Institutions Are Interrelated
The exclusion of minorities from the upper levels of education, for example, is likely to
affect their opportunities in other institutions (type of job, level of remuneration).
Similarly, poor children will probably receive an inferior education, be propertyless,
suffer from bad health, and be treated unjustly by the criminal justice system. These
inequities are cumulative (Eitzen, 2000:227).

IX. Contemporary Trends and Issues

in U.S. Racial and Ethnic Relations
A. Nativism
Social scientists use the term nativism to denote hostility toward immigrants. Here, and
in other countries, racial diversity is marked by growing conflicts (Eitzen, 2000:237).
28

Racial violence is often associated with uncertain economic conditions. Lack of jobs,
housing, and other resources can add to fear. It can also lead to minority scapegoating
on the part of Whites. Despite evidence that immigrants actually strengthen the social
fabric, immigrants are becoming a scapegoat for social problems. In Florida and many
parts of the West and Southwest, perceptions that Cubans, Mexicans, and other
Hispanics are taking jobs from Anglos have touched off racial tensions (Eitzen,
2000:238):
1. More Racially Based Groups and Atrocities
The Southern Poverty Law Center documented an increase in U.S. hate groups. Their
research found 474 hate groups involved in racist behavior in 1997, a 20 percent rise
over the previous year. The jump reflects continued growth of racially-based separatism,
religion, and hate, along with the fervor produced by the approaching millennium.
Groups include White supremacist groups with such diverse elements as the Ku Klux
Klan, Nazi-identified parties, and skinheads. With many hate sites on the Internet and
increasing popularity of White power rock, racist organizers are reaching more young
people.

29