Mechanical Behavior Simulation For Synchromech

1
Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech

mechanism improvements
L Lovas1, D Play1*, J Marialigeti2, and J F Rigal1
1INSA-Lyon, Genie Industrial, Villeurbanne Cedex, France
2Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary
The manuscript was received on 10 November 2004 and was accepted after revision for publication on 30 March 2006.
DOI: 10.1243/09544070D21604
Abstract: This paper deals with the synchromesh behaviour of the manual car gearbox. Firstly,
the state of the art on BorgWarner-type synchronizers is presented. Then, the gear-changing
process is studied and eight main operating phases are dened. The phases are described using
classical tribological, mechanics and thermodynamics theories. Models are interconnected
to describe synchronizer behaviour and they are included in a numerical simulation software. Measured data are compared with the results of simulation software. Then, stick-slip
phenomenon during gear changing is studied. Stick-slip is supposed to be present in two
contact zones: sleeve splines and the synchronizer cone. The eects in both zones are discussed.
Finally, double bump phenomenon is studied. Double bump is assumed to be the maximum
axial operating force coming from short successive phases at the end of the gear-changing
process. Due to the angular integer division of splines and to the non-denite angular position
of mechanical parts, sliding sleeve displacement into the ring and gear claw clutch splines
gives secondary angular rotation and large increases in the axial operating force. The model
can explain large variations and random dispersion of the measured double bump force peaks.
Keywords: manual gearbox, synchronization, second bump, numerical simulation
1 INTRODUCTION
Manual car gearbox synchronizers are complicated
mechanical structures. They ensure the connection
of three main parts of the transmission (Fig. 1; see
also Fig. 31). The synchronized side of the transmission is made up of the disengaged plate clutch,
the input shaft of the gearbox, and the connected
gears. The synchronizing side is composed of mechanical parts up to the wheels of the car. The manual
gear-changing mechanism consists of forks and
shafts moved either by actuators or by hand.
As the dynamical behaviour of these three mechanical parts is complicated to simulate, owing to the
large number of elements involved, it is not easy
to study the entire gear-changing process in detail.
The following study considers only synchronizer
behaviour, with the four following aims:
* Corresponding author: INSA-Lyon, Genie Industrial, Bat Jules
Verne, 20 Av. Albert Einstein, Villeurbanne Cedex, F-69621,
France. email: daniel.play@insa-lyon.fr
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The Charlesworth Group, Wakefield 01924 204830
1. To make the angular velocity dierence between

the synchro hub and the gear to be engaged at
zero. This task is called synchronization;
2. To prevent gear changing when there is a
dierence of angular velocity. This task is called
interdiction;
3. To move the synchro sleeve between the synchronizing splines;
4. To allow power transmission when gear changing
occurs.
Variations in the angular velocity dierence are
usually obtained by conical friction clutches, while
the power transmission is usually done by spline
coupling. One, two, or three conical surfaces are
considered, depending on the torque transmitted.
Clearly, a wide variety of technical solutions exists
but the same types of problem are found. In this
paper, the BorgWarner-type synchronizer with one
conical surface clutch is considered (Fig. 1). Note also
that only three centring mechanisms are taken into
account.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering
Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements
Fig. 1 Main parts of a gearbox transmission
2 STATE OF THE ART

Although synchronizers have been used since the
late 1920s, it was not until several years later that
scientic papers describing their behaviour appeared.
In the late 1960s, a global description was given [1]
and used extensive technical experience to formulate
simple mechanical equations to describe synchronization and interdiction. In the early 1980s, the eect
of dierent linings on the conical surface clutch was
studied [24] and the increase of transmitted power
has led to new developments such as multicone
synchronizers, once again using simple mechanical
theory [58]. During the last decade, simulations of
global mechanical behaviour have called on classical
softwares (Matlab Simulink, Adams) [911]. All these
contributions can be classied into the following
categories:
1. The description of new synchronizers, with little
theory and the main focus on discussion of experimental behaviour [1214]. These papers place
emphasis on the structure of the synchronizer and
describe its advantages. Synchronizing solutions
usually permit decreasing either the shift force or
the time needed for gear changing.
2. The description of angular velocity synchronization. Hydrodynamic calculations and a tribological approach are introduced, such as the
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eects of dierent linings on cone surfaces and

the eects of grooves on the synchro ring conical
surface. The proposed linings allow the shift force
to decrease as well as time for speed changing.
At the same time, linings are not so sensitive to
variations of oil type and to less severe manufacturing tolerance requirements for conical parts.
They also have a signicant damping eect on
changing force. The study of conical surface groove
eects has led to proposed optimized values for
groove dimensions [1, 15, 16]. The grooves may
have either an axial or circumferential geometric
position. The axial grooves are shown to need
less changing force, but are more inuenced by
geometrical errors due to manufacturing and wear
occurring during operation.
3. The description of synchronizer behaviour during
gear changing, using numerical simulation software models, with a comparison of experimental
results including the study of the dynamical
behaviour of the gear-changing mechanism, synchronizing, and the synchronized parts of the
transmission. The gear-changing process has been
studied using various models, and is distinguishable by various working phases. The comparison
between measured data and the results from
numerical simulation highlight the eect of parameters such as conicity angle, conicity angle error,
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L Lovas, D Play, J Marialigeti, and J F Rigal
cone friction coecients, spline chamfer angle,

number of cones [8], and number of splines [9].
The dynamics of the manual changing mechanism, joining the gear lever and the gearbox by
cables [10, 9] and rods [17, 18, 8] have been
shown to have an eect on gear-changing force.
The eect of torsional dynamics of the transmission has also been studied [19, 20] with the
introduction of the gear backlash eect. To conclude, widely recognized problems exist, such as
second bump, gear-changing noise, or impossible
gear changing, the reasons for which are still
unknown.
4. The study of shift feel and approach from the
drivers point of view. A simple dynamical study
of the transmission is performed in order to
explain gear-changing problems such as noise and
impossible gear changing. Usually, these problems
are attributed to the torsional vibrations of the
transmission, torsional backlashes [20], or are
deduced from variations of the force applied on
the sleeve during gear changing [18]. The diculty
of obtaining objective measurements was discussed [21]. All these papers give an idea about
the variety of gear-changing problems and dene
the characteristics of optimal gear changing
from the users point of view. They attempt to link,
as far as possible, human perception of gearshift
and the mechanical data [5]. For example, a timesynchronization integral has been introduced
[21, 9], corresponding to the sum of loads during
the synchronization phase.
New advances in synchronizers as well as increased
transmitted power and actuating load control give
rise to new technical problems that in turn must be
addressed. For example, a high experimental force
peak is sometimes seen after the synchronization
phase. This peak is called the second bump. The
amplitude of this second bump of axial force cannot
clearly be explained and is then dicult to simulate.
The occurrence of the second bump and its size seem
to be random phenomena. It is also assumed that
this force is responsible for the cracking noise during
gear changing. Furthermore, some other phenomena
are not clearly explicable, such as the wear of the
coupling spline chamfers of the synchro ring. These
poorly understood phenomena make it dicult to
optimize synchronizer performance. Consequently,
this study reviews all the process and mechanical
models in greater detail. It begins with a description
of the successive phases of synchronizer behaviour.
Then, simulation models are presented and, nally,
the stick-slip phenomenon in synchronizers and
second bump are studied in detail.
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3 A STUDY OF SYNCHRONIZER WORKING

PHASES
Studying synchronizer behaviour requires a detailed
knowledge of the gear-changing process. Dierent
relative positions of the synchronizer parts, as well
as the characteristic points of both synchronized
angular velocity and the axial force variation, enable
successive phases to be distinguishable. The number
of phases depends on the limits of the relative studies
and on the type of model formulated for the gearchanging process. Thus, the number of phases varies
in the literature from four [20] to eleven [10]. In this
study, the gear-changing process is described from
the neutral-gear lever position to the position when
the sleeve has meshed the gear. The gear-changing
process is divided into eight phases, illustrated in
Fig. 2. The model limitations are given either by
synchronizing torque variations, angular velocity
variations, or variation of the relative position of the
mechanical parts.
In numerical simulations, synchronizer behaviour
was studied in two environments [22]: either mounted
on a test rig or working in a given gearbox architecture. Each environment has its own dynamical
and power loss characteristics. Many synchro ring
geometries and materials were tested in both
environments; hence the following gures in the
text illustrate many cases. Thus, synchronization
durations and synchronizing force maximum values
can change from one gure to another, depending
on the case in question.
3.1 Presentation of working phases
In order to illustrate part positions during gear
changing, only the splines of the sleeve, the ring,
and the gear are shown (Fig. 3). Note that an inner
view of the sleeve is given in order to facilitate
visualization. In fact, the real position of the sleeve
splines in relation to the meshing of the other mechanical parts is reversed. The following descriptions
of phases are based on experimental visualizations
made with a high-speed videocamera during specic
gearbox tests not reported here.
3.1.1 First free y (Phase 1)
Free y means that the sleeve moves forward axially
without signicant mechanical resistance (Fig. 4).
During this phase, the sleeve also displaces the
centring mechanisms that push the synchro ring
towards the cone of the gear. The axial velocity of
the sleeve is high, the required axial force is low,
and both are constant. The equations describing the
Fig. 2 Denition of working phases during the gear-changing process
Fig. 3 Presentation of the main parts of splines
Fig. 4 Variation of the spline position during the rst free y (Phase 1)
force and angular velocity variations are given in

Appendix 2, Section 2.4.
3.1.2 Start of the speed synchronization (Phase 2)
The spline position at the start of speed synchronization corresponds to the nal position of the previous phase (Fig. 4). The axial pushing force applied
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on the sleeve increases. The force is transmitted from

the sleeve to the balls of the centring mechanisms,
then to the side of the synchro ring. The equilibrium
of the balls is ensured by springs. When the transmitted force reaches a given level, it cannot be
balanced by the springs and the balls of the centring
mechanisms withdraw into their housings. The
sleeve moves forward slightly and the sleeve splines
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enter into contact with the splines of the synchro

ring. The axial force is transmitted directly from
the sleeve to the synchro ring. As the synchro ring
approaches the gear cone, it compresses the oil
trapped between the synchro ring and the gear
conical surfaces. With the decrease from the normal
distance between the conical surfaces, the oil lm
pressure increases. Thus, a rapid increase of axial
force is needed to achieve gear changing. In order to
break the hydrodynamic oil lm and minimize force
increase, grooves are made in the conical surface of
the synchro ring. In this study, only radial groove
eects are discussed. The grooves help to break the
oil lm and remove the oil. During this phase,
the axial velocity of the sleeve decreases to zero. The
equations describing the force and angular velocity
variations involved are well known and displayed in
Appendix 2, Section 2.1.
3.1.3 Angular velocity synchronization (Phase 3)
The spline position of each mechanical element
during angular velocity synchronization corresponds
to the nal position of the rst phase (Fig. 4). After
most of the oil has been evacuated, mixed lubrication takes place between the conical surfaces.
An increasing axial force is applied and then maintained practically at a constant high level of 500
700 Newtons. The mixed friction consumes the
kinetic mechanical energy dierence, and the angular
velocity dierence between the sleeve and the gear
decreases towards zero. While an angular velocity
dierence exists, the equilibrium of axial and
tangential forces applied on the spline chamfers
prevents continuation of the gear-changing process.
This phase usually lasts for approximately half of
the gear-changing time. The equations describing
the force and angular velocity variations are also well
known and displayed in Appendix 2, Section 2.2.
3.1.4 Turning the synchro ring (Phase 4)

If the angular velocity dierence reaches zero,
the friction phenomenon stops. The synchro ring
previously heated by the dissipated friction energy
loses the heat and its diameter decreases. It soon
becomes stuck on the gear cone. The resistant force
component on the spline chamfers disappears. The
sleeve starts to move axially (Fig. 5). At the same time,
a decreasing axial force is imposed. The displacement of the sleeve turns the synchro ring and the
gear while the chamfers remain in contact. The
axial velocity of the sleeve increases from zero to
maximum. The axial force falls to a minimum
value. As before, the equations describing the force
and angular velocity variations are well known and
displayed in Appendix 2, Section 2.3.
3.1.5 Second free y (Phase 5)
The synchro ring stops turning when the spline
chamfers separate. The sleeve moves forward axially
until approaching the spline chamfers of the gear
(Fig. 6). The axial velocity of the sleeve is maximal
while the required axial force becomes minimal.
During this phase, the sleeve meshes with the synchro
ring. The angular velocity of the gear is assumed
to be equal to that of the sleeve. The equations
describing the force and angular velocity variations
are also well known and displayed in Appendix 2,
Section 2.4.
3.1.6 Start of the second bump (Phase 6)
When the spline chamfers of the sleeve and that of
the gear approach each other (Fig. 7), a thin lm of
oil is formed again between the chamfer surfaces.
The compression of the oil lm requires an increase
of axial force in order to maintain the axial velocity
of the sleeve. Normally, this increase is not enough
Fig. 5 Variation of the spline position during turning of the synchro ring (Phase 4)
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Fig. 6 Variation of the spline position during the second free y (Phase 5)
Fig. 7 Variation of the spline position during the start of the second bump (Phase 6)
to maintain the axial velocity and the sleeve slows

down while the oil lm is broken, as can be seen in
[11]. Then, the axial force increases strongly as the
oil is discharged and the metallic chamfer surface
becomes compressed. This axial force increase stops
when the tangential force component from the force
equilibrium on the chamfers is high enough to turn
the synchro ring previously stuck on the cone. The
synchro ring then becomes free, and the sleeve can
continue the axial displacement. The consecutive
increase of the axial force is the rst component of
the phenomenon called double bump. Here also, the
variations are displayed in Appendix 2, Section 2.5.
3.1.7 Turning the gear (Phase 7)
After separation of the synchro ring and the gear
cone, the sleeve turns the gear when it moves
forward with low axial velocity (Fig. 8). Clearly,
the axial force required for turning depends on the
relative position of the sleeve splines and the gear
splines. This relative initial position is obtained at
the end of synchronization. If the turning angle is
wide, the force required is low. If the angle is narrow,
the force amplitude can reach a high level. As the
axial displacement of the sleeve is assumed to occur
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at a constant velocity, a narrower turn angle requires

more force to accelerate and turn the gear in a
shorter time. This phase constitutes the second and
major part of the second bump phenomenon. The
turning force is completely independent of the force
separating the gear and the synchro ring. The
variations are given in Appendix 2, Section 2.6.
3.1.8 Final free y (Phase 8)
After turning the gear, the sleeve moves forward
axially and meshes the splines of the gear. The axial
velocity of the sleeve reaches a maximum value and
the axial force becomes minimal. The equations
describing the force and angular velocity variations
are also given in Appendix 2, Section 2.4.
3.2 Models for synchronizer behaviour
simulation
A simulation using a numerical model was performed in order to describe synchronizer behaviour.
The model consists of eight units, each of which
describes the previously mentioned phases. Each
unit contains iteration loops that calculate the
interactions between the mechanical parts and take
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Fig. 8 Variation of the spline position when turning the gear (Phase 7)
into account the variations of the main parameters.

The models used in the numerical simulation are
described below.
3.2.1 A model of power losses in the gearbox
In a gearbox, power losses come mainly from three
sources. Firstly, power losses in roller bearings are
calculated with the Palmgren formula referred to in
[23] and [24]. Classical hydrodynamic formulae are
used in the case of hydrodynamic plain bearings [23].
Secondly, power losses due to the friction of seals
used to isolate the oil are calculated with empirical
formula given in [24]. Thirdly, oil-churning power
losses are calculated with formulae developed by [25]
and [24] for given ranges of oil immersion and oil
temperature. Clearly, a gearbox contains many bearings, gears, and isolation seals and, consequently,
power losses are non-negligible [26]. During gear
changing, the clutch is supposed to be disengaged;
thus, friction on the clutch plate does not inuence
the gear-changing process.
3.2.2 The heating model of the synchro ring
During synchronization, friction occurs between the
conical surfaces of the synchro ring and the gear
cone. The friction converts kinetic energy into heat.
One part of the dissipated heat is absorbed by the
gear, the other part is absorbed by the synchro ring.
It is assumed that the thermal mass (the mass of the
part multiplied by the thermal capacity) of the gear
is much higher than that of the synchro ring. Thus,
the increase of the gear bulk temperature is not
signicant. However, the synchro ring bulk temperature increases (Dt=49 C) and results in thermal
expansion. Thus, the cone radius of the synchro ring
increases. Meanwhile, the axial synchronization force
is still present and pushes the synchro ring higher
and higher on the gear cone. Clearly, heat production
stops at the end of synchronization. As the axial
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force is still present, the synchro ring cannot move

down on the cone. The mean synchronizing diameter
decreases, surface pressure increases, and the synchro
ring remains stuck on the gear cone (Fig. 9). This
model is described in [15]. Separation of the synchro
ring from the gear cone needs a second bump force
peak (see Section 4.2.1).
3.2.3 The elastic deformation model of the synchro
ring
Due to machining tolerances, the conicity angles
of the synchro ring cone and gear cone can
dier. A conicity angle error is dened (Appendix 2,
Section 2.1). In this study, only positive values are
considered as dened in Fig. 10. As the synchro
ring is far less rigid than the gear cone, the synchronization force produces considerable displacement and tends to rotate cross-sections of the
synchro ring, reducing Da towards zero (Fig. 10). This
phenomenon is analytically described in [15] and
visualized through nite element simulations in [27].
Conicity angle dierence values from Da=0.05 to
Da=0.25 were calculated from measured gear cone
and synchro ring conicity angles [27, 28]. Note that
these values change owing to continuous wear of
Fig. 9 Displacement of the synchro ring issued from

thermal dilatations
separation less than 105 mm). Contact damping c

c
can also be introduced (5105 Ns/m [23] for a surface
separation less than 105 mm) coming from the oil
lm. A geometrical model describing the approach
of the sleeve chamfer and the gear chamfer surface
is given in Fig. 11 [23]. Equations describing the
process are given in Appendix 2, Section 2.5.
3.2.5 A gear-turning model
Fig. 10 Model of deformation for the synchro ring
the conical surfaces. Conicity angle error provokes a

quick axial force increase at the start of the synchronization phase [16]. On the other side, synchro ring
deformation caused by axial force in the presence of
conicity angle error results in sticking of the synchro
ring on the gear cone. Thus, separation of the
synchro ring from the gear cone also needs a second
bump force peak. Heating and elastic deformation
eects are supposed to be independent of each other
in the computation model, and their eects are
added for computation of the second bump force
(see Section 4.2.)
3.2.4 A model for the start of the second bump
As the sleeve approaches the gear spline chamfers,
an oil lm is created between the chamfer surfaces.
Contact elasticity coming from oil-lm compression
can be introduced [11, 10] and an increase of contact
stiness k as a result of surface asperity compression
c
can also be introduced (1065107 N/m for a surface
After separation of the synchro ring from the gear

cone, the sleeve has to turn the gear. The equation
proposed to describe the turning force can be found
in Appendix 2, Section 2.6. During turning, the axial
velocity of the sleeve increases from the value resulting at the end of the previous phase to the maximum value. As axial and tangential velocities are
connected on the spline chamfers, axial acceleration
can be computed from the tangential acceleration.
3.2.6 A model of stick-slip
The stick-slip phenomenon appears when a mass is
placed on a surface and moved there by a combination of stiness and damping (Fig. 12). Various
phenomena can be observed that depend rst on
mass, surface friction, and sliding velocity on the
contact surface and, secondly, on elasticity and
damping loads parallel to the sliding velocity. If
the normal force is low and the sliding velocity
is high, simple sliding is observed. If the normal
force increases and the sliding velocity decreases,
harmonic oscillations are observed. Finally, when the
normal force is high and the sliding velocity is low,
harmonic oscillation phases are interrupted by linear
Fig. 11 Spline chamfer contact geometry

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(Fig. 14). As both normal forces and sliding velocities

change considerably during the gear-changing process, it is assumed that stick-slip oscillations will vary
strongly, and all three previous forms of amplitude
oscillations will occur.
Fig. 12 Model of the stick-slip
displacement phases. The latter phenomenon is

called stick-slip (Fig. 13). An equation describing the
process is given in Appendix 2, Section 2.7.
It is assumed that stick-slip phenomena appear
between contact surfaces in the synchronizer. The
rst contact surface is the side surface of the sleeve
spline. Here, the normal force is the local tangential
force, and the sliding velocity is the axial velocity
of the sleeve (Fig. 14). The second contact surface is
the gear cone. Here, the normal force comes from
the axial force and the sliding velocity is given by the
angular velocity dierence of the two cone surfaces
Fig. 13 Variations of oscillation amplitude depending

on exiting velocity v
b
3.3 A brief survey of the numerical simulation

software and validation
The numerical simulation model was developed on
a Delphi informatics environment (Pascal language)
using a simple modular structure. Each module
corresponds to one of the previously mentioned
working phases. The modular structure enables to
study each working phase on a desired descriptive
level of mechanical behaviour to be studied, and this
level as a function of local conditions to be modied.
In each module, iteration loops allow the variation
of parameters describing the behaviour of the parts
to be calculated. The main modules and iteration
loops are presented in Fig. 15.
The governing parameters are either the axial
velocity, or the axial force applied on the sleeve.
Only one of them is applied for a specic numerical
simulation, depending on the studied working phase
and the actual geometric position of the parts. The
software has more than 60 input parameters that
ensure highly exible use and permit adaptations
to various boundary conditions. Furthermore, the
software takes into consideration the eect of gearbox architectures: the number and type of bearings
as well as lubricant type, oil quantity, temperature,
and inertia of mechanical parts.
The numerical values of parameters transmitted
from one phase to another are the sleeve axial
position, synchronized angular velocity, and the
axial force applied on the sleeve. When computing
Fig. 14 The contact surfaces concerned: a) the sleeve spline side, b) the cone of the gear
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10
Fig. 15 Structure of the simulation software
Phase 1, the sleeve axial velocity is considered to

be constant. The axial force is computed from the
equation given in Appendix 2, Section 2.4. Phase 1
ends when the normal distance between the conical
surfaces of the synchro ring and the gear cone
becomes small enough for the application of hydrodynamics laws.
In Phase 2, the relationships of both the decreasing
axial velocity and the increasing axial force (Fig. 28)
are given. Synchronized gear angular velocity is computed from hydrodynamics equations (Appendix 2,
Section 2.1). The phase ends when the axial force
becomes big enough to break the oil lm.
In Phase 3, the axial force increases based on the
preceding phase conditions. Synchronized angular
velocity is computed from mixed lubrication
equations (Appendix 2, Section 2.2). Heat produced
from the dry friction part of the mixed lubrication is
also computed, in addition to the distributions of
heat into the synchro ring and gear. Oil viscosity
variation between the conical surfaces as a result of
heat dissipation is taken into consideration. Phase 3
ends when the synchronized angular velocity equals
the synchronizing angular velocity.
For computing Phase 4, the relationships of both
axial force decrease and sleeve axial velocity increase
are given. The equation for turning is given in
Appendix 2, Section 2.3. Because of mechanical part
turning, the synchronized angular velocity diers
from the synchronizing one. The phase ends when
the synchro ring is turned with an angle issued from
the spline geometry (Fig. 5).
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Phase 5 is computed in the same way as Phase 1.

The sleeve has to move axially in order to mesh the
synchro ring (Fig. 6).
In Phase 6, the sleeve approaches the gear splines
(Fig. 7). The relative position between the sleeve
spline side chamfers and gear spline side chamfers
is an input data. Sleeve axial velocity decreases
when the contact force increases on the spline side
chamfers. When axial velocity falls below a given
limit, an axial force increase is needed to maintain
the contact. At the same time, the sticking force of
the synchro ring on the gear cone is computed from
conicity angle error (input data) and synchro ring
thermal expansion owing to accumulated heat. When
the tangential component of the axial force applied
on the spline chamfers is high enough (Fig. 29),
the synchro ring is set free and the phase is over
(Appendix 2, Section 2.5).
In Phase 7, the sleeve turns the gear. The necessary
turning angle (Fig. 8) comes from the spline relative
position, given as input data. The equation for
turning is given in Appendix 2, Section 2.6. As the
axial velocity is given, the turning force amplitude
depends on the turning angle. Because of turning,
the synchronized angular velocity is dierent from
the synchronizing one. The phase ends when gear
turning is nished.
Phase 8 is again a free y phase when the sleeve
meshes gear splines. It is computed like the previous
free y phases.
Power losses are computed in each step of computation and refreshed values are introduced in
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motion equations. Occurrence of stick-slip is observed

in each non-free y phase. If limit conditions are
reached, axial or tangential stick-slip equations are
computed and the position of mechanical parts is
modied.
The synchromesh behaviour, for a JH ve-speed
car gearbox (Fig. 31) was simulated. Based on gearbox architecture, synchronized inertias were computed for each speed. Power losses issued from
rolling bearings and from the oil-churning of the
gears were computed depending on the instant
angular velocity of each part. The numerical results
conrm the variation of the gear-changing time
as a function of engaged speed (Fig. 32), engaged
inertia and changing axial force (Fig. A6) (Appendix 2,
Section 2.8).
The numerical results for synchronisation behaviour
were also compared to measured data published in
the literature [18] using the same initial conditions.
Synchro ring and cone parameters, and command
parameters were set as described [18]. For numerical
simulation, the inertia and power loss model of the
11
test bench was used. The numerical simulation

and measurement data display similar characteristics to the literature in three main zones (Fig. 16).
The rst zone is that of the constant axial force
applied on the synchro ring. The calculated axial
force equals the mean experimental 240 N force
during this period. The measured data display axial
force oscillations, which are not considered in the
simulation. On the one hand, this variation can be
attributed to the fact that small contact zones exist
between the synchro ring and the gear cone instead
of the whole apparent contact surface. As the two
parts are in rotation with dierent angular velocities,
and both have eccentricities, friction conditions
can vary during angular velocity synchronization.
Therefore, force variations can appear.
The second cause of force variation can be
attributed to the stick-slip phenomenon and will be
discussed later. A 700 N second bump of axial force
is then calculated (Fig. 16), corresponding also to the
amplitude of the measured second bump load [18].
Furthermore, the measured angular velocity presents
Fig. 16 Data for validating the simulation software. The numerical test-bench environment with
synchro and command parameters from [18]
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12
a desynchronization period after reaching the synchronization point that corresponds to the turning
phase of the ring [18]. This desynchronization is
equal to 35 r/min; a similar value is obtained by
numerical simulation (Fig. 16). Then, two small peaks
can be observed on the measured angular velocity
curve. The rst peak is the smallest and is assumed
to be as a result of the turning of the ring, while the
second higher peak corresponds to the turning of
the gear. The same amplitudes are also obtained
from the numerical simulation.
4 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION
The numerical simulation software enables the study
of eight working phases of synchronizer behaviour.
The following discussion is restricted to the role of
the stick-slip phenomena and to the second bump
observation.
4.1 The role of stick-slip phenomena
Harmonic axial force oscillations with small amplitudes are observed in various phases [Fig. 2, see
also Fig. 23(b)], and they do not have a considerable
eect on the gear-changing process with the given
boundary conditions. The applied elasticity, damping, and mass data come from the literature [18, 29].
On the contrary, stick-slip phenomena are assumed
mainly to take place between two contact zones of
the synchronizer: at the sleeve spline side contact
surface and at the conical surfaces. Numerical simulation results allow discussion as to whether stickslip on the spline-side surfaces can exist. Numerical
simulations conrm signicant stick-slip eects on
conical surfaces, also. Various types of behaviour can
be obtained as a function of the involved stick-slip
parameters while using the same changing force
and sleeve velocity command. The main parameters
inuencing stick-slip phenomena are torsional
inertia, elasticity and damping, dynamic and static
friction coecients, and critical sliding velocity
when harmonic oscillations appear. Only orders of
magnitude of the parameters were used. The study
of parameters makes it possible to distinguish the
following cases.
When stick-slip appears, rstly oscillating movement is superposed on the decelerating motion
of the synchronized gear. Instant force equilibrium
between the synchro ring and gear cone follows the
movement oscillation. Thus, oscillation in the instant
force equilibrium on the synchro ring appears. In this
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

way, oscillation is present in the axial force that is

applied on the synchro ring by the sleeve.
4.1.1 Three small bumps on the axial force plateau
With appropriate stick-slip parameters (h =0.063
R
kgm2, c =1 Nms/rd, k =500 Nm/rd, m =0.1, m =0.2,
Q
Q
m
v
v =45 rd/s, Da=0), the simulated axial force (Fig. 16)
m
and the measured axial force [18] have similar shapes
and the oscillation amplitudes have similar orders of
magnitude. In this case, low torsional elasticity is
used and the sliding velocity limit is very high. In
such a conguration, the bumps on the axial force
plateau can be reproduced, because the sliding
velocity limit when stick-slip appears is reached in an
early moment of angular velocity synchronization.
As the angular velocity dierence between the
synchro ring and synchronized gear cone decreases
quickly, and torsional stiness is relatively low, there
is no time for the formation of classical stick phases.
The simulated axial force (Fig. 17) oscillates around
a mean value of 500 N with an amplitude of 10 N,
which represents a variation of 2 per cent. The mean
value and the amplitude of the measured force have
the same magnitude.
4.1.2 No bump on the axial force plateau but
oscillations at the end
Using sliding parameters similar to those published in
[30, 31] (h =0.063 kgm2, c =1 Nms/rd, k =250 000
R
Q
Q
Nm/rd, m =0.1, m =0.2, v =9 rd/s, Da=0), the
m
v
m
simulation result obtained is a at plateau [32].
Harmonic oscillations appear only at the end of the
synchronization process, a short time before the nal
synchronization (Fig. 18). The oscillating frequency
is high and the axial force amplitude is about 12 N,
considered as negligible for governing the angular
velocity of the gear. With this rst set of parameters,
stick-slip oscillations appear only just before the
synchroni ation, and have no eect on the end of
the synchroni ation.
However, by modifying the friction coecients
on the conical surfaces and the spline chamfers
( f =0.04, f =0.1; h =0.063 kgm2, c =1 Nms/rd,
s
2
R
Q
k =314 000 Nm/rd, m =0.1, m =0.2, v =4rd/s,
Q
m
v
m
Da=0), examples can be found where stick phases
occur before synchronization (Fig. 19). This can
happen when the friction conditions on the cone
and dynamical behaviour of the transmission during
gear-changing are not adapted. During the stick
phenomenon, the synchro ring and gear turn together.
The sleeve interprets this as if there were no interdiction and thus moves forward axially (Fig. 20).
Then, harmonic oscillation occurs. The sleeve stops
D21604 IMechE 2006
13
Fig. 17 Results from simulating the plateau with three bumps. The numerical test-bench environment, synchro, and command parameters from measurements; stick-slip parameters
from section 4.1.1.
Fig. 18 No bumps on the plateau. The numerical test-bench environment, synchro, and
command parameters from measurements; stick-slip parameters from section 4.1.2.
because the interdiction force appears again. Next,

another stick phenomenon follows and the sleeve
moves forward again.
If the sleeve reaches the end of the synchro
ring gear chamfer well before the theoretical synchronization time, synchronization is performed
instantaneously by shocks and the gearbox emits a
rattled synchronizer noise. At the same time, both
sleeve and synchro ring splines suer heavy wear
damage.
4.2 Discussion of the second bump phenomenon
It was assumed that the second bump phenomenon
is in fact constituted by two force peaks with dierent
origins. The axial force peak in the rst part of
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the second bump results from the separation of the

synchro ring and the gear cone, and lasts a very short
time. The force peak in the second part of the second
bump results from the turning of the gear and lasts
longer. As the overall duration of the bump is less
than 2102 s (Fig. 16), these two successive phases
are dicult to distinguish from test measurements
and visualizations. However, a distinction must be
made: the rst part is inuenced mainly by synchro
ring material, cone and spline chamfer friction
characteristics, and surface conicity error [28], while
the second part depends on spline chamfer friction
characteristics and the relative spline position of the
synchro ring and the gear. In order to decrease
the second bump peak, dierent parameters have to
be considered in both cases.
14
Fig. 19 Stick at the end of the synchronization phase (numerical test-bench environment,
synchro, and command parameters from measurements)
Fig. 20 Forces on the sleeve during synchronization with stick-slip
4.2.1 The separation force peak

At the end of the speed synchronization, the synchro
ring is pushed against the gear cone but it is in a
thermal expansion state and deformed geometric
position. The dierence of angular velocity then
stops with a concomitant disappearance of friction.
The synchro ring cools down quickly and remains
stuck on the gear cone as the axial force is still present and does not allow the synchro ring to lower.
The sleeve moves forward axially until reaching the
splines of the gear. Then, the sleeve must slow down,
because it cannot turn the gear without separating
the gear from the synchro ring. An increase of axial
force is needed, so that the tangential component of
the force equilibrium can overcome the static friction
resistance of the synchro ring and turn the ring on
the gear cone.
The axial force needed for the separation is
obtained from the tangential force calculation (see
Fig. 23 later). The separating tangential force is the
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

sum of two force components. The rst part of

the tangential force is the force needed to counterbalance the pressure that the synchro ring exercises
on the gear cone when stuck on it. This pressure
comes from two sources: from synchro ring deformation because of conicity angle dierence, and
from deformation because of synchro ring thermal
expansion. The conicity angle dierence vanishes by
the end of the synchronization, as the synchro ring
is deformed by axial force and takes the conicity
angle of the gear cone.
The synchro ring initial bulk temperature is
assumed to be similar to the gearbox oil temperature:
t=80 C. During synchronization, the conical surface temperature can increase until t=120 C. This
latter value is conrmed by both measurements [27]
and simulations [25, 28]. Part of the heat produced
during friction is absorbed by the synchro ring
and its bulk temperature increases with Dt=49 C.
Under temperature increase, the synchro ring
expands, its mean radius increases, and the synchro
D21604 IMechE 2006
ring moves upwards on the gear cone surface. This

situation is maintained while dierential motion
and circumferential friction exist between conical
surfaces. When the dierential motion ends with
reaching the angular velocity synchronization, the
synchro ring loses the accumulated heat and its
mean radius decreases. As the axial force is still
present, the synchro ring cannot move down on the
gear cone and remain stuck.
The equations of the deformation model [15, 22]
(Fig. 9) and the thermal expansion model [15, 22]
(Fig. 10) give these pressure values. The second part
of the tangential force comes from contact force
existing between the sleeve and gear spline chamfers
(Fig. 11). Equations of the geometry and the contact
model (Appendix 2, Section 2.5), [23, 22] give this
force value.
There is a second chamfer of angle x manufactured
on the spline sides of the sleeve (Fig. 21). When the
sleeve is meshed with the gear splines, this chamfer
helps to maintain the sleeve in a meshed position.
During gear changing, when the separating force is
applied, a good choice of second chamfer angle can
decrease the axial force needed to pass beyond the
same tangential resistant force [see Fig. 23(a) later].
In order to decrease axial force, the second chamfer
angle x must be greater than the friction angle r
2
between the sleeve spline and gear spline chamfers
(Fig. 29).
The variation of the conicity angle error seems to
have a signicant inuence on this force peak and
the stiness of the synchro ring also seems to have
an inuence on the phenomenon. The static friction
coecient on the conical surfaces and the mechanical and thermal properties of the ring material are
other important parameters.
After separation of the gear cone and synchro ring
cone, friction on the gear cone is neglected, as axial
force on the synchro ring coming from only centring
mechanisms is supposed to be small. The main axial
15
changing force will act on the gear and sleeve spline

chamfers.
4.2.2 The turning force peak
Immediately after the separation of the synchro ring
from the gear cone, the sleeve starts to turn the gear
in order to mesh it. The turning angle is determined
by the relative position of the sleeve splines and
the gear splines at the end of the synchronization.
During turning, the sleeve is assumed to move
forward rst with constant axial acceleration, starting
from the axial velocity inherited from the previous
phase. At the same time, it is assumed that the turning force accelerates the gear with a constant angular
acceleration. After the sleeve has reached the maximum axial velocity, the axial acceleration stops.
As the angular acceleration is linked to the axial
acceleration, it stops at the same time. Gear spline
tangential velocity will have exactly the value needed
to leave space for the approaching sleeve. The axial
force decreases, as it only has to compensate for the
gearbox power losses.
Assuming this, the eect of the turning angle on
the turning force needed for acceleration can be
described as follows: the higher the absolute value
of the turning angle, the smaller is the turning force
required. When turning starts, the axial velocity of
the sleeve is low. It has to be accelerated to reach the
nominal axial velocity. As the spline chamfers are in
contact, axial and angular velocities are connected.
Firstly, an axial force increase causes the sleeve axial
velocity to increase and thus the gear angular velocity
increases. The forces are high due to the high inertia
accelerated in a very short time. Secondly, when
the sleeve reaches the maximum axial velocity, the
axial and angular accelerations become zero. Then a
lower axial force is applied to maintain the constant
angular velocity of the gear and to compensate power
losses. Thus, axial force is relatively high at the
Fig. 21 Geometric position and photo of the splines

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16
beginning of turning and is lower when acceleration

has ended. As the turning angle is a random quantity,
even in the case of strictly identical working
conditions, it is dierent for each gear change.
Numerical simulations win a test-bench numerical
environment show that synchro ring material has
a very small eect on variation in turning force
(Fig. 22). As assumed, bronze and sintered steel
synchro rings behave similarly in this phase (friction
coecients: 0.08 for bronze, 0.1 for sintered material).
Considering the spline chamfer geometry, a global
symmetry can be observed in the variation of the
turning force as a function of the turning angle
(Fig. 22). Close to the turning angle Q=0 (where no
large turning is needed), two force peaks of equal
size should be present owing to the symmetry of the
spline geometry. However, they are of dierent size.
This could be attributed to the eect of the oriented
power losses that always occur in the direction
opposing the angular velocity.
If the gear has to be turned in the opposite
direction to the mean angular velocity (Q<0), it has
to be slowed down instantaneously (Fig. 22). The
turning force can be lower, because the power losses
aid gear-turning (angular acceleration). When the
angular acceleration has stopped, the gear follows
turning with a lower constant angular velocity than
the synchronized one, under the eect of power
losses (Fig. 23, left side). Consequently, no supplementary axial force is needed to nish the turning.
If the gear has to be turned with Q>0, it has to be
accelerated instantaneously (Fig. 22). Gearbox power
losses decrease the angular acceleration of gear
turning. Thus, a higher turning force is needed to

maintain constant angular acceleration. A lower
force must then be maintained in order to complete
turning with a higher constant angular velocity than
the synchronized one (Fig. 23, right side).
The measured data can be used to observe gear
angular velocity variation. Observations and simulation are compared in Fig. 23 [33]. Test-bench
measured results [Fig. 23(b)] and numerical simulation results [Fig. 23(c)] in a test-bench numerical
environment are of similar shape but with slightly
dierent numerical values in both turning cases.
Dierences between measured and simulated peakto-valley angular velocity are supposed to come
from eects of the synchronized inertia, smoothing
sharp angular velocity variations. The inertia eect
is stronger in the Q>0 turning case (Fig. 23, right
side) than in the Q<0 turning case (Fig. 23, left side).
This eect has not yet been included in the
simulation. The duration of peak-to-valley angular
velocity variation is 0.075 s in the Q<0 turning case
measurements [Fig. 23(b) left side] and 0.04 s in
the numerical simulations [Fig. 23(c), left side]. The
duration of peak-to valley angular velocity variation
is 0.03 s in the Q>0 turning case measurements
[Fig. 23(b), right side], and 0.01 s in the numerical
simulations [Fig. 23(c), right side].
From the theoretical point of view, geometric
positions exist where turning is impossible owing to
the sharp end of the chamfers. In such cases, gear
changing is theoretically impossible. However, in
practice, turning is possible because the chamfers
are blunted, though very high axial force is required.
Fig. 22 Turning force distribution versus turning angle

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

D21604 IMechE 2006
17
Fig. 23 Synchronized angular velocity variation in two directions
The measured data show that either very high second

bump force peaks are present, or a long delay
before the second bump. Clearly, these phenomena
decrease shift feel comfort, but the probability of
such cases is low.
Another theoretical position is encountered when
sleeve splines are exactly opposite the gear splines.
In such cases turning is not needed, as the theoretical
turning force is zero. In the measured data, the
second bump peaks do not appear at all, or else they
are very small. Changing is done quickly and shift
comfort is good. Unfortunately, the probability of
such cases is also low because of spline geometry
and medium-size second bump force peaks are
usually observed.
An analysis of measured second bump data conrms the previous description. From a study of the
occurrences, a peak force occurrence diagram can be
drawn. The measured data are obtained by sampling
long duration tests. Peak values are gathered into
D21604 IMechE 2006
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classes of values and an upper force limit is dened.

Peaks higher than the limit are included in the higher
class of the diagram, regardless of their size. This
method is conrmed by the presence of maximum
force limits in the measured signals for one side. On
the other side, it is assumed that simulated very high
peak force values cannot be realistic. The gearchanging mechanism has intrinsic inertia and damping and gear changing has a non-zero duration.
Consequently, extreme high peaks are damped or
ltered and do not appear in the measurements;
hence, they are considered as maximum peak values
in the simulation.
In the case of the test-bench numerical environment, the behaviour of one synchronizer is simulated. The synchronizer can be set to three
geometrical positions: successively, position P1,
neutral, and position P2 (Fig. 1). As in real test bench,
power losses are dierent for positions P1 and P2.
Synchronizer data come from measurements on real
18
synchronizers. It is supposed that every relative

spline position j can be realized with the same
probability. If the quantity of sampled measured data
is great enough, approximately every relative spline
position is presented; thus, measured and simulated
data can be compared.
When simulating gear changing from position
P1 to position P2 (P1P2) using a bronze synchro
ring, it can be seen that peaks occur mainly in two
force classes: class 0 N and class 550 N (Fig. 24). The
measured data appear to have a maximal force limit
of 550 N, which can be attributed to the fact that the
maximum imposed axial force is 550 N.
Numerical simulations were performed in order to
investigate this phenomenon. Second bump peaks
were simulated, with j varying from 0.05 to 0.95, in
order to study the eect of the relative spline chamfer
position to the turning force during the second
bump peak. An occurrence spectrum similar to the
measured spectrum was obtained. After tuning the
parameters, simulation with the following values
approaches the measured data: j[0.2; 0.8], and the
friction coecient on the spline chamfers is f=0.25.
Friction coecient values of these magnitude and
even higher classically were found in the literature
[34]. By comparing the peak force spectra (Fig. 24) it
can be seen that both have similar shapes. Moreover,
the sum of occurrences in the two upper classes is
68 per cent in the experimental case and 64 per cent
in the simulated case. Simulations t well with the

measured data in this case.
A study of measured data and numerical simulations was also performed for changing P2P1
(Fig. 25). Here, the measured peak occurrence
spectrum is similar to that of the previous case. The
main dierence is the larger number of elements in
the class 0 N. After tuning the parameters, simulation
with the following values approaches the measured
data: j[0.15; 0.8], and the friction coecient on the
spline chamfers is f=0.2. As in the previous case,
the measured and simulated peak force spectra are
similar. The sum of the occurrences in the two upper
classes is 56 per cent in the experimental case and
49 per cent in the simulated case. The occurrence of
the lower class is the same in both cases. Here also,
simulations t well with the measured data in this
case.
Next, the sintered synchro ring is considered.
Experimental force peaks are distributed mainly
in three zones: around class 0 N, class 300 N, and
around the maximum class (Fig. 26). For P1P2 gear
changing, after tuning the parameters, simulation
data: j[0.2; 0.95], and the friction coecient on the
spline chamfers is f=0.15.
Measured and simulated peak force spectra are
similar. The lower three classes give 14 per cent of
total peaks in the experimental case and 16 per cent
Fig. 24 Second bump peak values and occurrence, bronze synchro ring, gear changing P1P2
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

D21604 IMechE 2006
19
Fig. 25 Second bump peak values and occurrence, bronze synchro ring, gear changing P2P1
Fig. 26 Second bump peak values and occurrence, sintered synchro ring, gear changing P1P2
in the simulated case. The upper three classes give

36 per cent in the experimental case versus 36 per
cent in the simulated case. The mean classes are
slightly dierent: 300 N in the experimental case and
350 N in the simulated case. The simulations also t
well with the measured data in this case.
D21604 IMechE 2006
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For P2P1 gear changing, the measured force

peaks are again concentrated in three zones: around
0 N, around 200 N, and in the maximal class (Fig. 27).
Note that the maximal force limit is relatively low,
only 450 N. After tuning the parameters, simulation
20
Fig. 27 Second bump peak values and occurrence, sintered synchro ring, gear changing P2P1
data: j[0.05; 0.95], and the friction coecient on

the spline chamfers is f=0.08.
The experimental and simulated peak force
spectra are similar. The lower two classes give 23 per
cent of total peaks in the experimental case and
28 per cent in the simulated case. The upper two
classes give 14 per cent in the experimental case
versus 30 per cent in the simulated case. The mean
classes are dierent: 200 N in the experimental
case and 300 N in the simulated case. Here, the simulated spectrum approaches the experimental data
spectrum, but some dierences exist in the position
of the mean force class and in the higher force
peak values.
It can be established that four main parameters
inuence the spectrum zones. These are the parameters modied during tuning.
1. j
inuences the sample in the class of 0 N.
min
If j increases, the sample in the class decreases.
min
2. j
inuences the sample in the mean force class.
max
If j
increases, the mean force class will have a
max
lower position in the spectrum.
3. f inuences the distribution in the classes. If the
friction coecient on the spline chamfers is high,
more items are situated in the higher classes.
4. b
acts as f. If the chamfer angle is high, more
gear
items are gathered in the higher classes.
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

It is interesting to note that high force peaks do not

appear in extreme relative position conditions (j#0
or j#1). Peaks are high when the position is almost
ideal to mesh the sleeve and gear without turning
(j#0.5). In such cases, sleeve splines have very little
time to turn the gear. As the gear inertia is high, a
strong force is needed, applied via a small contact
surface next to the starting edge of the chamfer.
When the decreasing contact surface becomes zero,
the turning force disappears suddenly, provoking
strong dynamical excitation. This could be avoided
by placing a connecting radius in this zone instead
of the sharp theoretical chamfer edge.
When acting upon gear-changing factors without
changing spline chamfer geometry, the best result
that can be obtained with this type of synchronizer
is a decrease of the mean force level. Other improvements need changes of chamfer geometry, such as
pronounced radii instead of chamfer edges, or modications of the plane chamfer surface. Even in these
cases, the second bump force peak distribution will
contain high force peaks, but their occurrence will
be less.
Further improvement of gear changing can come
from an exact knowledge of the axial position of the
sleeve and the tangential position of the spline. This
would permit modication of the sleeve axial speed
in order to obtain optimal spline chamfer contact
D21604 IMechE 2006
between the sleeve and gear, and minimize or avoid

the occurrence of risky geometric conguration.
5 CONCLUSION
The gear-changing process was studied, and eight
main phases of synchronizer behaviour were dened.
The phases were delimited by using measured data
from gear changing. These phases were described
using classical tribological, mechanics, and thermodynamics theories. Existing models were used and
adapted to a synchronizer. New models were proposed when such models did not exist. These
models were organized and interconnected in order
to describe the gear-changing process and the
behaviour of the synchronizer. The models were
included in a numerical simulation software.
The comparison of measured data with simulation
results allowed a study of stick-slip phenomena in
the synchronizer during gear-changing. Stick-slip
is considered to occur either in an axial or in a
tangential direction. Axial stick-slip, when the sleeve
moves axially, produces small amplitude oscillations
and does not inuence the gear-changing process.
Tangential stick-slip occurs when the ring rubs against
the gear cone and also produces small-amplitude
oscillations. However, it occurs in a sensitive working
phase and may be responsible for gear-changing
noise and cracking, because the ring meshes before
reaching synchronicity. More detailed study of this
phenomenon, supported by experimental results,
should provide a better understanding of the role
of cone surface linings. It appears that an exact
knowledge of the friction coecient variation,
coupled with an appropriate axial force command,
can avoid this kind of gear-changing noise.
A study of the second bump phenomenon was also
undertaken. The second bump is considered as
two successive independent phenomena from which
models with geometric parameters resulting from
measured sycnhro ring and gear cone geometry
could be proposed. The study of the synchro ring
and the gear cone stuck together at the end of
the synchronization phase gave the rst element of
second bump. This force peak zone is inuenced by
the material properties of the synchro ring, conicity
angle error, and friction coecient variation on the
cones. Gear rotation then constitutes the second part
of the second bump force peak. The study of spline
chamfer geometry, taking real working conditions
into account, gave wide axial force peak spectra
based on simulations. From these results, compared
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21
to the spectrum resulting from the measured data,

the role played by the relative position of the spline
chamfer in the formation of the turning force can be
studied. Finally, they established that simulated and
measured force spectra are very similar.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was carried out thanks to a grant from the
Hungarian Ministry of Education and the French
Government. The authors would also like to thank
the Federal Mogul Company (Sintered Products) for
helpful discussions during the preliminary experimental approach.
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bei kalten Pkw-Schaltgetrieben. VDI Berichte, 1995,
(1175), 435451.
19 Goto, Y., Yagi, Y., Morimoto, Y., and Kawasaki, M.
Shift feel in manual transmissions an analysis of
unsmooth shifting and gear clashing. JSAE Review,
1988, 9(4), 5255.
20 Shinbata, K. and Nakamura, N. Achievement of
theoretical quantitative evaluation method and
eective countermeasures for manual transmission
nibble. SAE paper 91524, 1991.
21 Moir, G. B. An investigation into objective
measures of gear-shift quality. Proc. IMechE, Part D:
J Automobile Engineering, 1995, 209, 273279.
22 Lovas, L. Etude des relations entre le fonctionnement et la fabrication des synchronisateurs des
botes de vitesses manuelles. PhD Thesis, INSALyon, 2004.
23 Derrien, D. Oscillations transitoires dans les
chanes cinematiques automobiles. PhD Thesis,
Ecole Centrale de Nantes, 1999.
24 Roulet, B. Modelisation de levolution de la
dissipation de puissance et du comportement
thermique dune bote de vitesses manuelle. PhD
Thesis, University Paris VI, 1995.
25 Boness, R. J. Churning losses of discs and gears
running partially submerged in oil. Proceedings of
the 1989 International Power Transmission and
Gearing Conference, Chicago, pp. 355359.
26 Lovas, L., Play, D., Marialigeti, J., and Rigal, J.-F.
Modelling the synchronisation behaviour of manual
car gearbox synchromesh mechanisms. In Scientic
Bulletin of North University of Baia Mare, Series C,
Vol. XVII, Fascicle: Mechanics, Tribology, Technology of Machine Manufacturing, Part II: Papers of
the 5th International Multidisciplinary Conference,
2324 May 2003, Baia Mare, Romania.
27 Spreckels, M. Einuss der Temperaturverteilung auf
das tribologische Verhalten von Synchronisierungen. PhD Thesis, University of Hannover, 2001.
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Modelling dynamical processes in the synchronisation process of manual gearboxes (in Hungarian).
Gep, 2003, LIV(2003/10-11), 103109.
29 Kwittner, G., Back, O., and Schreiber, U. Simulation
des Schaltvorgangs synchronisierter Kfz-Getriebe. In
Laschet, A. Systemanalyse in der Kfz-Antriebstechnik,
II, 2003, pp. 239250 (Expert Verlag, Renningen).
30 Hwang, D. H. and Zum Gahr, K. H. Transition
from static to kinetic friction of unlubricated or oil
lubricated steel/steel, steel/ceramic and ceramic/
ceramic pairs. Wear, 2003, 255, 365375.
31 Thomsen, J. J. and Fidlin, A. Analytical approximations for stick-slip vibration amplitudes. Int. J.
Non-Linear Mech., 2003, 38, 389403.
Internal excitation and eects in gear changing
process of manual automotive gearboxes. In
Gepeszet 2004 Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Mechanical Engineering
(Eds Penninger, A., Kullmann, L., and Voros, G.),
Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Budapest, 2728 May 2004, Vol. II, pp. 573577.
Modelling indexing phase of Borg-Warner gearbox
synchromesh mechanism. In Proceedings of the
International Conference on Power Transmissions
03, 2003, Vol. 3, pp. 105110.
34 Dunkin, J. E. and Kim, D. E. Measurement of static
friction coecient between at surfaces. Wear, 1996,
193, 186192.
An improved method for calculating friction in
conical clutches. VSDIA 2002 8th Mini Conference
on Vehicle System Dynamics, Identication and
Anomalies, Budapest, 1113 November 2002.
Modelling the friction process in the synchronisation process of manual gearboxes (in Hungarian).
Gep, 2002, LIII(2002/6-7), pp. 7378.
37 Paoni, B., Progri, R., and Gras, R. The mixed phase
of gearbox synchromesh operation. Proc. IMechE,
Part J: J. Engineering Tribology, 2000, 214, 157165.
APPENDIX 1
Notation
c
c
c
Q
dB
dPF
f
damping coecient
damping coecient in spline side chamfer
contact
torsional damping coecient
axial displacement of the sleeve during
Phase 6
tangential displacement of the gear during
Phase 6
friction coecient
D21604 IMechE 2006
F
F
ax
F
fr
F
fr2
F
fr3
F
tg
F
turn
h
h
d
k
k
c
k
Q
L
d
m
N
N
1
N
p
r
1
r
2
t
T
v
v
ax
v
tg
x
a
Da
b
b
gear
e
R
Q
R
h
R
k
j
r
2
r
3
t
Dt
x
v
friction coecient between the spline and

synchro ring chamfers
friction coecient between the spline and
gear chamfers
force
axial force
friction force
friction force between the sleeve and
synchro ring
friction force between the spline and gear
chamfers
tangential force
turning force during Phase 7
normal distance between two surfaces
axial length of a spline chamfer
elasticity coecient
elasticity coecient in spline chamfer
contact
torsional elasticity coecient
half-width of a spline
mass
normal force to a surface
normal force between the sleeve and gear
spline chamfers
normal force between the sleeve and
synchro ring
spline pitch
gear cone mean radius
spline mean radius
time
torque
velocity
axial velocity of the sleeve
tangential velocity of the gear
axial displacement
conicity angle
conicity angle error
spline chamfer angle
spline chamfer angle of the gear
gear angular acceleration
gear turning angle during Phase 7
synchronized inertia
constant
random spline relative position variable
friction angle between the spline and
synchro ring chamfers
friction angle between the spline and gear
chamfers
temperature
temperature varation
spline second chamfer angle
angular velocity
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23
angular velocity of the sleeve

synchronized angular velocity of the gear
initial angular velocity of the gear
v
B
v
R
v
R0
APPENDIX 2
2.1 Equations describing the start of
synchronization
This phase is described using hydrodynamics
equations. The variation of the axial force needed to
collapse the oil lm
C D
b 3
F =K 16pmv sin2 ar
ax
NR
ax
1 h(t)
(1)
where m is the dynamic viscosity of the oil [Pas], b is

the half-length of the cone generatrix [m]
K
NR
w3h
(2 sin a+cos a tan Da)
2(a+w)b2 sin a
h+tan Da
(h+2 tan Da)2
(2)
for radial grooves, where a is the half-width of a

groove on a conical surface (m), w is the half-width
of a surface portion between grooves on a conical
surface
Da=(a
sin chroring
gear cone
(3)
is the conicity angle error. The variation of the

angular velocity of the synchronized gear is
h(t) Y
v =v (v v )
R
B
B
R0 h
1
Y=K
4pbr3
1
CR h n sin a
R axv
(4)
(5)
where h is the initial distance between the conical

1
surfaces at the beginning of the oil lm compression,
n is the axial speed at the end of viscous friction
axv
period
w
K =
CR a+w
(6)
for radial grooves. For more details, see [15, 3, 22].

2.2 Equations describing synchronization
This phase is also described with the equations of
the mixed lubrication. The command signal is the
axial force, varying as described in the Fig. 28. The
24
Supposing that oil viscosity varies linearly with the

temperature within a given temperature interval
m=a T +b
(7)
m
m
where a and b are constant. It is described in
m
m
the literature, that maximum temperatures on the
conical surfaces are around 120 C [27]. Knowing that
the working temperature of a gearbox is around
80 C, an oil temperature increase of 40 C can be
assumed during the synchronization phase between
the conical surfaces. In a rst approximation, a linear
temperature increase law can be admitted for the
short duration of synchronization:
Fig. 28 Variation of the axial force
variation of the synchronized angular velocity is
B
BD
Q k
Q
2 1 2 ek2/4k
2 1
2
4 k3/2
1
k
Q
1
erf k t+ 2
1
2k
2 k
1
1
v (t)=ek1t2+k2t K+ p
R
(7)
where
h
h
v + R g +g F +[(F
F )/t ] R +t
Rv g
2
1 axv
ax,max
axv m g
v
3
3
K=
eg3tv/hR
BHB
(8)
The following expressions are constant during computation of one solution for v (t)
R
g
k = 3 A
(9)
1 2h
R
g
(10)
k = 3B
2 h
R
F
F
g
axv
(11)
Q = 2 A+g ax,max
1
1 h
t
R
m
g
(12)
Q = 2 B+g F
1 axv
2 h
R
f f
r
1 b 2
v f 1 1+
g = s
sin2 a
(13)
3 S S sin a
3 r
2
1
1
g =g v
(14)
2
3 C
g
(15)
g = f + 3 S
1
s f 1
C AB
where
f=4pr2 b sin a
(16)
1
S is the Stribecks number at the end of the mixed
1
friction [22, 37], S is the Stribecks number at the
2
start of the mixed friction [22, 37].
Here, constants A and B come from the equation
of oil viscosity variation during synchroniation
(Phase 3), between the conical surfaces [22].
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

T =c t
(18)
T
where c #200 C/s is constant.
T
Replacing this in the equation of the oil viscosity
between conical surfaces gives
m=a c t+b =At+B
(19)
m T
m
Equation (19) gives the origin of constants A and B.
In these equations, Da=0 is assumed, as the
angular velocity dierence vanishes by the end of
the synchronization phase owing to synchro ring
deformation (Fig. 10). Full development of the
equations is described in [16, 36, 37, 22].
2.3 Equations describing the turning of the
synchro ring
This phase is described by solid mechanics laws. The
variation of the axial force is
f +tgb T
+h e
losses
R R
F = s
(20)
ax 1f tgb
r
s
2
where f is the friction coecient on spline chamfer
s
surfaces, T
is the torque of power losses.
losses
The variation of the synchronized angular velocity
is
v =v +e t
(21)
R
R0
R
where v is the angular velocity of the gear at the
R0
start of the phase.
2.4 Equation describing the free y
Each free y phase is described by solid mechanics
laws. The necessary axial force is also constant and
it results from friction on the side chamfers of sleeve
splines owing to torque power losses
fT
F = s losses
(22)
ax
r
2
The angular velocity of the gear is the same as that
of the sleeve.
D21604 IMechE 2006
2.5 Equations describing start of the second

bump
This phase is described by solid mechanics laws. The
normal distance between the spline chamfer surfaces
(Fig. 11) is given by the following equations [3, 22]:
for the rear side of the gear chamfer
h = [(1j)pL +dPF ]2+(h dB)2
1
d
d
h dB
d
cos barctan
(1j)pL +dPF
d
For the front side of the gear chamfer
h = (jpL dPF )2+(h dB)2

d
d
2
h dB
d
cos barctan
jpL dPF
d
where
BD
dB=v t
ax
is the axial displacement of the sleeve
BD
(23)
(24)
(25)
F r =(N cos bf N sin b)r =h e

(27)
tg 2
3
2
R R
where F is the tangential force, f is the friction
tg
3
coecient on the chamfer surfaces
(28)
is the normal force on the chamfer surface

Axial direction
F +F =N sin b+f N cos bN sin x+f N cos x
ax
ax
3
2
2 2
(29)
where F is the axial force needed to compensate
ax
friction losses during sleeve movement, x is the
second chamfer angle (Fig. 20).
From the above equation, the axial force for
separation is
F =N sin bma
(30)
ax
ax
where m is the mass of parts of gear-changing
mechanism, including the sleeve, a is the axial
ax
acceleration of the parts of gear-changing mechanism.
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2.6 Equations for turning the gear
h e mT
f +tan b
3
F = m e r tan b+ R R losses
ax R 2
ax
r
1f tan b
2
3
(31)
Tangential direction
D21604 IMechE 2006
Here, a negative sign means that the sleeve is

slowed down by the chamfer contact force. A positive
sign means that a supplementary axial force is
applied in order to maintain the original axial
velocity of the sleeve. This supplementary force
increases the second bump peak. The original axial
velocity increases the axial force needed in the
following phase. For more information, see [22].
This phase is also described by classical mechanics

laws. The axial force needed for turning is
dPF=(v v )r t
(26)
R
C 2
is the tangential displacement of the gear, p is the
pitch of the splines, j is the random coecient of
the relative position of the synchro ring and gear
chamfers.
In this phase, the forces are in equilibrium on the
spline chamfers. The equilibrium equations are given
as follows.
dh
N=k h+c
c
c dt
25
Here, the negative sign means that turning is in the

opposite direction to that of the angular velocity
of the gear. This slows down the gear and requires
lower axial force. The positive sign means that the
turning direction is that of the angular velocity. This
accelerates the gear, and needs higher axial force.
When angular acceleration e becomes zero, the axial
R
force has to compensate only the torque of gearbox
power losses.
2.7 Equation describing the stick-slip motion
The equation of motion for the system is the
following
m
dx
d2x
+c +kx+f (v )F=0
r
dt2
dt
(32)
where m is the mass, x is the displacement of the

mass, F is the normal force on the surface, f (v ) is
r
the friction coecient depending on the relative
sliding velocity, c is the damping coecient, k is the
elasticity coecient.
Note that the value of the excitation velocity v is
b
constant (Fig. 12). Various oscillations are as a result
of Coulomb friction taking place between the two
moving surfaces. The friction coecient between
the mass and the sliding surface is modelled by the
following equation (Fig. 29)
f (v )=sign(v ) f k v +k v3
(33)
r
r s
1 r
3 r
where v =dx/dtv is the relative sliding velocity
r
b
3 f f
m
k = s
(34)
1 2 v
m
1 f f
m
k = s
(35)
3 2 v3
m
26
2.8 Simulation results of a transaxle car gearbox

Gear-changing simulations of a ve-speed JH car
transaxle gearbox (Fig. 30).
The following gures show certain results. When
simulating the eect of a given parameter, only this
parameter changes; all the other parameters are kept
constant. Fig. 31 shows that changing time increases
with initial angular velocity inertia.
Tables 1 and 2 illustrate that changing time is proportional to synchronized inertia. The higher the
inertia, the longer the changing time. The tables also
show that for a given inertia, downshifting requires
more time than upshifting. This is attributed to the
eect of energy dissipation. In the case studied,
energy dissipation slows down the turning gear and
power losses can be evaluated. When upshifting, it
decreases the changing time as this slowing down
Fig. 29 Friction coecient function model
The parameters of the friction coecient function

are: f being the static friction coecient; f , the
s
m
minimum friction coecient; and v , the relative
m
sliding velocity at the moment of the friction
coecient minimum.
Stick-slip phenomenon can also appear in rotating
motion. Equation (32) can be changed and applied
for rotating motion.
Fig. 30 General drawing of the ve-speed Renault JH gearbox

Table 1 Changing time versus changing inertia during gear upshift
Gear speed changing
Synchronized inertia [kgm2]
Changing time [s]
01
0.061 237
0.4 498
12
0.018 798
0.2 495
23
0.009 451
0.1 998
34
0.005 736
0.1 739
45
0.005 412
0.1 709
Table 2 Changing time versus changing inertia during gear downshift

Changing
Synchronized inertia [kgm2]
Changing time [s]
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

54
0.005 736
0.1 804
43
0.009 451
0.2 071
32
0.018 798
0.2 581
21
0.061 237
0.4 896
D21604 IMechE 2006
27
Fig. 31 Changing time variation versus angular velocity dierence variation, upshift 12
Fig. 32 Changing time versus changing force during gear upshift 12
eect is superposed to the eect coming from the

changing force. When downshifting, the slowing down
eect increases the time needed for accelerating
gears. Thus, downshift needs more time.
D21604 IMechE 2006
d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Figure 32 shows that the changing time decreases

when the changing force increases. Note that the
relation is not linear.

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1

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech

D21604 IMechE 2006

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

1. To make the angular velocity dierence between

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements

Fig. 1 Main parts of a gearbox transmission

2 STATE OF THE ART

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

eects of dierent linings on cone surfaces and

L Lovas, D Play, J Marialigeti, and J F Rigal

cone friction coecients, spline chamfer angle,

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

3 A STUDY OF SYNCHRONIZER WORKING

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements

Fig. 2 Denition of working phases during the gear-changing process

Fig. 3 Presentation of the main parts of splines

force and angular velocity variations are given in

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

on the sleeve increases. The force is transmitted from

L Lovas, D Play, J Marialigeti, and J F Rigal

enter into contact with the splines of the synchro

3.1.4 Turning the synchro ring (Phase 4)

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements

to maintain the axial velocity and the sleeve slows

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

at a constant velocity, a narrower turn angle requires

L Lovas, D Play, J Marialigeti, and J F Rigal

into account the variations of the main parameters.

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

force is still present, the synchro ring cannot move

Fig. 9 Displacement of the synchro ring issued from

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements

separation less than 105 mm). Contact damping c

Fig. 10 Model of deformation for the synchro ring

the conical surfaces. Conicity angle error provokes a

After separation of the synchro ring from the gear

Fig. 11 Spline chamfer contact geometry

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

D21604 IMechE 2006

L Lovas, D Play, J Marialigeti, and J F Rigal

(Fig. 14). As both normal forces and sliding velocities

displacement phases. The latter phenomenon is

Fig. 13 Variations of oscillation amplitude depending

3.3 A brief survey of the numerical simulation

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements

Fig. 15 Structure of the simulation software

Phase 1, the sleeve axial velocity is considered to

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Phase 5 is computed in the same way as Phase 1.

L Lovas, D Play, J Marialigeti, and J F Rigal

motion equations. Occurrence of stick-slip is observed

test bench was used. The numerical simulation

d000001604 08-05-06 22:20:18 Rev 14.05

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part D: J. Automobile Engineering

Mechanical behaviour simulation for synchromech mechanism improvements

4 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND

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way, oscillation is present in the axial force that is