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Lecture 1:

Turbulence Modeling Overview


15.0 Release

Turbulence Modeling Using ANSYS Fluent


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Outline
Background
Characteristics of Turbulent Flow
Scales
Eliminating the small scales
Reynolds averaging
Filtered equations
Turbulence modeling theory
RANS turbulence models in Fluent
Near wall modeling and transition modeling
Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and other Scale Resolving Simulation (SRS) models
LES theory and models
Hybrid RANS-LES methods
Case studies
Comparison with experiments and DNS
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Characteristics of Turbulent Flows


Unsteady, irregular (aperiodic) motion in which transported quantities (mass,
momentum, scalar species) fluctuate in time and space

The fluctuations are responsible for enhanced mixing of transported quantities

Instantaneous fluctuations are random (unpredictable, irregular) both in space and


time

Statistical averaging of fluctuations results in accountable, turbulence related transport


mechanisms

Contains a wide range of eddy sizes (scales)


Typical identifiable swirling patterns
Large eddies carry small eddies
The behavior of large eddies is different in each flow
Sensitive to upstream history
The behavior of small eddies is more universal in nature
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Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number is defined as
where U and L are representative velocity and length scales for a
given flow. L = x, d, dh, etc.

Turbulent flows occur at large Reynolds numbers


External Flows
along a surface
around an obstacle

Internal Flows

Other factors such as free-stream


turbulence, surface conditions, blowing,
suction, and other disturbances etc.
may cause transition to turbulence at
lower Reynolds numbers

Natural Convection

(Rayleigh number)
where

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(Prandtl number)

Two Examples of Turbulence


Homogeneous, decaying, grid-generated turbulence

Turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate

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Energy Cascade
Larger, higher-energy eddies, transfer energy to smaller
eddies via vortex stretching

Larger eddies derive energy from mean flow


Large eddy size and velocity on order of mean flow
Smallest eddies convert kinetic energy into thermal energy
via viscous dissipation

Rate at which energy is dissipated is set by rate at which they


receive energy from the larger eddies at start of cascade

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Vortex Stretching
Existence of eddies implies vorticity
Vorticity is concentrated along vortex lines or bundles
Vortex lines/bundles become distorted from the induced
velocities of the larger eddies

As the end points of a vortex line randomly move apart


Vortex line increases in length but decreases in diameter
Vorticity increases because angular momentum is nearly conserved
Most of the vorticity is contained within the smallest eddies

Turbulence is a highly 3D phenomenon


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Smallest Scales of Turbulence


Smallest eddy --- the Kolmogorov scales:
large eddy energy supply rate is balanced by the small eddy energy
dissipation rate e = -dk/dt

k ( u2+v2+w2 ) is (specific) turbulent kinetic energy [L2 / T2]

e is dissipation rate of k [L2 / T3]

Motion at smallest scales dependent upon dissipation rate, e, and


kinematic viscosity, n [L2 / T]

From dimensional analysis, the Kolmogorov scales can be estimated as


follows:

h = (n 3 / e) 1/4;
length scale

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t = (n /e ) 1/2;
time scale

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v = (ne ) 1/4

velocity scale

Small scales vs Large scales


Largest eddy scales:
Assume l is a characteristic size of a larger eddy
Dimensional analysis is sufficient to estimate the order of large eddy supply
rate for k as: k / t turnover
The order of t turnover can be estimated as l / k 1/2 (i.e., t turnover is a time scale
associated with the larger eddies)
Since e ~ k / t turnover, e ~ k 3/2 / l or l ~ k3/2 / e
Comparing l with h :
l
l (k 3 / 2 / l )1/ 4
3/ 4
3

Re
T
h (n / e )1/ 4
n 3/ 4
l

where ReT = k 1/2 l / n (turbulence Reynolds number)


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Implication of Scales
Consider a mesh fine enough to resolve smallest eddies and large
enough to capture mean flow features

Example: 2D channel flow

Ncells ~ ( 4 l / h ) 3 or
Ncells ~ ( 3Ret ) 9/4 where

Ret = ut H / 2n

ReH = 30,800 Ret = 800 Ncells = 4x107 !


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l
(n 3 / e )1 / 4

Direct Numerical Simulation


DNS is the solution of the time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations
without recourse to modeling
U i
U i
p


Uk

xk
xi
xk
t

U i

x j

Numerical time step size required, D t ~ t


For 2D channel example
0.003H
Dt 2 D Channel
ReH = 30,800
Ret ut
Number of time steps ~ 48,000
DNS is not suitable for practical industrial CFD
DNS is feasible only for simple geometries and low turbulent Reynolds numbers
DNS is a useful research tool
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Removing the Small Scales


Two methods can be used to eliminate need to resolve small scales:
Reynolds Averaging
Transport equations for mean flow quantities are solved
All scales of turbulence are modeled
Transient solution D t is set by global unsteadiness

Filtering (LES)
Transport equations for resolvable scales
Resolves larger eddies; models smaller ones
Inherently unsteady, D t dictated by smallest resolved eddies

Both methods introduce additional terms that must be modeled for


closure
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Prediction Methods

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RANS Modeling - Velocity Decomposition


Consider a point in the given flow field:

u
u'i
Ui

ui
time

ui ( x, t ) U i ( x , t ) ui( x, t )

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RANS Modeling - Ensemble Averaging


Ensemble (Phase) average:

1
U i ( x , t ) lim
N N

ui

(n )

( x, t )

n 1

Applicable to non-stationary flows such as periodic or quasi-periodic flows


involving deterministic structures
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Deriving RANS Equations


Substitute mean and fluctuating velocities in instantaneous NavierStokes equations and average:
(U i ui )
(U i ui )
( p p) (U i ui )


(U k uk )

x
x j

k
i
j

Some averaging rules:


Given f = F + f and y = + y

F f ; f 0; fy F f y ; Fy 0; f y 0, etc.

Mass-weighted (Favre) averaging used for compressible flows


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RANS Equations
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations:

U i
U i
p
U i ui u j

Uk

x
x j
k
i
j
j

(prime notation dropped)

New equations are identical to original except :


The transported variables, U, , etc., now represent the mean flow quantities
Additional terms appear: Rij ui u j
Rij are called the Reynolds Stresses
Effectively a stress

x j

U i

ui u j
x

These are the terms to be modeled


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Turbulence Modeling Approaches


Boussinesq approach

isotropic
relies on dimensional analysis
Reynolds stress transport models

no assumption of isotropy
contains more physics
most complex and computationally expensive

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The Boussinesq Approach


Relates the Reynolds stresses to the mean flow by a turbulent (eddy)
viscosity, t
Rij ui u j 2 t Sij

2
U k
2
t
ij k ij ;
3
xk
3

Sij

U j
1
U i
2
xi
xj

Relation is drawn from analogy with molecular transport of


momentum

t xy uv 2 Sij

Assumptions valid at molecular level, not necessarily valid at


macroscopic level
t is a scalar (Rij aligned with strain-rate tensor, Sij)
Taylor series expansion valid if lmfp | 2U/ y 2| << | U/ y |
Average time between collisions lmfp / vth << | U/ y |-1
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Modeling t
Basic approach made through dimensional arguments
Units of nt = t / are [L2/T]
Typically one needs 2 out of the 3 scales:
velocity length time

Models classified in terms of number of transport equations solved, e.g.,


zero-equation
one-equation
two-equation

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Zero Equation Model


Prandtl mixing length model:
2
t lmix
2 Sij Sij ;

Sij

U j
1
U i
2
xi
xj

Relation is drawn from same analogy with molecular transport of momentum:

1
v thlmfp
2

1
v mix lmix
2

The mixing length model:

assumes that vmix is proportional to lmix & strain rate:


requires lmix to be prescribed

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v mix lmix 2Sij Sij

lmix must be calibrated for each problem


Very crude approach, but economical
Not suitable for general purpose CFD though can be useful where a very crude
estimate of turbulence is required

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One-Equation Models
Traditionally, one-equation models were based on transport equation for k
(turbulent kinetic energy) to calculate velocity scale, v = k

Circumvents assumed relationship between v and turbulence length scale (mixing)


Use of transport equation allows history effects to be accounted for
Length scale still specified algebraically based on the mean flow

Very dependent on problem type


Approach not suited to general purpose CFD

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Turbulence Kinetic Energy Equation


Exact k equation derived from sum of products of Navier-Stokes equations with
fluctuating velocities

(Trace of the Reynolds Stress transport equations)


k
k

U j
x j
t

Rij U i e

x j
x j

unsteady &
convective

where

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e n

production

ui ui
xk xk

April 22, 2014

dissipation

1
ui ui u j p ' u j

x
2

molecular
diffusion

(incompressible form)

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turbulent
transport

pressure
diffusion

Modeled Equation for k


The production, dissipation, turbulent transport, and pressure diffusion terms
must be modeled

Rij in production term is calculated from the Boussinesq formula


Turbulent transport and pressure diffusion:
Using t / s k assumes k
1
t k
2

ui ui u j p' u j

s k x j

e = CD k3/2/ l from dimensional arguments


t = CD k2/ e ( recall t k1/2l )
CD , sk and l are model parameters to be specified

can be transported by
turbulence similarly to U

Necessity to specify l limits usefulness of this model

Advanced one-equation models use a different approach (without having to


specify a length scale):

solving eddy viscosity directly


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Summary
Turbulent flows are inherently unsteady, three-dimensional and irregular.
A broad range of time and length scales exist in turbulent flows.
Turbulent flows are governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, but the need to resolve all
scales from the dissipative (Kolmogorov) scales to the mean flow scales makes direct
simulation too expensive to be feasible for industrial applications.

Reynolds averaging is one of the approaches used to eliminate the small scales. The
application of this approach leads to the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
equations.

The Reynolds stress terms in the RANS equation require modeling in order to obtain a
closed system of equations.

Two branches of RANS modeling are eddy viscosity models (EVM) and Reynolds stress
models (RSM).

EVM are based on the Boussinesq approximation. They can be classified in terms of the
number of equations that are solved to provide the turbulent viscosity.
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