Indoor

Air
Quality

WORKPLACE HEALTH and SAFETY

DEPARTMENT OF TRAINING AND INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
This guide has been produced by the Workplace Health and Safety Council to provide employers with
information on the considerations needed when assessing the need to introduce control measures to
provide a healthy and comfortable working environment for their employees.
The guide aims to help improve the quality of work environments by outlining factors affecting indoor
air quality and suggesting ways of managing the quality of indoor air for all workplaces.
ISBN 0 7242 6581 3

Guide
Indoor Air Quality

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Contents

LEGISLATION AND STANDARDS

INDOOR AIR QUALITY

WHAT AFFECTS INDOOR AIR QUALITY

Temperature

Humidity

Air Movement

Air Changes

Air Contaminants - From Inside the Workplace

Air Contaminants - From Outside the Workplace

WAYS OF MANAGING INDOOR AIR QUALITY

Indoor Air Management Program

Investigation

Source Removal or Substitution

Workplace or Work Process Modification

Ventilation

Air Cleaning

10

Administrative measures

10

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

Guide
Indoor Air Quality

11

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LEGISLATION AND STANDARDS

The Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995
places an obligation on an employer to ensure
that exposure to extreme thermal environments
and health risks from air contaminants in the
workplace are controlled. A range of standards
and guidelines are available to assist persons
in managing indoor air quality. To meet the
obligations specified in the Act, persons must
ensure that the provisions of the relevant
compliance standards are followed. Obligations
of persons for indoor air quality are shared by:
building professionals such as designers
and architects
building owners and managers
building material manufacturers
building services engineers
tenants and other occupants.
Standards and guidelines from various sources
have to be used to address individual
workplace situations. A number of the
standards and other references relating to
indoor air quality are provided at the end of this
document.

INDOOR AIR QUALITY

Indoor air quality is a significant
occupational health issue reflecting:
an increasing number of people spending
their working lives indoors
the construction of sealed buildings with
windows which cannot be opened
the increased use of synthetic materials and
new technology
energy conservation measures that reduce
the amount of outdoor air being circulated.
Definition
The National Health and Medical Research
Council defines indoor air as the air within a
building occupied for a period of at least one
hour by people of varying states of health.
People are entitled to work in an environment
which is as comfortable and healthy as
possible. In the workplace, people may be
exposed to infection risks which can be
transmitted through contact with other people.
Overcrowded
workplaces
and
poorly
maintained air-conditioning systems may
increase these risks. Risks may also be
increased by:
tobacco smoking
Guide
Indoor Air Quality

by-products
of
building
materials,
furnishings, and modern office equipment
cleaning products
polluted outdoor air.
Background
A number of Australian and overseas studies
have identified the high cost of poor quality
indoor air. These costs have included direct
medical costs, lost productivity and damage to
material and equipment. Lost productivity in the
USA is estimated to be nearly five times that of
direct medical costs.
An increasing number of studies have focused
on discomfort or illnesses arising from indoor
environments. Such problems are generally
divided into the following categories:
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
Building Related Illnesses (BRI).
According to the World Health Organisation,
SBS refers to a range of non-specific
symptoms which can affect a significant
number of building occupants. Itchy eyes,
tiredness or headaches are typical of such
complaints. Such symptoms have no clear
causes and abate when a person is no longer
inside the building.
Building Related Illnesses are those which have
specific or diagnosable causes. Allergic
reactions and infections such as legionnaires'
disease are examples. BRI symptoms typically
persist for some time after a person has left the
building.

WHAT AFFECTS
QUALITY

INDOOR

AIR

Air quality is influenced by:

temperature
humidity
air movement
air contaminants.
An air-conditioned workplace should provide a
thermally comfortable temperature range. An
air-conditioning system should:
supply fresh air, exhaust stale air and
filter recycled and outdoor air
provide a generally acceptable environment
in terms of air temperature, humidity and air
movement
prevent excessive accumulation of
unpleasant odours

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 prevent excessive accumulation of expired

carbon dioxide to an acceptable level
reduce excessive accumulation of indoor air
contaminants from work activities, building
materials, and external sources to
acceptable levels.
If an air-conditioning system is installed, it
should operate whenever people are in the
workplace. Systems which operate by
automatic timer should have an override facility
if people are required to use the building out of
hours. If air-conditioning systems are switched
off when the workplace is empty, they should
be switched back on before people return to
work.
In some instances it may be unsuitable to aircondition all parts of the workplace. Examples
include:
Steel fabrication works where large volumes
of air are required to air-condition the work
area
Foundries and bakeries where heat sources
are created in the workplace (spot cooling
may be more appropriate)
Battery manufacture and electroplating
works - environment created by the work
carried out.
The quality of indoor air at a workplace without
air-conditioning largely depends on:
outdoor climate
air contaminants generated from indoors
and outdoors
work processes being performed
quality of natural ventilation including
building design, location and layout, and
number of windows that can be opened.

Temperature
In an air-conditioned workplace, the ideal
temperature range is between 19 - 23C in
winter and 22 - 24C in summer.
Temperature in an air-conditioned workplace
should be adjusted to match work activities,
normal work clothing and the outdoor climate.
In extremely hot conditions, some airconditioning systems may not maintain ideal
indoor temperatures. Where the outside shade
temperature exceeds 32C, the inside
temperature should be at least 8C below that
temperature.
Direct temperature control is difficult in
workplaces without air-conditioning. Workers in
hot climates should not be subjected to
excessive heat stress conditions. If heat stress
is likely, expert advice should be obtained.
The following factors need to be considered in
assessing the thermal environment:
Guide
Indoor Air Quality

the effect of solar heat load, for example,

the sun shining on a workplace
any uneven distribution of solar heat load
the heat sources inside the workplace, for
example,
computing
and
electrical
equipment, ovens and hotplates
the nature of work being performed, for
example, people working on an assembly
line may require slightly lower temperatures
than employees working in an office
environment
clothing worn by workers, for example,
foundry workers are required to wear
protective clothing
different perceptions of thermal conditions
and comfort.
Ways to control temperature At an airconditioned workplace, the air-conditioning
should be adjustable in order to meet the
temperature
requirements
of
different
workplace areas. Other means of temperature
control include providing reflective glass,
screens, blinds, and awnings over windows,
and relocating work stations from heat sources.
In workplaces without air-conditioning, expert
advice should be sought for heat stress risk
management.

Humidity
Relative humidity (RH) levels should ideally be
between 40% and 60%. The higher the relative
humidity, the less able the body is to evaporate
moisture (sweat) from the skin. Extremes in
relative humidity (< 20% and > 80%) should be
avoided where possible.
Extremely low relative humidity levels cause
eyes, noses and throats to dry, This produces
irritations and soreness and increases
susceptibility to infection. Low humidity also
increases the problem of static electricity.
In high relative humidity conditions, the
moisture in the air promotes the growth of fungi
and mould.
WAYS TO CONTROL THE EFFECTS OF
HIGH RELATIVE HUMIDITY
High relative humidity generally occurs in
workplaces
without
air-conditioning,
for
example, laundries. If work areas constantly
experience high humidity, employers should
roster workers for short periods only. If high
humidity persists, employers should consider
installing dehumidification devices. High
humidity in an air-conditioned workplace
suggests a design/maintenance problem.

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mechanical and natural ventilation of a building

into account.

Air Movement
Too little air flow may create stuffy and
uncomfortable conditions. Too much air
movement may result in draughts and
excessive cold.
RECOMMENDED
MOVEMENT1*

RANGE

OF

Occupied Office and Factory

(measured in metres per second)

21C 40-60%RH
24C 40-60%RH

Office
min max
0.I
0.2
0.15 0.4

AIR

Interiors

Factory
min max
0.I ...0.3
0.25 ..0.5

Factors influencing air movement include:

Internal Partitioning. Rooms created by full
height partitions in areas originally designed as
"open plan" can become dead spaces where air
has no exit path when doors are closed.
Air flow into the room is diminished, making the
room stuffy and uncomfortable. Incorporating
ventilation grills in doors may help by allowing
air to flow in and out of work areas. This
involves consultation with air-conditioning
maintenance personnel/contractors.
Balanced Air-conditioning Systems. The airconditioning system is balanced if there is
optimum air flow in all the areas supplied. To
achieve such conditions it is usually necessary
to adjust flow in individual ducts after all
internal building is completed. Systems should
also be adjusted whenever substantial changes
in the activities, layout and occupancy of the
workplace occurs.
Filter Maintenance. Regular maintenance of
filters will ensure optimum air flow through the
air-conditioning system and filter efficiency in
capturing particulate contaminants.

Air Changes
The term 'Air Changes per Hour' or 'ACH' has
traditionally been used to describe the overall
amount of air entering and leaving a building. It
is a measure of the rate of exchange of air in a
building with outside air. The term takes the

Occupational Safety & Health in Commonwealth

Government
Employment Code of Practice - 202 Ventilation and
Thermal Control
Guide
Indoor Air Quality

ACH is not usually used in modern offices and

buildings which are air-conditioned and well
sealed. Instead, the rate of outdoor air supply is
usually used as a measure of the adequacy of
ventilation. Australian Standard (A.S.) 1668.2
provides guidance on the outdoor air
requirements
for
different
classes
of
occupancy. For most office situations, an
outdoor air rate of 10 -15 litres per second per
person is required.

Air Contaminants - From Inside the

Workplace
Common sources of indoor air contaminants
and how to deal with them include:
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is a major respiratory
and combustion product. It is not commonly
considered as a 'pollutant', but may affect the
general comfort of occupants. Carbon dioxide
levels are usually a good indicator of the
effectiveness of the ventilation system in
replacing stale air with outdoor fresh air. Indoor
levels of carbon dioxide should be maintained
at below 1,000 parts per million (ppm). Carbon
dioxide levels exceeding limit indicate that the
amount of fresh air delivered by an air
delivered by an air-conditioning system may
not be adequate.
Combustion By-products include carbon
monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NO and
NO2) and a range of hydrocarbons. They are
the by-products of fuel used in unvented
combustion processes such as gas cooking and
heating. Carbon monoxide interferes with
oxygen transport in the blood stream and, in
high concentrations, can cause death. Oxides
of nitrogen irritate the eyes and respiratory
tract. Combustion equipment, such as gas
appliances, generators and diesel or petrol
compressors
should
be
installed
and
maintained to ensure that workers are not
exposed to emissions of combustion byproducts.
Ozone. Any work process or equipment that
uses ultra-violet light or causes ionisation of the
air may produce ozone. Such equipment
includes laser printers, photocopiers and
ionisers. Ozone is highly toxic and has effects
at low concentrations. It may irritate the eyes
and respiratory tract. As ozone is highly
reactive, it will generally be found only near the
source and will have little effect on the general
indoor environment.

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Formaldehyde is usually given off from

building materials such as plywood, particle
board, some carpets and urea-formaldehyde
foam insulation (UFFI). Formaldehyde is an
eye and respiratory irritant and a suspected
human carcinogen. It is known to have caused
asthmatic conditions in some people.
Other Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
have been identified in indoor environments.
These are effluent from building materials,
cosmetics, cleaning agents, waxes, carpets,
furnishings, adhesives and paints. Exposure to
these compounds may cause a wide range of
health effects including headache, eye, throat
and chest irritations.
Airborne Particles and their possible effects
include:
combustion
particles
from
cooking/heating. Cooking smoke may
cause respiratory tract infections
combustion particles from tobacco
smoking. Tobacco smoke may cause lung
cancer
dusts from clothing, paper and carpets.
Most dusts cause nasal and eye irritation.
fibres, such as asbestos, contained in
some building materials. There is
established evidence that asbestos can
cause lung cancer and mesothelioma.
fibres such as fibreglass, commonly
used in the lining of air-conditioning
ductwork. Fibreglass can cause itching anti
irritation to skin, eyes and upper respiratory
systems
Radon and Radon Products are radioactive
decay products of Radium - 226. They are
found in building materials made from certain
types of rocks and soils. Radon is a colourless
gas which goes into the indoor air by diffusion
from the ground, building materials and
underground water.
Higher concentrations are usually found in
basements and crawl spaces. Studies
conducted to date do not provide sufficient
information to determine the level of radon in
Queensland buildings.
Radon could cause damage to the lungs
through inhalation and indoor radon levels have
been associated with an increased risk of lung
cancer.
Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is the
collective name for a group of chemicals
introduced into the indoor environment from
cigarette smoke. ETS includes both sidestream
smoke generated by a burning cigarette and
mainstream smoke exhaled by the smoker.
Guide
Indoor Air Quality

Exposure to ETS in indoor environments has

been associated with a range of respiratory
conditions including exacerbation of asthma
and lung cancer. An employer should provide a
workplace free from tobacco smoke.
Microbiological Pollutants include viruses,
bacteria and fungi. They can cause infections
and
allergic
reactions
in
indoor
air
environments. Bacteria and viruses are most
commonly spread from person to person.
Ventilation systems are unlikely to play a
significant role in the spread of viral illnesses,
as they are not a source of viruses and do not
provide conditions for viral replication.
Certain
bacterial
infections
such
as
legionnaires' disease, can be spread through
air-conditioning systems which use cooling
towers.
Fungal growths most commonly occur when
there is:
abnormally high humidity
poorly maintained air-conditioning systems
water damage to carpeting caused by
flooding and leaks.
Control measures are set out in Australian
Standard (A.S.) 3666 Air - handling and water
systems of buildings - Microbial control.
Dust Mites may cause respiratory system
allergies and are more prevalent in warm
humid conditions. High dust mite populations
are more likely to occur in buildings which have
had their air-conditioning switched off for
extended periods (weeks - months). If dust
mites are identified as a problem, special
treatments may be required. Regular and
thorough cleaning to remove dust in which dust
mites breed is essential.
Unpleasant Odours are usually harmless but
may be offensive. Quantifying the smell and
identifying the source can be difficult. If
chemical deodorisers are used to mask
unpleasant odours they should be used with
caution as they could create another indoor air
problem.

Air Contaminants - From Outside the

Workplace
In most cases, outdoor contaminants only
contribute a small fraction of the overall indoor
air pollution problem, However, these
contaminants should still be minimised.
Outdoor air contaminantscan enter a building
through air-conditioning systems and opened
windows.

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Neighbouring activities may also affect the

level of contaminants.
Some of the more common external sources of
contaminants are:
particulate originating from combustion in
coal-fired boilers, motor vehicles or dust
from construction sites.
gaseous combustion products which
include nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide,
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
These are generated as by-products from
the burning of fuels in industrial processes
and from road traffic.
volatile organic compounds (VOC) such
as solvents vaporised from industrial
sources,
for
example,
chlorinated
hydrocarbons from degreasing tanks; some
also originate from incomplete combustion
of fuels.
microbiological agents which include
spores of fungi and pollens and are the

major microbiological agents in the external

environment.

Ways of Managing Indoor Air Quality

Indoor air quality in the workplace should be
managed by implementing a management
program (see flowchart). Concerns should be
addressed before significant health problems
develop, and staff morale, productivity and
organisational image deteriorate. If an indoor
air quality concern is identified in the course of
the program, investigation should start
immediately. If no problem is apparent, the
assessment should still be performed on a
regular basis. Significant changes to the
workplace such as refurbishment also warrant
conducting another assessment

Indoor Air Management Program

air contaminants

Investigation
If there is a problem with the quality of indoor
air, initial steps should focus on identifying the
source of the problem. Problems may be
associated with:
temperature
humidity
air flow
inadequate fresh air
Guide
Indoor Air Quality

People occupying a building may exhibit a

range of physical symptoms as a result of poor
quality indoor air including:
eye and skin irritations
respiratory tract irritation and infections
headaches
fatigue
miscellaneous complaints

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Once a contaminant has been identified, the

next step should be to attempt to reduce it to a
practical minimum. This may be achieved by:
removing or substituting the cause
modifying the workplace or work processes

improving ventilation
air cleaning
administrative measures

COMMON CAUSES OF INDOOR AIR PROBLEMS

air-conditioning
design
operation
maintenance

examples
inadequate cooling capacity
not turned on before occupants arrive
filters not changed

building material
new
damaged

paint, fabric, furnishing releasing pollutants

mould on waterdamaged carpet

work activities
photocopying
maintenance
neighbouring activities
use of chemicals
heat producing

people

smoking
body odour
perfumes

outdoor air
ambient pollutants
exhaust fumes
construction

pollens, sulphur dioxide

car parks
dust

release ozone
dust/fibres released
cooking
solvent based glue
ovens, driers

any precautions necessary to minimise the

potential of indoor air quality problems.

Source Removal or Substitution

This is the most effective method of reducing
indoor air pollution, for example, replacing
solvent-based paints with water-based paints.
These paints will generally produce less toxic
vapour.

Workplace or Work Process

Modification
This reduces the workers' exposure to
contaminants. One example would be to move
a
photocopying
machine
away
from
workstations.
Plans for introducing new building materials or
work processes should include early liaison with
maintenance personnel/contractors regarding
Guide
Indoor Air Quality

Ventilation
Ventilation is one of the means by which indoor
air is treated to achieve acceptable indoor air
quality. One measure may be to relocate the
fresh air intake away from the neighbouring
industrial activities or heavy traffic. Other
mechanical ventilation measures include the
use of:'
improved dilution ventilation. Low level
contaminations such as paper dust and body
odour can be controlled by introducing
sufficient fresh outdoor air, or by
recirculating appropriately filtered air into
the workplace. Areas of higher level
contaminations from sources such as high
usage photocopying machines may require

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isolation or separately ventilated areas. It

may be necessary to run air-conditioning
continuously where new building products
which are known to emit some air pollutants
have been used.
local exhaust ventilation designed to
remove air contaminants close to their
source is useful in controlling local
individual contaminant sources such as
cooking stoves and soldering processes.
Consideration should be given to local
exhaust ventilation where devices or
processes likely to emit fumes, heat or
odours are used.
Ventilation systems should be designed and
maintained to comply with AS 1668.2 and AS
3666.

Air Cleaning
Air cleaning usually works better with
particulate matter such as combustion particles
and fibrous dusts. Indoor air can be cleaned by
air filters and electrostatic precipitators fitted in
the ventilation system or as stand-alone
models. For best effect, cleaning devices must
be regularly maintained and serviced. If poorly
monitored, these devices could give a false
sense of security and even hinder the
performance of the ventilation system. To
achieve the best results, expert advice should
be sought in selecting and installing these
devices.

Guide
Indoor Air Quality

Administrative measures
Administrative measures include:
developing
communication
channels
between workers and employers to facilitate
identification of indoor air problems.
cleaning the workplace, for example, the
building fabrics or ventilation systems to
eliminate sources of contaminants from split
materials, deposited dust and absorbed
materials on surfaces.
regular service and maintenance to ensure
that ventilation systems are functioning
satisfactorily.
designating the workplace a non-smoking
area. If there is a designated smoking area,
the air-conditioning system should be
completely separated from that of the nonsmoking area as ETS cannot be totally
filtered out by the air-conditioning system.
Indoor painting, carpet laying, and spraying
of pesticides should be performed outside
normal working hours. The area should be
ventilated before people are expected to
return to the workplace.
allowing a greater amount of outdoor air to
enter the workplace in order to dilute the
contaminant levels, for example, by
adjusting the fresh air intake of the air
conditioning system.
regular monitoring to ensure that control
measures are working effectively.
Unresolved problems may require services of
professionals such as industrial hygienists or
indoor air specialists.

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National Health and Medical Research Council.

The Health Effects of Passive Smoking. (Under
Review: Australian Government Printing
Service, Canberra).

Additional References
Australian and New Zealand Environmental
Council Discussion Paper on Indoor Air
Pollution, (1990: ANZEC).
American
Conference
of
Governmental
Industrial Hygienists. Guidelines for the
Assessment of Bioaerosols in the Indoor
Environment. (1989:ACGIH, Cincinnati, OH).
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE Standard
62 - 1989 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality. (ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA).
Brooks B. & Davis W. Understanding Indoor Air
Quality. (1992: CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton,
FI).

National Health and Medical Research Council.

Interim National Indoor Air Quality Goals
recommended by the National Health and
Medical Research Council..(I993: NHMRC Internal Document).
Samet J. & Spengler J., Eds. Indoor Air
Pollution - A Health Perspective. (199I: The
]ohns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
MD).
Standards Australia. AS 3666 - 1989 Air Handling and Water Systems of Building Microbial
Control.
(Standards
Australia,
Sydney).

Building Owners and Managers Association of

Australia. Managing Indoor Air Quality. (1994:
BOMA Australia).

Standards Australia. AS 1668.2 - 1991 The Use

of Mechanical Ventilation and Air-Conditioning
in Buildings Part 2: Mechanical Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor-Air Quality. (Standards
Australia, Sydney).

Department of Employment and Industrial

Relations. Code of Practice 202 - Ventilation
and Thermal Control, (1983: Australian
Government Publishing Service, Canberra).

Standards Australia. HB 32 - 1992 Control of

Microbial Growth in Air Handling and Water
Systems in Buildings, (Standards Australia,
Sydney).

Environmental Protection Agency & US

National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Building Air Ouality - A Guide for Building
Owners and Facility Managers. ( 199I: US
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC).

Worksafe Australia. Exposure Standards for

Atmospheric Contaminants in the Occupational
Environment. (199I: Standards Australia,
Sydney).

Godish T. Indoor Air Pollution Control. (199I:

Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI.)
National Health and Medical Research Council.
Australian Guidelines for the Control of
Legionella and Legionnaire's Disease. (1988:
Australian Government Publishing Service,
Canberra).

Guide
Indoor Air Quality

Worksafe Australia (1994)~ Guidance Note on

Passive Smoking in the Workplace, Worksafe
Australia, Sydney.
World Health Organisation. "Indoor Air Quality
Research", Report on a WHO Meeting. August
2 I - 24, 1984. (EURO Reports and Studies
103,
Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen).

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