Maps & Globes

A map is a way of representing an objects (or objects) real-world location

on an artificially created two-dimensional surface. Maps have been used by
humans since about 1400 B.C. when they appear in the archaeological record
of the ancient Egyptians. Later, as their cultures mixed, these early attempts
were improved upon by the Greeks. In 150 A.D. Ptolemy (an Egyptian)
added the first lines of latitude and longitude used on a map. Today typical
references used for mapping include latitude, longitude, the location of the
north and south poles, and the location of the equator.
Latitude and Longitude are cartographic lines superimposed on the surface
of the earth. These lines create a grid coordinate system that is used to
pinpoint locations on earth - each point on the globe is assigned an unique
pair of longitude and latitude values so that it may be identified easily and
accurately. Latitude lines (or parallels) run from east to west horizontally
around the globe. Longitude lines (or meridians) run vertically from the

Remember:
Earth is tipped
on its axis of
rotation
(relative to our
plane of orbit
around

the

sun).

North and South Poles.

Like other circles, latitude and longitude are measured in units of degrees, minutes, and
seconds with a total of 360 degrees possible (1 degree = 60 minutes and 1 minute - 60
seconds). A protractor can be used to measure these distances.
Longitude values range from 180 degrees west to 180 degrees east, and are measured from
the Prime Meridian, or zero degrees longitude (the longitude line passing through Greenwich,
England). The longitude line directly opposite to the Prime Meridian is called the
International Dateline and can be considered as either 180 east or west). The Equator is the
line of latitude that divides the globe into two equal halves, the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. The Equator is designated as 0 latitude. Latitude is measured North or South
of the Equator with a range of 0 to 90 degrees. Latitude lines below the equator have
negative values, while those above the equator have positive values. The full range of latitude
values then is -90 (S) to +90 (N) degrees. Some familiar examples:
1. The Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees S)

2. The Antarctic Circle (66.5 degrees S)

3. Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees N)
4. The Arctic Circle (66.5 degrees N).
Look at how the curvature of the earth affects the shape of the
latitude and longitude lines. All of the longitude lines are identical so degrees of longitude are
constant, always covering the same distance (about 60 nautical miles). In contrast, degrees of
latitude vary. Near the equator, a degree of latitude is approximately 60 nautical miles, but as
you approach the poles that distance goes to zero.
It is important to keep in mind that the earth is curved and maps are flat, so they do not quite
represent reality. To properly map the earth, a planet shaped globe is required. Cartographers
represent the curvature of the earth on a flat surface by means of a projection. Regions are
projected on to a map in different ways in order to correct for real direction, area or shape.
The most common projection used is the Mercator, which was invented in 1568 by the
German Gerhard Kramer (a.k.a. Gerardus Mercator). The Mercator distorts the size of the
continents however because it makes the earth the same width at the at the equator and the
poles.

The Data Behind a Map

Reference Datum: A reference datum is a known and constant surface which can be used to
describe the location of unknown points. On Earth, the normal reference datum is sea level.
On other planets, such as the Moon or Mars, the datum is the average radius of the planet.
Map Projections: A map projection is a way of representing the 3-dimensional surface of the
Earth on a flat piece of paper.
Distortion: Each of the different types of projections have strengths and weaknesses, and
knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of a particular map projection will often help
you to choose what map you want to use for a particular project.
Grid systems: A grid system allows the location of a point on a map (or on the surface of the
earth) to be described in a way that is meaningful and universally understood.

Coordinate systems: There are several types of grids (a.k.a. coordinate systems) used to
divide the earths surface. Four of these are in common use on maps published in the United
States: geographic, universal transverse mercator (UTM), state plane, and public land survey
coordinate systems.
Much of the information discussed above is applicable to all types of maps.

Types of Maps
There are several types of maps. Each show different
information. Most maps include a compass rose, which
indicates which way is north, south, east and west. They also
include a scale so you can estimate distances. Here's a look at
some different types of maps.

Climate maps
give general information about the climate and
precipitation (rain and snow) of a region. Cartographers, or
mapmakers, use colors to show different climate or
precipitation zones.
Economic or resource maps
feature the type of natural resources or economic activity
that dominates an area. Cartographers use symbols to
show the locations of natural resources or economic
activities. For example, oranges on a map of Florida tell
you that oranges are grown there.
Physical maps
illustrate the physical features of an area, such as the
mountains, rivers and lakes. The water is usually shown in
blue. Colors are used to show reliefdifferences in land
elevations. Green is typically used at lower elevations, and
orange or brown indicate higher elevations.
Political maps
do not show physical features. Instead, they indicate state
and national boundaries and capital and major cities. A
capital city is usually marked with a star within a circle.

Road maps
show majorsome minor highwaysand roads, airports,
railroad tracks, cities and other points of interest in an
area. People use road maps to plan trips and for driving
directions.
Topographic maps
include contour lines to show the shape and elevation of
an area. Lines that are close together indicate steep
terrain, and lines that are far apart indicate flat terrain.

Article 1
The term Global Warming refers to the rise in the temperature of planet earth
which will bring an end to the mountains old human civilization. The Green
house gages including CFC-11 and CFC- 12 make the earth hotter and hotter by
absorbing maximum quantity of thermal radiation of the sun. These gasses
permit the rays of the sun to penetrate but dont let the thermal radiations escape
from the earths atmosphere once they enter it. This causing what is termed as
the Greenhouse effect which is responsible for the increase in the temperature
all over the world. The rise in temperature disturbs the rain cycle, the ecological
balance, the cycle of seasons etc. It adversely affects vegetation and agriculture.
Thus, we have to face frequent floods and droughts through the world. With the
increase in temperature and the melting of glaciers, even snowfall has reduced
its occurrence and intensity. The winter temperatures are showing a gradual
increase. With the warming of the planet there is also rise in humidity because
the rise in temperature has increase the rate of evaporation. The local
governments should work against the emission of the Greenhouse gages by

improving the vehicles, creating awareness among the people, selling

environment-friendly appliances; encourage recycling of paper, metal and glass
etc. Such efforts are needed by the people at the grass-root level. Only then we
can combat this problem in an effective way.

NATURAL DISASTER
A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural
processes of

the

Earth;

examples

include floods, volcanic

eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. A

natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage, [1] and
typically leaves some economic damage in its wake, the severity of
which depends on the affected population's resilience, or ability to
recover.[2]An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it
occurs in an area without vulnerable population. [3][4] In a vulnerable
area, however, such as San Franciscoand Nepal, an earthquake can
have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage, requiring
years to repair. In 2012, there were 905 natural disasters worldwide,
93% of which were weather-related disasters. Overall costs were
US$170 billion and insured losses $70 billion. 2012 was a moderate
year. 45% were meteorological (storms), 36% were hydrological

(floods), 12% were climatological (heat waves, cold waves, droughts,

wildfires) and 7% were geophysical events (earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions). Between 1980 and 2011 geophysical events accounted for
14% of all natural catastrophes.