DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS,,

HYDRAULIC SIMILITUDE AND

MODEL INVESTIGATION
Dr. P. JAGADEESH

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which make use of
the study of dimensions as an aid to solution of several engineering
problems.
Uses:
1. Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid
motion.
motion
2. Deriving equations expressed in terms of non-dimensional
parameters to show the relative significance of each parameter.
3. Planning model tests and presenting experimental results in a
systematic manner in terms of non-dimensional parameters; thus
making
g it p
possible to analyze
y the complex
p
fluid p
phenomenon.

Dimensional Homogeneity
Fouriers
ou e s principle
p cpeo
of d
dimensional
e s o a homogeneity
o oge e ty states tthat
at an
a equat
equation
o which
c
express a physical phenomenon of fluid flow must be algebraically correct and
dimensionally homogeneous.
Ex:

l
t = 2
g
L.H.S = R.H.S

Method of Dimensional Analysis

1.Rayleigh
y g Method
2.Buckingham -Method
Rayleigh Method: In this method a functional relationship of some variable is expressed
i the
in
th form
f
off an exponential
ti l equation
ti which
hi h mustt be
b di
dimensionally
i
ll h
homogeneous.

(
x = c (x

x = f x1 , x2 ,....xn
a
1

x2b ....xnn

(1)

( 2)

Discharge Through Orifice

Q = f(, , d, H, g)

By Rayleigh method may be expressed as

Q = C(
C( a b dc Hc ge)
Substituting proper dimensions for each variable in the above eqn.
(L3/T) = (M0L0T0) (M/LT)a (M/L3)b (L)c (L)d (L/T2)e
Comparing both sides,

Solving eqn 1, 2, 3

M: 0 = a+b
(1)
L: 3=-a-3b+c+d+e (2)
T: -1=-a-2e
1 a 2e
(3)

b = -a
e = - a/2
c = 5/2 3a/2 d
d

gH f 1
Q = a 2g
3
1
d 2 g 2

, ,Cd = f 1
d
d 3 2 g 12

H
,
d

Buckingham -Method:
It states
t t
th t if there
that
th
are n dimensional
di
i
l variables
i bl
i
involved
l d in
i a
phenomenon, which can be completely described by m fundamental
quantities or dimensions (such as mass, length, time etc.,), and are related
by a dimensionally homogeneous equation,
equation then the relationship among
the n quantities can always be expressed in terms of exactly (n-m)
dimensionless and independent terms.

x1 = f x2 , x3 ,....xn

f1 x1 , x2 x3 ....xn = C
f2 1, 2....( nm) = C1

Selection of m variables out of the existing variables as non repeating:

These (m variables) variables should such that none of them is dimensionless
They themselves do not form a dimensionless parameters
All the m fundamental dimensions are included collectively in them
As far as possible the dependent variable should not be taken as repeating
variable as otherwise it will not possible to obtain an explicit relationship.
For example in fluid problems, usually a characteristic linear dimension (ex.
Length, breadth & depth), a characteristic velocity and a characteristic fluid
property (generally fluid density) are chosen as repeating variables.
Problem: The resistance force F of a ship is a function of its length L,
velocity V, acceleration due to gravity g and fluid properties like density
and viscosity . Write this relationship in a dimensionless form as below
below.

gL
F
= fn 2 ,

2 2
v L
V

VL

Using Buckingham -Method,

F = fn (L, V, g, , )
List of dimensions for each variable,
F

[MLT-2]

[L]

[LT-1]

[LT-2]

[ML-3]

[ML-1T-1]

There are n
n-m
m = 3 dimensionless terms.
terms Take L,
L V and as repeating

variables.

1 term :

1 = FLaV b c

2 term :

2 = gLaV b c

3 term :

3 = L V
a

 1 term :

1 = M 0L0T 0 = FLaV b c

M L T = MLT [L ] LT ML
0 0

1 b

3 c

Hence by equating powers of M

M, L and T on both sides
sides, we get
1 + c =0
1+ a + b 3c
3c=0
0
-2b=0
c = -1, b = -2, a = -2

F
1 =
V 2L2

 2 term :

2 = gLaV b c

M L T = LT [L ] LT ML
0 0

c=0
1+a+b=0
-2b=0
a = 1, b = -2, c=0

gL
2 = 2
V

1 b

3 c

 3 term :

3 = LaV b c

M L T = ML T [L ] LT ML
0 0

1 b

3 c

1+c=0
- 1 + a+ b 3c = 0
-1
1b=0
a = -1, b = -1, c = -1

3 =
Hence,

LV

F
gL
F
= [Fr , Re]
or
= fn 2 ,
2 2

2 2
v L
v L
V VL

Prob. The pressure drop p in a pipe of diameter D and length l depends

on mass density, and viscosity, of the flowing fluid, mean velocity flow V and
average height
h i ht K off roughness
h
projections
j ti
on th
the pipe
i surface.
f
U i B
Using
Buckingham
ki h
-Method, obtain the dimensionless expression for p as

flV 2
hf =
2gD

Where hf is the loss of head due to friction (= p/ ), is the specific weight

off the
th fluid
fl id and
d f iis th
the coefficient
ffi i t off ffriction
i ti

p = fn (V, l, D, u, k, )
fn (p , V
V, ll, D
D, u
u, kk, )=C

1 = V

a1

D b1 c1 p

2 =V

a2

D b 2 c 2l

3 =V

a3

D b 3 c 3k

4 =V

a4

D b4 c4

 p

l
k
1 =
; 2 = ; 3 = ; 4 =

2
D
D
V
VD
l k
p
= fn , ,

2
V
D D VD
which may also be written as ,
l k VD
p = V fn , ,

D D
2

V 2 l k VD
=
fn ,

D D
p
flV 2
k

= hf =
; where f = fn , Re

2gD
D

SIMILITUDE TYPES OF SIMILARITIES

There are three
Th
th
types
t
off similarities
i il iti tto b
be established
t bli h d ffor complete
l t similarity
i il it
to exist between the model and its prototype.
1. Geometric Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity
Geometric Similarity: Geometric similarity exists between the model and prototype
if the ratios of corresponding length dimensions in the model and the prototype are
equal.
Length scale ratio =

Lr =

Area scale ratio = A r =

Lm
b
d
= m = m
LP
bP
dP

Am
L xb
= m m = L2r
AP
L p xb p

Volume scale ratio = V r =

Vm
L xb xd
= m m m = L2r
VP
L p xb p xd p

Kinematic similarity: Kinematic similarity exists between the model and prototype if
i the paths of the homologous moving particles are geometrically similar
i.
similar, and
ii. If the ratios of the velocities as well as acceleration of the homologous particles are
equal.
Time scale ratio =

V l it scale
Velocity
l ratio
ti =

Tr =

Tm
TP

Lm
Vm
Lr
T
m
Vr =
=
=
Lp
VP
Tr
Tp
Lm

Acceleration scale ratio =

Tm )
(
am
Lr
=
=
ar =
2
Lp
aP
Tr )
(
2
(T P )
2

Dynamic similarity: Dynamic similarity exists between the model and the
p
prototype
yp which are g
geometrically
y and kinematically
y similar if the ratio of all the forces
acting at homologous points in the two systems viz., the model and the prototype are
equal.

FGm FIm F m FEm FTm

=
=
=
=
= Cons tan t
FGp FIp F p FEp FTp

TYPES OF MODELS
1 U di t t d M
1.Undistorted
Models
d l
2.Distorted Models
U di t t d
Undistorted

M d l
Models:

A
An

undistorted
di t t d

model
d l

i
is

th t
that

which
hi h

i
is

geometrically similar to it prototype by satisfying the basic condition of

perfects similitude. The p
p
predictions in the case of such models is
relatively easy and many of the results obtained from the model tests
can be transferred directly to the prototype.
Undistorted Models: Distorted models are those in which one or more
terms of the model are not identical with their counter-parts in the
proto type Since the basic condition of perfect similitude is not
proto-type.
satisfied, the results obtained with the help of a distorted model are
liable

to

distortion

and

have

more

quantitative

value

Ex: Rivers, Dam across wide river, harbours, estuaries etc.,

only.

REASONS FOR ADOPTING DISTORTED MODELS

To maintain accuracy in vertical measurements
measurements.
To maintain turbulent flow.
To obtain suitable bed material and its adequate movement.
To obtain suitable roughness condition.
To accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water
supply and time.
ADVANTAGES
The vertical exaggeration results in steeper water surface slopes and
modification of wave heights in models, which cab be measured easily
accurately.
y
Due to exaggarated slopes, the Reynolds numbers of a model is
considerably increased and the surface resistance is lowered. This assist in
simulation of the flow conditions in the model and prototype.
prototype

 Model size can be sufficiently reduced by its distortion, thereby its

operation simplified and also cost is lowered automatically.
In case of distorted models sufficient tractive force can be developed to
produce adequate bed movement with a reasonably small model.
DIS ADVANTAGES
DIS-ADVANTAGES
The magnitude and distribution of velocities are incorrectly re-produced
because of vertical exaggeration of measurements.
The pressure may not be correctly reproduced in magnitude and
direction.
Slope of river bends, earth cuts and dikes are often too steep that they
cannot be moulded satisfactorily in sand or other erodible material.
A model wave may
y differ in type
yp and p
possibly
y in action from that of the
prototype.
There is an unfavorable psychological effect on the observer.

NON-DIMENSIONAL NUMBERS
Since Inertial force always exists when any mass is in motion
motion, the condition
for dynamic similarity are developed by considering the ratio of the and
any one of the remaining force.
I
I.

I
Inertia
ti Viscous
Vi
force
f
ratio
ti Reynolds
R
ld number
b (Re)
(R )

Inertial force = ma=xV xv/t = xV/t xv = x Av x v = L2v2

Viscous force = =(dv/dy)A = (v/L ) L2= vL

Fi L2v 2 vL
=
=
Fv
vL

II. Inertial Gravitational Force ratio Froude number (Fn)

Fi v 2
=
Fv Lg

III. Inertia Pressure force ratio Euler number (Eu)

Fi
v2
=
Fv p

1/Eu = Newton Number

IV. Inertial Elasticity Force ratio Mach number (Ma)

Fi v 2
= 2 ;c = k
Fv c
v2
= Cauchy Number
2
c
Ma = v / c > 1 Supersonic
< 1 Subsonic
= 1 Sonic

Inertial Surface tension Force ratio Weber number (We or Nw)

Fi
v2
=
Fv

v2

Prob.1. 1/10 model of an airplane is tested in a variable density wind tunnel. The
prototype plane is to fly at 400 km/h speed under atmospheric conditions. The
pressure used in the wind tunnel is 10 times the atmospheric pressure. Calculate
the velocity of air in the model. To what prototype value would a measured drag of
500 N in the model correspond?
Sol. Reynolds similarity law is applicable.

( Re )m

pv pLp
mv m Lm
=
; ( Re ) p =
m
p

Lm
= Lr = 1
10
Lp

Since pressure does not affect the viscosity appreciably, m= p... Further at
constant temperature p/=constant.
Pressure ratio
ratio,

pm
= pr = 10 = r
pp
vm = v p

r
400
=
= 400 km / h
1
r Lr 10
10

Model velocity is the same as prototype velocity, i.e. vr = 1.0

( 10) 1 = 110

Force ratio
ratio, Fr = Fr = r L2r v r2 = 10 1

Fp =

Fm
= 500 10 = 5000N
Fr

Prob.2. A model boat, 1/100 size of its prototype has 0.12N of resistance when
simulating a speed of 5 m/s of the prototype. Water is the fluid in both cases.
What is the corresponding resistance in the prototype? Assume frictional forces
are neglected.
Sol. The resistance offered at the free surface is the significant force and as such
Froude model law is appropriate.

vp
vm
Frm =
=
gLm
gLp
If Lr =

Lm
;Vr = Lr
Lp

( Force )m
= r L2r v r2 = r L3r
( Force )p

Since the same fluid is used in the model and prototype, m=r,and r=1.

Fm
= L3r
Fp
3

1
Fm
Fp =
= 120000N = 120kN
3 = 0.12

Lr
100

Prob.3. A 1:6 scale model of a passenger car is tested in a wind tunnel. The
prototype velocity is 60 km/h. If the model drag is 250 N what is the drag and the
power required
i d to
t overcome the
th drag
d
i the
in
th prototype.
t t
Th air
The
i in
i the
th model
d l and
d
prototype can be assumed to have the same properties.
Sol. Reynolds similarity law is applicable

( Re )m =
vr =

v m Lm

; ( Re ) p =

v p Lp

r
Lr

If r = 1

( i .e.

then v r = 1

= p , m = p )

Lr

v m = v p Lr = 60 6 = 360 km / h = 100 m / s
2

r
r2 r2
Fm
2 2
2
= r Lr v r = r Lr = r 2 =
Force ratio =
Fp
r r
Lr
Fm
If r = 1 and r = 1,
= 1.0
Fp

Fp=250 N (Same as in the model)

Power to overcome drag in the prototype:

60 103
Pp = Fp .v p = 250
= 4167W = 4.167kW
3600

Unit quantities & Specific quantities:

In order to predict the behavior of a turbine working under varying conditions
and to facilitate comparison between the performances of the turbine of the
same type but having different outputs and speeds and working under
different heads, it is often convenient to express the test results in terms of
certain
t i unit
it quantities.
titi
Performance under unit head - Unit quantities:
From the output of a turbine corresponding to different working heads it is possible
to compute the output which would be developed if the head was reduced to unit (1
meter); the speed being adjusted so that the efficiency remains unaffected.

Qu = Q

H = Q1

H1 , Q1 = Q

Nu = N

H = N1

H1 , N1 = N

H1

Pu = P H 3 2 = P1 H1 , P1 = PH1
32

32

H1

32

Assumption: The above expressions are based on the assumption that the
efficiencies remains constant at all the heads, which is however not correct.

Note: The expression for the various quantities as derived above can be used
for comparing the performance of any one turbine only under different
conditions of operation.
operation
Unit quantities obtained below would facilitate a comparison between the
performance of different turbines of the same type. According to this, the unit speed,
unit discharge and unit power are defined respectively as the speed
speed, discharge and
power of a turbine having a runner diameter of 1m and operating under a head of 1m.

ND
Q
P
Nu =
; Qu = 2
; Pu = 2 3 2
D H
H
D H
Note: The unit quantities for similar turbines will be equal only if their efficiencies are
equal.

However, the performance of different types may be compared by considering an

imaginary turbine called specific turbine
turbine.
The specific turbine is an imaginary turbine which is identical in shape,
geometrical proportions, blade angles, gate settings etc., with the actual turbine
but reduced to such size that it will develop one kilowatt power under unit head
head.

N P
Ns = 5 4
H
Problem 1. A Francis turbines working under a head of 5m at a speed of 210
r.p.m. develop 75 kW when the rate of flow of water is 1.8 m3/s. The runner
diameter is 1m. If the head on this turbine is increased to 16m, determine its new
speed, discharge and power.

 N H1 210 16
N1 =
= 375.7 r. p.m.
=
H
5

Q H1 1.8 16
Q1 =
= 3.22
3 22m3 / s
=
H
5

PH13 2 75 163 2
P1 = 3 2 =
= 429.33kW
32
5
H

Problem 2. A water turbine develops 130 kW at 230 r.p.m. under a head of 16 m.

Determine the scale ratio and the speed of a similar machine which will generate
660 kW, when working under a head of 25m.
Solution:

S in c e ,

P1
D 12 H 13

130
D 12 (1 6 )

3 2

D2
= 1 .6 1 2
D1

P2
D 22 H 23

660
D 22 ( 2 5 )

3 2

N1D1 N2D2
Also ,
=
H1
H2
230 D1 N2 (1.612D1 )
=
16
25
N2 = 178.35 r .p.m.