Functions of elements

Element
Sodium
Magnesium

Calcium

Ferum(Iron)

Phosphorus

Potassium

Chlorine

Functions
Animal cells
-Regulates osmotic pressure in cells.
-Helps in the transmission of nerve
impulses.
-Involved in protein synthesis.
-Acts as a cofactor for some enzymes.

Plant cells
Not required.

-Required for the

synthesis of chlorophyll.
-Activates enzymes in the
cells.
-Required for the formation of strong
-Synthesis of cell
bones and teeth.
walls(cellulose).
-Helps in the contraction of muscle
-Helps maintain the semicells.
permeability of plasma
-Promotes blood clotting
membranes.
-Involved in the synthesis of
-Synthesis of chlorophyll.
haemoglobin which transports oxygen. -Acts as an electron
-Involved in the synthesis of respiratory carrier during
enzymes.
photosynthesis and
respiration.
-Formation of strong bones and teeth.
-Includes the formation of
-Helps in the contraction of muscle
flowers and seeds.
cells.
-Promotes cell division.
-Synthesis of adenosine
-Synthesis of ATP and
triphosphate(ATP) an energy carrier.
nucleic acids.
-An essential component of nucleic
acids (DNA and RNA)
Required in muscle contractions and
-Synthesis of
transmission of nerve impulses.
carbohydrates.
-Activates certain
enzymes.
Synthesis of hydrochloric acid by the
Photolysis of water
gastric glands in the stomach which
during light reaction in
destroys pathogens and maintains pH
photosynthesis.
of the stomach.

The importance of water

1. Medium for biochemical reactions
2. Maintaining body temperature
3. High surface tension and cohesion
4. Providing support
5. Lubrication
6. Transport medium
7. Maintaining osmotic balance and turgidity
8. Providing moisture
9. Universal solvent

Lock and key hypothesis

1. Enzyme represents Lock.

2. Substrate represents Key.
3. A specific substrate molecule arrives at the active site of the enzyme molecule.
4. The substrate molecules binds to the active site to form an enzyme-substrate
complex which is very unstable.
5. The enzyme catalyses the conversion of the substrate to its product which then
departs from the active site.
6. The enzyme molecule is now free to bind to more molecules of the substrate.

The uses of enzymes in daily life and industry

Type of industry/application
1. Food processing industry
(a) Meat products
(b) Starch products

(c) Fish products

(d) Dairy products

(e) Alcoholic drinks

(beer/wine making
industry)
(f) Bread and other bakery
products(baking
industry)
(g) Cereal grain products

Enzymes used

Uses

Protease
Amylase and
amyloglucoxidase
Glucose isomerase

Tenderises meat
Change starch to sugar in
the making of syrup.
Production of high
fructose syrup:
Glucose is converted into
fructose. Since fructose is
much sweeter than
glucose, it is widely used
in slimming products as
only small amounts are
needed.
Removes the skin of fish
Ripening of cheese
Hydrolyses lactose to
glucose and galactose in
the making of ice cream
Solidifies milk proteins
Converts sugars into
ethanol

Protease
Lipase
Lactase
Rennin
Zymase
Amylase
Cellulase

(h) Seaweed products

Cellulase

2. Leather products

Trypsin

3. Textile products

Amylase

4. Medical/ pharmaceutical
products
5. Biological washing
powder or detergents

-Pancreatic trypsin
-Microbial trypsin
Protease and amylase

Converts starch flour into

sugar in the making of
bread
Breaks down cellulose
and removes seed coats
from cereal grains
Extracts agar from
seaweed
Removal of hair from
animal hides
Removes starch that is
used as stiffeners from
fabrics
-Treats inflammation
-Dissolves blood clots
Dissolve protein and
starch stains in clothes

Factors affecting the activity of enzymes

(a)Temperature
1. At low temperatures, an enzyme-catalysed reaction takes place slowly.
2. As the temperature increases, the substrate molecules move faster.
3. Collisions between the substrate and enzyme molecules occur more frequently.
4. The rate of reaction between the substrate and enzyme increases.
5. For every 10C rise in temperature, the rate of enzymatic reaction in a cell is
doubled until the optimum temperature is reached.
6. Most enzymes in humans and animals have an optimum temperature of about
37C.
7. Beyond the optimum temperature, any increase in temperature causes the rate of
reaction to decrease sharply until it stops completely at about 60C.
8. At very high temperatures, the chemical bonds holding the enzyme molecules in
their precise shape begin to break. This alters the three-dimensional shape of the
enzyme molecules and eventually destroys the active sites.
9. The substrates can no longer fit into the active sites of the enzyme. The enzyme
is said to be denatured.
(b) pH
1. The optimum pH is the pH at which the rate of enzymatic reaction is at its
fastest. In a cell, most enzymes function optimally at a pH that ranges from 6 to 8.
2. A change in pH value can alter the charges on the active sites of an enzyme and
the surface of the substrate.
3. This reduces the ability of both molecules to bind with each other.
4. The substrate is unable to bind and the reaction cannot take place.
5. However, there are few exceptions, such as pepsin which can only function
optimally in an acidic condition (pH 2) in the stomach, while trypsin can only
function optimally in an alkaline condition (pH8.5) in the duodenum.
(c) Substrate concentration
1. At low substrate concentrations, few substrate molecules are present, many
active sites are available. Therefore, the rate of reaction increases in direct
proportion to the substrate concentration.
2. An increase in substrate concentration causes more chances of collision between
the substrate molecules and enzyme molecules for a catalytic reaction to take
place. More products are formed per unit time.
3. At a certain substrate concentration, the rate of reaction will not increase further
and become constant. The reaction is at maximum rate.
4. At this point, all active sits are filled and engaged in catalysis. The enzyme
molecules are said to be saturated.
5. At high substrate concentrations, there are more substrate molecules than
enzyme molecules.

6. The excess substrate molecules will have to compete with one another for the
active sites.
7. When all active sits are engaged in the catalysis of the substrate, an increase in
the substrate concentration will not alter the rate of reaction. The rate of reaction
becomes constant.
8. At this point, the enzyme concentration becomes a limiting factor.
(d) Enzyme concentration
1. The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction increases when the enzyme
concentration increased, as long as no other factors are limiting the rate of reaction
and the substrate molecules available are in excess. This is because more active
sites are available for enzyme action.
2. The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction is directly proportional to the
concentration of the enzyme present until a maximum rate is achieved.
3. Beyond the maximum rate of reaction, the concentration of substrate becomes a
limiting factor.
4. When enzyme concentration is doubled,the rate of reaction or the number of
substrate molecules that are converted to products per unit time will be doubled as
long as the substrates are present in excess concentration.