Example A: Find the resistance of 6.5 m of wire, diameter 0.

6 mm, if the
resistivity value is 430 nano-ohm metres (430 nm).

Using the superposition theorem. This is a simple method of nding the voltage across a
resistor in a circuit
where more than one source of EMF is present.

The superposition principle: this states that in any linear network, the
voltage at any point is the sum of the voltages caused by each generator
in the circuit. To nd the voltage caused by a generator replace all other
generators in the circuit by their internal resistances, and use Ohms law.
Thevenins (pronounced Tay-venin) theorem is, after Ohms circuit law,
one of the most useful electrical circuit laws. The theorem states that
any network of linear components, such as resistors and batteries, can
be replaced in its effect by an equivalent circuit consisting only of a voltage
source and a resistance in series. The size of the equivalent voltage is found
by taking the open-circuit voltage between two points in the network, and
the series resistance is found by calculating the resistance between the same
two points assuming that the voltage source is short-circuited. (See later
for examples of Thevenins theorem, illustrated in Figure 1.13.)
Larger thermistor types,
with lower values of cold resistance (measured at 20

C) are used for current

regulation
Capacitors
The disadvantages of aluminium electrolytics include leakage current
(which is high compared to other capacitor types), the need for polarization
(the + and - markings must be observed and DC applied) and
comparatively low-voltage operation (less signicant in transistor and IC
circuits, but ruling out the use of electrolytics in high-voltage transmitter
circuits).
Faradays laws: Voltage induced depends on rate of change of magnetic
ux. For an EMF caused by a moving magnet, change of ux is proportional
to strength of magnet, speed of magnet or coil, number of turns of coil and
area of cross-section of coil.
Lenzs law: The direction of induced EMF is such that it always opposes
the change (movement in this example, or change of current through a coil)
that causes it.
The skin effect at high frequencies causes the apparent resistance of a
coil to increase above its DC value. This is because the electron path
(causing the current ow) in the conductors avoids regions where the
magnetic eld is strongest. This effect also results in a decrease of

inductance value for these signals.

Leakage inductance in RF transformers can be greatly reduced by
interleaving the primary and secondary windings to provide closer
coupling, together with an efcient core (if the frequency range
permits the use of a core).
Zener diodes are used with reverse bias, making use of the breakdown
that occurs across a silicon junction when the reverse voltage causes a large
electrostatic eld to develop across the junction.
Avalanche breakdown occurs in diodes which have lower doping levels, at
voltages above about 6 V.
Schottky diodes silicon diode. In addition, the diodes have very fast switching times,
meaning
that when the voltage is switched off the current also turns off with
only a very small delay. This feature makes the Schottky diode useful in RF
applications such as RF demodulation and in high-frequency switch-mode
power supplies. Because of the low voltage drop, the diodes also make
excellent power rectiers, particularly for high-frequency supplies, though
the reverse current is too high for some applications. Figure 5.4a shows the
relevant symbol.

A Darlington pair, eponymously named after the inventor, is a pair of

transistors connected in common-collector mode, with the emitter of the
rst connected to the base of the second
Field-effect transistors (FETs) are constructed with no junctions in the
main current path between the drain and source electrodes, which correspond
in function to collector and emitter respectively of a bipolar
transistor. The path between these contacts, called the channel, may be
P-type or N-type silicon, so FETs may be classed as P-channel or N-channel.
Control of the current owing in the channel is achieved by varying the
voltage on a third electrode, the gate.
Both N-channel and P-channel devices can be made. In addition, the
channel can be either doped or undoped (or very lightly doped). If the
channel is strongly doped there will be a conducting path of fairly low
resistance between the source and the drain when no bias is applied to the
gate. Such a device is usually operated with a bias on the gate that will
reduce the source-drain current, and is said to be used in depletion mode.
When the channel is formed from lightly-doped or undoped material it is
normally non-conducting, and its conductivity is increased by applying bias
to the gate in the correct polarity, using the FET in enhancement mode.
Enhancement mode is more common. With the gate-to-source voltage
equal to zero, the device is cut off. When a gate voltage that is positive
with respect to the channel is applied, an electric eld is set up that attracts
electrons towards the oxide layer. These now form an induced channel to

support a current ow. An increase in this positive gate voltage will cause
the drain-to-source current ow to rise.
Feedback means using a fraction of the output voltage of a circuit to add
to the input. When the signals at the input and the output are oppositely
During the time when a BJT is conducting the emitter is injecting
charges (holes or electrons) into the base region; a MOSFET is forcing
carriers into its channel. These charges cannot disappear instantly when the
bias is reversed so that the transistor will conduct momentarily in the reverse
direction.

The circuit arrangement of the 741 is such that, using balanced power
supplies, the DC level at the output ought to be at zero volts when both

inputs are connected to zero volts. This does not generally happen because
of slight differences in internal components, so an input offset voltage is
needed to restore the output to zero voltage. Alternatively, the offset can be
balanced out by a potentiometer connected as shown in Figure 6.5. Once
set in this way so that the output is at zero volts (with the inputs earthed),

Large-amplitude signals are further limited by the slew rate of the circuits
within the amplier. The slew rate of an amplier is the maximum value
of change of output voltage that can be achieved at unity gain. Units are
usually volts per microsecond. Because this rate cannot be exceeded, and
feedback has no effect on slew rate, the bandwidth of the op-amp for large
signals, sometimes called the power bandwidth, is less than that for small
signals. The slew rate limitation cannot be corrected by the use of negative
feedback; in fact negative feedback acts to increase distortion when the slew
rate limiting action starts, because the effect of the feedback is to increase
the rate of change of voltage at the input of the amplier whenever the rate
is limited at the output. This accelerates the overloading of the amplier,
and can change what might be a temporary distortion into a longer-lasting
overload condition. The relationship between the sine wave bandwidth and
the slew rate, for many types of operational amplier, is:
A 741 monostable circuit. With no input, the output voltage is high, which causes the (+)
input voltage to be
higher than the voltage level

V
s

/2 set by R
5

and R
6

(equal values). Because of D

, the (-) input

cannot rise to the same value as the (+) input. A negative pulse at the (+) input causes the
output voltage to
drop rapidly, taking the (+) input voltage low. The (-) input voltage then drops at a rate
determined by the
time constant

C
1

R
. When the (-) input voltage equals the (+) input voltage, the circuit switches
back, and the diode

D
1
1
1

conducts to catch the (-) input voltage and so prevent continuous oscillation.

PLL:
The circuit
can be used, for example, to remove any traces of amplitude modulation
from an input signal, since the output (from the internal oscillator) is not
affected by the amplitude of the input signal, but is locked to its frequency
and phase.
The circuit may also be used as an FM demodulator, since the control
voltage will follow the modulation of an FM input in its efforts to
keep the oscillator locked in phase.