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Deformation(engineering)Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Deformation(engineering)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thisarticleisaboutdeformationinengineering.Foramorerigoroustreatment,seeDeformation
(mechanics).
Inmaterialsscience,deformationreferstoanychangesintheshapeorsizeofan
objectdueto
anappliedforce(thedeformationenergyinthiscaseistransferredthrough
work)or
achangeintemperature(thedeformationenergyinthiscaseistransferred
throughheat).
Thefirstcasecanbearesultoftensile(pulling)forces,compressive(pushing)
forces,shear,bendingortorsion(twisting).
Inthesecondcase,themostsignificantfactor,whichisdeterminedbythe
temperature,isthemobilityofthestructuraldefectssuchasgrainboundaries,point
vacancies,lineandscrewdislocations,stackingfaultsandtwinsinbothcrystalline
andnoncrystallinesolids.Themovementordisplacementofsuchmobiledefectsis
thermallyactivated,andthuslimitedbytherateofatomicdiffusion.[1][2]
Deformationisoftendescribedasstrain.

Compressive
stressresultsin
deformation
whichshortens
theobjectbut
alsoexpandsit
outwards.

Asdeformationoccurs,internalintermolecularforcesarisethatopposetheappliedforce.Iftheapplied
forceisnottoogreattheseforcesmaybesufficienttocompletelyresisttheappliedforceandallowthe
objecttoassumeanewequilibriumstateandtoreturntoitsoriginalstatewhentheloadisremoved.A
largerappliedforcemayleadtoapermanentdeformationoftheobjectoreventoitsstructuralfailure.
Inthefigureitcanbeseenthatthecompressiveloading(indicatedbythearrow)hascauseddeformation
inthecylindersothattheoriginalshape(dashedlines)haschanged(deformed)intoonewithbulging
sides.Thesidesbulgebecausethematerial,althoughstrongenoughtonotcrackorotherwisefail,isnot
strongenoughtosupporttheloadwithoutchange,thusthematerialisforcedoutlaterally.Internalforces
(inthiscaseatrightanglestothedeformation)resisttheappliedload.
Theconceptofarigidbodycanbeappliedifthedeformationisnegligible.

Contents
1Typesofdeformation
1.1Elasticdeformation
1.2Plasticdeformation
1.2.1Metalfatigue
1.2.2Compressivefailure
1.3Fracture
2Misconceptions
3Seealso
4References
5Externallinks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformation_(engineering)

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Typesofdeformation
Dependingonthetypeofmaterial,sizeandgeometryoftheobject,andtheforcesapplied,varioustypes
ofdeformationmayresult.Theimagetotherightshowstheengineeringstressvs.straindiagramfora
typicalductilematerialsuchassteel.Differentdeformationmodesmayoccurunderdifferentconditions,
ascanbedepictedusingadeformationmechanismmap.

Elasticdeformation
Formoredetailsonthis
topic,seeElasticity
(physics).
Thistypeofdeformationis
reversible.Oncetheforces
arenolongerapplied,the
objectreturnstoitsoriginal
shape.Elastomersandshape
memorymetalssuchas
Nitinolexhibitlargeelastic
deformationranges,asdoes
rubber.Howeverelasticityis
nonlinearinthesematerials.
Normalmetals,ceramicsand
mostcrystalsshowlinear
elasticityandasmaller
elasticrange.

Typicalstressvs.straindiagramindicatingthevariousstagesofdeformation.

LinearelasticdeformationisgovernedbyHooke'slaw,whichstates:

Where istheappliedstress, isamaterialconstantcalledYoung'smodulusorelasticmodulus,and

istheresultingstrain.Thisrelationshiponlyappliesintheelasticrangeandindicatesthattheslopeof
thestressvs.straincurvecanbeusedtofindYoung'smodulus( ).Engineersoftenusethiscalculation
intensiletests.Theelasticrangeendswhenthematerialreachesitsyieldstrength.Atthispointplastic
deformationbegins.
Notethatnotallelasticmaterialsundergolinearelasticdeformationsome,suchasconcrete,graycast
iron,andmanypolymers,respondinanonlinearfashion.ForthesematerialsHooke'slawis
inapplicable.[3]

Plasticdeformation
Seealso:Plasticity(physics)
Thistypeofdeformationisirreversible.However,anobjectintheplasticdeformationrangewillfirst
haveundergoneelasticdeformation,whichisreversible,sotheobjectwillreturnpartwaytoitsoriginal
shape.Softthermoplasticshavearatherlargeplasticdeformationrangeasdoductilemetalssuchas

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copper,silver,andgold.Steeldoes,too,butnotcastiron.Hardthermosettingplastics,rubber,crystals,
andceramicshaveminimalplasticdeformationranges.Onematerialwithalargeplasticdeformation
rangeiswetchewinggum,whichcanbestretcheddozensoftimesitsoriginallength.
Undertensilestress,plasticdeformationischaracterizedbyastrainhardeningregionandanecking
regionandfinally,fracture(alsocalledrupture).Duringstrainhardeningthematerialbecomesstronger
throughthemovementofatomicdislocations.Theneckingphaseisindicatedbyareductionincross
sectionalareaofthespecimen.Neckingbeginsaftertheultimatestrengthisreached.Duringnecking,
thematerialcannolongerwithstandthemaximumstressandthestraininthespecimenrapidly
increases.Plasticdeformationendswiththefractureofthematerial.
Metalfatigue
Anotherdeformationmechanismismetalfatigue,whichoccursprimarilyinductilemetals.Itwas
originallythoughtthatamaterialdeformedonlywithintheelasticrangereturnedcompletelytoits
originalstateoncetheforceswereremoved.However,faultsareintroducedatthemolecularlevelwith
eachdeformation.Aftermanydeformations,crackswillbegintoappear,followedsoonafterbya
fracture,withnoapparentplasticdeformationinbetween.Dependingonthematerial,shape,andhow
closetotheelasticlimititisdeformed,failuremayrequirethousands,millions,billions,ortrillionsof
deformations.
Metalfatiguehasbeenamajorcauseofaircraftfailure,especiallybeforetheprocesswaswell
understood(see,forexample,theDeHavillandCometaccidents).Therearetwowaystodetermine
whenapartisindangerofmetalfatigueeitherpredictwhenfailurewilloccurduetothe
material/force/shape/iterationcombination,andreplacethevulnerablematerialsbeforethisoccurs,or
performinspectionstodetectthemicroscopiccracksandperformreplacementoncetheyoccur.
Selectionofmaterialsnotlikelytosufferfrommetalfatigueduringthelifeoftheproductisthebest
solution,butnotalwayspossible.Avoidingshapeswithsharpcornerslimitsmetalfatiguebyreducing
stressconcentrations,butdoesnoteliminateit.
Compressivefailure
Usually,compressivestressappliedtobars,
columns,etc.leadstoshortening.
Loadingastructuralelementorspecimenwill
increasethecompressivestressuntilitreachesits
compressivestrength.Accordingtothepropertiesof
thematerial,failuremodesareyieldingformaterials
withductilebehavior(mostmetals,somesoilsand
plastics)orrupturingforbrittlebehavior
(geomaterials,castiron,glass,etc.).
Inlong,slenderstructuralelementssuchas
columnsortrussbarsanincreaseofcompressive
forceFleadstostructuralfailureduetobucklingat
lowerstressthanthecompressivestrength.

Diagramofastressstraincurve,showingthe
relationshipbetweenstress(forceapplied)and
strain(deformation)ofaductilemetal.

Fracture
Seealso:ConcretefractureanalysisandFracturemechanics
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Thistypeofdeformationisalsoirreversible.Abreakoccursafterthematerialhasreachedtheendofthe
elastic,andthenplastic,deformationranges.Atthispointforcesaccumulateuntiltheyaresufficientto
causeafracture.Allmaterialswilleventuallyfracture,ifsufficientforcesareapplied.

Misconceptions
Apopularmisconceptionisthatallmaterialsthatbendare"weak"andthosethatdon'tare"strong."In
reality,manymaterialsthatundergolargeelasticandplasticdeformations,suchassteel,areableto
absorbstressesthatwouldcausebrittlematerials,suchasglass,withminimalplasticdeformation
ranges,tobreak.[4]

Seealso
Artificialcranialdeformation
Creep(deformation)
Deflection(engineering)
Deformablebody
Deformation(mechanics)
Deformationmechanismmaps
DeformationMonitoring
Deformationretract
Deformationtheory
DiscontinuousDeformationAnalysis
Elastic
Finitedeformationtensors
Malleability
Planardeformationfeatures
Plasticity(physics)
Poisson'sratio
Straintensor
Strengthofmaterials
Woodwarping

References
1. Davidge,R.W.,MechanicalBehaviorofCeramics,CambridgeSolidStateScienceSeries,Eds.Clarke,
D.R.,etal.(1979)
2. Zarzycki,J.,GlassesandtheVitreousState,CambridgeSolidStateScienceSeries,Eds.Clarke,D.R.,et
al.(1991)
3. FundamentalsofMaterialsScienceandEngineering,WilliamD.Callister,JohnWileyandSons,2nd
Internationaledition(September3,2004),ISBN0471660817,ISBN9780471660811,p.184
4. PeterRice,HughDutton(1995).Structuralglass.Taylor&Francis.p.33.ISBN0419199403.

Externallinks
Tableofdeformationmechanismsandprocesses
(http://virtualexplorer.com.au/special/meansvolume/contribs/jessell/glossary/defmech.html)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Deformation_(engineering)&oldid=666920831"
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Categories: Solidmechanics Deformation(mechanics)

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