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Modeling heat transfer and liquid flow in micro-channels
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Sabry, M.N. Djebedjian, B.O. Saleh, S.H. Mahgoub, M.M.
Download this citation Univ. Franqaise d'Egypte, Cairo, Egypt
Choose This paper appears in: Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Microelectronics and
Microsystems, 2004. EuroSimE 2004. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on
Download Publication Date: 2004
On page(s): 511 - 518
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» Learn More ISBN: 0-7803-8420-2
INSPEC Accession Number:8001658
Rights and Permissions Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/ESIME.2004.1304085
» Learn More Current Version Published: 2004-10-04

Abstract
The use of micro-channels in order to cool modern high speed electronic circuits is one of the techniques
frequently adopted in current practice. A burst of publications in this area has been observed in the last decade.
However, modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer in micro-channels is still an open problem. In fact, many
deviations have been experimentally observed between well established correlations used for conventional
normally sized channels and the behavior of microchannels. These deviations increase as the channel size
decreases. In this work, observed experimental deviations are first listed, followed by a critical review of different
hypotheses advanced in the literature to explain them. One of these hypotheses is thoroughly developed in order
to build a model that explains both the orders of magnitudes and the trends of observed phenomena.

Index Terms
Inspec

Controlled Indexing
channel flow circuit simulation cooling flow simulation high-speed integrated circuits
integrated circuit measurement integrated circuit modelling integrated circuit packaging
thermal analysis thermal management (packaging)

Non-controlled Indexing
channel size fluid flow heat transfer modeling high speed electronic circuits cooling liquid
flow modeling micro-channels

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 Modeling heat transfer and liquid flow in micro-channels
Sabry,M.N.[l], Djebedjian,B.0.[2], Saleh, S.H.[2], Mahgoub,M.M.[2]
[ 11 Universite Franqaise d'Egypte, Cairo, Egypt,
[2] Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt.
nabla@link.net
Abstract
The use of micro-channels in order to cool modem
high speed electronic circuits is one of the techniques
frequently adopted in current practice. A burst of
publications in this area has been observed in the last
decade. However, modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer
in micro-channels is still an open problem. In fact, many
deviations have been experimentally observed between
well established correlations used for conventional
normally sized channels and the behavior of micro-
channels. These deviations increase as the channel size
decreases. In this work, observed experimental deviations
will first be listed, followed by a critical review of
different hypotheses advanced in the literature to explain
them. One of these hypotheses will be thoroughly
developed in order to build a model that explains both the
orders of magnitudes and the trends of observed
phenomena.
1- Introduction
In the pioneering work of Tuckerman & Pease[l],
micro-channels were proposed as an efficient technique to
cool microelectronic circuits. A relatively large number of
small channels of hydraulic diameter of the order of 100
microns were grooved in the chip, in which purified water
was used as the cooling fluid. High heat fluxes, of the
order of 700 W/cm2 of the chip projected area were
reported. Micro-channels have many other medical and
chemical applications and are expected to have a serious
impact on future technologies [2,3]. Many enhancements
were proposed of micro-channels already high
performance, including the use of special shapes [4], nano
particles [5], electrostatic fields [6] and two phase flows
[7,8]. However it seems that the problem of modeling the
basic single phase straight channel case is still open [9].
To clarify this, consider the heat dissipated Q:
Q=h&ffAT (1.1)
where h is the heat transfer coefficient, the effective
area of heat transfer and AT the driving temperature
difference. Evidently, Q is imposed by electronic activity,
and AT is the quantity we wish to minimize, in order to
improve reliability and performance [lo], i.e. maximize h
A e ~The
. value of h is calculated from Nusselt number:
Nu = h DI, / kl (1.2)
where 14 is the fluid thermal conductivity and Dh the
hydraulic diameter. Nusselt number can be correlated with
other parameters, in particular Reynolds number:
Re = Vavg Dh / VI
(1.3)
where vavgis the average flow velocity and VI is the fluid
kinematic viscosity. Let us first assume that correlations
established for conventional (relatively large) channels
can be fully applied for micro-channels. In this case, since
0-7803-8420-2/04/$20.00 0 2 0 0 4 IEEE
5th. Int. ConJ:on Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Micro-electronics and Micro-Systems, EuroSimE2004
Dh is small, Re is so small and the flow can be assumed
laminar. Hence, if channel length L is high compared to
Dh, flow is fully developed and Nu is a constant. The
theoretical value NQ, does not depend on Re, but on
channel cross sectional shape (circular, trapezoidal ...)
and heating type (uniform heat flux or uniform
temperature). It follows from (1.2) that h is inversely
proportional to b.Hence, surprisingly large values of h
could thus be obtained, even for laminar flow, as I&
decreases to 100 pm. This also leads to high pressure
drops, because in the same above conditions (i.e. fully
developed laminar flow) the Poiseuille number:
Po=fRe (1.4)
(where f is the Darcy's friction coefficient) is constant.
The theoretical value Po* depends only on channel shape.
Hence, whether we fix Re, fluid velocity v,,, or discharge
the pressure drop will always increase for smallera.
In addition, micro-channels largely increase &E. In
fact, channel side areas are large compared to the outside
area of the block in which they were grooved. These
additional side areas act as a fin array that efficiently
cools the block. The central question in this work is now:
Are the assumptions made above, based on the
behavior of large channels, still valid for micro-channels?
2. Observed deviations
As the size of a phenomenon changes by several
orders of magnitude, the extension of physical models
used before to the new size becomes questionable, even
after rescaling. New physical effects may be involved that
were irrelevant in normal size. Experimental
investigations have confirmed the following deviations:
2.a Friction losses in laminar flow
For micro-channels the ratio cf of observed Po to Poth
has reported to be less than 1 [ 11-13] greater than 1
[14,15] or both less or greater than 1 depending on Re
[9,16]. All agreed upon the fact that Po increases with Re
for laminar flow, in contradiction with classical theory.
2.b Transition to turbulence
Earlier transition to turbulence in micro-channels [ 19-
201 has been reported compared to conventional channels.
2.c Heat transfer in laminar flow
For micro-channels, the ratio ch of observed Nu to
NUth has also been reported to increase with Re [ 17,18,20,
211, in contradiction with theory. Values of C, can be less
or greater than 1.
2.d Turbulent flow
Experiments gave contradicting results hence this
subject will not be treated here.
-511-
3. Physical effects involved
The following hypotheses were advanced to explain
deviations:
3.a Non-Continuum effects
Based on the Knudsen number Kn (ratio of mean free
path to duct dimension) Eringen [22] has theoretically
studied these effects. It is well established that for Kn <
0.01, non-continuum effects are small. The mean free path
for air at room temperature is of the order of 50 nm, i.e.
Kn to Hence it may have a small effect for
gases, but can certainly not influence liquid flow. Slip
flow for gases in micro-channels has been successhlly
modeled [23-291 using slip flow condition at the boundary
having the form:
= - ~n L~~~~ avian (3.1)
(where Lcha is a characteristic length). This simple model
valid for moderate Kn values was successful in pedicting
flow characteristics, giving a parabolic pressure
distribution along the channel due to compressibility
effects combined with slip. Hence, the case of rarefied
gases will not be considered in this work in order to
concentrate on the yet open problem of liquid flow.
3.b Variation of Dhvsical properties
Due to the high temperature rise along the duct, this
effect has also been advanced [8,17,20,30,31] as an
explanation to deviations. While this effect may explain
the decrease in friction losses in case of heating, it does
not explain isothermal results [ 1 1,121, as well as the
observed heat transfer decrease in laminar flow.
3.c The Electrical Double Layer (EDL)
In fact, charge may accumulate on the solid surface
creating a force field in a very narrow layer (of the order
of few nm to pn) next to the walls. For micro-channels,
this layer will increase flow resistance. This hypothesis
[32,33] may explain the decrease in heat transfer rates, but
not the early laminar-turbulent transition. Moreover, it is
in contradiction with the decrease in fluid friction.
3.d Viscous dissipation
Brinkman number (related to viscous dissipation) was
also considered as an important factor [34]. Due to the
high pressure drop involved, heat dissipation in a small
amount of fluid may result in a temperature increase.
However, the analysis of test results available reveals that
the associated temperature rise seems too small (lo6to
K) to be effective.
4. Proposed hypothesis
Wall shear stress sw acquires tremendous values in
micro-channels. In fact, for the same Re, the velocity v is
inversely proportional to Dh. Assuming that T~ is of the
order of pv/Dh, then T~ is inversely proportional to DhZ for
the same Re. With such high stress, the flow will tend to
separate over roughness elements, since for micro-
channels relative roughness may be about 1%. This has
been postulated earlier [35] together with a simplified
theory that will be revised here in order to obtain a more
elaborate model of micro-scale effects, and confront it
with new available experimental data. Note that the stress
was not sufficiently high to produce non-Newtonian
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5th. Int. Conf. on Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Micro-electronics and Micro-Systems, EuroSimE2004
effects. It has been experimenlally shown [36] that
separation occurs in micro-channels around obstructions
at low Re, even if they only occupy 10% of the cross-
sectional area. It is also well established that roughness
elements maintain gases in the giooves that liquids may
never be able to replace due to surface tension forces.
Pool boiling theory mainly relies on the presence of these
gas traps to initiate boiling. When liquid separation takes
place, these gases will tend to expand and occupy a
certain portion of the channel sid: walls area, offering a
cushion reducing friction. Friction reduction mechanism is
analogous to that provoked by air blowing [37]. This
scenario inevitably takes place in micro-channels. One
would only need to prove whether or not it is sufficient to
explain observed deviations. This will be done in the next
sections using an order of magnitude analysis. Another
argument that pledges in favor of I he proposed hypothesis
was hrnished by an experiment [13] where 2 different
types of micro-channels were used. The first was circular
fabricated by the glass drawn process, the second was
fabricated by anisotropic etching on silicon. Glass micro-
tubes (having negligible roughness) showed no deviation,
while silicon micro-channels (having a surface roughness
of about 1%) did deviate. Last but not least experiments
conducted to track the effect of roughness, have shown an
important effect on channels less than 1 mm [38].
In order to give an additional dlecisive argument to this
hypothesis, we have conducted detailed finite element
simulations in the immediate vicinity of tiny roughness
elements of different regular shapes (half circular,
rectangular and triamgular) placed at the wall of a 2D
channel. In all cases, three consecutive and similar
roughness elements were placed separated by a distance
equal to the roughness width (Fig. 1). Relative roughness
(defined as roughness height divided by channel depth)
was taken to be 1%. The flow was assumed laminar,
steady and incompressible (single phase, no gas cushion).
Boundary conditions were:
- At inlet: fully developed velocity profile and
uniform temperature
- At the wall: no slip, uniform temperature
- At channel centre line: symmetry
Results (Fig. 2-4) show that separation takes place
between roughness elements for all shapes and regardless
of the value of Re. Both wall shear stress sw and wall heat
flux qwnearly vanish between roughness elements, with a
negative peak for the pressure P. Hence without assuming
the existence of a gas cushion, wi: already notice that the
zone between roughness elements is a dead zone for
momentum and heat exchange. At a length scale of the
order of channel depth, it is impossible to take into
consideration the exact shape of wall roughness. Hence,
this can be modeled by a flat wall, at which a slip
boundary condition is imposed on the liquid, at least
partially. Flow separation and negative pressure will tend
to free dissolved gases (whether from the liquid or from
the walls) in this zone.
 i- PIP inlet __ TaulTau inlet --- -QN/& inlet --- I

6
4
2
0
-2 !
I

L W

Figure 4 - Flow over triangular rough elements

Figure 1 - Different roughness shapes It will also be proved in the next section that this
scenario may successfully model all other deviations
enumerated above. In fact, micro-eddies that will be
I-- PlPinlet ~ TadTau inlet ....-..-&/& inlet I provoked by roughness tips will cause a Re number
dependence of both Po and Nu, which explains another
4
observed deviation. Finally, it is evident that micro-eddies
3 are responsible for the observed early transition to
turbulence in micro-channels. Moreover, the order of
2 magnitude analysis will also show that these effects
cannot be detected for conventional channels.
1
5. Modeling friction
0 Fully developed flow will be assumed since L/9, (L
being the channel length in flow direction) is usually very
-1 high. Modeling will be done in two steps. First, very low
Re will be assumed to obtain a simple model without
-2 micro-eddies. Second, the effect of micro-eddies will be
added. Subscript cl will be used for classical results, i.e.
-3 conventional channels, lo for low Re results and mc for
the final model of micro-channels. As an idealization of
Figure 2 - Flow over circular rough elements the peaks and valleys caused by wall roughness, it will be
assumed that wall will be separated into two distinct
I-P/P inlet __ Tau/Tau inlet--- -.-.---..Qw/Qwinlet---I portions (Fig. 5). The first portion is shielded by the gas
blanket and occupies a portion 5 of the wall area, where 5
I n I I is the shielding coefficient that should typically be around
0.5. The unshielded portion occupies 1-5. The gas
blanket is of thickness 6, which is equal to the surface
roughness. This scheme is applicable as long as Re is
small enough to prevent (or at least reduce) the effect of
micro-eddies on the mean flow. Hence we need first a
simple friction model in the shielded portion, then
combine it with friction in the unshielded portion and
finally add effects of micro-eddies.
5.a Friction in the shielded portion
I The cross section constitutes a 2D domain that will be
-3
subdivided into 2 sub-domains, one occupied by the liquid
-4 0 1 , which is surrounded by the domain Ogoccupied by the
gas (Fig. 5). Fully developed flow implies that pressure is
Figure 3 - Flow over rectangular rough elements constant over both RI and Og and has a constant axial

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5th. Int. Con5 on Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Micro-electronics and Micro-Systems, EuroSimEZOO4
gradient -B. Hence, Navier-Stokes equation and boundary
conditions in both domains are:
n 5.b- Friction for low Re
an
.)x
Figure 5 - Simplified problem geometry
V2v,= -B/p, in Ri (i=g or 1)
v, = 0 on dR ,vi = v, on do, (5.1)
where vi is the axial velocity of gas (i=g) or liquid (i=l), p
is the dynamic viscosity and dCli is the liquidgas
interface. Since the gas layer has a small thickness
compared to section dimensions, it may be approximated
as a 2D channel of infinite width, having a solid boundary
at its bottom, and a liquid boundary at its top. Across Q,
the shear stress should vary linearly with y the coordinate
normal to the channel wall, due to the fully developed
assumption. Momentum balance over any layer extending
from 0 to y gives:
(L - ~ ( y ) dx ) dP y
1 (5.2)
where x is the coordinate along the flow. Momentum
balance over the whole cross section R yields:
~~p dx = dP A
i.e. T~ =dP/dx Alp = -B Dh/4 (5.3)
where p is the section perimeter and A its cross-sectional
area. From Eqs (5.2,3) we get an expression for z(y):
~ ( y=) B (y-Dd4) (5.4)
Integrating Eq. (5.4), and noting that:
~ ( y=) - p g dv,/dy; ~ ~ (=00) (5.5)
yields:
VdY) = B(YI)IJ4-Y2/2)/P, (5.6)
Hence, the velocity at the interface is constant and
(assuming a small ratio &=6/Dh)is equal to:
v = E B D2/4 pg (5.7)
If the domain figwas filled with liquid, the velocity at
y=F would have been the same as that given by Eq. (5.7),
but with pl instead of CL,. Hence, the presence of a gas
layer increases the liquid velocity at the interface, for the
same wall shear stress, by the constant amount:
AV = E B D2/4 (l/p,-l/pl) (5.8)
The variable liquid velocity in the whole domain RIat
low Re, V Ilo can thus be approximated by:
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5th. Int. Con$ on Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Micro-electronics and Micro-Systems, EuroSimE2004
VI io = VI Ci+ AV (5.9)
But, from the definition of Po, and Eq. (5.3):
Po = -8 T,., Re/@ vavg2)= 2BD?/(pl vlavg) (5.10)
where avg denotes the average lover the cross section.
Hence, by taking the average of (5 9) and using (5.10):
PO&= PoCl/ (l+AV/v,i) = PO,! / ( 1+p) (5.1 1)
p = PoClE (p1/pg-l)/8 (5.12)
where Po5 denotes Po for the shielded portion.
Combining friction on shielded and unshielded
portions gives:
POI,=P O ~(1-6) I + 6 PO< =PoCl(l-\P/(p+l)) (5.13)
5 .c-Effect of micro-eddies
According to the mixing length theory [39], ‘turbulent
like’ eddies can produce an additional shear Ted:
Ted = -p h2 Idv/dyl dv/dy (5.14)
where h is the mixing length. It can be expressed as:
h=c6 (5.15)
where c is the mixing coefficienl that is expected to be
around 0.5 as seen from Fig. 5. The average dv/dy at the
wall could be obtained from the viscous wall shear stress
corresponding to the low Re case obtained above (5.10):
pldv/dylw= -w,= PolopvavpZ/(8Re)
Hence:
Ted / Twi0 = Polo (c&)*Re/8 (5.16)
The total wall shear stress will thus be assumed as the
sum of viscous and eddy stresses:
5mc = ‘cwlo + Ted = Twlo (1+Ted/Kwlo)
i.e. Po, = Po,,( 1+Pol,(cs)’Rel’8) (5.17)
This equation (where POI,has, been defined by 5.13)
constitutes the full friction model of micro-channels. It
explains why friction has been found to be less than
expected in investigations performed at low Re, and why
it was higher at high Re. In the next paragraph it will be
quantitatively compared with published results.
5.d- Experimental verification
Test results will be confronted with the postulated
model given by Eq. (5.17). It contains 2 parameters that
depend on the nature or shape of roughness elements,
namely 6 and c. Note that these are NOT adjustable
coefficients that may take any value to fit test results.
They do have a physical meaning that implies a narrow
range of expected values around 0.5 for each of them. The
first comparison will be made with the results of Pfahler et
al. [ 121 that were obtained at very low Re.
Figure 6 shows the effect of size on friction. Typical
values of G=c=0.5 were taken. It is clear that for
Isopropanol there is a perfect match. But for Silicon oil,
the trend was correct with a small shift. This means that a
small modification of 6 may be needed for this particular
type of fluid/wall combination. Effect of Re on friction is
compared in Fig. 7 with experimental results [14,15,20]. It
is astonishing to notice that ai 1 available test results
compared well with (5.17) if we take k=c=0.5, except one
case (Harms et a1 [20]) with 5=0.4 and ~ 0 . 5 .This
constitutes a strong proof of the validity of the proposed
scenario, as well as the simple model issued from it.
Intensive test series may give a more precise estimate of 6
and c depending on wall andor liquid type as well as
machining procedure used. But, in all cases, Eq. (5.17)
seems a suitable form for a practical precise correlation,
as well as a rough estimate for designers with the typical
values of t=c=0.5.
to 1. The coefficient was correlated in terms of test
section geometry and Re against their experiments using 4
adjustable coefficients and an expression that was not
based on a physical model or scenario. The advantage of
such expressions is that they can easily fit a given set of
test conditions, but the disadvantage is that one cannot
guarantee the satisfaction of other sets. In particular, this
correlation cannot predict cases for which POP% < 1.
The model presented here was derived from problem
physics according to a given scenario. Hence it contained

-
-0- Pfahler et al(l991) Isopropanol only 2 parameters having a physical meaning as well as a
Model Isopropanol very narrow range of variation.
Pfahler et al (1991) Silicon oil 6. Modeling transition to turbulence
---- Model Silicon oil At a certain intensity level, micro-eddies may be
strong enough to induce and sustain turbulence in the
1.1 I I I 1
mean flow. The corresponding model could be inspired
from experimental results of turbulence initiation due to a
cylindrical obstacle (a wire) having an axis normal to flow
direction and attached to a wall [39]. Turbulence is
initiated when the cylinder diameter (seen here as the
0.6 roughness height) reaches a value that was experimentally
0.1 1 10 100 determined:
Dh bm)
6 = K p /(pu*) (6.1)
Figure 6 - Effect of channel size on friction for low Re where K is an empirical constant that equals 7 for the case

- Harms et al ...*... Model

Papautsky et al ... -.Model --
of a single wire, and U* is the frictional velocity: U* = (I
T,,l/p)1’2.Using this definition as well as (5.10) gives:
6 = K p /(p2 (Po/8)vav,Z/Re)1’2 (6.2)

-
from which the criterion for transition to turbulence could
-Mala & Li 50micr. Model
.-.*-e-
be derived in terms of the critical Re:
Mala & Li 80micr. .- .- k . . - Model Recr= 8 (Us)’ POI, (6.3)
i-- Mala & Li 100micr . - - + - - Model
- The value of K for the case of distributed roughness
still has to be determined experimentally. It is evident that
it should be much smaller than the case of a single wire
(i.e. 7) but still probably of the order of 1. Unlike the case
2.0 ... A
of friction, literature is both unanimous about the early
transition and lacking data on roughness values. To the
authors’ knowledge, only one article [20] has provided
both the value of roughness (~=2%)and the transition Re
(Re,,=1510). Substituting in (6.3) gives K=1.92. It is
certainly not possible to recommend a value of K based
on only one experiment, especially for the transition to
turbulence. But the reasonable value of K pledges in favor
0.0 ~ I I I
of the proposed scenario. It is hoped that once the form of
0 500 1000 1500 2000 a suitable criterion has been derived (Eq. 6.3), new
Re
experiments could use it to obtain reliable correlations.
Figure 7 - Dependence of friction on Re It is interesting to note that an equivalent criterion
could be obtained using another approach. In fact, if we
Surface roughness was not specified by Papautsky et define transition to turbulence as the point at which eddy
al. [I41 hence, a value of 1% was assumed which is and viscous shear stresses are of equal importance, then
typical for this fabrication technology. Surface roughness we get from (5.16):
reported by Mala & Li [ 151 was not measured, but based Recr= 8 / ((cE)~ POI,) (6.4)
on manufacturer data. Hence, the smallest channel (50 The amazing fact is that if we apply it with the
pm) had a greater error. They have stated that Po may recommended value of c=0.5, that has been validated
decrease with Re in a certain range, which is not normal. from friction data, we get ReCr=1630,which is very close
The decrease lies however within error bars. They have to the observed value. The value of c=OS in fact
also presented a model based on surface roughness. It corresponds to the value of K=2 in equation (6.3).
used an added viscosity, called ‘roughness viscosity’. It Although this result was obtained for the only quantified
contained an adjustable coefficient that varied from 0.0 1 test case available, which does not constitute a formal

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Sth. Int. ConJ on Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Micro-electronics and Micro-Systems, EuroSimE2004
proof, it is still a good indication of the validity of the
scenario proposed.
7. Modeling heat transfer
Available heat transfer data are much less than those
of friction, and in addition some of them are unusable.
This is due to different definitions of effective
temperature differences and areas, as well as omitting
roughness data. Hence, the heat transfer model that will be
developed here is not intended to validate the proposed
scenario. It is believed that above arguments were
sufficient. But it is rather intended to understand the
implication of the proposed scenario on thermal
resistance. At very low Re, the gas blanket acts as an
insulating layer. Shielded and unshielded areas can be
considered as two parallel thermal resistances. The
unshielded portion has a Nu number that is the same as
that of the classical problem Nbl. The resistance of the
shielded portion can be estimated as 2 series resistances.
The thin gas blanket could be considered as a layer
conveying heat mainly by conduction. The liquid core has
a Nu number that is slightly greater than N u . But the
difference is not big and may be neglected, especially
when added in series with the rather insulating gas
blanket. Adding these three resistances yields:
Nulo= N&i( 1-ty/( 1+y)) (7.1)
y = E N&I (klkg) (74
which is analogous to Eq. (5.13). Modeling the effects of
micro-eddies could also be done using mixing length
approach in an analogous way as for friction:
Nu,,= Nul,( 1+Pol0(ce)*RePr/8) (7.3)
This explains why Nu was less than expected in some
cases (low Re), and higher in others. It also explains the
dependence of Nu on Re in laminar flow.
At this level, we need to analyze the notion of
'expected' Nu. In fact, the value of Nucl is not as evident
as it may seem at first sight. It is defined as the value of
Nu for a conventional channel of large size, having the
SAME geometry AND boundary conditions as the
considered micro-channel. But boundary conditions for
micro-channels are peculiar in 2 respects. First, micro-
channels fabricated by etching, either rectangular or
trapezoidal with an angle of 54.7", have one adiabatic side
(called here the topside). If we assume that heat supplied
through channel walls is at constant heat flux $, as is
done by most investigators, then channel walls at any
cross-section should have a constant temperature along
the contour that linearly increases with the axial distance
[40]. The adiabatic topside should evidently be treated
otherwise. As heat is supplied through 3 sides only, Nucl
should be less than that used for channels of homogeneous
side walls. For rectangular channels, it is easy to obtain
the corresponding Nbl by solving analytically the energy
equation on a cross-section:
V28= 2(2*H+W)/(H+W)v/vaV, (7.4)
8=0 for x=O,W, and y=O
de/dy=O for y=H
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5th. Int. Con$ on Thermal and Mechanical Simulation and Experiments in Micro-electronics and Micro-Systems, EuroSimE2004
1 - Harms et al -- Model I
I I
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Re
Figure 8 - Comparison of model with Harms et al.
+ Wangsec.3 ~ Nbdel 0.5mm
--twangsec5 ~ Pdbdel 0.3 mm
10, k
" 0 -
0 500 R~ 1000 1500
Figure 9 - Comparison of model with Wang et al.
where 8 is the dimensionless temperature k(T-T,)/
(qwDh),v is the axial velocity obtained from solving (5.1)
with no slip boundary conditions, and T, is the constant
wall temperature. Finally, W an'd H are the width and
depth respectively. Note that q, here is the average taken
over non-adiabatic walls only. The analytical solution of
[40] using series expansion is standard, and need not be
developed here. The departure of' the resulting NLLIfrom
that of homogeneous walls increases with the ratio W/H.
For low aspect ratio (W/H), another problem appears.
Channel side walls at x=O and W, start acting as fins with
variable temperature along the contour. Weisberg et al.
[41] have studied the 2 dimensional conjugate problem in
a channel cross-section and showed that the total thermal
resistance may be largely affected at low (W/H). Sabry
[42] has also studied the 2D-temperature field on channel
side walls along and normal to flow direction to show that
this effect may not always be negligible. In this work,
solving a 3D conjugate problem may not be appropriate
since it will only blurs the main goal, which is explaining
micro-channel deviations. Hence only a very simple
correction will be adopted:
N u E I ~N~u E
~ I=( ~ ~ H + W ) / ( ~ H + W ) (7.5)
where N&Icor is the corrected Nu rrumber taking fin effects
into consideration where q is the &n efficiency. Using this
simple correction as well as the same 5 and c used for
friction, comparison with the results of Harms et a1 [20] is
given in Fig. 8. Correspondence is quite satisfactory
despite of the crude correction done for conjugate heat
transfer effects. Another test series is due to Wang et a1
[17]. Unfortunately they did not report roughness values.
A value of 2% was assumed here. They have tested 6
different test sections. Sections 1 and 2 were disregarded
since the flow was not fully developed.
The temperature difference used to calculate h was
unusual: outlet wall temperature-inlet fluid temperature.
Fortunately, enough data were given to enable us to re-
estimate it by the standard way for constant heat flux case:
wall-fluid temperature, both taken at outlet. Comparison
results are shown in Fig. 9 for test sections 3 and 5 .
Taking into consideration the large scatter in experimental
data, the model was at least able to predict the correct
order of magnitude as well as the correct trend. Sections 4
and 6, were identical to 3 and 5 respectively, but with
thinner walls. Differences were significant, thus proving
that conjugate heat transfer effect is important, as
indicated elsewhere [311.
8. Conclusions
Liquid flow and heat transfer in micro-channels were
studied. Deviations of flow and heat transfer from those of
normal size channels were reviewed. A critical analysis
was made of previously advanced hypotheses to explain
deviations of liquid flow. A hypothesis relying on surface
roughness was made, based on which simple models were
derived to predict most of the phenomena encountered in
micro-channels. In particular, the reduction of both
friction and heat transfer compared to predictions of
classical theory for low Re, as well as the increase of both
Po and Nu numbers with Re in the laminar range were all
explained. At relatively high Re, both Po and Nu may be
higher than the classical theory as has also been observed.
A criterion was also derived for the transition to
turbulence that predicted the observed early transition.
The model was successfully confronted with available test
results from different authors giving both the order of
magnitudes and the trends. It is important to note that the
model contained no adjustable coefficients. It contained
though two parameters having a physical meaning and
thus an expected limited range of values. Very good
agreement between model and experiments was obtained
for parameter values lying in the middle of this range.
Future work in this area may give a more precise value of
these parameters depending on the nature of walls, liquid
and machining procedure used.
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