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Transdisciplinarity and
Transformative Learning:
Reviewing the Literature
Rien
3/20/2010
I put this document together in an attempt to begin to organize and understand the literature centering on
transdisciplinarity and transformative studies, and further my understanding of project implementation, in
community and workplace settings. I left higher education out of the picture because workplace and
community settings are more inspirational. If you have MS Word 2007, you can use the table of contents to
navigate through this document by holding down control and clicking on the chapter you would like to view,
if you are viewing it in .pdf, this feature is not available. Happy reading!
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Rien’s Review: Transformative Learning
CONTENTS
Fostering Transformative Learning (Taylor, 2009) ...................................................................................................... 4
Core elements ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Individual Experience ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Promoting Critical Reflection ................................................................................................................................... 5
Dialogue ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Holistic Orientation .................................................................................................................................................... 6
Awareness of context ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Authentic Relationships.............................................................................................................................................. 7
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Transformative Learning Theory (TLT) (Mezirow, 2009) ............................................................................................ 8
Transformative Learning: Origins and Development .............................................................................................. 8
Instrumental and Communicative Learning ................................................................................................................ 8
Epistemic Assumptions .................................................................................................................................................... 9
Dynamics: The Learning Process .................................................................................................................................. 9
Application: Graduate Adult Education ................................................................................................................. 10
Psychology and Transformative Learning .............................................................................................................. 10
Individuation: Jungian Psychology....................................................................................................................... 10
Traumatic Learning ................................................................................................................................................. 10
Promising Directions for Future Development ........................................................................................................ 11
Imagination Intuition, Emotion ............................................................................................................................... 11
Cosmology ............................................................................................................................................................... 11
Rationality and Ideology ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Transformational learning in the workplace (Choy, 2009) ..................................................................................... 11
Overview ...................................................................................................................................................................... 12
The aspects of transformational learning............................................................................................................... 12
Elements of Learning Design ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................................... 14
The Evolution of Mezirow’s transformative learning theory (Kitchenham, 2008) ................................................. 15
Early development........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Personal Reflections ............................................................................................................................................... 16
Development of Learning Theory ............................................................................................................................ 17
Types of Learning ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Personal Reflections ............................................................................................................................................... 18
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challenged to “assess their value system and worldview and are subsequently changed by the
experience,” p.3 this type of learning is called “communicative learning” by Mezirow & Associates (2000).
CORE ELEMENTS
Currently, there are six identified core aspects of transformative learning
1. Individual experience
2. Critical reflection
3. Dialogue
4. A holistic orientation
5. Awareness of context
6. An authentic practice
There are some new understandings that have emerged, for example, while critical reflection was once
thought to be a rational process, it is now understood to be feeling parts of experience that identify for
the person the important aspects of the learning process. Furthermore, these various aspects interpenetrate
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one another in a mutually dependent dynamic. Applying some of these individual elements independently
do not necessarily constitute transformative learning, the larger context and underlying assumptions
involved in the transformative approach need to be fully applied if the learning is going to be definitively
transformative.
INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE
Is the essence of what the learner brings…an agglomeration of past experiences, habits, memories, world
view, as well as the capacity to have experience in the classroom; since experience is understood (ME: in
part!) to be socially constructed, it can also be deconstructed and analyzed through critical reflection and
dialog. Other important aspects of transformation are the extent and nature of learner’s personal
experiences. For instance, if you were transforming manure into fertilizer, you need to start with the right
manure, and then the more manure there is, the more fertilizer can be produced! In the same way,
difficulties and obstacles in life can lead individuals to have the desire and motivation to rid them of a
Critical reflection encompasses questioning the assumptions of deeply held beliefs. There are three types
3. Premise – reflecting on why our world view leads us to perceive the way we do.
Premise reflection is the key to transformation, because it predicates a restructuring of the way we see the
world. There are many empirically verified layers to critical reflection, from the most basic to the most
essential. Tools for engaging effective critical reflection are online and personal journaling. Writing may
be particularly helpful because it allows people to articulate their world views externally and begin to
DIALOGUE
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Dialogue is more than simple discussion about the logical or intellectual content of a point of view.
Dialogue in the transformative sense is the active questioning of the coherence and validity of our most
deeply held beliefs. Successful dialogue involves strongly affective components and subject matter of
importance and relevance to the participants. Ideally, group dynamic elements are also present like
having accurate and reliable information about the relevant subject(s); freedom from peers who pressure,
coerce, and enable distorted self perceptions; open empathic and respectful interrelationships that
equality and flexibility in group roles; an ability to accurately ascertain and effectively process
experience; and finally an ability to gain cohesive communal understanding of issues, with an added
HOLISTIC ORIENTATION
A holistic orientation engages the affective and relational ways of knowing. This approach is important
because learners engage in transformation when they are challenged with the way they relate and feel
about the world, not just their cognitive understandings. These ways of learning in transformative settings
engage the arts, creative expression, tolerate higher levels of emotional intensity, and even utilize strong
AWARENESS OF CONTEXT
A growing awareness of the context involves letting go of one’s personal perspectives and beginning to
look at the sociocultural factors involved in learning, the environment that the learning is taking place in,
their own past history, and the zeitgeist of the times. Research shows that individuals who have had a
recent significant event in their lives are more prone to change, again emphasizing the importance of
context and personal experiences within the frame of transformative learning. One difficulty in ushering
student’s awareness into a larger context is the time constraints of traditional educational models.
Sometimes the most effective and thorough transformations take significant amounts of time, communication,
dialog, etc. and it is difficult to provide the amount of time needed in this busy day and age.
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AUTHENTIC RELATIONSHIPS
The ability to build trusting and meaningful relationships with others is another foundation of
transformative learning. Relationships that are marked with trust and rapport give students the confidence
to dive into the difficult affective components of transformative learning, and provide the nurturance and
support for them to maintain their changes for the long term. Trust and rapport also facilitate open
discussion and communication, encourage personal sharing, and build a sense of community and
cooperation among students. The students also need to have authentic relationships with the teachers of TL.
2. A deep awareness of the needs and interest of learners and how they may differ from the interest
of the educator
CONCLUSION
One key question for transformative learning theory as it begins to grow and develop is the difference
between transformative learning and a learner centered focus in teaching. From the authors perspective,
while transformative learning always focuses on transforming the perspective of the learner, taking a
purely learner centered approach may result in a self centered, instead of socially and communally
conscious perspective, where one sees one’s place within the whole, and as the whole, instead of coming
Truly, TL needs to be undertaken by those who have a desire to change the world for the better but this is
not nearly enough. Tremendous skill and precision, as well as bravery, patience, wisdom, care, and a good
deal of humor is also needed for successful transformative experiences. The previous core elements aim to
and provide some essential elements for its discussion, practice, and evolution. This section discussed TLT,
discusses its theoretical and research orientations, identifies communicative learning, explicates how it was
personal growth and development, an expansion and development of one’s own world view. The theory of
transformative learning evolved out of a study examining the expansion of consciousness of a group of
women re-entering the work force, and was developed through a grounded theory approach. The
1. A disorienting dilemma
2. Self-examination
10. A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s new perspective
This process was identified in a specific group of learners, and varies some according to context.
Instrumental and communicative learning was first distinguished by Jürgen Habermas. Instrumental learning
comprises knowing about (someone, something, etc.) and is characterized by the ability to exert influence
or control. Communicative learning strives to know with (someone, something, etc.) others in a critically self
• Openness to variegated perspectives, respect for and seeking out of, the wisdom of others
• Seeking to understand, facilitate consensus, and valuate new perspectives for current and
EPISTEMIC ASSUMPTIONS
Epistemology is the content and meta-analysis of how we know what we know, and its validity. Questioning
epistemic assumptions consists of analyzing assumptions about sociocultural beliefs. Habermas suggests
differentiating empirical – analytical theories from reconstructive theories, the latter of which is an attempt
to reconstruct the general principles of the life world. Both the theory of communicative action and
transformative learning theory are reconstructive theories. Being a reconstructive theory, TLT provides a
framework for understanding the transformative processes of adult learners. Questioning epistemic
assumptions consist of questioning one’s basic assumptions, where they come from, what assumptions relate
to the problem at hand, the identification of problematic assumptions, and a host of other angles through
Therefore, transformative learning may be encapsulated to mean “learning that transforms problematic
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frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to
change.” p. 22
Frames of reference with these qualities will more often arrive at conclusions that are accurate, functional,
and more creative. Ordinary individuals usually do not have the ability to access these often non-conscious
structures in the mind, but we can experience the outcomes of these structures by the quality of information
that we process. The most transformative learning is the learning that questions the most central and
deeply held structures and reorganizes them. In short, transformative learning is the process by which
adults learn how to assess and work with their own world view. Transformations may be sudden, or
gradual; they may involve a new way of seeing the world, or a new way of being in itself.
recovery
Carl Jung’s theory of types and individuation is similar to the differentiation in TLT between learning
outside awareness through intuition and learning in awareness through critical assumptions and judgments.
The theory of individuation also has similarities to those that enter into the process of transformation. Some
theorists connect the idea of individuation with the development of the personality, a greater facility of
communication between conscious and non-conscious aspects, integration of the psyche and internal
harmony. The communication between the non-conscious aspects and the conscious aspects is facilitated
TRAUMATIC LEARNING
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Theorists including Roger Gould and Daniel Janik conclude that the transformative learning process can
allow individuals to drastically reframe their traumatic experiences into non-traumatic and even beneficial
circumstances through the TL process. Gould postulates a theory of epigenetic functioning that includes
childhood trauma affecting the genetic potential of the individual. Working through this trauma through
transformative learning can release positive genetic potentials that trauma has inhibited.
including the exemplary work in Womens Ways of Knowing by Belenky, et. al (1986) that illustrates the
Furthermore there are three categories that the literature warrants a final consideration of: Imagination,
One criticism of TLT is that it leaves out these three areas and focuses more intently on critical self
reflection. Mezirow asserts that this criticism is justified in part, and then claims that imagination, intuition,
COSMOLOGY
Edmund O’Sullivan asserts in his very comprehensive approach to TL in Expanding the Boundaries of
Critics of TL stress that the emphasis on rationality deemphasizes contextual factors. Mezirow responds by
contesting that rational discourse is framed within communicative action, where rational discourse forms the
OVERVIEW
This is a summary of a case study of transformative learning (TL) in the workplace. The author
suggests that, although TL is a popular theoretical position, individual projects and articles about particular
TL, although highly influential in organizational theory, is much more widely addressed in higher
education. Additionally, of the elements of learning designs identified in a recent review by Taylor (2007),
five had particular impact on the cohort’s transformational learning at the Workforce Council. These were
subjective relevancy of content, direct and active learning experiences, use of varied media, trustful
Of the elements of learning designs identified in a recent review by Taylor (2007), five had
particular impact on the cohort’s transformational learning at the Workforce Council. These were subjective
relevancy of content, direct and active learning experiences, use of varied media, trustful relationships,
applied to a cohort of 12 workplace students through a university setting in Queensland for this study. The
eight aspects of transformation learning were individually addressed with evidence from interviewing,
receiving feedback from, and assessing the cohort. The eight aspects are:
1. Seek Meanings of Experiences – here, the cohort critically examined their experiences working,
the assumptions that directed actions, and the shared rules for conduct. Often, this was a disturbing
2. Engage in Deliberate Mindful Efforts to Learn – “Mindful learning is the continuous creation of
new categories, openness to new information, and an awareness and appreciation of multiple
3. Validate and Expand Beliefs and Understandings – in addition to the critical analysis of
assumptions and discourse around reevaluation of assumptions, learners in the cohort were
reported to receive and seek out accurate and complete information readily, discuss it, and
4. Accept Others as Agents With Interpretations of Their Experiences That May Prove True or
Justified – This aspect is an essential and basic respect for the views of others, and an interest in
other’s points of view. This facilitated and empowered the group members to show up more fully,
and bring more skill and discussion to the cohort’s meetings. In this particular cohort, the original
relationships of manager, worker, and executive began to break down and a more dynamic
acknowledgement of each person’s individual life experience and wisdom was honored more fully.
5. Validate Contested Beliefs and Understandings Through Reflective Discourse – There was a
general understanding that no individual can bring all the wisdom on a particular topic, the forum
of discourse was an arena where the beliefs of the members and organization were critically
understanding of the context from which individuals came from, and this was often a disquieting
7. Make Meaning of Experiences Through Acquired Frames of Reference – The learners applied
new frames of reference to make sense out of the new information produced and revealed
through discussion
8. Transform Frames of Reference by Becoming Critically Reflective – The time and space for
critical reflection by the cohort was viewed as incredibly important for disconnecting the individual
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mindset from the day to day activities of work, into a critical examination of what works and what
2007) in (Choy, 2009) p. 77 and are “subjective relevancy of content, direct and active learning
experiences, use of varied media, trustful relationships, and organisational support to act on new
understandings.”
1. Subjective Relevancy of Content – cooperation between the practitioners and the learners
regarding content was central and a key feature of the ability to make the content highly
relevant. This aspect can be a challenge facing academics, because they are necessarily not
expert practitioners.
2. Direct and active learning experiences – The learning experiences were set in the context of the
3. Varied Media – different types of interaction tools were used, including online formatting. One
piece that stood out was the transfer of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge via self reflective
exercises.
4. Trustful Relationship – In the cohort, there was a movement from hierarchical structures of
organizational roles to more trustful dialog. This was a key in creating a TL experience.
5. Institutional Support to Act on the New Understandings – There was a tension within the
workplace that had to do with the close bonds made in the TL experience, but because
participants included people from all levels of the organization, there was significant
CONCLUSIONS
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One aspect of TL that I find particularly poignant is that it can offer very specific content domains,
while maintaining the larger perspective of transformation, questioning assumptions, critical reflection, and
positively directed habituation; it is a very complete format. As I think and write further about
transformative learning, I would like to find a more “standardized” way to assess, teach, and facilitate
transformative learning processes, as many of the practices at this stage appear mildly vague.
In addition to the specific conceptual restructuring of world view that is encouraged by TL, I feel there
is also a non-conceptual aspect of transformation that is defined by repeated practice and habituation to
a transformed world view. I find myself interested in how this “practice” aspect fits into TL as a whole and
review of the empirical research (1999-2005). International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26, 173-191.”
Were ubiquitous in this article, and I found myself frustrated in that I couldn’t locate it through the C.I.I.S.
database, at some point I may have to drive to main campus at C.U. and search their database for this
article.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT
Transformative Learning was first applied in the early 70’s to women retraining in job skills.
1. A disorienting dilemma
4. Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared and that others
10. A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s perspective
These are the ten stages that the women who had undergone a “personal transformation” could have gone
through.
According to Mezirow, a dilemma that causes one to reassess one’s paradigms and assumption is exactly
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
ME: Mezirow seems to address the conceptual basis for transformation, but not necessarily the non-
conceptual basis. Up until now, it seems as if worldview is seen to transform by a function of conceptual
elaboration, critical self awareness, and application of that learning to life experience.
In the world view interviews, it appears that world view is transformed first in the source domain, builds up,
and then begins to influence other domains through life experience and self reflection. But this process
necessitates one to have relevant experiences that allow one to bridge the source and target domains, and
might be vulnerable to conceptual back sliding as effects from habits of mind and cultural immersion sink
back in and effect individuals. What if there is an ability to have instead of a domain specific, a domain
general (non-conceptual) way to effect and transform target domains? A state of mind that, once reached,
ME: this view challenges or alleviates conceptual structures because it in itself shakes the core of
conceptualization. It shows that direct experience is the greatest tool for transformation and change, and
allows the individual in a non-conceptual way to reduce overconceptualization and begin to relate more
the teacher deposits information into the students. This does not encourage critical examination or
In the 70’s Paulo Friere began to conceive of “conscientization” which is “learning to perceive social,
political, and economic contradictions – developing a critical awareness – so that individuals can take
Mezirow turned to Habermas’ work in the early eighties and adopted three domains for his transformative
learning theory: the technical, the practica, and the emancipatory. The first two are more understandable,
and the third is different because it involves the learner assessing their own worldview in a process of
According to Mezirow, “The emancipator processesthe emancipatory process of becoming critically aware
of how and why the structure of psycho-cultural assumptions has come to constrain the way we see
ourselves and our relationships, reconstituting this structure to permit a more inclusive and discriminating
integration of experience and acting upon these new understandings. (p. 6)” in (Kitchenham, 2008) p. 110
Mezirow’s transformative learning theory has been revised for over 30 years. Haberas’ three domains of
TYPES OF LEARNING
From Mezirow’s point of view, there are the basic three types of learning: instrumental, dialogic, and self-
reflective. In each of these three types of learning, there are a continued three types of learning process:
learning within meaning schemes, learning new meaning schemes, and learning through meaning
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transformation. The third happens when a situation arises that cannot be resolved through adding or
revising an existing scheme – and comes about through a redefinition of the problem formulation.
Mezirow states that there are a couple of ways that transformation can take place. One example is an
accumulation of knowledge (ME: elaboration) within one domain and have it leak to restructure other
In 1991 Mezirow advanced his theory of transformation to include more everyday interactivity and
communication with people, which emphasizes the life experience aspect of personal transformation. He
also elaborated on closed minded perspectives that slow down or halt personal transformation, and that
“He now contended that there are, in fact, three types of meaning perspectives: epistemic (related to
knowledge and how a person uses knowledge), sociolinguistic (related to language and how it is used in
social settings), and psychological (related to the way people viewed themselves). The remedy for any
epistemic, sociolinguistic, and psychological distortions is the perspective transformation through the revised
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
ME: I think Mezirow is saying that there are three different types of perspective within world view. These
three spheres correspond to the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, and he contends that the way to transform
an ordinary three into the three jewels is through the eleven phase model.
Mezirow suggests three different aspects of transformation: content, process, and premise. Where content
and process include reflections on what individual knowledge is possessed, and what mistakes or successes
have been made in process, premise reflection necessitates a broader view of how one fits into the context
subjective and objective reframing. Subjective reframing involves reflecting on assumptions, rather than
reflecting on the value of the assumptions themselves. Objective reframing consists of either a narrative
Subjective reframing consists of a reflection on, rather than of, several key domains: narrative, systemic,
Mezirow in 2000 argued that a meaning perspective is a frame of reference and compromises habits of
mind and subsequent points of view. Habits of mind were subdifferentiated into groups: sociolinguistic,
Although meaning schemes often operate outside of awareness, they can be described by individuals.
They tend to determine the specific actions and reactions of the person unless they are analyzed critically.
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PERSONAL REFLECTION
ME: Mezirow’s most recent understanding of habit of mind and meaning schemes leads perfectly into a
four aims of TD stick out as core topics for the understanding of TDR, and will be looked at closely for the
2. Systems knowledge
3. Transformation knowledge
The different spheres of knowledge (K) comprise different types of questioning from the perspective of
TDR. The three types of K should be understood not to be based on different realities, but different views
on the same undifferentiated reality. The first type of knowledge in TDR, target knowledge, arises when
one begins to question how problems are created in the life world, a term meant to encompass lived
experience. One necessarily looks to the problem itself and the perspectives held by individuals and
collectives in the context of the problem. Put simply, when someone wants to understand how to break or
change the rules of the system(s) effectively, one needs to learn and understand them first. Secondly, when
looking at the system as a whole, one must determine if and what kind of change in the system is feasible,
necessary, etc. This a step towards building knowledge of the system and the interactions of the various
factors identified in understanding target knowledge. Lastly, the conceptualization of the different actions
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that can be taken to transform the variety of perspectives and relationships into a more coherent and
In relating these three types of knowledge to the author’s own TDR interests, it is first helpful to define
the problem – and then dive into how it can be addressed through understanding the three types of
knowledge. The area of interest is in the transformation of consciousness and its application in business and
organizational settings, specifically to look at how one’s personal conceptual structure and non-conceptual
habituations inhibit higher levels of organizational productivity, and how its transformation can enhance
productivity, creativity, innovation, wellbeing, etc. The question, more specifically is: how do perspectives
change over time? What are the benefits of transformation? Can we assess and measure transformation?
TARGET KNOWLEDGE
The target knowledge for this question would be, unsurprisingly, heterogeneous. Part of the target
knowledge would come from the general scientific understandings of organizational theory, organizational
psychology, etc. Another piece of target knowledge would come from the specific instances of the
individuals being trained, what do they know already about the problem and what do they want to get
out of effort at transformation? The last stakeholder bit would come from the management and executive
branches of the organization, what are the outcomes that they would like/expect. Since corporate and
organizational training has been around for such a long time, an additional piece of target knowledge
could come from the current best practices within the specific target context, and the training and
Taking the various aspects of target knowledge into account can often provide new directions and
understandings within a given field. For example: in my past experience working with organizations has
been in corporate and retail sales training. Often, this area of practice teaches particular “scripts” to new
sales people to help reduce the anxiety and emotional stress brought up by not knowing what to say. As is
often the case with limited perspectives, the state of mind of the customer was not fully taken into account.
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In taking a short survey of the customers at one particular sales location, I found that the number one
reason customers said they wouldn’t buy was sales person inauthenticity and a lack of trust. In defining this
problem more clearly for the sales people and the customers, the author found a dualism: the sales people
are anxious because they don’t feel trusted by the customer, so they put on a fake act to reduce the
anxiety, which creates a feeling of alienation in the customer, causing them to distance from the sales
person. In reframing the problem through a new lens, the author focused on giving basic emotion reading
skills to the customer service professionals coupled with an ability to respond to those discreet emotions
appropriately, dealing with both the feeling of trust and inauthenticity from the perspective of the
customer as well as the anxiety due to ambiguity on the side of the sales people.
SYSTEMS KNOWLEDGE
The second type of knowledge, systems knowledge takes into account the variety of perspectives and
the need to integrate these perspectives to determine what, if any, change is necessary in order to bring
about the desired outcomes. To take the previous example, although the sales people themselves
understood clearly the advantage of responding to customers based on a combination of their emotional
state and their spoken content, and the executives were on board with the perspective change from
pressure and manipulation focused to a rapport and emotion based form of customer interaction, the
middle management’s perspective was that pressure tactics and manipulation were what worked best in
sales, because most of the management had gotten that position by being in sales for a significant period
of time. Because I didn’t take this aspect of systems knowledge into account, and was unable to shift the
perspective of the management, the sales people who began using the different system of interaction were
maligned by the management, and the perspective shift in some instances did not take hold within some of
KNOWLEDGE OF TRANSFORMATION
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The third type of knowledge, knowledge of transformation is an understanding of the ways and means
that transformation of perspectives takes place while much of this knowledge comes from my reading of
transformative learning theory (TL), much also comes from my experience as a trained meditator in
learning and practicing the Tantric Buddhism and Dzogchen meditation systems, and teaching those systems
to others and witnessing the transformations that happen. TL theory, centrally espoused by Jack Mezirow
(Kitchenham, 2008) looks at the details of how perspectives are transformed. While Mezirow has more
recently gotten into the aspects of perspectival habituation, that is, how habits of perception are formed
and maintained, he mainly discusses this from an understanding of conceptual and experiential learning
and understanding. These aspects are not complete, because they address one side of perspective
transformation, how a new perspective is gained through conceptually questioning assumptions, learning a
new perspective, and experientially applying this critical self awareness and new conceptual constructs in
life. Over time, I would like to advance this perspective by proposing that there are two ways that
perspectives are transformed. First, by conceptual similarity or through life experience: this would be akin
to a domain specific transformation. The second and new perspective comes from a domain general
transformation, wherein one would not need to have an experience or a contemplation arise for
transformation to take place; rather the perspective would reorganize itself around a transformed
ontological basis. This will be discussed in more detail when time, space, and the authors own
understanding are more broad than at the time of this paper’s composition.
Taking a more transdisciplinary approach with the sales training, a cohort of executives, sales people,
sales managers, and possibly customers would be formed within the organization and utilized as the
foundation for the reorganization of the methods of sales training. This approach might have been more
successful at helping the rapport and trust based training become the new habit of the sales people
instead of reverting back to the old pressure tactics. Unfortunately, this added step would come at a
considerably higher cost to the organization, costs that many organizations are not willing to spend.
Differentiating these three types of knowledge takes original problems that have false
dichotomies and internal contradictions and frames the inquiry in a more complex and inclusive frame. The
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problem with this is that it makes the problems and possible solutions more obscure and complex. Done
right, adding a recursive or iterative step into knowledge creation can help manage the increase in
obscurity and complexity by allowing for a reworking of the problem formulation based on real life
discussion, and trial and error. For example, in looking at the different actors involved in sales training,
there is the recognition that the sales people, executives, and sales people all share the similar sentiment
that sales training should incorporate methods of rapport building and real human connection, the
perspective of many managers contradicts this, and proposes that the old paradigms are sufficient. By
allowing for the other perspectives to be fed back to many managers, the diversity of positions might
become more consistent, allowing for stronger internal consistency within the organization and a
is available through which to enact a more communicative, affective, and experiential interactivity through
the online learning medium. This article condenses an adult educational course for graduate students based
on Jungian depth psychology. Its main premises are that people are influenced by unconscious forces and
making these forces conscious through creative expression in the online environment can foster
transformative learning.
The online environment, because of its lack of non-verbal cues, can provide an excellent backdrop on which
to project unconscious desires. The design of the course utilized this space for projection by asking students
OVERVIEW
This course utilizes problem based learning (PBL) as its foundation, and applies the following aspects to its
design:
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1. The use of messy, ill structured practice based problems as the central pedagogical focus
5. Reflective strategies
6. Journal writing
Grounded, real life case scenarios are the basis for this learning approach, also emphasized is group
interactivity, tackling problems with group cooperation, and a strong team focus and directivity. The
REFLECTIONS
Although there is little agreement as to what constitutes the teaching and practice of transformation, it does
generally involve deep emotional experiences, a reassessment of one’s own life, and learning to interact in
more positive ways with the world. The online context is surely a place where these goals can be achieved
TAYLOR, 2009)
This is an entire book section that covers transformative learning in the workplace
(BROOKFIELD, 2009)
Critical reflection is a central component to Mezirow’s (Mezirow & Associates, 2000) TLT, and contends that
the central components of transformation, questioning one’s own and others assumptions, have as their
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center critical reflection and that the direction of adult development involves increasing agency through
growing the capacity of one’s awareness and an ability to critically reflect. This article discusses the details
Critical Reflection – is a deliberate attempt to uncover, and then investigate, the paradigmatic,
prescriptive, and causal assumptions that inform how we practice, (citation needed) and are directed
towards our prescriptive assumptions and causal assumptions, or “world views.” Problematic world views
are ways of acting, thinking, feeling that we assume are best practices for interacting with the world.
Causal assumptions are based on cause and effect relationships. Both of these are examined during an
This is based on critical theory, a systematic way to conceptually deconstruct power structures in the
modern world (citation needed) and is taught at Teachers College in New York. The course focuses on using
business processes that are beneficial to the entire company have as their base communicative learning.
Story telling exemplifies this type of communication by employing rich imagery and vivid descriptions of
scenarios. Story telling here is not viewed as a side activity, but a legitimate “organizational process.” p.
137
DEFINING STORYTELLING
“Storytelling will focus on personal experiences that are conveyed orally and directly, face-to-face, by a
teller to listeners in a facilitated forum,” p. 138 where small groups of employees gather and tell their own
1. Accurate and complete information – the tellers have full access to their own story
2. Freedom from coercion and self deception – Keeping the groups “low risk” like keeping managers
and workers apart might serve to help tellers feel more comfortable about the process; self
deception can be solved through the process of the story being told and reflected upon with
3. Openness to variegated perspectives, respect for and seeking out of, the wisdom of others
5. An awareness of context and underlying assumptions – where questions and feedback can push
6. Equal opportunity to have various roles within the discourse – is largely dependent on the skill of
7. Seeking to understand, facilitate consensus, and valuate new perspectives for current and ongoing
world views – group story telling is suited for consensus building if the group size is right and there
is time available
CONTEXT
Practitioners who want to implement story telling are urged to begin integrating this method with already
set up activities like training sessions or meetings. Focusing the story telling into areas of company interest
in improvement like innovation, safety, etc might help boost the process along. Sometimes, when there are
differing opinions in the group, storytelling can give depth and context to the variety of views in the group.
PROMPTING STORIES
There are three main variables that need to be in place for storytelling to happen
1. Prompting the participant – open ended prompts to get things started, or on a particular topic the
2. Provision of sufficient time to reflect on the incident before telling the story – this consists of slowing
the process down and allowing the teller to reflect themselves on the story they want to tell, and
providing time for the listeners to process and respond. The facilitator can help this process by
asking detailed questions of the teller, or eliciting responses from the audience.
3. Beginning with small groups – and keeping the stories short at the beginning allows for more
health and well being of self, other peoples, future generations, or the environment. P 193
The author discusses her own process of transforming and reassessing her relationship to teaching
individuals to be more socially responsible and less self interested. She began to see learning as a living
Real life populations in Alberta, Canada provided the fuel for transformative thinking. People who were
disillusioned with a hectic lifestyle and work environments: and felt the need to have a greater sense of
meaning, with disillusionment with the contemporary views of working in the world.
The course, called: Transforming Working and Living, encouraged participants to rethink the purposes of
work, strive for deeper meaning and context – and apply these ideas to their personal lives.
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Creating the space for transformative learning is truly creating a sanctuary for learners where they have a
break from the normal pressures of society, and this fosters a direct ability for them to change, expand
pressures in their life. Then, instead of chastising them or discussing options, the students are taken into the
lives of those who are enacting sustainability. People who are living on a sustainable farm, making
The next step is taking a self audit where individuals make a self inventory of the details of their living and
spending habits. To foster positive habits instead of further anxiety about what they are doing wrong, the
students are encouraged to begin to engage in activities that foster a more sustainable lifestyle.
At this point, socioeconomic critique is engaged, and the class begins to assess some of the problems that
consumerism has brought onto society. Students begin to look at their own ecological footprint and what
impression they personally make on society and culture as a whole, and trace the life cycle of a single
consumer product. “This stage ended with a redefinition of “good work” and voluntary simplicity,” (citation
needed) p 199 where learners were encouraged to look at the confluence of their lives with the greater
mass of society.
The course ends with a retreat where all participants actively reflect on their process, and use the natural
CREATING SANCTUARY
There are three main points for adult learning and education as Sanctuary
2. Foster relationships with the beauty and pleasure of the natural world
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3. Fostering transformative relationships with other students and themselves that “engage the whole
person”
CONCLUSIONS
One of the major insights that arose surrounding transformation in this case was the understanding that
transformation often happens without conscious control. That instead of controlling the process, the
individual intends something to happen and then allows the chaos of life to take root and do the
transforming.
Secondly was to realize that the content inevitably brings difficult and sometimes burdensome emotional
content, often with projections on the learner. It is the need of the teacher to be able to see this clearly if
Lastly was the consideration that maybe the processes of transformation are not entirely rational, nor can
Using these two types of knowledge, people, specifically women in Bolivia can use the framework of adult
education to begin to question the norms of their culture and begin transformation. When learning is
viewed as an ability to assess our cultural beliefs and question assumptions, it becomes transformative
learning instead of dogmatic oppression. If learning is shared between students and teacher, instead of
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being a one way passing of information, students can begin to develop a critical consciousness, in this way,
THE OJM
Is a NGO that began promoting class and gender awareness within communities and grew into an
organization that specialized in training women from marginalized areas in Bolivia, the premises for
instruction in “popular education” are that the knowledge that the community has stored is more valuable
than “expert” knowledge, but expert knowledge is helpful in bolstering empowerment and effective action
so needs to be incorporated.
their basic human rights. Course participants are taught in the legal intricacies of divorce, violence, child
custody, legal separation, etc while engaging multimedia methods of instruction that elicited strong
emotional reactions and engagement with the topics. Connecting with other women in the group through
cooperation, storytelling, and mutual support also fostered an environment of transformation for students.
REFLECTION
The power of transformative learning and the steps involved are highlighted through the author’s
experiences with women in Bolivia. Through the years as this course was taught, women consistently
learned how to stop blaming themselves for the injustices and start looking at empowerment and how to
program in East Harlem, designed specifically for women. The workshop consisted of twelve cycles, with a
duration of twenty four months. The program is transformative in nature, and responds to the women, most
of whom had levels of self esteem appropriate for their circumstances but inadequate for their aspirations.
This program facilitated tools to help shift the women’s sense of self into a more transformed self
perspective.
REFLECTIONS
Using journaling and coaching in a setting like this is not to be confused with therapy. In a setting like this,
personal reflections can bring up incredibly difficult memories that might cause further damage if not dealt
with appropriately. Also, not everyone will have a transformative experience; it is ultimately up to the
participants themselves. That said, 75% of the participants achieved their stated goals, they got a better
Farmers in rural Africa, other than living in difficult conditions, face exploitation and other difficulties of
oppression from larger organizations and government. The FFS programs aim to empower those
individuals, capture and share their wisdom with each other, and foster community within and between
villages. It is currently being used in over fifteen countries in Africa, and is being considered on a national
scale. Although this increase in popularity is helpful, skills instead of personal empowerment are being
question the nature of scientific progress in that TDR contributes to a more complex type of knowledge,
one that does not only potentially contribute to theory, but also contributes to an understanding of:
3. Strategic planning – orientation leading to problem redefinition, conflict resolution, and a recursive
or iterative application
In short, the aim of TDR is to reconcile the aims of knowledge production and import and meaning in the
life world. In success, this movement contributes to changing the way science views itself and will reform the
natural sciences vs. the holism of the humanities. TDR projects aim to connect these disparate sides into a
Overall, TDR projects combine ideographic concerns (real world problems) with nomothetic understandings
of the generalizability of knowledge. In non scientific approaches, emphasis is placed on the ideographic
side (local effectiveness) of a project, instead of looking at the connection to the larger body of
In short, TDR projects see the general application of solutions, but understand the importance of adapting
Exactly what is learned from TDR is at this point ambiguous. What is clear, though is that general lessons
are being learned even though research is being done in highly specific conditions, and TDR sometimes
intuitive expertise. Where individuals are able to understand the complexity of situations and see solutions
that aren’t apparent to ordinary, untrained individuals. The central variable in the development of this
and generalizable knowledge, and presents them in a chart that can orient the various aspects of TDR
Technological Counseling
Implementation
projects.
The top two, causal analysis and recursive planning focus primarily on research in an attempt to find and
solve problems. If the issue can be isolated from the environment and “harder” science can be effectively
utilized, the project will tend toward the laboratory and causal analysis. If the problem is embedded
deeply within context and multiple solutions in multiple contexts are needed, than recursive planning would
Regarding the bottom two, if the situation is such that a clear cut answer and technological specialization
would solve the problems, it the project would tend toward the left; if, on the other hand the problems are
more contextual, ambiguous, etc. than a participatory counseling approach would be more effective.
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These four central approaches can be used to analyze case studies and ascertain best practices for a
variety of situations.
CONCLUSION
This is an attempt to categorize and understand TDR from an epistemological approach, and may serve
useful in orienting practitioners of TDR into understanding how the many methods of TDR can apply to case
studies, and how the knowledge gained from case studies links up with the various types of knowledge.
discussed:
The variety within TDR projects reflects a growing ability to accommodate the diversity of lived
experience, in addition, it provides rich challenges for project managers of TDR projects because there are
a greater diversity of needs, knowledge, and goals. One thematic tension in TDR is between effectiveness
and heterogeneity. Reducing heterogeneity can improve effectiveness, but at the cost of integrating the
diversity of knowledge, perspective, and experience into the program. Therefore, one of the main goals of
the management of TDR is managing complexity of the project and heterogeneity of the population. This
chapter offers recommendations for running successful TDR projects, and breaks this up into themes.
CROSSING BOUNDARIES
Active management of TDR projects is essential. A type of leadership that simply allows “chaos to rein”
and hopes that disparate aspects of the project naturally connect has not shown to be effective. The
disparate parts have a tendency to diverge more through this style of management, therefore the TDR
project manager must focus on integration from the beginning. Contrarily, the project manager should not
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become overly concerned with controlling outcomes, just functioning to integrate the various pieces so they
function.
The transdisciplinary project manager (TPM) must functionin as conflict resolver, moderator, promote unity,
and foster important conflict and disagreement as part of the process. In addition, it is important to keep
the participants deeply connected to the problem resolution instead of ideological or perspectival
differences between them. In short, facilitating knowledge exchange and connecting effort with problem
CREATING SYNERGY
Using an integrative methodology can foster intellectual synergy, where conflict resolution skills foster
organizational synergy. There are many integrative methodologies that allow for intellectual synergies
from various scientific perspectives, for organizational synergy, what is often needed is a process that
allows individuals to take into account their own preconceptions and biases, understand those of the other
group(s), and come together in dialog about the differences. Establishing rules for the collaboration of the
different groups is vitally important if a successful “container” is to be created in which to transform. The
core success of these projects is largely determined by this cooperation, so take its importance seriously.
DEVELOPING SKILLS
While also a complicating factor, the variety in TDR teams is a core strength when individual skills are
needed for addressing the central problems of the project. The trick for TPM’s is learning how to create
shared goals within the variety of the group so they work together most effectively. While typically
experts from the various spheres bring accurate knowledge, one focus of the TPM is to evaluate the
effectiveness and accuracy of knowledge and stage appropriate confrontations while providing accurate
information.
Simply put, coordination of this type of diversity necessarily includes a reconciliation and evaluation of
IMPLEMENTING TOOLS
In TDR project management TPM’s are bringing together largely transient populations to work together
(hopefully) in a cooperative manner. For this reason, the rules of engagement are vitally important for
In this regard, the division of tasks, and the supervision of task completion are both important. TPM can
achieve task completion in a variety of ways, largely dependent upon shared goals and the free flow of
information. Information flows are on the Y axis in this chart, where shared goals are spread along the X
axis.
Control Communicate
Confer Coordinate
TPM’s can use this chart to guide decisions based on where the teams are functioning in terms of shared
goals and the free flow of information, because these are the two central tasks of TPM’s.
CONCLUSION
This section has illustrated three key factors for TPM’s
3. Stimulating cooperation and compromise between the variety of team members involved
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Managing a TDR project involves the management and creation of new knowledge, the integration of
multiple perspectives and needs, and necessarily must find a balance between diversity and effectiveness
if it is to truly further the scientific knowledge base and foster social and individual transformation.
REFLECTIONS
It seems as though there are no “transformative project management (dissertation) manuals” that have lots
of personal experience and stories etc. or organize them into a format that people can apply. Also, I
It seems, from reviewing the literature that outlining a general method for a needs assessment, research,
The literature, I feel, is incredibly close to having a diversity of transformative “franchise” models. I might
It seems like this territory is quite fresh, and there is a large body of literature to utilize from
transformative learning, as well as transdisciplinarity, I would like to comprise the TL literature, and add
some non-conceptual habituation practices to augment what I feel is an overly conceptual and analytical
What would it take to develop a general format for running learning based transformative projects? I
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