Lesson 7

Dry Scrubbing Systems

Goal
To familiarize you with the types, operating characteristics and collection efficiency associated
with dry scrubbing systems.

Objectives
At the end of this lesson you will be able to do the following:
1. Name three industrial processes where dry scrubbers are primarily used
2. Briefly describe how dry sorbent and spray dryer absorbers operate to collect gaseous
emissions
3. Name two types of atomizers used in spray dryers
4. Name and describe at least three operating parameters that affect the performance of dry
scrubbing systems
5. Briefly describe operation and maintenance problems associated with spray dryer absorbers

Introduction
Dry scrubbing systems control acid gas emissions (SO2, HCl, HF, etc.) and are used primarily
on utility and industrial boilers, municipal waste combustors, medical waste incinerators, and
some refinery processes. Of course, wet scrubbing systems can also function effectively as
acid gas collectors. Regardless of whether scrubber acid gas control systems operate wet or
dry, they have a mechanism for introducing alkaline material into the exhaust gas to react
with the acid gases present. Dry scrubbing systems are discussed in this lesson, while wet
flue gas desulfurization systems (wet acid gas control systems that remove SO2) are discussed
in Lesson 9.
Up to this point, you have been learning about wet scrubber designs. In wet scrubbers, liquid
droplets provide the primary targets for collecting particles and gases. To facilitate this
process, gas streams are saturated with moisture; therefore wet scrubbing systems release a
steam plume when exiting the stack. Also, wet scrubbers require a system of pipes and
pumps for collecting, treating, and recirculating the scrubbing liquid. In contrast, as their
name implies, dry scrubbers either operate completely dry or use much smaller amounts of

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Lesson 7
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liquid than wet scrubbers. In some semi-dry designs, liquid is added to the alkaline material,
creating a slurry. High scrubber temperatures evaporate the moisture before the gases and
reaction products leave the scrubber. Therefore, dry scrubbing systems do not have a stack
steam plume or waste water handling/disposal requirement.
There are a number of different dry scrubbing systems designs. However, all consist of two
main sections or devices: (1) a device to introduce the acid gas sorbent material into the gas
stream, and (2) a particulate-matter control device to remove reaction products, excess
sorbent material and any other particulate pollutants in the flue gas. Dry scrubbing systems
can be categorized as dry sorbent injectors (DSIs) or as spray dryers [also called semi-dry
scrubbers or spray dryer absorbers (SDAs)]. Since dry scrubbing systems only remove gases,
a separate device is always required to remove particles. The particulate control devices are
generally fabric filters or electrostatic precipitators (ESPs).
Dry sorbent injection involves the addition of a dry alkaline material (usually hydrated lime
or soda ash) into the gas stream to react with any acid gases that are present. The sorbent can
be injected directly into the flue gas duct ahead of the particulate control device or into an
open reaction chamber. The acid gases react with alkaline sorbents to form solid salts which
are removed in the particulate control device.
In spray dryer absorbers, the flue gases are introduced into an absorbing tower (dryer) where
the gases are contacted with a finely atomized alkaline slurry [usually a calcium-based
sorbent such as Ca(OH)2 or CaO]. Acid gases are absorbed by the slurry mixture, and react
to form solid salts. The heat of the flue gas is used to evaporate all the water droplets leaving
a non-saturated (i.e. dry) flue gas exiting the absorber tower. The effect of cooling and
humidifying the hot gas stream increases collection efficiency over simple dry injection.

Gas Removal Mechanisms

In dry scrubbing, acid gas is removed by the mechanisms of adsorption and absorption. In
dry injection systems, where adsorption is the primary removal mechanism, pollutant gas
molecules adhere to the surface area of the alkaline particles. Thus, the reaction between the
acid gas and the alkaline material takes place on the surface of these alkaline particles. The
alkaline materials are generally calcium hydroxide or sodium-based reagents that have the
consistency of a fine powder. These fine particles have large surface areas to aid in adsorbing
the acid gases.
In spray dryer systems, absorption is the predominant collection mechanism. Lesson 2
describes the general process of gaseous pollutants being absorbed by liquid droplets.
Absorption can occur in conjunction with a chemical reaction if a reagent has been added to
the scrubbing liquid. Spray dryer absorbers utilize this principle. First, the acid gas dissolves
in the alkaline slurry droplets, then reacts with the alkaline material dissolved therein to form
solid salts. Because the acid gases react to form new compounds, additional acid gases can
be absorbed by the liquid. Also, when the liquid droplets evaporate, the acid gases continue
to react (by adsorption) with the solid alkaline materials remaining in the SDA.
Adsorption and absorption are similar mass transfer processes in that the acid gases must first
be brought into contact with the alkaline sorbent material, be provided ample reaction sites
and time, and finally, be removed from the gas stream. Intimate contact between the alkaline
sorbent and acid gases is important for effective gas removal. With dry injection, solid

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powder-like sorbent is dispersed in either the furnace area, exhaust duct, or in a reaction
chamber. Dispersion is generally provided by injecting the sorbent through a venturi device
countercurrent to the flow of the gas stream to create turbulence. In spray dryers, the alkaline
sorbent slurry is dispersed as a mist of tiny liquid droplets in the reaction or drying vessel.
Due to their fine spray mists, spray dryers provide much more contact area than dry injectors
for gas absorption to occur. Also, spray dryer absorbers provide more effective mixing of
acid gases with the alkaline sorbent than dry sorbent injectors because it is easier to mix a gas
with a liquid than with a solid. Spray dryer absorbers have some disadvantages; the injection
(atomization) equipment required by spray dryer absorbers is much more complicated and
expensive to operate.
Residence or reaction time can be enhanced in these applications in a number of ways. In dry
injectors, the sorbent is often injected directly into the furnace or ductwork. To extend the
residence time, reaction or holding vessels can be added to the dry sorbent injection system.
Spray dryers always have a reaction or drying chamber to assure a dry gas stream leaving the
chamber. Also, in both systems, the particulate control device will provide an additional area
for the acid gases to further react with the sorbent.
In addition, both the absorption and adsorption processes are temperature dependent: the
cooler the flue gas, the more effectively the acid gases will react with the sorbents. Spray
dryer absorbers cool the gas stream and therefore, can achieve higher removal efficiencies
than dry injection with no cooling.

Stoichiometry
An important parameter in the operation of a dry scrubbing system is the amount of alkaline
material feed into the system. The amount of sorbent required is a function of the following:
1. The type of sorbent used
2. The inlet and outlet acid gas levels (the outlet level is determined by removal
requirements)
3. The effectiveness of the dry scrubbing system design
The amount of sorbent added is usually reported on a molar basis as the stoichiometric ratio
of sorbent to acid gases.
Although the sorbents are either calcium- or sodium-based solids, the exact chemical reaction
that occurs depends on the type of sorbent used and the injection point in the process.
Presently the most widely used dry scrubbing system is the calcium-based hydrated lime
[Ca(OH)2]. A slurry of hydrated lime and water is injected into the spray dryer and reacts
with the acid gases in a simplified manner as follows:
Ca(OH)2 + SO2 CaSO3(s) + H2O

(7-1)

Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl CaCl2(s) + 2H2O

(7-2)

As you can see from the above reactions, one mole of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] will
neutralize one mole of SO2, whereas one mole of calcium hydroxide will neutralize two
moles of HCl.

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Lesson 7
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To compute the pounds of calcium hydroxide required to neutralize a given weight of SO2 or
HCl, the molecular weight of each component must be utilized. For example, the molecular
weights of SO2, HCl, and Ca(OH)2 are as follows:

Compound

Molecular Weight
(lb/lb-mole)

SO2

64

HCl

36

Ca(OH)2

74

Therefore, one pound of calcium hydroxide can neutralize 0.86 pounds of SO2 (64 divided by
74) or 0.97 pounds of HCl (36 times 2 divided by 74).
In computing the stoichiometric ratio of a system, all the acid compounds in the waste stream
need to be accounted for. Also, the above equations are for the stoichiometric quantities of
sorbent. The actual use of sorbent will be above these quantities because of normal
inefficiencies in operation; contact of sorbent and acid gases is never ideal and distribution of
acid gases in the flue gas is often not uniform (especially in incineration systems). The actual
stoichiometric ratios can range from as low as 1.5 to 4.0 dependent on system design and
required removal efficiencies.
Similar type reactions occur with sodium-based compounds. For semi-dry systems using
caustic soda (NaOH) the following simplified reactions can be written:
SO2 + 1/2 O2 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O

(7-3)

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

(7-4)

Also, sorbents react with different acids at different rates. For example, sorbents react with
chlorides at a faster rate than with SO2. Therefore, in waste streams that have both SO2 and
HCl, the HCl is removed at a higher rate than the SO2.
To test your knowledge of the preceding section, answer the questions in Part 1 of the Review
Exercise.

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Dry Injection
Dry sorbent injection (DSI) is a process used to control acid gases by injecting a powdered
sorbent into the flue gas stream. The sorbent can be injected into the furnace, boiler area or
the ductwork/reaction chamber prior to the air pollution control device. The injection point
depends on the type of sorbent and required reaction time. For example, some sorbents need
to be injected at elevated temperatures to undergo a decomposition reaction before they can
effectively remove the acid gas. Figure 7-1 shows a schematic of a typical dry injection
system.

Figure 7-1.

Components of a dry injection system

The dry sorbent injection system is a very simple system that consists of a dry sorbent storage
tank, a weight feeder to meter the required amount of sorbent, a blower and transfer line, and
an injection device such as a venturi. The dry sorbent material is blown through a pneumatic
line to the injection area where transfer through the pneumatic line provides fluidization of
the sorbent material. Injection into the duct is generally done countercurrent to the gas flow

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Lesson 7
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to create added turbulence and promote mixing. An expansion/reaction chamber may be

included to increase the residence time of the acid gases to react with sorbent.
The simple dry injector process described above is capable of achieving moderate control of
acid gasesfor example 50% SO2 and 90% HCl removal on municipal and medical waste
combustors. The acid gas removal efficiencies can be increased by cooling and/or
humidifying the flue gas stream. Exhaust gases from industrial boilers or refuse combustors
can range from 600oF to 400oF. The flue gases can be cooled (and the humidity increased) by
using a heat exchanger or a dry quench chamber upstream of the injection point. Cooling the
flue gas temperature increases the rate of reaction between the sorbent and acid gases. But,
the temperature must be maintained high enough (300-350oF) to ensure that all the water
droplets used to quench are evaporated.
Recycling a portion of the collected particles and unreacted sorbent is another method used to
increase overall effectiveness of dry scrubbing systems. As stated previously, it is difficult to
mix a dry solid and a gas stream; therefore, additional sorbent (above stoichiometric amount)
must be injected. As a result, there is unreacted sorbent captured in the baghouse or
electrostatic precipitator. In some instances a portion of this waste stream is recycled back to
the injection point.
In order to achieve high removal efficiencies using relatively inexpensive calcium sorbents,
most dry injection systems have to operate at higher stoichiometric ratios than a spray dryer
would. For example, stoichiometric ratios of 2.0 to 4.0 are used on municipal waste
combustors to achieve moderate acid gas control. This increased sorbent usage limits their
application to smaller sources such as medical waste incinerators. Table 7-1 lists some
facilities that have installed dry injection acid gas control systems.

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Table 7-1.

Examples of dry injection systems on medical and municipal

waste incinerators
Facility location

Facility name

City

State

Incinerator

Control device

Combustor

manufacturer

manufacturer

size, lb/hr

Baltimore

Baltimore

MD

Consumat

Procedaire

6000

Trumbull Hospital

Warren

OH

Joy

Joy

765

Erlanger N

Chattanooga

TN

Basic

BACT

1176

Evanston Hospital

Evanston

IL

Basic

United McGill

1176

Florida Hospital

Orlando

FL

Basic

Mikropul FF

1176

Mediwaste

West Babylon

NY

U.S. Waste
Systems

Interel

2000

Northwest Hospital

Seattle

WA

Consumat

Consumat

1200

Healthcare
Incinerators

Fargo

ND

Consumat

Consumat

1200

Incindere

Spring Hill

LA

Consumat

Consumat

1500

Biomedical
Services

Mathews

NC

Consumat

Consumat

1500

WMI

Terrel

TX

Disc International

ERA-Tech

1300

Midway

Stroud

OK

Basic

United McGill

6588

Sparrow Hospital

Lansing

MI

Econotherm

Airopulse

1200

Thermtec

Elyria

OH

Therm Tec

Donalson

1000-1200

Thermtec

Cincinnati

OH

Therm Tec

Donalson

1000-1200

WMI

Northwood

OH

Joy 2000 TES

ERA-Tech

1525

WMI

W. Carrolton

OH

Joy 2000 TES

ERA-Tech

1525

WMI

Germantown

WI

Joy 2000 TES

Research
Cottrell

1525

WMI

Apopka

FL

Joy 2500 TES

United McGill

1910

Morristown
Memorial Hospital

Morristown

NJ

ThermAll, Inc.

ThermAll, Inc.

800

Swedish Hospital
Med. Ctr.

Seattle

WA

Therm-tec

Mikropul FF

800

Hamot

Erie

PA

BICO

>1000

Borgess

Kalamazoo

MI

Cleaver Brooks
DI/ Mikropul FF

650

Cleaver Brooks

Note: All systems are a dry injector followed by a fabric filter.

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Lesson 7
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Spray Dryer Systems

In the spray drying process, an alkaline slurry [usually Ca(OH)2] is injected into a spray dryer
chamber through either a rotary atomizer or two-fluid nozzle injectors.
The atomized slurry droplets contact the hot flue gas in the spray dryer chamber (See Figure
7-2). The water in the alkaline (lime) slurry evaporates to cool the flue gas, and the lime
reacts with the acid gases in the flue gas to form calcium- or sodium-based salts. The
reaction or absorption chamber is designed to provide sufficient contact and residence time to
produce a dry product leaving the chamber. The particulate exiting the chamber contains fly
ash, calcium salts and unreacted lime that must be sent to a particulate control device, usually
a fabric filter or electrostatic precipitator (ESP).

Figure 7-2.

7-8

Spray dryer absorber

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Collected solid reaction products from the system are sometimes recycled to the feed of the
spray dryer to reduce alkaline sorbent use. Figure 7-3 provides a diagram of a typical spray
drying system. The major components of a typical spray drying system are:

Alkaline (lime) storage and slaking system

Alkaline mixing and feed tanks

Atomizer (rotary or nozzle)

Spray dryer chamber

Particulate control device (e.g. baghouse)

Recycle system (optional)

Figure 7-3.

2.0-7/98

Components of a spray dryer absorber system

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Lesson 7
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Operating and Design Parameters

Key design and operating parameters that affect spray dryer design and/or performance
are:

Flue gas flow rate and composition

Temperature of flue gas exiting the boiler and spray dryer

Alkaline stoichiometric ratio

Alkaline (lime or sodium) properties

Required removal efficiency

The most important parameter in sizing the spray dryer is to ensure an adequate gas
residence time at maximum gas flow rate to prevent wet solids at the spray dryer outlet.
Gas residence times are generally in the range of 10 to 15 seconds for most commercial
systems. Due to the large volume of gases that must be treated from utility boilers, these
installations often have multiple dryers per boiler.
The spray dryer outlet temperature is controlled by the amount of water injected either
with the alkaline slurry or as makeup water. The key to achieving good SO2 removal is to
maintain the temperature of the flue gas exiting the spray dryer as close above its dew
point (adiabatic saturation) as possible without actually saturating the flue gas.
Generally, 20 - 30F above the adiabatic saturation point is a good target range. This will
enhance the reaction yet still prevent condensation. The amount of water that can
evaporate in a spray dryer is dependent on the incoming flue gas temperature and to a
lesser extent on the moisture content.
The alkaline feed rate is a function of the incoming acid gas levels and the required
removal efficiency. The stoichiometric ratio is defined as the molar ratio of alkaline (i.e.
calcium) in the spray dryer feed to the amount of acid gases (SO2 and HCl) present. For
example, at a ratio of 1.0 the moles of calcium are equal to the moles of incoming HCl
and SO2. However, due to inefficiencies in the mixing process, more than the theoretical
amount of alkaline material is required to assure compliance with applicable standards.
Thus, stoichiometric feed rates of 1.5 to 2.5 have been used to achieve SO2 removal level
in the 75 to 85% range and HCl removal efficiencies of 95% on municipal waste
combustors. For utility and industrial boilers, sulfur removal guarantees by spray dryer
vendors have ranged from 60 to 90%. Table 7-2 lists information on operating spray
dryer systems at utility boilers.

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Table 7-2.

Summary of spray-dryer applications

Unit

Size

SprayDryer
Diameter
(ft)

Type1

Atomizers
per Dryer/
Number of
Dryers

RT2
(s)

T3
(F)

T4
(F)

1/5

12

310

20

46

1/1

10

350

Var.
5

46

3/1

10

323

20

38

12/4

NR

NR

25

NR

1/3

11

276

NR

46

1/3

10.6

249

50

51

1/1

10

265

25

36

3/3

NR

260300

30

NR

12/4

286

23

55

1/3

12

256

20

46

3/4

12

310

20

52

1/1

12

330340

20

25

1/1

NR

350

NR

NR

1/1

NR

375

25

20

Utilities (size in Megawatts)

440
(each)

Antelope Valley 1, 2

110

Riverside 6, 7

Basin Electric

Northern States Power

60

Stanton 10
United Power

450

Craig 3

Colorado-Ute
280

Rawhide 1
Platte River Power

320

Holcomb 1
Sunflower Coop.

44

Shiras 3
City of Marquette

270

North Valmy
Sierra Pacific Power
Idaho Power

570

Laramie River 3
Basin Electric

370

Springerville 1, 2
Tucson Electric

575

GRDA

Industries (size in acfm)

75,000

Argonne National Lab

Argonne, IL

90,500

Container Corp.
Philadelphia, PA

46,500
(3 units)

Fairchild Air Force

Base
Spokane, WA

Continued on next page

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Lesson 7
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Table 7-2.

(continued)
Summary of spray-dryer applications.
SprayDryer
Diameter
(ft)

Type1

Atomizers
per Dryer/
Number of
Dryers

RT2
(s)

T3
(F)

T4
(F)

1/1

NR

300

NR

32

1/1

NR

400

NR

22

1/1

NR

325

35

20

4/1

NR

NR

NR

NR

1/1

96,000

University of
Minnesota

1/1

12

375

20

24

97,000

Rockwell International

1/1

12

450

30

30

1/1

10

405

90120

36

NR/1

NR

400

NR

24

Unit

Size

Industries (size in acfm)

167,000

General Motors
Buick Division
Flint, MI

48,600

Griffis Air Force Base

Rome, NY

44,400

Malstrom Air Force

Base
Great Falls, MI

40,000

Strathmore Paper
Woronco, MA

62,000

Columbus, OH
205,000

M. M. Carbon
Long Beach, CA

81,710

Ohio State University

Columbus, OH

1. R = rotary; N = nozzle.
2. Residence time.
3. Flue-gas temperature at entrance.
4. Approach to saturation at exit.
5. Varies.
6. Not reported.
Source: Huang et al. 1988.

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Spray Drying Equipment

In a spray drying system, there are a number of system components. Three of the major
components are the atomizer, spray dryer chamber and particulate control system. An
overview of these systems is provided in the following sections and was adapted from
Spray-Dryer Flue-Gas-Cleaning System Handbook (Huang et al. 1988).
Atomizers
Currently, two types of atomizers are used in spray dryers for acid gas removal:
rotary disks or wheels and dual-fluid nozzles. In either case, the purpose of the
atomizer is to break the sorbent slurry into a cloud of fine droplets to promote
intimate sorbent contact with the acid bases.
In the rotary atomizer, the slurry is fed into the top of the rotating wheel or disk.
Centrifugal force causes the slurry to form a thin film on the internal surface of the
cavity. As the slurry emerges from the cavity through abrasion-resistant inserts in the
side of the wheel, the liquid is atomized into discrete droplets that are propelled
radially outward. These droplets, generally 25-150 m in diameter, dry rapidly in the
hot flue gas within the spray dryer. Figure 7-4 shows an example of a typical
atomizer wheel used in spray dryers (Huang 1988).

Abrasion-resistant
inserts

8 in. to 16 in. diameter

Figure 7-4.

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Example of rotary atomizer used in spray-dryer FGD

systems

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Lesson 7
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For FGD spray dryer applications, atomizer wheels range from 8 to 16 inches in
diameter and have rotational speeds from 7,000 to 20,000 revolutions per minute
(rpm). Due to the highly abrasive nature of the slurry (which can consist of either
slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] or slaked lime plus recycled fly ash/reacted product), the
wheels are constructed of corrosion- and abrasion-resistant materials, including
ceramic inserts in the vanes or nozzles.
In dual-fluid pneumatic nozzle atomization, the slurry feed is injected into the
body of a nozzle and is entrained into a high-velocity, high-pressure air stream as
shown in Figures 7-5 and 7-6 (Maurin 1983). The high-velocity air impacts on the
slurry-feed stream, resulting in the production of fine droplets. The air stream and
slurry comprise the two fluids. The size of liquid droplets produced decreases as the
compressed air pressure and relative velocity of the liquid to air increases.

Liquid feed

Compressed air

Mixing chamber

Initial liquid filming and breakup

Atomization at shear region

Cap and pintel

Figure 7-5.

7-14

Two-fluid nozzle atomizer (nozzle body)

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Liquid
Compressed air
12

Expansion of
compressed air jet

Nozzle zone

Transition
zone

Free entrainment zone

(Droplets free of
compressed air
influence)

Figure 7-6.

Two-fluid nozzle atomizer (high pressure air stream)

The mean droplet size for both atomizing systems has been shown to be the same,
indicating that the systems perform similarly. Likewise, the capacity of a nozzle
system for atomization of slurries is the same as that for a rotary atomizer.
Nevertheless, rotary atomizers and pneumatic nozzles have somewhat different
advantages and disadvantages (Huang 1988):
1. Rotary atomizers, with their higher capacity per unit, will have a simpler piping
system. In a rotary-atomizer system, usually only one feed pipe per atomizer is
used; whereas in a nozzle-type atomizer, there will be an individual feed pipe
(and valve) to each nozzle. In very large installations, this results in a complex
piping system.
2. Pneumatic nozzle atomizers are much easier to maintain than rotary atomizers
while the system is on-line because the individual feed lines have isolation and
control valves. With multiple nozzles, it is possible to isolate an individual
nozzle, remove it for cleaning or replacement, and then return the cleaned or new
nozzle to service without reducing the gas flow to the system or bypassing the
gas flow to another spray dryer.
3. The net-energy requirements of a rotary atomizer and a set of pneumatic nozzles
are approximately the same, but the method by which this energy is applied is
different. For a rotary atomizer, the atomization energy is supplied via a motor
coupled to the atomizing wheel with a gear and/or belt drive. For a pneumatic
atomizer, the energy of atomization is produced primarily by the pressure of the
atomizing air. Hence, the energy is supplied through an air compressor that may
also supply air for instrumentation or other purposes.

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4. A spare rotary atomizer is often required as a backup in case of failure. In a

pneumatic nozzle system, the required spares consist of nozzles and an extra air
compressor. For a smaller single rotary-atomizer unit, the relative cost of a spare
atomizer would be substantial.
Spray-Dryer Chamber
The atomization method chosen will affect the design of the spray-dryer chamber,
including the physical dimensions. For a rotary-atomizer type of spray dryer,
which projects the droplets radially outward and perpendicular to the gas flow, the
length-to-diameter ratio of the dryer (L/D) is typically 0.8:1. Figure 7-7(a) illustrates
two typical configurations of rotary atomizer spray dryers. The droplets decelerate
rapidly due to the drag forces of the downward-moving flue gas and eventually attain
the speed and direction of the flue gas. To avoid wall deposition, the designed radial
distance between the atomizer and the dryer wall must be sufficient to allow for
adequate drying of the largest droplets. This is accomplished by proper choice of the
L/D, droplet size, and residence time.
For a two-fluid pneumatic nozzle spray dryer [shown in Figure 7-7(b)], which
atomizes the droplets in the direction of the gas flow (downward), the L/D is
typically 2:1. In this case, sidewall deposition is a minor problem.
Typically, industrial boiler spray dryers have diameters of 25-30 ft, whereas utility
spray dryers have diameters of 40-50 ft. Currently, the maximum diameter of an
installed spray dryer is about 60 ft. In general, if the gas-flow rate is large enough
that a single unit greater than 40-50 ft in diameter would be specified, then the
installation of multiple spray dryers should be considered. In utility systems where
the gas flow can range from 1-2 million acfm, multiple spray dryers are common.
Multiple spray dryers are installed for easy maintenance and high reliability.
Flue gas may enter a spray dryer in one of three patterns relative to the slurry
direction: cocurrent, countercurrent, or mixed. In cocurrent spray dryers, all of the
gas enters through a roof gas disperser in the top of the vessel, where its rotation is
controlled by angled vanes that direct the gas around the atomizer [shown in Figure
7-7(a)]. This type of gas distribution precisely controls the exit gas temperature since
the gas and slurry travel in the same direction. This is the most common flow pattern
used in acid gas control systems.
In countercurrent spray dryers, the gas enters from the bottom of the vessel and is
directed at the atomized liquid above. Although uncommon in utility or industrial
flue-gas control systems, these spray dryers have the advantage of a much higher
drying capacity than the cocurrent system.
Another type of spray dryer, the compound-gas disperser or mixed, is offered by one
manufacturer as an option in specific applications. This type of spray dryer is
sometimes used on very large units as an alternative to multiple rotary atomizers to
obtain efficient contact between the hot gas and the liquid droplets.

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Vane ring
gas disperser
Slurry feed
Gas
inlet

Atomizer
Gas

Gas disperser
Gas
outlet
Gas inlet

Solids

(a) Rotary-atomizer dryers

Solids

Gas
Liquid slurry
inlet

Gas outlet

Solids
(b) Two-fluid pneumatic nozzle dryers

Figure 7-7.

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Two types of spray-dryer chambers

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Lesson 7
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Particulate-Matter Collection
A spray-dryer system is not complete without a means of particulate-matter collection. Not
only is a well-designed particulate-matter control system needed to meet emissions
requirements, but it also aids in acid-gas removal. Acid gases are removed when the flue gas
comes in contact with lime-containing particles in the fabric filter or ESP. Fabric filters have
been used on the majority of acid gas control systems, due to their ability to obtain slightly
higher residual acid gas removal than ESPs.
Regardless of the type of particulate control device, an important design feature is to
minimize potential heat loss in the fly ash collection system. The fly ash contains unreacted
alkaline sorbent along with calcium (or sodium) sulfates, and in the case of waste
incinerators, it also contains calcium chlorides. These materials are very hygroscopic and can
result in corrosion problems or ash plugging of equipment if condensation occurs. Adding
insulation, hopper heaters and reducing air in-leakage are essential to prevent operational
problems with the ash handling system.

Maintenance Problems
Except for rotary atomizers in spray dryers, dry injectors and spray dryer absorbers are
relatively simple devices with few moving parts. (Note: Maintenance associated with an
atomizer is specific to the type and manufacturer of the atomizer and is not covered in this
lesson). The primary maintenance problem associated with any dry scrubbing system is
potential plugging in the solid or slurry transport systems. Manufacturers of the various
systems provide suggested maintenance and inspection schedules for each component. These
schedules should be followed and information recorded to aid in documenting the system
operation.
Dry scrubbing systems involve transporting a solid or slurry (which can be 10 to 40% solids)
in small pipes; therefore, plugging problems could occur in a number of locations. The most
common locations of plugging problems are in "dead" areas of the solid or slurry piping,
valves and the atomizer. Dead areas of piping are associated with tees going to spare pumps
or a cleanout port. In these areas, flow only occurs occasionally and provides an area for
solids to buildup and block transport lines. Eliminating the tees is not practical since
redundancy is needed (and often mandated) in order to assure continual operation of the
scrubbing system. Also, certain tees are installed specifically to allow quick access to piping
internals in order that a specific length of pipe can be flushed with water to dislodge buildup.
Flexible rubber hosing and quick-type connectors have been used to try and minimize line
plugging. Flexible piping is not as susceptible to plugging as solid pipe, and with the use of
quick connectors, the flexible piping can be installed or removed quickly to flush out areas or
to connect spare components.
Plugging problems associated with valves and atomizers in slurry systems are minimized by
using screens in transport lines to remove solids. However, these screens must be
periodically checked and cleaned or else they will cause plugging. Atomizing systems are
often designed so that they can be flushed with water during operation (this will temporary
reduce potential acid gas removal efficiency). Atomizers should also be designed so that they
can be replaced in a short timeframe.

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Dry Scrubbing Systems

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Another area of maintenance with semi-dry scrubbing systems is the lime slaking system.
Lime slaking is the process of mixing controlled amounts of water and lime in a mixing
vessel (slaker). The lime and water react (an exothermic process) to form the lime slurry
which is then screened of grit, stored in agitated mixing tanks and then metered to the
atomizer.
With the slaking system, plugging and the quality of slurry produced are the two biggest
maintenance concerns. Plugging of dead spots and pumps can occur as already discussed. In
addition, the grit screening process is of concern because if the screen is damaged, then large
quantities of grit can get into the entire lime-slurry transport system causing extensive
plugging and/or abrasion wear problems. Slurry quality is dependent on the quality of lime
and slaking water utilized in addition to the mechanical action of the slaker. Both the lime
and water should be of high quality (limited contaminants or other chemicals present) to
prevent adverse reactions that can result in scaling, plugging or reduced acid gas removal
efficiencies. The mechanical action of the slaker will determine how efficiently the slaking
reaction occurs. The slaker should be frequently inspected to ensure that it is operating as
designed.
Plugging of lime slurry transport components can also occur due to a lack of slurry movement
(i.e. during standby periods) when solids could settle out or the calcium could have time to
react and form scale. During extended downtimes, lines and storage tanks should be drained
and flushed where practical. Also, manufacturers recommend periodic cleaning in acid of
screens and other components that are prone to plugging problems.

Summary
Dry scrubbing systems are used to control acid gas emissions primarily from combustion
sources such as utility and industrial boilers and municipal and medical waste incinerators.
Dry scrubbing systems only remove acid gases and therefore must be followed by a
particulate control device (ESP or fabric filter) prior to exhausting the gases to the
atmosphere.
Dry scrubbing systems can be categorized as dry sorbent injectors (DSI) or as semi-dry
scrubbers (also referred to as spray dryer absorbers or spray dryers). Dry sorbent injection
involves the addition of a dry alkaline material (usually hydrated lime or soda ash) into the
gas stream to react with any acid gases that are present. The sorbent can be injected directly
into the flue gas duct ahead of the particulate control device or into an open reaction chamber.
The acid gases are adsorbed onto and react with alkaline sorbents to form solid salts which
are removed in the particulate control device.
In spray dryer absorbers (SDAs) the flue gases are introduced into an absorbing tower (dryer)
where the gases are contacted with a finely atomized alkaline slurry: usually a calcium-based
sorbent such as Ca(OH)2 or CaO. Acid gases are absorbed by the slurry droplets and react to
form solid salts. The heat of the flue gas is used to evaporate all the water droplets, leaving a
non-saturated (i.e. dry) flue gas exiting the absorber tower. The effect of cooling and
humidifying the hot gas stream increases collection efficiency over simple dry injection.
The major components of a spray dryer absorber are the atomizer, spray dryer chamber and
the particulate control device. Two types of atomizers are currently utilized for acid gas
removal: rotary disks (wheel type) and dual-fluid nozzles. In either case, the purpose of the

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Lesson 7
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atomizer is to break the sorbent slurry into a cloud of fine droplets. The spray chamber is
designed based on the type of atomizer utilized. Spray chambers used with rotary atomizers
are shorter but fatter than those used with two-fluid nozzle atomizers. Both ESPs and
baghouses have been used with spray dryer absorbers. An important design feature of the
particulate control device is to minimize potential heat loss in the fly ash collection system to
prevent potential plugging problems.
An important parameter in the operation of a dry scrubbing system is the amount of alkaline
material feed into the system. The amount of sorbent required is a function of the type of
sorbent used, inlet and outlet (required removal) acid gas levels and the effectiveness of the
dry scrubbing system design. The amount of sorbent added is generally reported as the
stoichiometric ratio on a molar basis of sorbent to acid gases. A stoichiometric ratio of 1:1
would be used under ideal conditions; in practice more than the theoretical amount must be
utilized to assure compliance with required acid gas removal levels.
Except for rotary atomizers in spray dryers, dry scrubbing systems are relatively simple
devices with few moving parts. The primary maintenance problem is potential plugging in
the solid or slurry transport lines. Plugging can occur whenever there are bends or
restrictions in piping.
To test your knowledge of the preceding section, answer the questions in Part 2 of the Review
Exercise.

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Review Exercise
Part 1
1.

Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove ____________________

____________________ from flue gas streams.

2.

True or False? In dry scrubbing systems no water or slurry is ever used.

3.

In dry scrubbing, the following mechanisms are applicable:

a.
b.
c.
d.

4.

Absorption
Adsorption
Impaction
a and b, only

In general, higher acid gas removal efficiencies are achievable as the operating temperature
of the dry scrubbing system:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Increases
Decreases
Does not change
All of the above

5.

The ratio of the sorbent materials injected into the spray dryer relative to the acid gases
present is referred to as the ____________________ ____________________.

6.

The alkaline sorbent used in spray drying systems is:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

7.

Calcium based
A form of lime or soda ash
Sodium based
a and b, only
a, b, and c

In a scrubbing system, HCl reacts ____________________ with the sorbent than SO2 does.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Faster
Slower
At the same rate
None of the above

Part 2
8.

True or False? Dry sorbent injection is a very simple process that involves injecting a solid
into the flue gas.

9.

Spray dryer gas residence times are generally in the range of:
a.
b.
c.
d.

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1 to 2 seconds
10 to 15 seconds
1 to 2 minutes
a or b

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Lesson 7
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10. True or False? The spray dryer outlet temperature should be maintained as close above its
adiabatic saturation temperature as possible without risking condensation to obtain best acid
gas removal rates.
11. The amount of water that can evaporate in a spray dryer is dependent on the:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Acid gas levels

Sorbent type
Incoming temperature
All the above

12. For a given system design, what is the alkaline sorbent feed rate a function of?
________________________________________ and
________________________________________
13. True or False? Spray dryers can operate at stoichiometric ratios of less than 1.0 and achieve
very high (90+) removal efficiencies.
14. The two types of atomizer systems used on spray dryers are
____________________ ____________________ and
____________________ ____________________ ____________________.
15. True or False? The droplet size produced and power consumption of a rotary atomizer and
dual-fluid nozzle system are essentially the same.
16. The spray chamber length for a dual fluid nozzle system should be ____________________
than for a system with a rotary atomizer.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Shorter
Longer
About the same
Any of the above

17. The particulate matter control device on spray drying systems removes particles and can aid
in additional ____________________ ____________________ removal.
18. Fly ash collection systems on spray dryers must be properly insulated and heated to prevent
condensation which could cause:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Plugging
Corrosion
Reentrainment
a and b, only

19. The primary maintenance problem with dry scrubbing systems is:
a.
b.
c.
d.

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Plugging in the sorbent transport system

Scaling
Corrosion
Erosion

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Dry Scrubbing Systems

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20. Lime slurry is dependent on the mechanical action of the slaker and the quality of the:
a.
b.
c.
d.

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Water
Lime
Soda ash
a and b, only

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Lesson 7
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Dry Scrubbing Systems

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Review Exercise Answers

Part 1
1.

Acid gases
Dry scrubbing systems are used to remove acid gases from flue gas streams.

2.

False
In dry scrubbing systems, water or slurry is sometimes used. Semi-dry systems (also called
spray dryer absorbers) use an alkaline slurry.

3.

d. a and b, only
In dry scrubbing, the following mechanisms are applicable: absorption and adsorption.

4.

b. Decreases
In general, higher acid gas removal efficiencies are achievable as the operating temperature
of the dry scrubbing system decreases.

5.

Stoichiometric ratio
The ratio of the sorbent materials injected into the spray dryer relative to the acid gases
present is referred to as the stoichiometric ratio.

6.

e. a, b, and c
The alkaline sorbent used in spray drying systems can be any of the following:

7.

Calcium based

A form of lime or soda ash

Sodium based

a. Faster
In a scrubbing system, HCl reacts faster with the sorbent than SO2 does.

Part 2
8.

True
Dry sorbent injection is a very simple process that involves injecting a solid into the flue
gas.

9.

b. 10 to 15 seconds
Spray dryer gas residence times are generally in the range of 10 to 15 seconds.

10. True
The spray dryer outlet temperature should be maintained as close above its adiabatic
saturation temperature as possible without risking condensation to obtain best acid gas
removal rates.
11. c. Incoming temperature
The amount of water that can evaporate in a spray dryer is dependent on the incoming
temperature.
12. Incoming acid gas levels
Removal rate
For a given system design, the alkaline sorbent feed rate is a function of the incoming acid
gas levels and removal rate.

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Lesson 7
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13. False
Spray dryers cannot operate at stoichiometric ratios of less than 1.0 and achieve very high
(90+) removal efficiencies. They must operate at ratios above 1.0 to be effective.
14. Rotary atomizers (and) dual-fluid nozzles (or two-fluid nozzles)
The two types of atomizer systems used on spray dryers are rotary atomizers and dual-fluid
nozzles.
15. True
The droplet size produced and power consumption of a rotary atomizer and dual-fluid nozzle
system are essentially the same.
16. b. Longer
The spray chamber length for a dual-fluid nozzle system should be longer than for a system
with a rotary atomizer because of the type of spray pattern required by dual-fluid nozzle.
17. Acid gas
The particulate matter control device on spray drying systems removes particles and can aid
in additional acid gas removal.
18. d. a and b, only
Fly ash collection systems on spray dryers must be properly insulated and heated to prevent
condensation which could cause plugging and corrosion.
19. a. Plugging in the sorbent transport system
The primary maintenance problem with dry scrubbing systems is plugging in the sorbent
transport system.
20. d. a and b, only
Lime slurry is dependent on the mechanical action of the slaker and the quality of the water
and lime.

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Bibliography
Apple, C., and M. E. Kelly. 1982, April. Mechanisms of Dry SO2 Control Processes. EPA-600/7-82026, NTIS PB 82-196924. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Huang, H., J. W. Allen, C. D. Livengood, W. T. Davis, and P. S. Farber. 1988. Spray-Dryer FlueGas-Cleaning System Handbook. U.S. Department of Energy. Publication No. ANL/ESD-7.
Energy Systems Division, Argonne National Laboratory.
Maurin, P. G., et al. 1982, April. Two-fluid nozzle vs. rotary atomization for dry-scrubbing systems.
Chemical Engineering Progress. (pp. 51-59).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1982, September. Flue Gas Desulfurization - Spray Dryer
Process. Sulfur Oxides Control Technology Series. EPA 625/8-82-009.

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