SKS07en 11-12 Coding and Modulation

7.
Coding and
Modulation
FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12
Topics
Introduction
Convolutional coding
Reed-Solomon coding
Concatenated coding
FEC Forward error correction
Digital modulation
PCM Pulse code modulation
QAM Quadrature amplitude modulation
ISI intersymbol interference
Modulation spectral efficiency
BER bit error rate
Introduction
Coders are part of transmitter systems and decoders are

part of receiver systems.
Signal transmission is subject to error or interference.
There are error detecting and correcting codes.
Parity (redundant) bits are introduced into the known
information bits. This reduces the data speed.
The number of parity bits necessary depends on
interference in the communication channel and interference.
Adequate decoder must exists on receiver side. Decoder
depends on the coding method used on transmitter side.
Introduction
In modulation process, one or more parameters of the

auxiliary signal is changed. The auxiliary signal is called the
carrier.
Signal which contains the information is called the modulation
signal. It controls the changes of carrier.
The result of modulation procedure is modulated signal.
Whole procedure is performed in modulator.
Reverse procedure to modulating is demodulating at receiver.
Difference between analog and digital modulations is in the
modulation signal. With digital modulations, modulation
signal is either 0 or 1.
Code has three main characteristics:

Code length number of bits in a code word
Code dimension number of information bits in a code
word
Code distance number of bits necessary to move from
one to other code word
Convolutional coding can correct error bits which gives coding
gain to the system.
Codes have three parameters:
n number of output bits
k number of input bits
m number of memory registers
Ratio k/n = R is a code rate
Usually k and n have values between 1 and 8, and code rate R has values
from 1/8 to 7/8.
There can be 2 to 10 memory registers (m).
K is the number of bits in coder memory which affects the creation of n
output bits:
K = k (m - 1)
Convolutional coding is performed with shift registers (K ) and n modulo 2
adders.
Larger K means more influence of the previous bits on the output code
word.
Example K = 3, n = 2
For every bit in register, the output changes n = 2 code bits (u1 and u2)
Code rate k/n = 1/2
Every output bit is a function of input bit (left state of register) and two
previous bits (right states of register).
First
code bit
Input bit
Second
code bit
Output
word
K = 3, n = 2
Viterbi Decoder
Viterbi decoder corrects the errors received during
transmission.
Decoding is more complicated procedure than encoding and
limits the communication speed.
Integer number K is the number of frames processed in
every step.
Input to decoder can be
Real number (positive real number is logical zero and
negative real number is positive one)
0 i 1 -hard decision
soft decision integer between 0 and 2b-1; b is a
parameter of soft decision
Decision for b = 3
Input value
Decision
Most probable zero
Second most probable zero
Third most probable zero
Least probable zero
Least probable one
Third most probable one
Second most probable one
Most probable one

Table shows typical values of decoding gain
Code rate
EB/N0 required for BEP = 10-6 (dB)
Decoding gain (dB)
10.5
7/8
6.9
3.6
3/4
5.9
4.6
2/3
5.5
5.0
1/2
5.0
5.5
Reed-Solomon coding
As convolutional coding, RS coding adds redundant bits and creates code

words which enable correcting errors in decoder.
Difference from convolutional coding is that RC encodes bit blocks instead
one bit.
RS coding is eight times more faster than convolutional coding.
Input bits are first packed into small blocks of k symbols which are then
packed in super blocks with n symbols by adding redundant bits.
Transmission of information is decreased by code rate R,
1/R = n/k
where
n is number of output bits

k is number of input bits
RS decoder can correct t symbols of the code word according to

2t = n -k
10
Reed-Solomon coding
RS(204,188, T=8) has 16 redundant bits and possibility to correct 8 bits.

2t = n k = 204 - 188 = 16
t =8
One bit is used for synchronization and 187 bits contain information.
RS(204,188, T = 8) is shortened code from original RS(255, 239, T = 8).
Used in DVB-S.
11
Concatenated coding
Concatenated (joined) coding for DVB-S standard has two codes: outer
(RS) and inner (convolutional).
Inner decoder corrects errors at the output of demodulator, while outer
decoder corrects occasional bursts of errors created by inner decoder.
12
FEC Forward Error Correction
FEC is a digital signal processing which increases the reliability of data by

introducing known structure into data stream before transmission.
The known structure enables the receiving system detection and possible
correction of errors in the channel or receiver.
Correction of data means that it is not necessary to send the information
again (useful with real time information).
Original data is consisting of n bits. Encoder introduces redundant (parity)
bits r, increasing total number of bits to n + r of code word.
On the receiving end, decoder extracts the original data.
The code rate is defined as
n
n+r
where r is the number of redundant bits added to n information bits.

13
The bit rate at the encoder input is Rb.

At output, the rate is greater and equal to Rc:
Rc =
Rb
14
Information
Code word
...010I011I110...
101 010I000 011I000 110I

6,3
encoder
Parity bits
Information bits
15

Digital
d1, d2,..., dk
Information
input
u1, u2,..., uk
n, n+ r
encoder
Information bits
modulator
noise
Code bits
channel
Digital d , d ,..., d
1
2
k
Information
output
n, n+ r
decoder
Information bits estimation
u1, u2,..., uk
demodulator
Code bits estimation
16
Code measure is redundancy, or r/n.

Codes with high redundancy have relatively little information per code
bit. Codes with little redundancy have fast code rate (close to 1) and
carry more information per code bit.
High redundancy has advantage that it lowers the possibility of losing the
original data during transmission. Disadvantage of high redundancy is
that usually requires larger bandwidth or introduces delay.
For the communication in real time, code rate must be increased by
factor 1/(n+r) to avoid decrease in data throughput. Furthermore, it is
necessary to increase the bandwidth by factor n/n+r (for modulation).
If communication is not in real time, delay can be introduced but not the
increased bandwidth.
17
Quality parameter BER (bit

error rate) vs ratio of S/N
Coding gain
waterfall.
BER
When S/N increases, BER
decreases system performs
better
10-2
Coded system (on figure) has
100 times smaller BER in
comparison to the non coded 10-4
system for same S/N.
Or, coded system has same BER
as non coded for lower S/N. Te
8
12
difference is called coding gain
(4 dB in figure).
non coded
coded
Smaller necessary S/N needs
Direction of improvement
smaller antennas, lower
regarding errors
transmitting power, cheaper
receivers, ...
S/N [dB]
18
Digital modulation
ASKAmplitude Shift Keying

With ASK, the amplitude of carrier is changed according to the
modulation signal in a way that the carrier exists when modulation signal
is equal to 1 and it does not exists if modulation signal is equal to 1.
This modulation is also called OOK (On-Off Keying).
Modulated signal is obtained by modulating the carrier signal (with
frequency fc ) with modulating signal with frequency fm):
1 2
2
uASK
=
( t ) U cm cos c t + cos mt cos3mt + ... .
3
2
Ideal ASK has infinitive spectrum. It is therefore necessary to shape

pulses to narrow the frequency bandwidth.
Disadvantage of ASK modulation is that S/N ratio is not same for 1 and
for 0. It also needs different powers for those two states.
Break in communication is read as 0.
19
Digital modulation
ASKAmplitude Shift Keying
20
Digital modulation
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
With FSK, the frequency of carrier is changed discretely according to the

modulation signal.
The simplest FSK is the BPSK or binary FSK with two carrier frequencies.
Examples:
MSK Minimum Shift Keying with modulation index of 0.5
GMSK Gaussian MSK (mobile telephony)

FSK modulation can be achieved with two ASK signals, having frequencies
f1 i f2.
Demodulation of ASK is much easier than demodulation of FSK.
21
Digital modulation
Modulation index is equal to

the ratio of frequency deviation
f and modulation frequency fm
mF =
f
fm
Frequency deviation is
f f
f =1 0
2
f0 = fc - f
f1 = fc + f
fc carrier frequency
FSK Frequency Shift Keying

22
Digital modulation
PSK Phase Shift Keying

With PSK, the phase of carrier is changed in regard to the modulation
signal. The modulation phase can have two or more different, previously
determined phases.
PSK modulation can also be obtained by two ASK signals, similar to FSK.
The difference is that with PSK, this two signals must be in quadrature
relation. PSK signal is equal to
uPSK
=
m ) U cm [ cos m cos c t sin m sin c t ]
( t ) U cm cos (c t +=
m is modulation phase which can be

( 2n + c )
,=
=
n 0,1, 2,...M 1; =
c
m
0,1.
For M = 2, and c = 0, modulation phases will be 0 and , and for c = 1,

phases will be /2 and 3/2. This modulation is called BPSK or Binary PSK.
Usually 0 or 0 represents state 1 and or 180 represents 0.
23
Digital modulation
PSK Phase Shift Keying
24
Digital modulation
BPSK
QPSK
Gray code
=
uQPSK ( t ) I ( t ) cos c t Q(t )sin c t.
BPSK is resilient to interference but has small spectral efficiency.

For M = 4, there are 4 modulation phases making QPSK. Each state of QPSK
requires two bits while BPSK requires one bit.
QPSK demands more memory, and the possibility of error is higher. Spectral
efficiency is higher, that is, it is possible to transmit two times more
information in a communication channel.
25
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
With PCM modulation,

amplitude of analog signal is
sampled and quantized in order
to realize binary code.
PCM requires AD converter.
The speed of sampling must be
at least two times larger than
the analog frequency:
fs >= 2fc
Quantization level will

determine the accuracy of
analog signal. Mode accurate
conversion requires more
memory.
Demodulation is similar to
modulation.
Receiver needs DA converter.
26
QAM is a procedure where the amplitudes of two carriers are modulated.

The phase difference between them is 90.
QAM can be both analog and digital. Analog QAM is similar to AM.
Digital QAM is used more often than analog QAM.
It has two modulation signals I(t) and Q(t) which are in relation
=
uQAM I ( t ) cos c t Q ( t ) sin c t.
QPSK is actually a special case of QAM.

Difference is that QPSK has no amplitude modulation while QAM has.
Depending on the quantization level, there could be 4-QAM, 16-QAM, 64QAM.
More states means more possibility of error.
27
28
ISI Intersymbol interference
When rectangular pulses pass through the frequency band limited channel,
they spread in time, and pulse from each symbol will be spread into the
time interval of adjacent (next) pulse. This leads to intersymbol
interference. ISI can also appear from multipath propagation.
The obvious solution for lowering ISI is increasing the frequency
bandwidth.
29
ISI Interymbol interference
Modern communication
systems are working with
minimum bandwidth.
Unwanted emission outside
bandwidth should be 40 dB to
80 dB lower than in its own
channel.
Since it is difficult to achieve
it in RF band, pulse shaping
is done in baseband or at MF.
Figure shows frequency
response (above) and
impulse response (below) of
raised-cosine filter with
various roll-off factors.
30
Modulation spectral efficiency
Modulation spectral efficiency is ratio of the transmitted bit rate Rc and

bandwidth occupied by the carrier.
The bandwidth occupied by the carrier depends on spectrum of the
modulated carrier and filtering. Filtering is used for lowering the
interference to adjacent carriers.
ISI-free transmissions can be achieved with raised cosine filter.
Roll-off factor will determine the bandwidth.
For a raised cosine filter, the bandwidth B occupied by the carrier is:
B = (1 + ) / TS
where TS is the symbol duration

Spectral efficiency for M-ary modulation is equal to
Rc
RcTS
log 2 M
=
=
=
B (1 + ) (1 + )
(Hz )
(bit/s/Hz )
For roll off factor = 0.35, required bandwidth is 1.35/TS, and spectral
efficiencies (bit/s/Hz) are: 0.7 for BPSK, 1.5 for QPSK and 2.2 for 8PSK.
31
BER bit error rate
Analog communications mostly use mean signal over mean noise (S/N) as
a quality parameter.
In analog communications, waveform can be imagined as signal with
infinitely long duration and not divided in time, therefore with unlimited
amount of energy. It has final mean power and infinitive energy. Therefore
power is useful parameter for analog communications.
With digital communications, symbols are transmitter in a part of time TS. If
only one symbol is observed, mean power in all the time interval
approaches zero. Therefore, power is not a satisfactory parameter for
digital systems.
In digital communications, more often is used Eb/N0, or normalized version
of signal and noise:
S E R
N 0 BT
where Eb is energy per bit, N0 is thermal noise in 1 Hz bandwidth, R is the

data speed in the system and BT is the frequency bandwidth.
32
BER bit error rate
Symbol energy, or power integrated in time Ts is much more useful

parameter describing digital wave form.
Eb
J
Ws
=
=
N 0 W/Hz Ws
Important characteristic of digital communication systems is BER, or
number of bit errors in regard to Eb/N0.
Larger Eb/N0 means smaller BER. System is adequate if BER is at least 10-6.
33
BER bit error rate
Bit error rate (BER) measures performance of demodulator by counting the

number of bits in error, n in a stream of N received bits: BER = n/N
BER constitutes a n estimate of the bit error probability (BEP). A level of
confidence is associated with this estimate, as follows:
n
N
63% level of confidence is obtained for k = 1 and 95% for k = 2.
If n=100 errors within N = 105 bits, BEP = 10 3 10 4 with 63% confidence.
BEP = BER k
Carrier phase (phase shift) changes under the influence of noise lead to
errors in identification of received symbols, and bits.
Symbol error probability (SEP) is probability of a symbol being detected in
error (bit error probability is the probability of bit being detected in error).
For two state modulation BEP = SEP, but for four state modulation, where
phase states follow Gray code, BEP = SEP/2.
In general
BEP = SEP / log 2 M forM 2
34
BER bit error rate
Figure shows theoretical bit

error probabilities (BEP) for
different modulations.
Bit error rate (BER) measures
performance of demodulator by
counting the number of bits in
error, n in a stream of N
received bits:
BER = n/N
35

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7.

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

Coders are part of transmitter systems and decoders are

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

In modulation process, one or more parameters of the

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

Code has three main characteristics:

Most probable zero

Second most probable zero

Third most probable zero

Least probable zero

Least probable one

Third most probable one

Second most probable one

Most probable one

Table shows typical values of decoding gain

EB/N0 required for BEP = 10-6 (dB)

Decoding gain (dB)

As convolutional coding, RS coding adds redundant bits and creates code

n is number of output bits

RS decoder can correct t symbols of the code word according to

RS(204,188, T=8) has 16 redundant bits and possibility to correct 8 bits.

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

FEC Forward Error Correction

FEC is a digital signal processing which increases the reliability of data by

where r is the number of redundant bits added to n information bits.

FEC Forward Error Correction

The bit rate at the encoder input is Rb.

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

FEC Forward Error Correction

101 010I000 011I000 110I

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

FEC Forward Error Correction

Information bits estimation

Code bits estimation

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

FEC Forward Error Correction

Code measure is redundancy, or r/n.

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

FEC Forward Error Correction

Quality parameter BER (bit

ASKAmplitude Shift Keying

Ideal ASK has infinitive spectrum. It is therefore necessary to shape

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

FSK Frequency Shift Keying

With FSK, the frequency of carrier is changed discretely according to the

MSK Minimum Shift Keying with modulation index of 0.5

GMSK Gaussian MSK (mobile telephony)

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

Modulation index is equal to

FSK Frequency Shift Keying

PSK Phase Shift Keying

m is modulation phase which can be

For M = 2, and c = 0, modulation phases will be 0 and , and for c = 1,

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

PSK Phase Shift Keying

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12

BPSK is resilient to interference but has small spectral efficiency.

PCM Pulse Code Modulation

With PCM modulation,

Quantization level will

FER-Zagreb, Satellite communication systems 2011/12