UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA

PROCESS ENGINEERING LABORATORY (CPE453)

NAME
GROUP
EXPERIMENT
DATE PERFORMED
SEMESTER
PROGRAMME / CODE
SUBMIT TO

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Title
Abstract/Summary
Introduction
Aims
Theory
Apparatus
Methodology/Procedure
Results
Calculations
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations
Reference / Appendix
TOTAL MARKS

Remarks:
Checked by :
--------------------------Date :
1.1 ABSTRACT

: MELLISA ANASTASHIA ABRAHAM

: EH 220 2
: LAB 1: BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION
: 19 OCTOBER 2015
:2
: EH220
: DR. ZULFIKLI ABDUL RASHID

Allocated Marks (%)

5
5
5
10
5
10
10
10
20
5
5
10
100

Marks

Objective of this experiment is to demonstrate and verify Bernoullis equation for fluid
flow in a tapered duct and to measure flow rates and both static and total pressure
heads in a rigid convergent or divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady
flow rates. The combination of venturi meter complete with manometer and the hydraulic
bench were used. The experiment was conducted in order to find the time taken to
collect 3 L of water, the volumetric flow rates of the water, the pressure difference at all
manometer tube (static head), velocity, dynamic head and also the total head. The
experiment was run based on the Bernoullis principle. In fluid dynamics, Bernoullis
principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs
simulatenously with a decrease in pressure. This statement can be proven that for area

0.00053m3/s, 0.00037m3/s, 0.00020m3/s, 0.00031m3/s, 0.00038m3/s, and 0.00045m3/s and

the velocity is 0.396m/s, 0.443m/s, 0.686m/s, 0.505m/s, 0.443m/s, 0.343m/s respectively.
The velocity of the converging flow is increasing as the water flows from narrow area to
larger area while the diverging section, its velocity is decreasing since the water flow
from larger area to narrow area. As a result, the experiment is obey Bernoullis principle.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is the study of the fluids in a motion or at rest and the subsequent
effects of the fluid, on the boundaries which may be either solid surfaces or other fluids.
The practicle aspect of these studies especially dealing with water as a fluid is known as
hydraulics. Bernoullis principle can be explained as an inviscid flow, an increase in the
speed of the fluid or air occurs simulatenously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease
in the fluid potential energy. Swiss scientist, Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), demonstrated
that, in most cases, the pressure in a liquid or gas decreases as the liquid or gas move
faster. In various types of fluid flow, Bernoullis principle usually relates to Bernoullis
equation. Technically, different types of fluid flow involve different forms of Bernoullis
equation. Suppose that a fluid is moving in a horizontal direction and encounters a
pressure difference. This pressure difference is called net force which introduced by Sir
Issac Newton that is Newtons Second Law will cause an acceleration of the fluid.
Bernoullis principle can be demonstrate in any type streamline such as orifice meter,
venturi meter, the nozzle and so on. But, the best way of appication of Bernoullis
principle is demonstrate in venturi meter. Venturi meter is a device for determining the

flow rate of a fluid passes through it. The structure in the venturi can be seen as figure
below:

At the middle of the venturi meter, there has a throat where the surface area is
decreasing gradually. Fluid is flow from inlet to outlet of the venturi by gradually
accelerated to a throat and gradually slowly when flow channel is suddenly expended. If
a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed
increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved from a region of
higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be
because it has moved from region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure.
Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the
pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest.
Bernoullis principle can be explained in terms of the law of conversation of energy. As a
fluid moves from a wider pipe into a narrower pipe or a constriction, a corresponding
volume must move a greater distance forward in the narrower pipe and thus have a
greater speed. At a same time, the work done by corresponding volumes in the wider
and narrower pipes will be expressed by the product of the pressure and the volume.
Since the speed is greater in the narrower pipe, the kinetic energy of that volume is
greater. Then, by the law of conversation of energy, this increase in kinetic energy must
be balanced by a decrease in the pressure-volume product or since the volumes are
equal, by a decrease in pressure.

1.3 OBJECTIVE
I. To demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem.

II. To compare velocity by using Bernoullis equation and continuity equation.

III. To measure the flow rate of fluid.

1.4 THEORY
The bernoulli theorem is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible. The equation is obtained when the Eulers equation is integrated
along the streamline for a constant density (incompressible) fluid. The constant of
integration (called the Bernoullis constant) varies from one streamline to another but
remains constant along a streamline in steady, frictionless, incompressible flow. Despite
its simplicity, it has been proven to be very powerful tool for fluid mechanics. The specific
hydraulic model used in this experiment is Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration
Apparatus, FM 24.

Before starting
the experiment,
water is added
to the apparatus
to the all
component.
Make sure there
is no air
bubbles. If
bubble consists,
use air bleed
screw to leave it.
The venturi tube is to be test section which provided a number of hole-sided pressure
taping that connected to manometer tube on the rig to measure the height of fluid based
on its velocity and static pressure. A flow of fluid is controlled by control valve to increase
or decrease flowing of fluid. Hypodermic probe is used to measure the total head by
referring the height of the fluid in manometer. Hypodermic probe construct with push it to
the half of the hole-sided pressure taping that connect to manometer. Different hole is at

different diameter of stream and different velocity. There are consists of 6 hole that is #A,
#B, #C, #D, #E, and #F. Use different flow rate for every reading.
The well known Bernoullis equation is derived under the following assumptions:
1. Fluid is compressible (density is constant);
2. Flow is steady :

d
0
dt

3. Flow is frictionless ( = 0 );
4. Along a streamline;
Then, it is expressed with the following equation:
(P / g) + (v2 / 2g) + z = h* = constant
Where (in SI units);
P = fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m2
= density of the flowing fluid in Kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (its value is 9.81 m/s2 = 9810 mm/s2)
v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s
h* = total (stagnation) head in m
The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h),
velocity head (hv), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known
as the total head (h*). According to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe,
the total head h* at any cross section is constant (based on the assumptions given
above). In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement
uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones.
In the experiment setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we considering lie on the
same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z=0), and thus, all the z
values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
(P / g) + (v2 / 2g) + z = h* = constant
(this is the total head at a cross section).
(P1 / g) + [(u1)2 / 2g] + z1 = (P2 / g) + [(u2)2 / 2g] + z2
at horizontal, z1 = z2, at stagnation point, u2 = 0

(P1 / g) + [(u1)2 / 2g] + z1 = P2 / g

P2 = P1 + (u1)2 / 2
gh2 = gh1 + (u1)2 / 2
u1 =

2 g (h hi )

The equation shows that the deviation of Bernoullis equation.

Continuity Equation
The velocity of the flow is measured by measuring the volume of the flow, V, over a
time period, t. This gives the rate of volume flow which in turn gives the velocity of flow
through a defined area, A,
Velocity = vi = Qav / Ai
For an incompressible fluid, conversation of mass requires that volume is also
conserved,
A1u1 = A2u2
Volume flowrate of the water flow should be taken for every 3 L of water is filled in
tank over time taken (s).
Q = 3L of water / time taken (s)

1.5 APPARATUS
1.

Venture meter

2.

Pad of manometer tubes

3.

Hydraulic bench

4.

Stop watch

5.

Water

6.

Water tank equipped with valves water controller

7.

Water host and tubes

1.6

PROCEDURE / METHODOLOGY
1.
2.

The main switch and the pump was switched on .

venturi for the convergent flow position was set up. To let the water flow into the

venturi and manometer tubes the flow control valve was fully open.
Then the air bleed screw was adjusted.
4. Control valve and valve 1 was closed.
5. The hypodermic tube that connected to manometer #H was gently slide, so that its
3.

end reaches the cross section of the venturi tube at #A. After waited for a few
second to stabilize,the reading was recorded for both #A and #H .
Step 5 was repeated for cross section (#B, #C, #D, #E, and #F).
7. Step 3 to 6 was repeated once more for decreasing flow rates by regulating the
6.

venturi discharged valve.

8.

Velocity, ViB using the Bernoullis

9.

Velocity, ViC using continuity equation was calculated where ViC = Qav / Ai
Difference between two calculated velocities was determined.

2 g (h hi )

equation was calculated where ViB =.

1.7 RESULTS
In this experiment, consists of 2 reading with different flow rate of water. Two equation is
use to quantitative velocity value.
1st Reading

Cross

Flowrate

0.003m3of , water
1.186 10 4 m 3 / s
25.295s

Using Bernoulis Equation

Using Continuity

section
i

Difference

equation
h* = hH

hi

(mm)

(mm)

ViB =

2 g (h hi )

(m/s)

Ai =
Di2 /4

ViC = Qav /

ViB - ViC

Ai (m/s)

(m/s)

(m2)
A

166

160

0.343

0.00053

0.2264

0.1166

164

156

0.396

0.00037

0.3243

0.0717

163

142

0.642

0.00020

0.6000

0.0420

162

151

0.465

0.00031

0.3871

0.0779

161

153

0.396

0.00038

0.3158

0.0802

160

156

0.280

0.00045

0.2667

0.0133

2nd Reading
Flow rate =
Cross
section

Using

0.003m 3of , water

8.591 10 5 m 3 / s
34.92s
Bernoulis Equation
Using

Continuity

equation

Difference

h* = hH

hi

(mm)

(mm)

ViB =

2 g (h hi )

(m/s)

Ai =
Di2 /4

ViC = Qav /

ViB - ViC

Ai (m/s)

(m/s)

(m2)
A

160

158

0.198

0.00053

0.1623

0.0357

159

155

0.280

0.00037

0.2324

0.0476

159

147

0.485

0.00020

0.4300

0.0550

158

151

0.371

0.00031

0.2774

0.0936

158

153

0.313

0.00038

0.2263

0.0867

157

154

0.243

0.00045

0.1911

0.0519

1.8 CALCULATIONS
i. Cross sectional area of the tubes.
Area = Di2 /4
If Di = 26, then,
Area = (0.026)2 / 4 = 0.00053 m2
Same method applied for the rest with different diameter, Di.
Di (diameter in mm)

Ai (area in m2)

26.0

0.00053

21.6

0.00037

16.0

0.00020

20.0

0.00031

22.0

0.00038

24.0

0.00045

ii. Velocity by using Bernoulis equation, ViB.

ViB =

2 g (h hi )

Where the value of h* and hi can be found from the table of result for the experiment.

iii. Velocity using Continuity Equation, ViC.

ViC = Qav / Ai

Qav = 0.003 m3 / time taken

Qav (m3/s)
0.00012
0.000086

Reading
1
2
1st Reading
t = 25.295 s
Qav = 0.00012
i
A
B
C
D
E
F

Di (mm)
26.0
21.6
16.0
20.0
22.0
24.0

Vic

Di (mm)
26.0
21.6
16.0
20.0
22.0
24.0

Vic

Qav m 3 s

Ai m 2

0.2264
0.3243
0.6000
0.3871
0.3158
0.2667

2nd Reading
t = 34.92 s
Qav = 0.000086
i
A
B
C
D
E
F

Qav m 3 s

Ai m 2

0.1623
0.2324
0.4300
0.2774
0.2263
0.1911

1.9 DISCUSSIONS
The experiment was conducted properly proportional to the aim that is to demonstrate
the Bernoullis theorem. Bernoullis say that the velocity and pressure exerted on the
moving fluid is described by Bernoullis principle where, as the velocity of moving fluid
increase, the pressure exerted in the fluid is decrease. Its means that, when we

increased the flow of water there are no pressure that produced in water or no friction
produced. This application can be seen by using the Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration
(model: FM 24) and connection to the hydraulic Bench (model: FM110). Roughly, this
apparatus contain inlet valve functioning control the velocity of fluid flow, venturi meter
and the pad of manometer tubes which indicate the pressure of hA until hH but for this
experiment only the pressure in manometer hA until hF being measured. A venturi is
basically a converging-diverging section (like an hourglass), typically placed between
tube or duct sections with fixed cross-sectional are. The flow rates through the venturi
meter can be related to pressure measurement by using Bernoullis equation.
Based on the data recorded, the value of hi is actually the pressure head of that
point because it is connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which does not obstruct
the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure. While the hH is the sum of the pressure
and velocity head which is the total (or stagnation) head, because the Pitot tube is held
against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero velocity, u2 = 0)
Firstly, based on the table, there are two equation to find velocity that is by using
Bernoullis equation and continuity equation. From data calculated, quantitatively velocity
value for Bernoullis is more than continuity. For example, in reading 1, fluid flow for
cross sectional section A with a static head of 0.160 has a velocity value of 0.343 m/s
from Bernoullis equation and 0.226 m/s from continuity equation. An the differences is
Bernoullis is 0.117 m/s exactly or more precise because it proportional to the gravity.
Another assumption is fluid is incompressible, the flow is steady and no friction along the
streamline. But it may contribute friction in the fluid itself. Fluid is disrupt because of any
change of velocity, pressure or streamline at particular point and change within time.
Venturi meter has particular diameter streamline and not a straight line. Friction
losses occurring as a result of a sudden enlargement or contraction in the cross section
of the pipe. In diverging section, the diameter is sudden enlargement from 0.016m,
0.020m, 0.022m, and 0.024m. For example, in reading 1, 0.642m/s (hC), 0.465m/s (hD),

0.396m/s (hE) and 0.280m/s (hF) respectively. From that we can see that, decreasing of
velocity when flowing through sudden enlargement streamline. If the change of crosssection is gradual, the kinetic energy may be recovered as pressure energy. The results
also show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure difference
increases.
In converging section, the diameter decreases from 0.026m, 0.0216m, to 0.016m.
The velocity for the converging section increase as the diameter decreases from
0.343m/s, 0.396m/s, followed by 0.642m/s. Fluid is pushed to pass through small
diameter, so that, the pressure is exerted within itself to passes the streamline. The
result show a rise at each manometer tubes when the pressure difference increases.
The rate flow is taken for every 3L of water per unit time. They are 1.186 10-4m3/s
and 8.591 10-5m3/s.
From this experiment, it can be concluded that the Bernoullis equation is valid when
applied to steady flow of water in tapered duct and absolute velocity values increase
along the same channel. Although the experiment proved that the Bernoullis equation is
valid for both flow, the value obtained might be slightly differ from the actual value. This
is because there is some error maybe happen during the experiment was conducted.
While taking the reading from the manometer, there might be possibility that the eye
position of the reader is not parallel to the scale thus contribute to the inaccuracy of the
data obtained. Other than that, in order to get the accurate data, the water level must be
let to be really stable.

1.10 CONCLUSIONS
This experiment is conducted to demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem, to compare velocity
by using Bernoullis equation and contiunity equation as well as to measure the flow rate
of fluid. As this experiment end, the objectives was determined and the experiment was
considered success because the Bernoullis equation is only valid for fluid that is under
consumption; fluid is incompressible, flow is steady, flow is frictionless and along a

streamline. The experimental value is also quiet in range with the theoretical value and it
is proven that the velocity in Bernoullis equation is more than in contiunity equation.

1.11 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Repeat the experiment for several times to get the average values I order to get more
accurate results.
2. Make sure the trap bubbles was removed first before strt running the experiment.
3. The eye level of the observer must be parallel to the water meniscus when taking the
reading at the manometers to avoid parallax error.
4. The valve must be control carefully to maintain the constant values of the pressure
difference as it is quiet difficult to control.
5. The time keeper must be alert with the rising of water volume to avoid error and must
be the only person who taking the time throughout the experiment.

1.12 REFERENCES
1. Bernoullis Principle and the Theory of Flight, 30 October 2015, at
www.wbabin.net/science/tombe29.pdf
2. Bernoullis Principle, 30 October 2015, at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoullis_principle
3. Bernoullis Lab Report, 30 October 2015, at
http://www.scribd.com/doc/23106099/Bernoulli-lab-report
4. Bernoullis Theorem, 31 October 2015, at http://www.transtutors.com/physicshomework-help/fluid-mechanics/Bernoulli-theorem.aspx
5. Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration, 31 October 2015, at
http://www.solution.com.my/pdf/FM24(A4).pdf
6. Bernoullis Principle, 1 November 2015, at
http://theory.unwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node68.html

1.13 APPENDIX