CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1BACKGROUND
An interconnected power system can generate, transport and distribute the
electric energy with the main objective of these power systems is to supply
electric energy with its system nominal frequency and terminal voltage.
According to the power system control theory the nominal frequency depends
upon the balance between the generated power and the consumed real powers [1].
If the amount of the generated power is less than the amount of demand power,
then the speed and frequency of generator units is going to decreased, and vice
versa. So for that reason the frequency deviation occurred in the power system.
For this purpose, a megawatt frequency controller or automatic generation control
(AGC) concept is used. Automatic generation control plays a vital role in power
system by maintaining scheduled frequency and tie line power flow during
normal operating condition and also during the presence of small perturbations.
The analysis and design of automatic generation control system of individual
generator eventually controlling large interconnected power system between
different control areas plays a vital role in automation of power system. The
purpose of AGC is to maintain system frequency very close to specified nominal
value to maintain the generation of individual units at the most economical values
and to keep the nominal value of the line power between different control areas.
AGC approaches may be classified into two categories as follows:
a) Energy storage system: Examples are pumped storage system,
superconducting magnetic energy storage system, battery energy storage system
etc.
b) Control strategy: This category focuses on the design of an automatic
generation controller to achieve better dynamic performance.
Automatic generation control (AGC) plays a vital role in power system in
maintaining the system frequency and power flow through tie-line at their
scheduled values both under normal operating condition and under a small step
load perturbations. Nuclear units are normally used to supply base load because
of their high efficiency and they do not take part in system automatic generation
control. Gas power generation is a small percentage of the total power

generation and is suitable to supply the varying power demand. Therefore the
nuclear units do not play any significant role in AGC of large power system.
However the role of AGC cannot be avoided in thermal power systems.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this work is the application of evolutionary algorithm to
tune the control parameters of a Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID)
controller. In view of the above, the present work investigates the following
aspects:
i)

To optimize the parameters of the conventional PID controllers by

the use of evolutionary computational techniques for AGC of a 2
area hydro - thermal system.

ii)

To analyse the dynamic responses of the controllers obtained in this

work using PSO

iii)

To examine the effects of system parameter variations, load changes

and tie-line outages for the test system.
.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE THESIS

The thesis report is organized in six chapters. The following gives a brief
description of the broad contents of each of the chapters in the thesis:
Chapter 1
Chapter-1 presents a brief introduction to the need of limiting the frequency and
tie-line power deviation of an interconnected hydro thermal network and the role
of evolutionary computation to meet those challenges.
Chapter 2
Chapter-2 presents the status of available techniques as well as their limitations
are discussed. The objectives and contributions of the work are highlighted.
Chapter 3
Chapter-3 is concerned with the overview of the interconnected system. It deals
with transfer function model of the interconnected Automatic Generation
Control system and the parameters used in this work and the comparisons with
3

the previous similar work Here a Proportional Integral Derivative controller is

used along with AGC in order to get the desired response.
Chapter 4
Chapter-4 describes one evolutionary computational technique used to tune the
parameters of PID controller parameters. The features and methodology of
implementation of the evolutionary algorithm is discussed. The algorithm
considered is described and the pseudo code for the algorithm is given.
Chapter 5
Chapter-5 is concerned with the simulation result for the case; such as PID
controlled AGC; of a two area interconnected hydro-thermal tuned by
evolutionary algorithm.
Chapter 6
Chapter-6 presents the conclusion of the study done and the future scope it
holds.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

Literature survey shows that, early works on AGC was initiated by Cohn
[2]. After that a modern optimal control concept for interconnected systems of
AGC design is introduced by Elgerd and Fosha for the first time [3]. They
suggested a proportional controller and different feedback form to develop the
optimal controller. The first gain scheduling control method for AGC of
interconnected power system was proposed by Lee and co-workers in 1991 [4].
Their controller provided better control performance for a wide range of operating
conditions than the performances obtained so far. Later on, Rubaai and Udo
presented a multi-variable gain scheduling controller by defining a cost function
with a term representing the constraints on the control effort and then minimizing
that with respect to the control vector [5]. Talaq suggested an adaptive fuzzy gain
scheduling method for conventional PI controller in 1999 [6]. After then, Pingkang
optimized the gains of PI and PID controllers through real coded genetic algorithm
in a two area power system [7]. In 2003 from Pinkangs study, Abdel-Magid and
Abido proposed a usage of PSO for the same purpose [8]. In 2004, Yesil suggested
the self-tuning fuzzy PID type controller for AGC [9]. In 2011, Gozde and
Taplamacioglu proposed the usage of craziness based PSO algorithm for AGC
system for an interconnected thermal power plants [10]. Nanda, Mishra and Saikia
[11] have proposed a more elaborate and comprehensive approach for finding
optimum value of R for a multi-area system considering conventional integral
controller. Also some recent published works have been carried out related to inter
connected hydro thermal AGC. Abraham et al. [12] have presented the analysis of
AGC of a hydrothermal interconnected system with generation rate constraint
(GRC). Abraham et al. [13] have analysed AGC of two area interconnected
hydrothermal power system by taking a thyrister controlled phase shifter (TCPS) in
series with the tie line.
Ali and Abd-Elazim [14] have used bacteria foraging optimization
technique to obtain the optimum gains of a PI controller. Rout et al. [15] have
applied differential evolution algorithm to determine the gains of a PI controller for
AGC of a two area interconnected system. In the 2nd group researchers have
adopted self-tuning techniques with the help of neural network and fuzzy logic.
6

Hemeida [16] have applied wavelet neural network approach to damp the
frequency oscillation of a two-area interconnected power system. In 2010, Gozde et
al. designed the PSO based PI-controller with the new cost function and compared
their results with the results of Abdel-Magid and Abidos study [17]. In 2011,
Gozde and Taplamacioglu proposed the usage of craziness based PSO algorithm for
AGC system for an interconnected thermal power plants [18].
Over the past decades, many control strategies have been proposed for AGC
viz. Proportional and integral (PI), Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID) [1920] and Optimal controllers, optimal control [21]. In the design of load frequency
controllers in order to achieve better dynamic performance among the various types
of load frequency controllers, the most widely employed in the design is the
conventional PID controller [22-23]. M. Farahani, S. Ganjefar, M. Alizadeh
suggested a method of using PID controllers for a two area thermal system tuned
by Lozi map based Chaotic Optimization Algorithm [24] which serves as a basis of
comparison in this work. For the better performance of PID control optimized
constraints have to be adopted. To getting the optimized value we are having
different optimization techniques such as classical, optimal, genetic algorithm,
fuzzy logic, artificial neural network, etc. for the design of supplementary
controller have been reported in literature.
The main aim of this study which is different from the above literature is
that a novel gain scheduling PID-control strategy is proposed for automatic
generation control (AGC) of a two area hydro thermal power system . In this
strategy, the control is evaluated as an optimization problem, The optimization is to
determine the best suitable solution to a problem under a given set of constraints. In
mid-1990s Kennedy and Eberhart enunciate an alternate solution to the complex
nonlinear optimization problem by emulating the collective behaviour of birds and
called particle swarm optimization (PSO) [25]. Based on this many applications
based on PSO are reported [26-29].

CHAPTER-3
MODEL DEVELOPMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION
8

An ideal electric power system should always meet the fluctuating demands
of its loads at scheduled frequency and voltage without any interruption. The
system generators run synchronously and generate the power that is being drawn by
all the loads in addition to the transmission losses. The perturbations in generated
power PG and QG must match the load perturbations PG and QG, if exact
nominal state is to be maintained.
Unfortunately, the system load fluctuations are so random that it is
impossible to achieve a perfect instantto-instant deviation the generation (P G and
QG) and the demand (PD and QD). The ever-present discrepancy causes frequency
fluctuations. The idea of load frequency control is to provide an automatic control
strategy to bring the frequency of power system back to its nominal value. The
tendency to interconnect neighbouring electric power systems through tie lines for
purposes of increased reliability and security of supply, has added a new dimension
to the problem of Load Frequency Control (LFC). These tie lines have scheduled
and emergency powers flowing in them. When an imbalance of generation and load
occurs in any part of an interconnected power system, all areas act to reduce the
frequency deviation. This in turn leads to changes in scheduled inter-area
exchanges of power. Normally, these schedules are to be maintained as a matter of
policy so that each area meets its own load variations in the steady state. As
frequency is returned to scheduled values, due to the co-operative action of all the
areas, the area in which the disturbance originally occurred is expected to effect a
change in its generation to match the new load. All other areas may then revert to
the pre-disturbed conditions. Thus summarizing all the above, the main objectives
of AGC are:
1. Each area regulates its own load fluctuations.
2. Each area assists the other areas, which cannot control their own load
fluctuations. 3. Each area contributes to the control of the system frequency, so that
the operating costs are minimized.
4. The deviations in frequency and tie line power flow error to zero in the steady
state. 5. When load changes are small, the system must be permitted to come back
to the steady state (by natural damping) so that the mechanical power does not
chase small disturbances for economic reasons.

3.2 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

The load frequency control (LFC) is to control the frequency deviation by
maintaining the real power balance in the system. The main functions of the LFC
are;
i) To maintain the steady frequency,
ii) Control the tie-line flows, and
iii) Distribute the load among the participating generating units.
The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation Ptie (measured from
the tie-line flows), and the frequency deviation f (obtained by measuring the angle
deviation). These error signals f and Ptie are amplified, mixed and transformed
to a real power signal, which is then controls the valve position. Depending on the
valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to establish the
real power balance.
The first step in the analysis and design of a control system is mathematical
modelling of the system. The most common method is the transfer function
method. In order to use the transfer function and linear state equations, the system
must first to be linearized. Proper assumptions and approximations are made to
linearize the mathematical equations describing the system, and a transfer function
model is obtained for the following components.
The complete control schematic is shown in Fig.3. 1

10

Fig. 3.1 The Schematic representation of LFC and AVR of a synchronous generator

3.2.1 Generator Model

The generator and the electrical load constitute the power system. The valve
and the hydraulic amplifier represent the speed governing system. Using the swing
equation, the generator can be modelled by;

Expressing the speed deviation in per unit (p.u.);

This relation can be represented as shown in Fig. 3.2.

3.2.2 Load Model

The load on the system is composite consisting of a frequency independent
component and a frequency dependent component. The load can be written as;

Where, Pe is the change in the load; 0 is the frequency independent load

11

component; Pf is the frequency dependent load component. Pf = D. where, D

is called frequency characteristic of the load (also called as damping constant)
expressed as a percent change in load for 1% change in frequency. A value of
D=1.5, means that a 1% change in frequency causes 1.5% change in load.

3.2.3 Turbine Model

The turbine transfer function can be given as;

Where, Pv(s) is the change in valve output (due to action), Pm(s) is the
change in the turbine output. The turbine can be modelled as a first order lag as
shown in the Fig. 3.4

12

3.2.4 Governor Model

The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the
driving torques of the individual turbines of system. Fig. 3.5 shows a schematic
speed governing system.

Fig. 3.5 Speed governing system

3.2.4.1 Method of control:

13

By controlling the position measured by the coordinate XE , of the control

valve, the flow of steam or water through the turbine is controlled. A downward
small movement of the linkage point E increases the steam or water flow by a small
amount which represents megawatt increment Pv. This increase in steam or water
flow will be translated to turbine power increment. Hydraulic amplifiers are used to
change the position of the main valve against the high steam or water pressure. The
position of pilot valve can be affected via the linkage system in one of the three
ways:
1. Directly using speed changer.
2. Indirectly, via feedback; due to position change in main piston.
3. Indirectly, via feedback; due to position changes of linkage point B resulting
from speed changes.
The governor has two inputs; one Pref (reference power setting) and the second
f (changes in speed or frequency). Thus we can write for small increments

Where, R is referred to as regulation. Laplace transforms of equation 2.1 yields

The command Pg is transformed though the hydraulic amplifier to the steam

valve position command Pv. Assuming a linear relationship and considering
simple time constant Tg, we have the following s-domain relation;

14

3.2.4.2 Assumptions:
1. The system is originally running in its normal state with complete power
balance.
2. By connecting additional load PD, the generation immediately increases its
output PG to match new load, i.e. PD = PG.
3. The change is assumed uniform throughout the area, when a power imbalance
occurs in the area.
4. The old area load has a frequency dependency

Considering the above assumptions and solving, finally we get

Further simplifying,

Where,

15

All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete LFC loop
as shown in Fig. 3.7.

3.2.5 Need of Supplementary Loop

The LFC loop shown in Fig. 3.7 is called the primary LFC loop. It achieves
the primary goal of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output Pm to
match the change in load demand PD. All the participating generating units
contribute to the change in generation. But a change in load results in a steady state
frequency deviation f. The restoration of the frequency to the nominal value
requires an additional control loop called the supplementary loop. This objective is
met by using integral controller which makes the frequency deviation zero. The
LFC with the supplementary loop is generally called the AGC. The block diagram
of an AGC is shown in Fig. 3.8. The main objectives of AGC are;
i) To regulate the frequency (using both primary and supplementary controls),

16

ii) And to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A secondary objective of the AGC
is to distribute the required change in generation among the connected generating
units economically (to obtain least operating costs).

3.3 SINGLE AREA SYSTEM

In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the
function of the AGC is only to bring the frequency to the nominal value. This will
be achieved using the supplementary loop (as shown in Fig. 3.8) which uses the
integral controller to change the reference power setting so as to change the speed
set point. The integral controller gain KI needs to be adjusted for satisfactory
response (in terms of overshoot, undershoot, and settling time) of the system.
Although each generator will be having a separate speed governor, turbine and all
the generators in the control area are replaced by a single equivalent generator.

3.4 TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM

An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency
control areas interconnected by means of tie lines. We shall consider a two area
case connected by a single line called tie line as illustrated in Fig. 3.9.

17

The control objective is to regulate the frequency of each area and

simultaneously regulate the tie line power as printer area power contracts. It is
conveniently assumed that each control area represented by an equivalent turbine,
generator and governor system. Symbols used with suffix 1 refer to area 1 and
those with suffix 2 refer to area 2 Power transported out of area 1 is given by;

Where 1 2=

power angles equivalent machines of two areas in electrical

degrees. For incremental changes in

power can be expressed as;

18

and

2 , the incremental tie line

Where

V 1 V 2

) = synchronizing coefficient. Since incremental

T 12=

power angles are integrals of incremental frequencies, we can write eqn.

(3.14) as ;

Where f1 and f2 are incremental frequency changes of area 1 and 2,

respectively. Similarly incremental tie line power out of area 2 is given by;

V 2 V 1

2
Where; ( )=T
1
12

T 21=

( 3.17)

Let the step changes in loads PD1(s) and PD2(s) be simultaneously applied
to control areas 1 and 2 respectively. Area control error (ACE) in two area
interconnected power systems is defined as a linear combination of incremental
frequency and tie line power. Thus, for control area 1;

Where the constant B1 is called area frequency bias. Equation (3.18) can be
expressed in the Laplace transform as;

Similarly for the control area 2;

19

3.5 SYSTEM INVESTIGATED

The Automatic Generation Control system investigated in this work as shown
in Fig. 3.10 consists of two generating areas, i.e.; Area 1 comprising of thermal
system and Area 2 consists of hydro system. In this model, a reheat turbine is also
added to thermal control area. The use of both the systems in the interconnected
system can be considered as a simple model for general power system around the
world which basically consists of thermal as a primary means for the generation of
power to cater the demands of the ever-growing consumption. In order to
understand the control actions at the power plants for Load Frequency Control,
taking the boilerturbinegenerator combination into consideration of a normal
thermal generating unit. Most steam turbo generators (STG) now in service are
equipped with turbine speed governors. Moreover, to make the approach more
realistic both the areas taken into consideration have different time constants of
different control parameters.

20

Fig. 3.10 The control diagram of an interconnected two hydro thermal

system

21

The duty of the speed governor is to monitor continuously the turbine

generator speed and to control the valves which in turn adjust steam flow into the
turbine in response to changes in frequency. Since all the movements are small the
frequencypower relation for turbinegovernor control can be studied by a
liberalized block diagram . The imbalances between power generation and power
demand, the rotational kinetic energy of the generating units are generally affected
to an extent. The change in frequency due to the variation of load randomly
throughout the 24 hours which makes it impossible to forecast the real power
demand. Imbalances between real power generation and load demand (plus losses)
throughout the daily load cycle causes kinetic energy of rotation to be either added
to or taken from the on-line generating units, and frequency throughout the
interconnected system varying greatly. Each control area has a central facility
called the energy control centre, which monitors the system frequency and the
actual power flows on its tie lines to neighbouring areas.
In order to represent the basic layout of an interconnected power system, two
area hydrothermal systems are considered in this work for optimal automatic
generation control. For depicting a disturbance a step load perturbation of 1% is
applied in thermal Area 1, to study the transient response of change in the systems
frequency of both the areas and power deviation of the interconnecting tie line.
In order to satisfy the above requirements, gains of Proportional-IntegralDerivative (PID) Controller and Integral controller in AGC loop parameter are to
be optimized to have minimum undershoot (US), overshoot (OS) and settling time
(ts) in area frequencies and power exchange over the tie-line. The main aim of all
works of past literatures till today is to minimize the Area Control Error to a zero
value, i.e., if the load varies, the system attains the frequency and tie line power
deviation to the desired nominal value.

22

3.6 NEED OF CONTROLLER

A controller is a device which monitors and modifies the operational conditions
of a given dynamical system. The operational conditions are typically referred to as
output variables of the system which can be modified by adjusting certain input
variables. There are various types of classical controllers namely proportional (P),
proportional-derivative (PD), Proportional Integrator (PI) and Proportional Integral
and Derivative (PID) are present. Among all controllers PID controller is the most
important controller. The controllers are used to be optimized to have the minimum
undershoot (Ush), overshoot (Osh) and settling time (ts) in area frequencies and
power exchange over the tie-line.
So in order to overcome these problems regarding instability and to improve the
performance of the system and to settle the system at 0 p.u. (a steady value), the
need for a controller comes into account. The proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) controllers are the most important control devices employed in indus-trial
process control.

3.7 PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL AND DERIVATIVE (PID)

CONTROLLER

23

Basically, different process industries use Proportional Integral and

Derivative controller as the most popular feedback control mechanism. Till date
from half of this century, it is the most popular feedback controller which is being
used in the process industries. This can be considered as an excellent controller that
can help in providing excellent performance of the process plant. It is due to their
easy and simple implementation in various control applications. Due to its
simplicity and excellent if not optimal performance in many applications, PID
controllers are used in more than 95% of closed-loop industrial processes.
The PID as given in fig. 3.11 controller consists of three basic modes:
proportional, integral, derivative modes respectively.

Fig. 3.11 Simulink representation of PID controller

A proportional controller gain () reduces the rise time but does not
eliminate the steady-state error, integral gain ()eliminates the steady state
24

error but resulting a worse transient response, derivative gain () increases the
stability of the system and improves the transient response and reduces
overshoot and undershoots [23]. These values of above gains are obtained by
hit and trial method based on the plant behaviour and experiences.
The equation below represents the transfer function of PID (Laplace Domain) is
given by:

In time domain, the output of PID controller is given by;

Where e(t) is error signal and u(t) is control signal. In the design of PID controller
(two in number) for this work the six gains are selected in such a way that the
desired response obtained of the closed loop system which refers that the system
should have a minimum settling time and a very less value of overshoot as well as
undershoots with less oscillations due to a 20% Step Load Perturbation.
In Fig.3.11, for the PID controllers the control inputs are and
2whereas 1 and 2 are the outputs respectively. On relating the inputs and
outputs of the system 1 and 2are given as;

The value of Area Control Error (ACE) is the sum of Bias Factor and Tie line
power deviation. The Area Control Error in both the areas consists of Tie line
power error of the intermediate area and the Frequency error, given by;

25

In this work, the constraint of setting the gains of PID controller is a major
problem. Therefore, the PID gains should be in limits; i.e.

Where i is the number of controller gain (here=2, due to two controllers).

K p , Ki , Kd
min

min

min

K p , Ki , K d
max

max

max

are the minimum values of controller parameters and

are the maximum allowable values for the controller parameters.

Henceforth, in this work the PID parameters are constrained within [0, 2].

3.7.1 Proper Tuning of PID Parameters

Tuning is adjustment of control parameters to the optimum values for the
desired control response. Stability is a basic requirement. However, different
systems

have

different

behaviour,

different

applications

have

different

requirements, and requirements may conflict with one another. The gain tuning of a
PID controller for optimal control of a process depends on the plants behaviour
and the type and characteristic of objective function. To design the PID controller,
the engineer must choose the tuning way of design gains to improve the transient
response as well as the steady-state error[30]. In the design of a PID controller, the
three gains of PID must be selected in such a way that the closed loop system has
to give the desired response. The desired response should have minimal settling
time with a small or no overshoot and undershoot in the applied step response of
the closed loop system.
Various conventional tuning rules just need trial and error on the experiment
or the simulation in order to adjust to the expected value. This procedure is
26

basically depended on the users know-how. For the solution of such problems, the
PID optimal tuning method based on evolutionary computation is developed.
Hence, in order to have a proper and better design; the parameters of the
PID controller must adopt a suitable tuning algorithm which would improve the
transient response by minimising the steady-state error. In the design of a PID
controller, the three gains of PID for each area i.e. ,andmust be chosen in
such a manner that the closed loop system has to give the desired as well as the best
response. The proposed method computes the PID parameter that realizes expected
value without the user know-how. The concept of the proposed method is shown in
Fig. 3.12.

Fig. 3.12 Difference between conventional and optimal tuning of PID

controller
Here proper tuning is done by using Particle swarm optimization technique,
which has been explained in the next chapter.

27

CHAPTER-4
MODEL DESIGN

28

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The bulk of difficulties associated with the use of mathematical optimization on
large-scale engineering problems have contributed to the development of different
types of new and improved alternative solutions. Linear programming techniques
often fail to reach optimal solution rather fall in the local optima while solving
harder constrained problems either with large number of variables or a large search
space and non-linear objective functions. To overcome such type of serious
undesirable problems, literatures surveys have advent the use of evolutionary
algorithms (EAs) for searching near-optimum solutions to problems. Different
varieties of bio-inspired or surrounding-inspired evolutionary algorithms are the
probabilistic search methods that are able to simulate different varieties of natural
biological evolution or the behaviour of various biological entities (animals, birds,
etc.). The behaviour of biological entities is guided by learning, adaptation, and
evolution. For example, bird flocking, fish schooling, etc.
In an attempt to reduce processing time and improve the quality of solutions,
particularly to avoid being trapped in local optima, many other recent emerging
techniques inspired by different natural and different social patterns & behaviour
have been introduced: particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm, differential
evolution (DE) algorithm and also the combined of both the algorithms known as
hybrid DE-PSO algorithm. In general, EA shares common approach for their
application to such a given problem.

29

In this project the following computational technique have been used to address
the optimization of PID controller parameters for AGC problems mentioned above:

4.2 PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM

Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) method is originally developed by
Kennedy, Eberhart, and Shi. PSO is a stochastic global optimization method which
is based on simulation of social behaviour. PSO consists of a population refining its
knowledge of the given search space. Different types of behavioural patterns as
bird flocking and fish schooling inspired them with effect of grouping of species to
achieve their goals. The dynamics of bird flocking resulted in the basic of this
heuristic algorithm and thus into a powerful optimization algorithm which has
directly and indirectly helped in to solve a number of modern day power problems.
It is one of the optimization techniques and a kind of evolutionary computation
technique. The method has been found to be robust in solving problems featuring
nonlinearity and non differentiability, multiple optima, and high dimensionality
through adaptation, which is derived from the social-psychological theory. The
features of the method are as follows;
The method is developed from research on swarm such as fish schooling and bird
flocking.
It can be easily implemented, and has stable convergence characteristic with good
computational efficiency.
Instead of using evolutionary operators to manipulate the particle
(individual), like in other evolutionary computational algorithms, each particle in
PSO flies in the search space with velocity which is dynamically adjusted
according to its own flying experience and its companions flying experience.

4.2.1 What Is PSO Algorithm?

PSO is a population based optimization technique which processes over a
population known as swarm and particle which is defined as the solution
candidate which moves around the search-space in the search of optimal solution
by getting adjust to experience of neighbouring particles. Eventually, it adjusts
itself to position with respect to time as well as its own experience based on
experiences of neighbouring particles. In the whole process, if the particle comes
30

across a satisfying solution then the whole swarm will move near it explore
thoroughly through the search space.
The PSO algorithm works by simultaneously maintaining several candidate
solutions in the search space. In each iteration of the algorithm, each candidate
solution that can be thought of as a particle flies through the search space to find
the maximum or minimum of the cost function (fitness value). Initially, the PSO
algorithm chooses candidate solutions randomly within the search space. Each
particle maintains its position, composed of the candidate solution and its evaluated
cost function, and its velocity. Additionally, it remembers the best fitness value it
has achieved thus far during the operation of the algorithm, referred to as the
individual best fitness, and the candidate solution that achieved this fitness, referred
to as the individual best position. Finally, the PSO algorithm maintains the best
fitness value achieved among all particles in the swarm, called the global best
fitness, and the candidate solution that achieved this fitness, called the global best
position.

4.2.2 Velocity And Position Update of The Particle

The best previous position of the particle is recorded and represented as
pbest. The index of the best particle among all the particles in the group is
represented by the gbest. The updated velocity and position of each particle can be
calculated as per following formulas:

Here w is the inertia weight parameter which controls the global and local
exploration capabilities of the particle. C1 and C2 are acceleration constants
and, rand and rand2 are random numbers between 0 and 1. In this work the
values of C1 and C2 are taken as 2.05. At the end of the iterations, the best position
of the swarm will be the solution of the problem. The basic steps of PSO algorithm
are represented below and the flow chart is depicted in fig. 4.1.

31

32

33

CHAPTER-5
RESULT ANALYSIS

5.1. CHOICE OF OBJECTIVE FUNCTION

34

Different stated algorithms are used to tune and optimize the PID parameters
and Integral parameters of the interconnected power system. As stated earlier in
this work, the main and foremost aim of tuning the system is minimizing the value
of Area Control Error (ACE). In order to achieve this, the cost function J is taken
as:

J =a1 ITSE +a2

(10)

Where

ITSE= [ ACE i2 ] . t dt
0

Where, is a small time interval, is area control error of area (here,

i=2) and is time of simulation.is the maximum peak overshoot of the response
of frequency deviations of Area 1, Area 2 and of the tie line power deviation.1 and
2 are various weight factors. This type of objective or fitness or cost function has
the main aim of minimization. The optimum values of PID controller parameters
are obtained by running the simulations for 500 times for different combinations of
1 and 2 respectively. In this work, the optimum values of 1 and 2 used are 0.65
and 0.35 respectively. This is carried out by the use of the Evolutionary Algorithm
which help in getting the optimal PID parameters so that the value of cost function
is as minimum as far as possible.

5.2 RESULTS ANALYSIS

As per the literature and many other past works it has been observed that many
researchers have considered to give the disturbance or to provide a small step load
perturbation (SLP) only in one area to optimize the gains of the controller. In this
work a step disturbance of 1% or 0.01 p.u. is provided in Area 1 and thus the
parameters of PID controllers are tuned in accordance to it. The PID controller is
tuned with one heuristic algorithms, i.e., Particle Swarm Optimization.

35

Fig. 5.1, Fig. 5.2 and Fig. 5.3 shows the curves of variations of
deviation in Area 1(

f1

Ptie

power deviation (

), frequency deviation in Area 2(

f2

frequency

) and the tie line

) respectively with SLP provided at Area-1.

-3

x 10

PSO

Change in frequency in Area 1

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

10

15
Time in second

20

Fig. 5.1 Frequency deviation in area-1

36

25

30

-3

x 10

PSO
2

Change in frequency in Area 2

0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12

10

15
Time in Second

20

25

Fig. 5.2 Frequency deviation in area-2

37

30

-3

x 10

PSO
0.5

Tie line Power

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

10

15
Time in Second

20

25

Fig. 5.3 Tie line power deviation

The settling time (
of undershoot (

Ush

Ts
) of

), maximum peak overshoot (

f1

f2

and

38

Ptie

Os h

), minimum values

are depicted in Table 2.

30

Table 2
Settling time, peak overshoot and undershoot of 1, 2 and
Dynamic Response

Ts

in Ush in Osh

sec

p.u.

in

Ts

in Ush in Osh in

Ts

in Ush in Osh in

sec

p.u.

p.u.

sec

p.u.

p.u.

14.772

-0.010

0.0038

12.124

-0.0018

0.0005

p.u.
14.945

-0.009

0.003

Table 3
Optimum gains of PID controller of area1 and integral controller of area 2 tuned
by PSO algorithm

PID Controller gains of area 1

Integral gain of area 2

Parameters

KP1

KI1

KD1

KI2

Using PSO

2.5000

2.4881

1.2971

0.00345

39

CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION

40

6.1 CONCLUSION
The work presented here has attempted to cover the application of
evolutionary computational techniques on Automatic Generation Control class
of problems. Various cases have been handled and studied. In this work, one
heuristic evolutionary search techniques have been adopted for independent
determination of off-line nominal optimal PID Gains suitable for optimal
transient responses in automatic generation control.
To investigate LFC operation, one test system (i.e., AGC) have been taken
into consideration. This study presents the usage of PSO algorithm as the new
artificial intelligence based optimization technique in order to optimize the
AGC system and the comprehensive analysis of its tuning performance and its
contribution to robustness. Then transient response analysis is used to verify the
superiority of PSO algorithm.
The simulation results show transient performance for AGC tuned for PID
controller.

6.2 FUTURE SCOPE

This work, like any other project remains imperfect. A lot more can be done
in this regard.There are a variety of interconnected power-system networks on
which the nature inspired algorithms can beapplied to get the optimum values
of controller parameters. Even in AGC class of problems, there can be a variety
of models and systems. There are problems to be solved like hydro thermal
equal and unequal system, gas and diesel systems, multi-area multi- generation
system, etc. To make the optimization better, different types of cost functions
can be analysed based on various other constraints. Moreover, on the side of
evolutionary computation, new algorithms such as mine blast, improved
varieties of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Differential Evolution (DE)
41

and many optimization algorithms etc. And also can be used along with the
option of hybridizing the old algorithms such as Hybrid DE-PSO.
The application of evolutionary computing can be done to other areas of
electrical engineering also, like optimal power flow, solving the Economic
Load Dispatch related problems, transmission expansion planning, power
quality classification and filter design.

42

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APPENDIX
System Data:
f= 60Hz ; Kr1=Kr2= 0.5 ; Tr1=Tr2= 10sec ; Th1=Th2= 0.08sec ; Tg1=Tg2= 0.2sec
Tt1=Tt2= 0.3sec ; Tp1=Tp2= 20sec ; T12=0.0707 ; D1=D2= 0.0083
Kp1=Kp2= 120Hz/p.u. MW ; R1=R2= 2.4/. ; Pr1=Pr2= 1000MW
B1=B2= (B=1/R+D) 0.425.. /

46