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  • Treating Straw For Animal Feeding

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    Hybrid Burton
    81 Ansichten36 Seiten
    Treating Straw for Animal Feeding web publication The objective of straw treatment is to increase the digestibility of straw and/or the amount of it voluntarily consumed so that digestible energy intake by animals from straw is increased. Methods of treating straw may be classified broadly into physical, chemical and biological categories. Among physical methods of significance are grinding and pressure cooking. Very fine grinding in ball mills and irradiation, while effective in improving digestibility, are so expensive that they are unlikely ever to become commercially significant. Chemical methods currently being developed all employ alkalis. Other chemicals like chlorine can also be used to improve digestibility but are more expensive and more difficult to handle than the alkalis and no technology involving their use has yet been developed. The alkali treatment methods may be classified as follows. Wet methods 1. Beckmann (NaOH) 2. Modified Beckmann (Torgrimsby) (NaOH) Dry methods 1. Industrial process (NaOH) 2. Farm scale treatment a. Daily treatment (NaOH, Ca(OH)2, NH3) b. Bulk treatment i. followed by stacking (NaOH) ii. followed by ensiling (NaOH, Ca(OH)2) iii. of stacks under plastic sheet (NH3) Wet methods involve soaking straw in 10 litres of chemical solution per kg of dry straw. In dry methods straw is sprayed with 0.1 to 3 1 of chemical solution per kg of dry straw or exposed to ammonia vapour. Wet methods employ a higher ratio of chemical to straw than do the dry methods. In biological methods the aim is to increase digestibility of straw by culturing certain specific types of fungi on it. Each of these methods will be described and its effectiveness assessed. 13. An essential preliminary, however, will be to describe the factors affecting the digestibility of straw per se. Much new information, some unpublished, is now available on this subject. This information is indispensable to a correct assessment of straw treatment. Factors affecting the digestibility of straw 14. The causes of variability in the digestibility of straw when fed to animals are: 1. intrinsic causes (specie, variety, environment, methods of harvesting and handling) 2. the way the straw is fed to animals (diet composition and level of feeding) If the straw is treated then a third factor is the efficiency of treatment. This will be discussed separately for each of the methods dealt with later in this section. The first and second are discussed in the following paragraphs. Initial digestibility of straw 15. Some digestibility and energy values for straws are presented in table 1. Variability is large both among species of straw and within species and there are few clearcut consistent differences. In Europe wheat and rye straws are considered by scientists and farmers alike to be poorer than barley and oats straw. This is in a general way borne out by the data in table 1, but the variability within species (see ‘D’ value, column 4) makes it possible to get samples of wheat straw which are better than some samples of barley straw in the same year from the same area. Much of this is due to varietal differences as evidenced by the data for the T.D.N. values of Canadian straws (column 7); the crops were all grown in a single, replicated field experiment. Similar varietal variability has also been reported from India by Kharat (1974) for wheat and by Saleem and Jackson (1975) for paddy. There was no difference between older, longstrawed varieties and newer, short, stiffstrawed varieties in these two studies. In Britain it is commonly believed that spring barley straw is more digestible than winter barley straw and the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries tables (column 9) give metabolisable energy values of 7.3 and 5.8/kg, respectively. Recent British data (column 4) does not, however, support this contention, nor does recent French data (column 2). Maize stover seems to be superior to other straw

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    Treating Straw for Animal Feeding web publication The objective of straw treatment is to increase the digestibility of straw and/or the amount of it voluntarily consumed so that digestible energy intake by animals from straw is increased. Methods of treating straw may be classified broadly into physical, chemical and biological categories. Among physical methods of significance are grinding and pressure cooking. Very fine grinding in ball mills and irradiation, while effective in improving digestibility, are so expensive that they are unlikely ever to become commercially significant. Chemical methods currently being developed all employ alkalis. Other chemicals like chlorine can also be used to improve digestibility but are more expensive and more difficult to handle than the alkalis and no technology involving their use has yet been developed. The alkali treatment methods may be classified as follows. Wet methods 1. Beckmann (NaOH) 2. Modified Beckmann (Torgrimsby) (NaOH) Dry methods 1. Industrial process (NaOH) 2. Farm scale treatment a. Daily treatment (NaOH, Ca(OH)2, NH3) b. Bulk treatment i. followed by stacking (NaOH) ii. followed by ensiling (NaOH, Ca(OH)2) iii. of stacks under plastic sheet (NH3) Wet methods involve soaking straw in 10 litres of chemical solution per kg of dry straw. In dry methods straw is sprayed with 0.1 to 3 1 of chemical solution per kg of dry straw or exposed to ammonia vapour. Wet methods employ a higher ratio of chemical to straw than do the dry methods. In biological methods the aim is to increase digestibility of straw by culturing certain specific types of fungi on it. Each of these methods will be described and its effectiveness assessed. 13. An essential preliminary, however, will be to describe the factors affecting the digestibility of straw per se. Much new information, some unpublished, is now available on this subject. This information is indispensable to a correct assessment of straw treatment. Factors affecting the digestibility of straw 14. The causes of variability in the digestibility of straw when fed to animals are: 1. intrinsic causes (specie, variety, environment, methods of harvesting and handling) 2. the way the straw is fed to animals (diet composition and level of feeding) If the straw is treated then a third factor is the efficiency of treatment. This will be discussed separately for each of the methods dealt with later in this section. The first and second are discussed in the following paragraphs. Initial digestibility of straw 15. Some digestibility and energy values for straws are presented in table 1. Variability is large both among species of straw and within species and there are few clearcut consistent differences. In Europe wheat and rye straws are considered by scientists and farmers alike to be poorer than barley and oats straw. This is in a general way borne out by the data in table 1, but the variability within species (see ‘D’ value, column 4) makes it possible to get samples of wheat straw which are better than some samples of barley straw in the same year from the same area. Much of this is due to varietal differences as evidenced by the data for the T.D.N. values of Canadian straws (column 7); the crops were all grown in a single, replicated field experiment. Similar varietal variability has also been reported from India by Kharat (1974) for wheat and by Saleem and Jackson (1975) for paddy. There was no difference between older, longstrawed varieties and newer, short, stiffstrawed varieties in these two studies. In Britain it is commonly believed that spring barley straw is more digestible than winter barley straw and the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries tables (column 9) give metabolisable energy values of 7.3 and 5.8/kg, respectively. Recent British data (column 4) does not, however, support this contention, nor does recent French data (column 2). Maize stover seems to be superior to other straw

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    81 Ansichten36 Seiten

    Treating Straw For Animal Feeding

    Hochgeladen von

    Hybrid Burton
    Treating Straw for Animal Feeding web publication The objective of straw treatment is to increase the digestibility of straw and/or the amount of it voluntarily consumed so that digestible energy intake by animals from straw is increased. Methods of treating straw may be classified broadly into physical, chemical and biological categories. Among physical methods of significance are grinding and pressure cooking. Very fine grinding in ball mills and irradiation, while effective in improving digestibility, are so expensive that they are unlikely ever to become commercially significant. Chemical methods currently being developed all employ alkalis. Other chemicals like chlorine can also be used to improve digestibility but are more expensive and more difficult to handle than the alkalis and no technology involving their use has yet been developed. The alkali treatment methods may be classified as follows. Wet methods 1. Beckmann (NaOH) 2. Modified Beckmann (Torgrimsby) (NaOH) Dry methods 1. Industrial process (NaOH) 2. Farm scale treatment a. Daily treatment (NaOH, Ca(OH)2, NH3) b. Bulk treatment i. followed by stacking (NaOH) ii. followed by ensiling (NaOH, Ca(OH)2) iii. of stacks under plastic sheet (NH3) Wet methods involve soaking straw in 10 litres of chemical solution per kg of dry straw. In dry methods straw is sprayed with 0.1 to 3 1 of chemical solution per kg of dry straw or exposed to ammonia vapour. Wet methods employ a higher ratio of chemical to straw than do the dry methods. In biological methods the aim is to increase digestibility of straw by culturing certain specific types of fungi on it. Each of these methods will be described and its effectiveness assessed. 13. An essential preliminary, however, will be to describe the factors affecting the digestibility of straw per se. Much new information, some unpublished, is now available on this subject. This information is indispensable to a correct assessment of straw treatment. Factors affecting the digestibility of straw 14. The causes of variability in the digestibility of straw when fed to animals are: 1. intrinsic causes (specie, variety, environment, methods of harvesting and handling) 2. the way the straw is fed to animals (diet composition and level of feeding) If the straw is treated then a third factor is the efficiency of treatment. This will be discussed separately for each of the methods dealt with later in this section. The first and second are discussed in the following paragraphs. Initial digestibility of straw 15. Some digestibility and energy values for straws are presented in table 1. Variability is large both among species of straw and within species and there are few clearcut consistent differences. In Europe wheat and rye straws are considered by scientists and farmers alike to be poorer than barley and oats straw. This is in a general way borne out by the data in table 1, but the variability within species (see ‘D’ value, column 4) makes it possible to get samples of wheat straw which are better than some samples of barley straw in the same year from the same area. Much of this is due to varietal differences as evidenced by the data for the T.D.N. values of Canadian straws (column 7); the crops were all grown in a single, replicated field experiment. Similar varietal variability has also been reported from India by Kharat (1974) for wheat and by Saleem and Jackson (1975) for paddy. There was no difference between older, longstrawed varieties and newer, short, stiffstrawed varieties in these two studies. In Britain it is commonly believed that spring barley straw is more digestible than winter barley straw and the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries tables (column 9) give metabolisable energy values of 7.3 and 5.8/kg, respectively. Recent British data (column 4) does not, however, support this contention, nor does recent French data (column 2). Maize stover seems to be superior to other straw

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    Title:TreatingStrawforAnimalFeedinganAssessmentofitsTechnicalandEconomic...
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    III.ASSESSMENTOFTECHNICALFEASIBILITY
    12. Theobjectiveofstrawtreatmentistoincreasethedigestibilityofstrawand/ortheamountofitvoluntarilyconsumedsothat
    digestibleenergyintakebyanimalsfromstrawisincreased.Methodsoftreatingstrawmaybeclassifiedbroadlyintophysical,
    chemicalandbiologicalcategories.Amongphysicalmethodsofsignificancearegrindingandpressurecooking.Veryfine
    grindinginballmillsandirradiation,whileeffectiveinimprovingdigestibility,aresoexpensivethattheyareunlikelyeverto
    becomecommerciallysignificant.Chemicalmethodscurrentlybeingdevelopedallemployalkalis.Otherchemicalslikechlorine
    canalsobeusedtoimprovedigestibilitybutaremoreexpensiveandmoredifficulttohandlethanthealkalisandnotechnology
    involvingtheirusehasyetbeendeveloped.Thealkalitreatmentmethodsmaybeclassifiedasfollows.
    Wetmethods
    1. Beckmann(NaOH)
    2. ModifiedBeckmann(Torgrimsby)(NaOH)
    Drymethods
    1. Industrialprocess(NaOH)
    2. Farmscaletreatment
    a. Dailytreatment(NaOH,Ca(OH)2,NH3)
    b. Bulktreatment
    i. followedbystacking(NaOH)
    ii. followedbyensiling(NaOH,Ca(OH)2)
    iii. ofstacksunderplasticsheet(NH3)

    Wetmethodsinvolvesoakingstrawin10litresofchemicalsolutionperkgofdrystraw.Indrymethodsstrawissprayedwith
    0.1to31ofchemicalsolutionperkgofdrystraworexposedtoammoniavapour.Wetmethodsemployahigherratioof
    chemicaltostrawthandothedrymethods.Inbiologicalmethodstheaimistoincreasedigestibilityofstrawbyculturingcertain
    specifictypesoffungionit.Eachofthesemethodswillbedescribedanditseffectivenessassessed.
    13. Anessentialpreliminary,however,willbetodescribethefactorsaffectingthedigestibilityofstrawperse.Muchnew
    information,someunpublished,isnowavailableonthissubject.Thisinformationisindispensabletoacorrectassessmentof
    strawtreatment.

    Factorsaffectingthedigestibilityofstraw
    14. Thecausesofvariabilityinthedigestibilityofstrawwhenfedtoanimalsare:
    1. intrinsiccauses(specie,variety,environment,methodsofharvestingandhandling)
    2. thewaythestrawisfedtoanimals(dietcompositionandleveloffeeding)
    Ifthestrawistreatedthenathirdfactoristheefficiencyoftreatment.Thiswillbediscussedseparatelyforeachofthemethods
    dealtwithlaterinthissection.Thefirstandsecondarediscussedinthefollowingparagraphs.

    Initialdigestibilityofstraw
    15. Somedigestibilityandenergyvaluesforstrawsarepresentedintable1.Variabilityislargebothamongspeciesofstrawand
    withinspeciesandtherearefewclearcutconsistentdifferences.InEuropewheatandryestrawsareconsideredbyscientists
    andfarmersaliketobepoorerthanbarleyandoatsstraw.Thisisinageneralwayborneoutbythedataintable1,butthe
    variabilitywithinspecies(seeDvalue,column4)makesitpossibletogetsamplesofwheatstrawwhicharebetterthansome
    samplesofbarleystrawinthesameyearfromthesamearea.Muchofthisisduetovarietaldifferencesasevidencedbythe
    datafortheT.D.N.valuesofCanadianstraws(column7)thecropswereallgrowninasingle,replicatedfieldexperiment.
    SimilarvarietalvariabilityhasalsobeenreportedfromIndiabyKharat(1974)forwheatandbySaleemandJackson(1975)for
    paddy.Therewasnodifferencebetweenolder,longstrawedvarietiesandnewer,short,stiffstrawedvarietiesinthesetwo
    studies.InBritainitiscommonlybelievedthatspringbarleystrawismoredigestiblethanwinterbarleystrawandtheMinistry
    ofAgriculture,FoodandFisheriestables(column9)givemetabolisableenergyvaluesof7.3and5.8/kg,respectively.Recent
    Britishdata(column4)doesnot,however,supportthiscontention,nordoesrecentFrenchdata(column2).Maizestover
    seemstobesuperiortootherstraws.
    16. Strawsalsovaryintheamountsinwhichtheyarevoluntarilyconsumedbyanimals.Mulhollandetal.(1974)fedoat,wheat
    andbarleystrawsadlibitumtosheepandrecordeddrymatterintakesof600,400and300g/day,respectively.Intakewas
    positivelycorrelatedwithorganicmatterdigestibilityinvitro.Ureasupplementationincreasedtheintakesofallthreestraws,but
    therelativedifferencesamongthemremained.
    17. Thedigestibilityofstrawisaffectedbyhowitisharvestedandsubsequentlyhandled.Leavesaremoredigestiblethanstemsin
    allstraws(exceptpaddy,inwhichthereverseistrueSaleemandJackson,1975)andthustheheightofcuttingthecropat
    harvestinfluencesdigestibility.Xande(1977)foundthatstrawpickedupfromthefieldimmediatelyaftercombininghada

    higherdigestibilitybyabout2unitsthanstrawthatwasleftinthefieldforsometime.Thisispresumablyduetoleaflossand
    possiblytoleachinglosseswhererainfallsonthecombinedstrawbeforeitispickedup.

    Table1.Thedigestibility/energyvaluesofstraws
    Organicmatterdigestibility
    Dvalue Enzymedigestibility
    Straw

    (1)

    (2)

    (3)

    (4)

    (5a)

    (5b)

    T.D.N.
    (6)

    (7)

    M.E. S.E.
    (8)

    (9)

    (10)

    Barley,spring

    45

    44

    45
    (4049)

    7.3

    23

    winter

    43

    50

    46
    (4449)

    21

    47

    39

    (3741)

    5.8

    Wheat

    36

    42

    49

    38
    (3643)

    14

    19

    43

    37
    46
    (3440) (4254)

    5.7

    13

    Oat

    45

    49

    55

    41
    (3648)

    23

    50

    42

    (3944)

    6.8

    21

    Rye

    44

    16

    45

    6.3

    Rice

    22

    45

    42
    (3551)

    Maize

    57

    7.3

    Millet

    20

    47

    52
    (4856)

    Sorghum

    19

    (1)Norway.%.Homb,1947.
    (2)France.%.Xande,1977.
    (3)Denmark.Organicmatterdigestibilityinvitro,%.Rexen,Isrealsen,BuskandWaagepetersen,1975.
    (4)U.K.Digestibleorganicmatterindrymatter.Alderman,1976.
    (5a)Denmark.Danishstraws.%ofdrymatterdigested.Rexenetal.,1976.
    (5b)Denmark.Indianstraws.%ofdrymatterdigested.Rexenetal.,1976.
    (6)U.S.A.kg/100kgdrymatter.Morrison,1959.
    (7)Canada.kg/100kgdrymatter.Kernanetal.,1977.
    (8)India.kg/100kgdrymatter.SenandRay,1971.
    (9)U.K.Metabolisableenergy.MJ/kgdrymatter.MAFF,1975.
    (10)U.K.Starchequivalent.Watson,1941.

    18. BuskandKristensen(1977)sampledalargenumberofbalesfromonefieldanddeterminedtheenzymedigestibilityofeach
    sample.Theaveragewas28witharangeof19to32.
    19. Thesignificanceofthedifferencesininitialdigestibilityisthattheyremainafteralkalitreatment.Thishasbeenmostclearly
    shownbytheexperimentofRexen,Isrealsen,BuskandWaagepetersen(1975).Ninelots(eachof500kg)ofeachof4types
    ofstrawwinterbarley,wheat,oatsandryewithinitialaveragevaluesfororganicmatterdigestibilityinvitroof50,49,55and
    44,respectively(seecolumn3oftable1)werechemicallytreatedwithdifferentamountsofNaOH(08kg/100kgstraw)and
    pelleted.Allthestrawswereimprovedbyincreasingamountsofalkaliataboutthesamerateandinitialdifferencesremained

    atalllevelsoftreatment.SimilarresultshavebeenreportedbyPiatkowskietal.(1974a).Itisthereforelikelythatdifferencesin
    thedigestibilityoftreatedstrawofasmuchas10unitscouldbecausedbydifferencesininitialdigestibilityalone.Differences
    ofthismagnitudemightoccasionallyevenoccuramongsamplesoftreatedstrawofthesamespecie.
    20. Wherevergovernmentextensionservicesprovideafeedtestingservicetofarmers,thetestingoftreatedstrawbyaninvitroor
    enzymesolubilitytechniquecouldbeinstituted.Suchtestvalueswouldindicateinitialdigestibilityplustreatmenteffectand
    couldbeusedtoformulatespecificfeedingrecommendationsforindividualfarmers.Inthisconnectiontheenzymesolubility
    methoddevelopedinDenmark(B.Rexen,1977)wouldappeartobeuseful.

    Dietcomposition
    21. Itiswidelyrecognisedthatthesupplementationofroughagewithstarchyfeedsreducesthedigestibilityoftheroughage.The
    rateaswellastheextentofdigestionisaffected.TheresultsofanexperimentdonebyChimwanoetal.(1976)withdried
    grassandconcentratesdemonstratethis(table2).Thevoluntaryintakeofaroughageisalsoreduced.Lonsdaleetal.(1971)
    addedbarleytoadriedgrassdiettotheextentof50%andfoundthatforevery1kgofbarleyconsumeddriedgrass
    consumptiondecreasedby1kg.Thusdrymatterintakedidnotincreasebyaddingbarleytothediet.Theyalsofoundthatthe
    retentiontimeofcellulosewasincreasedaswellasthedrymattercontentoftheentirealimentarytract.Thesechangesseem
    toaccountforthelowerintakeofthedriedgrassobserved.Strawdigestibilityandintakehavelikewisebeenshowntobe
    reducedbyconcentratesupplementation(table3and4).Afurtherconclusionwhichcanbedrawnfromthedatashownin
    table3isthataroughagesupplement,evenahighqualityonelikedriedgrass,doesnotdepressstrawdigestibilityasa
    concentratesupplementdoes.
    22. Intworecentexperiments(Piatkowskietal.,1973Rexenetal.,1975b)thedigestibilityoftreatedstrawwasnotfoundtobe
    depressedbyhighlevels(50%)ofconcentratesinthediet.Strawwastreatedwith45kgNaOH/100kg.Theseresultsare
    notincompatiblewiththeconclusionarrivedatinthepreceedingparagraph.Intheexperimentsofthesetwogroupsof
    workers,treatedstrawwasfedatrestrictedlevels.Itiswidelyrecognisedthattheleveloffeedingaroughageaffectsits
    digestibility(reviewbyBlaxter,1961).Increasinglevelofintakedepressesdigestibilityandthedepressionisgreaterwithless
    digestibleroughageslikestrawthanwithmoredigestibleones.TheresultsofarecentexperimentdonebyDulphyetal.
    (1977)(table5)showhowimportantleveloffeedingiswithtreatedstraw.Atarestrictedleveloffeedingdigestibilitywasnot
    onlyhigherbutalsodidnotdecreasewhenincreasinglevelsofconcentrateswereincludedinthediet.Thisfindingclearly
    showswhyPiatkowskietal.(1973)andRexen,StigsenandKristensen(1975)didnotfindanydecreaseinthedigestibilityof
    strawwhentheyincreasedconcentratelevels.

    Table2.Effectofproportionofbarleybasedconcentrateanddriedgrassinthedietonthedisappearanceofdried
    grassandcottonthreadsfromdacronbagsincubatedintherumenofsheep
    Proportionofconcentrateinthediet,%

    Driedgrass:lossinweight,
    (g/100g)after:
    6h
    12h
    18h
    24h

    Cottonthread:lossinweight,
    g/100gafter
    24h

    100

    27

    40

    43

    46

    75

    35

    42

    48

    55

    50

    37

    43

    57

    66

    13

    25

    40

    54

    68

    75

    26

    46

    64

    74

    78

    33

    SEoftreatmentmeans

    Source:Chimwanoetal.,1976.

    Table3.Theeffectofthetypeofsupplementontheorganicmatterdigestibilityandintakeofwheatstrawbysheep
    Amountofsupplement,%of
    diet

    TypeofSupplement

    Organicmatterdigestibilityofstraw,
    %

    Drymatterintake,
    g
    Straw Supplement

    Concentrate

    20

    41

    1143

    287

    (soyabeanmealand
    maize)

    Concentrate

    45

    30

    829

    638

    (soyabeanmealand
    maize)

    Driedgrass

    45

    41

    715

    559

    (highquality)

    Source:Dulphy,privatecommunication1977.

    23. Blaxteretal.(1961)showedthatthedepressionintheintakeofroughagevariedwiththequalityoftheroughagewithahigh
    qualitydriedgrass,1kgofconcentratesreducedintakeby1kg,butwithalowerquality(i.e.,lowerdigestibility)driedgrass1
    kgconcentratecausedareductioninintakebyonly0.49kg.Presumablythedigestibilityofthehighqualitydriedgrasswas
    depressedmorethanthatofthelowqualityone.Apracticalimplicationofthisfindingisthatthedifferenceindigestibilityand
    overallfeedingvaluebetweenahighandalowqualitygrasshayorsilageislessinaproductiondietcontainingahighlevelof
    concentratesthanisindicatedbytheresultsofdigestibilitytrials.Thedatafromarecentexperimentwithstrawshowsthatthis
    does,infacthappenwithconcentratesupplementationthedigestibilityoftreatedstrawisdepressedmorethanthatof
    untreatedstraw(table4).Duetothisdifferentialrateofdepressionindigestibility,theapparentdifferencebetweentreatedand
    untreatedstrawindigestibilityisreducedasthelevelofconcentratesupplementationisincreaseditcanbedecreasedtozero
    with4050%concentrates.Thisisalikelyexplanationforatleastsomeoftheobservationsmadefromtimetotimethatthe
    alkalitreatmentofstrawdidnotapparentlyimproveitsdigestibility,orimproveditonlyalittle(seereviewbyJackson1977).
    Similarly,insomeexperimentswhereliveweightgainshavenotimprovedbythetreatmentofthestrawinthediet,the
    differentialeffectofconcentratesindepressingstrawdigestibilitymayberesponsible.Afurthersystematicstudyofthis
    phenomenonshouldbegiventhehighestpriorityinresearchprogrammesonstrawutilisationitshouldbegivenahighpriority
    eveninprogrammesofresearchonconventionalroughageslikehayandsilage.
    24. Theamountofnitrogeninthedietalsoaffectsthedegreeofimprovementindigestibilitythatoccursasaresultofalkali
    treatment.Doneferetal.(1968)measuredtheeffectofureasupplementation(2.5%)ontheresponseofalkalitreatment(8

    kg/100kgneutralisedwithaceticacid)ofgroundoatstrawfedtosheep.Energydigestibilityincreasedby13.5unitswhenno
    ureawasgivenand18.3unitswhenitwas.Voluntaryintakeofstrawwasdepressedby19g/kgW0.75onalkalitreatment
    whenureawasnotfed,butincreasedby31gwhenureawasadded.rskov(privatecommunication1977)measuredthe
    effectofincreasinglevelsofureaonthedigestibilityoftreatedanduntreatedstraw.Themaximumdigestibilityfortreatedstraw
    wasobtainedwhen1.21.8%ureawasaddedthedigestibilityofuntreatedstraw,ontheotherhand,didnotincreasewiththe
    additionofurea.Kategile(1977)fedadietofground,NaOHtreated,maizecobs(90%)andmolasses(10%)toheifersand
    variedtheamountofureaaddedfrom0to1.25%.Digestibilityofdrymatterincreasedlinearlyfrom3960%.

    Table4.Theeffectoflevelofconcentratesupplementationontheorganicmatterdigestibilityofuntreatedandtreated*
    wheatstrawwithdietsgivenadlibitumtosheep
    Levelofsupplementaryconcentrate,%
    ofdiet
    Untreatedstraw
    15
    30
    45
    Treatedstraw
    15
    30
    45

    Organicmatterdigestibilityof
    straw,%

    Drymatterintake,g/day(60kg
    sheep)
    Straw
    Concentrates

    46
    49
    41

    700
    690
    570

    138
    290
    472

    57
    52
    43

    1102
    1062
    921

    216
    485
    802

    *4kgNaOH/100kgstraw
    Source:Breton,privatecommunicationfromDulphy1977.

    Table5.Theeffectoflevelofintakeandconcentratesupplementationontheorganicmatterdigestibilityoftreated*
    wheatstrawbaseddiets
    Levelofsupplementaryconcentrate,%ofdiet Organicmatterdigestibilityofstraw,%
    Intakeadlibitum
    7.5
    15
    30
    Intakerestricted
    7.5
    15

    Drymatterintake,g/day
    Straw Concentrates

    49
    50
    43

    983
    1322
    1270

    80
    233
    545

    57
    59

    875
    851

    71
    142

    30

    58

    680

    281

    *4kgNaOH/100kgstraw
    Source:Dulphyetal.,1977.

    25. Toassesstheeffectivenessofanystrawtreatmenttechnique,thedifferencebetweenthedigestibilityoftheuntreatedand
    treatedstrawmustbedetermined.Fromtheforegoingdiscussionitisclearthatifthisdifferenceismeasuredbydigestibility
    trialswithanimalsitwillbeinfluencedbythefollowingfactors.
    a. Theeffectivenessofthetreatment
    b. Anydifferenceintheleveloffeedingbetweentheuntreatedandtreatedstraws.Iftheanimalsarefedadlibitum,the
    voluntaryintakeofthetreatedstrawwillusuallybehigherthanthatoftheuntreatedstraw.Thismaydecreasethe
    differenceindigestibilityobtained.
    c. Thetypeandamountofotherfeeds/supplementsinthediet.Toomucheasilyfermentablecarbohydrateortoolittle
    protein/nitrogenwilldecreasethedifferenceindigestibilityobtained.
    Itisapparentthatiftheobjectiveistoassesstheeffectivenessofatreatmenttechniqueperse,thebestwaytodeterminethe
    differenceindigestibilityisbyaninvitromethod.Suchvaluesarenotinfluencedbytheanimalatall,andarereasonably
    reproducible(Sundstoletal.,1977).Considerablerelianceisthereforeplacedoninvitrovaluesinthisreport.Atthesame
    time,treatmenttechniquesmustbeassessedfortheireffectivenessinimprovingthefeedingvalueofstrawinthetypesofdiets
    inwhichthestrawistobeusedinpractice.Theonlycompletelyadequatewaytodothisisbyconductingfeedingtrialsin
    whichtheperformanceofanimalsismeasured.Changesindigestibilityandintakecanbedeterminedatthesametime.Iffull
    scalefeedingtrialsarenotfeasibleforpreliminaryinvestigations,simplerdigestibilityandintaketrialsmaybedone,butthe
    dietsshouldbethosethatwouldbeusedinafeedingtrial.Whereanuntreatedstrawdietisthelocalpractice,suchadiet
    shouldbecomparedwithasimilardietinwhichthestrawhasbeentreated.Iftheobjectiveistodeterminewhethertreated
    strawcanreplaceanotherfeedinthelocaldiet,thenthreedietsmustbeincludedinthetrial.Thefirstisthelocaldiet.Inthe
    secondandthirddietsuntreatedandtreatedstraw,respectively,aresubstitutedforoneofthecomponentsofthelocaldiet.
    ExamplesofthistypeoftrialarethoseconductedbyPirieandGreenhalgh(1977)(onbeefsteers)(paragraph62)andby
    Bergneretal.(1976)(onmilkingcows)(paragraph56).Manytrialsconductedtodatehaveeitherbeendigestibilitytrials
    comparinguntreatedandtreatedstrawsinadietthatisirrelevanttotheprevailinglocalfeedingpractices,orfeedingtrialsin
    whichtreatedstraw,butnotuntreatedstraw,hasbeensubstitutedforanotherfeedinalocaldiet.Inthesecondtypeoftrialit
    isassumedthatthetreatedstrawisbetterthanuntreatedstraw,but,inviewoftheevidencepresentedearlierinthissection,
    thisassumptionmaynotalwaysbevalid.

    Physicaltreatment
    26. ThesubjectofgrindingofroughageswascriticallyreviewedbyGreenhalghandWainmanin1972.Withallroughagediets,
    grindingcausesanincreaseinintakeandweightgain.Theseeffectsaregreaterforroughageswithlowerdigestibility
    however,nitrogencanbealimitingfactortoimprovementbygrindingforverypoorroughageslikestraw.Grindingusually
    decreasesdigestibility,butatthesametimeincreasesthenetenergyvalueofthestrawsomewhatbecausethenutrientsthat
    aredigestedareutilisedmoreefficientlybytheanimal.Thisimprovementinnetenergyvaluemaybemoremarkedwithpoor
    qualityroughages.

    27. Thegrindingofstrawappearstogivemuchlessimprovementinfeedingvaluethanalkalitreatment,atleastintermsof
    digestibleorganicmatterintake.Thisisevidentfromthedataintable6.Ingeneraltermsalso,grindingdoesnotincrease
    digestibleorganicmatterintakebymorethanabout30%(reviewbyGreenhalghandWainman,1972),whereasalkali
    treatmentincreasesitbyupto100%(e.g.,table19)..Theimprovementinthenetenergyvalueofstrawbygrindingmight
    narrowthedifferenceintermsofnetenergyintake,butisunlikelytoaltertheconclusionthatalkalitreatmentisabouttwiceas
    effectiveasgrindinginincreasingthefeedingvalueofstraw.Theeffectofgrindingisalsomuchlessorevennilwhenstraw
    comprises50%orlessofthediet.Whatremainstobeconsideredistheeffectofgrindinginconjunctionwithalkalitreatment.
    TheresultsofanexperimentconductedbyFernandezCarmonaandGreenhalgh(1972)indicateanadditiveeffectofgrinding
    andalkalitreatment(table6).Thedigestibleenergyintakebysheeponagroundandalkalitreatedstrawdietwas15%
    greaterthanonadietofchoppedalkalitreatedstraw.Feedingtrialdataareneededtodetermineifgrindinginadditionto
    alkalitreatementiseconomicallyworthwhile.Thegrindingofstrawsbeforealkalitreatmentinsomestrawprocessingplantsis
    donetofacilitatethesubsequentmixingofthetreatedstrawincommercialconcentratemixtures(paragraph51).

    Table6.Theeffectofmillingandalkalitreatmentofbarleystrawondigestibilityandintakebysheep*

    Treatedstraw+

    Untreatedstraw

    Choppedstraw**
    Organicmatterdigestibility,%

    45

    61

    Drymatterintake,g/kgW 0.75

    27

    48

    Digestibleenergyintake,Kcal/kgW 0.75

    46

    114

    ***

    Milledstraw
    Organicmatterdigestibility,%

    45

    64

    Drymatterintake,g/kgW 0.75

    36

    54

    Digestibleenergyintake,Kcal/kgW 0.75

    60

    132

    *Thestrawwassupplementedwithpurifiedsoyaproteinattherateof8g/100gstraw.Thedigestibilityofthissupplementwasassumedtobe100%dataareforstrawonly.
    **Strawchoppedinto23mmlengths
    ***Strawmilledinahammermillthrougha2mmsieve
    +Strawspraytreatedwith8kgNaOH/100kgandneutralisedwith7.4kgpropionicacid
    Source:FernandezCarmonaandGreenhalgh,1972.

    28. Thepressurecookingofsugarcanebagasseandwoodchipshasbeenfoundtoincreasedigestibility.Doneferandpathirana
    (1976)treatedsamplesofbagassewith4%NaOHandwithhighpressuresteam(8kg/cm2at170)andfoundincreasesin
    cellulosedigestibilityinvitroof15and17percentageunits,respectively(initialdigestibility25%).Higherpressuresand
    temperaturesthanthesegivestillgreaterincreasesindigestibility.AcompanyinCanadahasdevelopedequipmentfor
    pressurecookingwoodchips.Increasesindigestibilityinvitroarereportedtobefrom1520%to5060%foraspentreechips
    (StakeTechnologyLtd.,Canada,privatecommunication1978).Treatedmaterialhasadrymattercontentof55%andapH
    of3.53.8.ThelowpHisduetothereleaseoforganicacidsduringtreatment.Guggolzetal.(1971)pressurecookedgrass
    strawsatapressureof30kg/cm2andfoundanincreaseindigestibilityinvitroof20percentageunits.Whentheyadded3g
    NaOH/100gstrawbeforepressurecookingtheincreasewas40units.Whenthesamegroup(Garrettetal.,1974)treatedrice

    strawinthiswayandfedittosheep,digestibilityandintakewerereducedwhenNaOHwasnotadded,butwereincreased
    whenitwas.EventhenpressurecookingwithNaOHwasnobetterthanNaOHtreatmentandheatingfor15minto100.
    Possiblythetemperaturewastoohigh,causingcharingofthepressurecookedstraw.Whentheytreatedbagasseinthisway
    theyfoundalargeincreaseinphenoliclikecompounds(Campbell,1973).Somewhatlowertemperaturesmightgiveuseful
    results.Ifthismethod(withoutNaOH)isaseffectiveonstrawsasthebestNaOHtreatmentmethods,itmeritsfurtherstudy.
    Oneadvantageithasoveralkalitreatmentisthatitcontainsnoresidualsolium.Thedisadvantagesareitshighmoisture
    contentandthefactthatcapitalinvestmentmightbetoohighforsmallfarms.

    Chemicaltreatmentwetmethods
    29. Interestinthechemicaltreatmentofstrawrevivedinthe1960swiththeintroductionofthedrytreatmentmethodinwhich
    strawissimplysprayedwithalimitedvolumeofanalkalisolution.Thisdevelopmentovercametheobviousdisadvantagesof
    theolderBeckmannmethodofhighwaterrequirementandhighdrymatterlosses,andmadetheindustrialisationofstraw
    treatmentpossible.Thefactremains,however,thatthequalityofBeckmanntreatedstrawishigherthanthatofspraytreated
    straw.ItisthereforeawelcomedevelopmentthatmodifiedBeckmannmethodshavebeendevisedwhichreduceoreliminate
    drymatterlossandhenceenvironmentalpollution.Waterrequirementisalsodrasticallyreduced.Toobtainaproper
    perspectiveonthesemodifiedBeckmannprocesses,theoriginalmethodwillfirstbedescribedandcommentedupon.

    Beckmannmethod
    30. AveryinterestingreviewoftheearlyresearchonthealkalitreatmentofstrawandthedevelopmentoftheBeckmannmethod
    hasbeenpresentedbyHombetal.(1977).TheearlierreviewsbyHomb(1947and1956)arealsorecommended.Therehas
    beenatendencytooverlooktheresultsofthisvaluableearlierwork.Thechemistryofstrawtreatmentwasreviewedrecently
    byJackson(1977).
    31. ThescaleofoperationandthedegreeofmechanisationoftheBeckmanntreatmentprocessvarywidely,butinallinstallations
    twotanksareemployed.Thestrawisimmersedina1.5%solutionofNaOHfor1820hours.Thevolumeofsolutionis810l.
    perkgofdrystraw,whichisenoughtocoverthestraw,andprovides1215kgNaOH/100kgstraw.After1820hours,the
    treatmentsolutionispumpedtotheothertankandfreshwaterispumpedin.Thewashwateroverflowsintoadrainwhenthe
    tankisfull.Thiswashingcontinuesfor1820hoursafterwhichthetankisdrained.Thestrawisthenreadytobefed.Strawis
    treatedinalooseorbaledformandchaffingisunnecessaryfortreatmentorforsubsequentfeedingontheotherhandlong
    baledstrawiseasiertohandleduringtreatmentthanchaffedstraw.TheusedNaOHtreatmentsolution,afterbeing
    transferredtothesecondtank,ismadeuptovolume(byaddingabout3001water/100kgstraw)andNaOHstrength(by
    addingapproximately8kgNaOH/100kgstraw).Inmostplantsthevolumeofthetreatmentsolutionismadeupwiththefirst
    washwaterfromthefirsttanktoeconomiseonalkali.Inthiswaynetconsumptionofalkaliisabout6kg/100kgstraw.The
    nextday,thetreatmentsolutionispumpedbacktothefirsttankagainandthusonebatchoftreatedandwashedstrawis
    producedeveryday.IntheNorwegianinstallations,bothcooperativeandfarmscale,thestrawisliftedintoandoutofthe
    tankswithtravelling,electricchainhosts.SomefurtherdetailsoftheoperationoftheNorwegiancooperativestrawtreatment
    plantsaregiveninparagraph131.
    32. TheBeckmanntreatmentmayalsobedonemanuallyonsmallfarms,aswasrecommendedbeforethemechanisedversions
    cameintouseinthe1950's(eg.,Watson,1941).Thetreatmentsolutionremainsinthesametankandthestrawistransferred

    tothesecondtankwhichisusedforwashingonly.
    33. Treatedstrawcontainsabout20%drymatterandislimp.Thenodesshouldbesoftinfactthesoftnessofthenodesisa
    simplehandtestappliedtostrawtodeterminetheeffectivenessoftreatment.Wellwashedstrawshouldnotfeelslipperyor
    soapy.Thesodiumcontentis0.50.6%onadrymatterbasis(0.070.16%inoriginalstraw)thelegallimitis0.3%.Drymatter
    lossesare2025kgper100kgoriginaldrymatter.ThedigestibilityandfeedingvalueofBeckmanntreatedstraware
    discussedlaterinparagraphs3740.
    34. Theeffectivenessofthetreatmentdependsupontime,temperature,pressureandamountofalkali.Theeffectofamountof
    alkaliusedonthedigestibilityoftreatedstrawisshownbytheresultsofanexperimentdonebyFingerlingetal.(1923)(table
    7).TwelvekgNaOH/100kgstrawmaybeneartheamountneededtoachievemaximumincreaseindigestibility.Inthespray
    treatmentprocessmaximumincreaseindigestibilityinvitroisachievedwithabout10kgNaOH/100kgstraw.Fernandez
    CarmonaandGreenhalgh(1972)foundthatthedigestibilityinvitrooftreatedstrawincreasedlinearlyuptoalevelof14kg/100
    kgstraw(2%solution)andlevelledoffthereafter.Piatkowskietal.(1977)havefoundalargeadditionalincreaseindigestibility
    whentheamountofalkaliwasincreasedfrom10to20kg/100kgstrawbyincreasingconcentrationfrom0.5to1.0(20
    volumesofsolutionusedsoakingfor24hours).InmanyofthecooperativeplantsinNorway20kgormoreofNaOH/100kg
    strawisroutinelyused(1518volumesofa1.5%solution),themanagersfeelingthatthesequantitiesofNaOHareneededto
    givethesofttexturetheyaimatintreatedstraw.Theexactamountofalkalineededinanysituationwildependuponthelength
    oftimethestrawissoaked,theenvironmentaltemperatureandthenatureofthestartingmaterial.Theinfluenceoftimeand
    temperaturearediscussedinthefollowingparagraphs.Noexperimentaldataisavailableontherelativealkalineedsof
    differenttypesofstrawsformaximumincreasesindigestibility,butcooperativetreatmentplantmanagersinNorwayusea
    greateramountofalkalitotreatwheatstrawthantotreatothertypestogetcomparabletextureinthefinishedproducts.
    Fortunately,theuseofasizeableexcessofalkaliisfeasiblesinceallbutabout6kgNaOH/100kgstrawisrecoveredineach
    treatmentcyclewhatevertheamountpresentinthetreatmentsolution.

    Table7.TheeffectofamountofNaOHusedonthedigestibilityofBeckmanntreatedstraw

    Untreatedstraw
    Treatedstraw,2kgNaOH/100kg
    Treatedstraw,4kgNaOH/100kg
    6kg
    8kg
    10kg
    12kg
    Source:Fingerlingetal.,1923.

    Organicmatterdigestibility,%
    46
    46
    50
    61
    66
    66
    71

    35. TheeffectoftimeontreatmenteffectivenessisrevealedbytheresultsofanexperimentdonebyFingerlingandSchmidtin
    1919(table8).Asaresultofthisexperimentasoakingperiodofabout20hbecametherecommendedpractice.Ferguson
    (1943)laterfoundthatthisperiodcouldbereducedto7hinthesummerinEnglandwithoutreducingtheeffectivenessof
    treatment,butnotinthewinter.Healsofoundthat4hsoakingand19hdrainingwerenotasgoodas23hofsoaking(the

    starchequivalentvaluescalculatedfromdigestibilitytrialdatawere47.6and51.2,respectively).

    Table8.TheeffectofdurationofsoakingonthedigestibilityofBeckmanntreatedstraw

    Untreatedstraw
    Treatedstraw,

    1.5h
    3h
    6h
    12h
    3days

    Organicmatterdigestibility,%
    46
    59
    68
    70
    71
    73

    Source:FingerlingandSchmidt,1919.

    36. AneffectofenvironmentaltemperaturewasalsofoundbyFerguson(1943)(table9).Theresultsoftheextensivestudydone
    byOloladeetal.(1970)(table10,righthandcolumn)indicatethatstillfurtherincreasesindigestibilitycanbeobtainedifthe
    treatmentsolutionisheateduptotheboilingpoint.BoilingwasafeatureofvariouspreBeckmannmethods,afeaturethatwas
    droppedbecauseitaddedundulytothetreatmentcost.

    Table9.TheeffectofenvironmentaltemperatureonthedigestibilityofBeckmanntreated
    straw
    Temperature,degrees

    0
    7
    3040

    Digestibilitycoefficient,%
    Crudefibre
    N.F.E.
    69
    73
    74

    50
    49
    56

    Source:Ferguson,1943.

    37. TheadvantageoftheBeckmannmethodisthatitgivesafinishedproductofhighdigestibility.Someorganicmatterdigestibility
    valueshavebeenpresentedintable11.Increasesontreatmentrangefrom1427percentageunits.Therangeforstraw
    treatedbydrymethodsismuchlower(seeparagraph67).ThemainreasonfortheeffectivenessoftheBeckmannmethodis
    thehighratioofalkalitostrawitemploys,aratioof12ormorekgNaOHto100kgstraw,andthefactthattheexcessis
    washedout.Whenstrawistreatedbythedrymethodsnotmorethanabout5kgNaOHper100kgstrawcanbeused,atleast
    whenstrawconstitutesamajorpartofthediet(70%ormore).Thisisbecauseexcessalkaliisnotwashedout.Somewhat
    morealkalicanbeusedifthestrawconstitutes50%orlessofthediet,buteventhentheincreaseindigestibilityofdrytreated
    strawdoesnotgobeyondtherange1520units.ThedisadvantagesoftheBeckmannmethodare,ofcourse,thehighwater
    requirement,drymatterlossandriverpollution.Thetreatedstrawisheavy(80%water)andmustbepreparedeveryday.

    Table10.Effectoftemperature,durationoftreatmentandconcentrationofsodium
    hydroxideondrymatterdigestibilityinvitro(%)ofbarleystraw*(Source:Ololadeetal.,

    1970).
    Temperature

    23

    60

    80

    100

    130

    Sodiumhydroxide(%ofdrymatter)
    0
    2
    4
    6
    8
    12

    Processingduration
    (hours)
    0
    24
    (minutes)
    5
    15
    45
    90
    5
    15
    45
    90
    5
    15
    45
    90
    5
    15
    45
    90

    38
    38

    38
    36
    38
    38
    36
    37
    37
    38
    38
    37
    38
    38
    37
    38
    40
    41

    39
    44

    43
    45
    45
    45
    45
    46
    49
    51
    47
    46
    49
    51
    48
    49
    51
    52

    42
    54

    52
    54
    55
    56
    56
    60
    63
    64
    59
    60
    63
    65
    63
    65
    66
    67

    41
    63

    60
    62
    65
    65
    66
    69
    70
    72
    70
    70
    72
    73
    74
    75
    74
    75

    42
    68

    64
    67
    68
    68
    73
    72
    73
    76
    74
    74
    77
    78
    78
    78
    79
    78

    39
    68

    67
    68
    68
    68
    73
    70
    76
    76
    77
    75
    79
    80
    80
    81
    82
    81

    *Eachvalueisameanof3replicatesforprocessingat23thepooledSEis0.57andHSD3.24atthe5%levelofprobability,whileforprocessingatelevated
    temperaturesthesevaluesare0.63and3.31,respectively.

    38. Considerablevariabilityisevidentintable11inthedegreeofimprovementindigestibilityobtainedwiththeBeckmannmethod.
    Thisvariabilityisevenfoundamongdifferenttrialsreportedbyanindividualauthor.InNorwayanincreaseindigestibilityof18
    unitswasobtainedonanaveragein4trials(42to60seetable11).

    Table11.ThedigestibilityofuntreatedandBeckmanntreatedstraw

    Country

    Typeof
    straw

    Organicmatterdigestibility,
    %
    Untreated
    Treated

    Reference

    Norway
    Germany
    U.K.

    Oat
    Wheat
    Barley

    42
    46
    46
    53
    47
    46

    60
    71
    73
    68
    65
    60

    Barley

    45

    71

    Homb(1956)
    FingerlingandSchmidt(1919)
    Fingerlingetal(1923)
    Watson(1941)
    "
    "
    FernandezCarmonaandGreenhalgh
    (1972)

    Laterfarmtrialsgaveaveragetreatedstrawdigestibilitiesof66(forunchoppedstrawin5trials)and68(forchoppedstrawin
    10trials).Theaveragevaluefortreatedstrawsfromall19trialswas66,buttherangewasfrom5676(Homb,1947).Some
    furtherdataonthevariabilityinthedigestibilityoftreatedstrawshasbeengivenbyFerguson(1943)(table12).

    Table12.ThedigestibilityofBeckmanntreatedstraw
    Typeofstraw
    Oat
    Barley
    Wheat

    Organicmatterdigestibility,%
    Average
    Range

    Numberofdigestibilitytrials
    11
    4
    22

    68
    65
    67

    6178
    6069
    6470

    Source:Ferguson,1943.

    39. Twoproductionexperimentsinwhichtreatedanduntreatedstrawwerefedareknowntohavebeenconducted.Onewas
    doneonIndianvillageheifersbyKeharandisdescribedinparagraph88.TheotherwasdonebySaxenaetal.(1971).They
    fedgrowinglambsdietscontaining78%strawand22%ofaconcentratesupplement.TheresultsareshowninTable13.

    Table13.Theeffectoftreatmentofstraw(bytheBeckmannmethod)ontheperformance
    ofgrowinglambs

    Diet
    Untreatedstraw Treatedstraw Untreatedstraw Treatedstraw
    +
    +
    +
    +
    Soyabeanmeal Soyabeanmeal
    urea
    urea

    Feedintake,gDM 870
    Dailygain,g
    62
    gfeed/ggain
    14.6
    Source:Saxenaetal.,1971.

    1290
    177
    7.3

    820
    53
    15.3

    1110
    125
    8.8

    40. BeckmanntreatedstrawhasbeenpreparedandfedtolivestockonfarmsinNorwayforthepast40years.Theusualamount
    oftreatedstrawfedtomilkingcowsis1520kgperdayor1/3to1/2oftheroughageoffered.Heifers,bullsandsteersarefed
    816andoccasionallyeven24kgstrawperday.Infeedingtrialswithmilkingcows,treatedstrawwasfoundtobeequivalent
    togoodqualitygrasssilageincalculatednetenergyvalue(Hombetal.,1977).
    41. SeveralexperimentshavebeendonetocomparetheuseofCa(OH)2andNaOHforthetreatmentofstrawbytheBeckmann
    method(AbouRayaetal.,1964AbouElHassanetal.,1971).ThoughCa(OH)2isastrongalkalilikeNaOH,ithasbeen
    foundtobelesseffectiveinincreasingdigestibility(table14).Thisisprobablybecauseitisonlysparinglysolubleinwater.Its
    usehasalsobeeninvestigatedwithdrytreatmentsandthefindingswillbereferredtolater(paragraphs63and75).

    ModifiedBeckmannmethodTorgrimsbymethod
    42. ThemostimmediateproblemwiththeBeckmannmethodwasthatofriverpollution.Ifwashwatercouldnotbedischarged,it
    wouldhavetoberecycled.Torgrimsby(1971)suggestedaclosedsysteminwhichtheamountofwateraddedtothesystemis
    equaltotheamountremovedinthetreatedstraw.ThemethodwasfurtherdevelopedbyWethje(1975)andisbeing
    successfullyusedonhisfarminSweden.PreliminaryexperimentshavebeenconductedattheAgriculturalUniversityof
    Norwayinwhichthesystemhasbeenrunfor6monthscontinuously,producingabatchoftreatedstraweveryday.Evaluation
    ofthestrawisbeingdone.Thismethodisdescribedindetailinparagraphs4448below.

    Table14.ThedigestibilityofNaOHandCa(OH)2ofBeckmanntreatedstraw,%
    Maizestover
    Crudefibre
    N.F.E.

    Alkaliused

    Sorghumstover
    Crudefibre
    N.F.E.

    Untreated
    Ca(OH)2

    52

    59

    50

    51

    77

    65

    84

    59

    NaOH

    92

    61

    94

    69

    Source:AbouRayaetal.,1964.

    43. Atthesametime,severalexperimentshavebeendoneatvariousplaceswiththeBeckmannmethodmodifiedonlyinthatless
    washwaterwasused.Piatkowskietal.(1977),forexample,treatedstrawwith20lofa1.5%NaOHsolutionperkgstrawfor
    24hoursintheusualway.Thestrawwasthenwashedwithonly4lwater/kgstraw.Organicmatterdigestibilityincreasedfrom
    46to72%(restrictedintake,limitedsupplement).Thesodiumcontentofthetreatedstrawwas2%anddrymatterlosses13%.
    ObviouslyonlyapartialsolutiontotheproblemsassociatedwiththeBeckmannmethodisachievedwaterrequirementis
    reduced,butdrymatterlossandriverpollutionarenoteliminatedaltogether.Theprospectofthismodifiedmethoddeveloping
    intoanenvironmentallyacceptableandeconomicallyviablepropositionisthereforepoor.
    44. TheTorgrimsbymethod,ontheotherhand,thoughstillnotextensivelytested,holdmuchmorepromise.Theeasiestwayto
    visualisetheoperationofthisprocessistoconsiderhowitwouldworkonasmall,unmechanisedscale.Threetanksare
    needed,eachwithanattacheddrainboard(figure1).TankAcontains1000lofa1.5%NaOHsolutioninwhich100kgstraw
    inbundlesorbalesissoaked.ThefirstrinsingtankBcontains2000lofwaterandthesecondrinsingtankCalsocontains

    water(1000l).TankBistwiceaslongastanksAandC(seetopview).Totherightofeachtankinthediagramisasloped
    drainboard(a,bandc).Thestrawcouldbeliftedinandoutofthetanksbyhandorwithahandblockandtackleonan
    overheadrail.Thedailysequenceofoperationsisasfollows:

    Figure1.ArrangementoftreatmenttanksfortreatmentbythemodifiedBeckmann(Torgrimsby)method.Strawismovedfrom
    tanktotankrefertoparagraph44.

    Time
    07:00
    08:00
    12:00

    Operation
    RemovetreatedstrawfromAandplaceonatodrain(thestrawwasplacedinAthedaybeforeat12:00).
    RemovedrainedtreatedstrawfromaandplaceinB.Placefresh(dry)straw(100kg)inBaswell.
    MakeupNaOHconcentrationofAbyaddingabout4kgNaOH.RemovefreshstrawfromBandplaceinA.Remove

    13:00
    16:00
    17:00
    18:00

    treatedstrawfromBandplaceonbtodrain.
    RemovetreatedstrawfrombandplaceinC.
    RemovetreatedstrawfromCandplaceonctodrain.
    Transfer300lofwaterfromCtoBtomakeupthevolumeofthelatter(the100kgfreshstrawremoved300lwaterearlier).
    WashtreatedstrawondrainboardCwith300lfreshwaterbypouringthewateroverthestraw(ThisrunsintoC,thus
    makingupitsvolume).Afterthisfinalwashing,treatedstrawisreadytofeed.

    45. Theforegoingisintendedasanexamplenumerousvariationsarepossible.Theessentialfeaturesare:
    1. Soakingfor19hoursinatreatmentsolutioncontaining15kgofNaOH/100kgstrawasintheBeckmannmethod
    2. thealkaliwashedoutofthetreatedstrawintankBreactswiththefreshstrawinthesametank,thuspretreatingitwhile
    atthesametimeincreasingtheremovalofexcessNaOHfromthetreatedSraw
    3. afinalwashingwith300loffreshwater
    4. theonlyoutgoofmaterialfromthesystemis300lwaterandabout4kgNaOH/100kginthestraweveryday.
    TheseamountsofwaterandNaOHareaddeddaily.Thereisnolossofdrymatterfromthestrawandnostrawdrymatter
    accumulatesinthesystem.
    46. Thetreatedstrawhasadrymattercontentofabout20%andasodiumcontentonadrymatterbasisofabout2%(Sundstl,
    1977,personalcommunication).Drymatterdigestibilityinvitroincreasedontreatmentfrom38to70.Thisincreasein
    digestibilityof32unitsmaybecomparedwithanincreaseofabout17unitsinthedryindustrialprocesswhen4kgNaOHare
    usedper100kgstraw(paragraph53).
    47. ItwillbeseenthatthismethodretainstheadvantagesoftheBeckmannmethod,exceptthattheremovalofexcessalkaliisnot
    quitesocomplete,whileatthesametimeovercomingallthedisadvantages.Theincreaseindigestibilityinvitroof32unitsand
    thefactthatthereisonlyabout2%sodiumpresentsuggestthatthetreatedstrawisashighinqualityasBeckmannstraw,but
    digestibilityandfeedingtrialsmustbeconductedtodetermineifthisisso.
    48. TheTorgrimsbytreatmentprocessmaybemechanised,asindeedthepilotplantattheUniversityofNorwayis.Thefollowing
    descriptionisonlyanexampleofthepossibilities.Fourtanksareneeded,twotreatmenttanksandtwoauxillarytanks(figure
    2).Thestrawremainsinoneofthetwotreatmenttanksthroughouttheprocess,thetreatmentsolutionandwashingwater
    beingmovedfromtanktotankbygravityandbypumping.Onethousandlitresoftreatmentsolution(1.5%NaOHper100kg
    straw)andtwolotsofwashwater,alsoinaproportionof10:1areemployed.Thedailysequenceofoperationsis:
    TreatmentsolutionisdrainedfromtankAtotankC.

    Figure2.ArrangementoftreatmenttanksfortreatmentbythemodifiedBeckmann(Torgrimsby)method.NaOHsolutionand
    washwatersaretransferredfromtanktotankrefertoparagraph48.
    07:00
    08:00
    12:00
    15:00

    07:00
    (nextday)

    Startingposition:StrawissoakingintreatmentsolutionintankA,havingbeenplacedtherethepreviousday.WashwaterI
    (firstwashwater)isintankBandwashwaterII(secondwashwater)isintankD.TankCisempty.
    FreshstrawisputintotankB.WashwaterIinBisthenpumpedtotankAwhereitiscontinuouslysprayedoverthe
    treatedstrawandrecycledbacktoB.
    WashwaterIisretainedintankB.WashWaterIIispumpedfromtankDtotankA.WashwaterIisdrainedfromtankB
    totankD.TreatmentsolutionispumpedfromtankCtotankBanditsstrengthmadeupbyaddingfreshNaOH.
    SomeofwashwaterIIintankAisdrainedintotankDtomakeupthevolumeofwashwaterI,andtheremainderis
    drainedintotankC.SufficientfreshwatertomakeupthevolumeofwashwaterIIissprayedonthetreatedstrawintankA
    andallowedtodrainintotankC.ThetreatedandwashedstrawintankAisnowreadytofeed.
    Thestartingpositionis:StrawissoakingintreatmentsolutionintankB,washwaterIisintankDandwashwaterIIisin
    tankC.TankAisempty.Theday'soperationsbeginbypumpingwashwaterIfromtankDtotankAanddrainingthe
    treatmentsolutionfromtankBtotankD.FreshstrawisthenplacedintankAandthesequenceofoperationsofthe
    previousdayproceeds.

    Withsuchmechanisationtheprocesscouldbescaleduptoalmostanysize,oratleasttothesizeofthepresentdayco
    operativeBeckmanntreatmentplants.

    Chemicaltreatmentdrymethods
    49. Thedevelopmentofdrychemicalmethodsofstrawtreatmentwasalsoapproachedfrompointofviewofimprovinguponthe
    Beckmannmethod.Theimprovementwasthatthetreatedstrawisnotwashed.ConsequentlyonlyasmuchNaOHcanbe

    usedaswillnotundulydisturbtheanimalsystem.ThislevelofNaOHhasbeenfoundtobeabout5kg/100kgstraw.Thus,
    while,theproblemsofdrymatterlossandriverpollutionaresolvedbythedrymethod,thebenefitfromtheuseofahighalkali:
    strawratio(i.e.,alargeincreaseindigestibility)hadtobeforegone.Byapplyingheatandpressuresomeofthislossinthe
    degreeofimprovementindigestibilitycanberecovered,butthemostefficientlydrytreatedstrawunderthebest
    circumstancesisstillinferiortothebestwettreatedstrawindigestibility.Moreover,sodiumpollutionisnoteliminated,butonly
    occursinamorediffuseformwhenstrawistreatedbythedrymethod.Ontheotherhand,averygreatadvantageofthedry
    methodisthatitcanbeindustrialised,asindeedithasbeen.Thewetmethodscanonlybeusedonafarmorlocalcommunity
    scale,andeventhenthelabourrequirementtotreatandfeedwettreatedstrawisadistinctdisadvantageinEuropeandNorth
    Americawherelabourisexpensive.
    50. ThesubjectofthehealthoflivestockfedondrytreatedstrawhasbeendiscussedbyJackson(1977).Ingeneral,animals
    suffernostressifthedietcontainslessthan4%ofNaOHonadrymatterbasis.Thiscorrespondsto2.5%sodiuminthediet.

    Industrialprocess
    51. ScientistsattheBiotechnicalInstituteatKoldinginDenmarkhavedevelopedafactorymethodforthetreatmentofstrawsand
    havebuiltasuccessfulpilotplant.ThisdevelopmentworkhasbeendescribedbyRexenetal.(1975a)andbyRexenetal.
    (1975b).Thesepublicationsarerecommendedforadetailedunderstandingofthefactorymethod.Onlyabriefdescriptionwill
    begivenhere.
    52. Asimpleprocessflowdiagramofastrawprocessingfactoryisgiveninfigure3.Itisacompositeofthedesignsoftheseveral
    commercialplantsvisitedbytheconsultant.Thecapacityoftheseplantsis45tonnesofstrawtreatmentperhour.Strawis
    deliveredtotheplantasbaleswhichareunloadedontoaconcreteapron.Theyarethenpushedbyatractorwithafront
    mountedloaderontoaconveyerleadingtoatubgrinder,orliftedandplaceddirectlyintothegrinder.Balestrings(sisalor
    plastic)arenotremovedbutareprocessedwiththestraw.Fromthetubgrinder,thestrawiselevatedtoanintermediate
    holdingbin.Thisbinactsasabuffertoevenoutvariationsinrateofintake.Insomeplantsandautomaticswitchstopsthe
    intakeconveyorwhenthisbinfillstoacertainleveltheconveyorisagainswitchedonwhenthelevelfalls.Againinsome
    plants,butnotall,thestrawisdriedtoabout13%moisturecontent,ifnecessary,byelectricheatingcoilsintheelevator
    betweenthetubgrinderandtheintermediateholdingbin.Theheatingcoilsareoperatedautomaticallybyasamplerand
    moisturetesterinthesystematapointjustbeforethetreatermixer.Bydryingthestrawthethroughputoftheplantiskept
    uniformandnearmaximum.Inthoseplantswhichdonotdrythestraw,throughputfluctuateswidelywiththemoisturecontent
    ofthestraw.InthemoistclimateofNorthernEurope,strawdeliveredtothefactoryusuallyhasamoisturecontentofabout
    20%,ifnotrainedon,butthereisawidevariationandplantoutputcanbereducedconsiderablyathighermoisturecontents.
    Againstthislossis,ofcourse,thesavinginheatingcosts.Asidefromthequestionofthroughput,strawwithamoisturecontent
    ofmorethanabout23%heatsuplessinthepelletpressandformspoorlycompactedpellets.Fromtheintermediatebinthe
    strawgoestoahammermillformillinginsomeplants,ordirectlytothealkalitreaterinothers.Whilethereisalackof
    evidenceforasignificantnutritionaloreconomicbenefitfromgrinding(paragraph27),groundstrawmaybepreferredifthe
    treatedstrawissubsequentlytobeusedincommercialconcentratemixes.Equallydensepelletscanbemadefrommilledas
    fromchoppedstraw,thoughmorepowerisneededtomakeagivensizepelletfromchoppedthanfrommilledstraw8mm
    diameterpelletsarecommonlymadefrommilledstrawand1625mmpelletsfromchoppedstraw.Ifthestrawhasbeen
    milleditisblownintoacycloneandfromthereitpassesintothealkalitreaterotherwiseitpassesdirectlytothealkalitreater
    fromtheintermediateholdingbin.Justbeforeenteringthetreater,thestrawpassesoverabandweigherwhichregulatesthe
    rateofadditionofthealkalisolution.Alternatively,theweighbandisplacedafterthepelleter.Thetreaterinmostfactoriesisof

    thetypedevelopedattheBiotechnicalInstitute,KoldingandhasbeendescribedbyRexenetal.(1975a).Ithasbeendesigned
    toensureauniformapplicationofthealkalisolutiontothestrawwhentherateofapplicationisonly1015l(ofa3045%
    solutionofNaOH)per100kgstraw.Simplerwaysofapplyingthealkaliareinuseinsomeplantsforexample,thealkali
    solutionisdribbledonthestrawpassingthroughascrewconveyorbutmixingoflyeandstrawislessuniformandefficiency
    ofalkaliusageispoorer.Further,ablackgumlikecakedevelopsontheinnerwallsoftheconveyorandonthescrewthus
    reducingthroughput.Fromthetreater,thestrawisconveyedtothepelletmill.Pelletingincreasesthedensityofthestrawfrom
    about50to500kg/m3.Italsocausesheating(duetofriction)ofthestrawtoabout90.Theheatingandpressuretowhichthe
    strawissubjectedincreasestheeffectivenessofthetreatment(seefigure4).Asidefromasimpleeffectontherateof
    chemicalreactionsoccuringinstraw,pressureinthepressprobablyalsocausesanimmediateandcompletepenetrationof
    thealkaliintothestrawparticles.Heatingthealkalisolutionandaddingsteaminthepelletmillgiveasmallfurtherincreasein
    digestibility,butarenotapparentlyworthwhileinpractice.Averyfirmpelletisobtainedasthecohesivenessofthestraw
    particlesisincreasedbyNaOHmolassesisnotneededasabinder.Thepelletsarefinallycooledandstored.Insome
    factoriesthepelletsarelefthotfor1520minutesaftercomingfromthepressbeforebeingcooledinthepelletcoolerbecause
    experiencehasshownthattheysometimesheatupagaininthestoreifcooledimmediatelyapparentlythereactionbetween
    NaOHandstrawisnotalwayscompletewhenthepelletsleavethepress.Factorieswhichproducepure,treatedstrawpellets,
    sellthemtofeedcompounderswhogrindthemupandincludetheminconventionalconcentratemixtures.Alimitedamountof
    thesepelletsaresoldtofarmers.Inotherplants,however,thetreatedstrawisusedasonlyoneingredientinacomplete
    pelletedfeed.Intheseplants,therefore,molassesandotherfeedstuffs(cereals,brans,oilcakes,etc.)areaddedtothetreated
    strawbeforeitispelleted.Wherethisisdone,effectivenessofthetreatmentofthestrawisreduced(Rexen,personal
    communication1977),butthisadverseeffectcanbecounteractedtosomeextentifthealkalisolutionisheatedto90before
    beingappliedandsteamisinjectedintothemixturewhenpelleting.

    Figure3.Processflowdiagramofstrawtreatmentbytheindustrialprocess(refertoparagraph52)
    53. Thedigestibilityinvitroof88samplesofstrawprocessedintheKoldingpilotplantusingdifferentamountsofNaOHfrom0to

    7kg/100kgofstrawhasbeendetermined.Simplelinearregressionanalysisofthisdatahasyieldedthefollowingequation:
    Y=49.27+4.28X,whereYisdigestibilityinvitroandXisthekgofNaOHusedper100kgstraw(Rexenetal.,1975a).Thus
    theuseof7kgofNaOHincreasespotentialdigestibilitybyabout30percentageunits.HigherlevelsofNaOHthan7kgmay
    notgivefurtherincreasesjudgingbytheresultsoftheexperimentofOloladeetal.(1970)(table10comparefiguresfor8and
    12kgNaOHfor80and5minutes).Indigestibilitytrialswithanimalsinwhichfactorytreatedstrawhasformed70%ormore
    ofthetestdiets,digestibilityhasincreasedwithincreasinglevelsofalkaliuptoonly45kgNaOH(RexenandThomsen,1976
    Alietal.,1977),presumablybecausethehighsodiumcontentandalkalinitybegintoimpairphysiologicalfunctionofthe
    animal.Atalevelof4.5kgalkali,whichhasbeensubsequentlyadoptedinmostcommercialplants,digestibilityinvitrois
    increasesby20percentageunits.Invivoincreaseswere16unitsinthetwoexperimentsreferredtoabove.Factorytreated
    strawhasasodiumcontentofabout2.7%.pHisabove10andtitratablealkalinityisequivalentto12kgNaOH.
    54. Anumberoffeedingtrialshavebeenconductedwithfactorytreatedstraw(Rexenetal..1975a:Andersen.1977:Bowerman,
    1977WilsonandBrigstock1977).Inmanyofthemonlyonedietcontainingaproportionoftreatedstrawwasfed.Intwo,
    treatedstrawwassubstitutedforothercomponentsofthediet.Oneofthesetrialswaswithmilkingcows,butthedataon
    actualmilkyieldsisnotgiven.Inanother,withbeefanimals,feedintakewasnotmeasured.Thesesubstitutiontrialsthus
    providelittleconcreteinformationwhichcouldbeusedtoassesstheusefulnessoffactorytreatedstraw.Inonlytwotrialswere
    treatedanduntreatedstrawcompared.Inone,atrialwithgrowingbullsfed30%strawdiets,nodifferenceinweightgainwas
    found.Becauseofthehighproportionofconcentratesinthedietsinthistrial,theremaynothavebeenanydifferencein
    digestibilitybetweentreatedanduntreatedstraw.Inanothertrial,onewithgrowingheifersfeddietscontaining60%straw,the
    untreatedstrawgroupgainedatarateof0.67kg/dayandthetreatedstrawgroupatarateof0.79kg/day.Thisdatagivesan
    indicationofthevalueoftreatment,butdoesnotprovideanyinformationthatwillhelpindecidingwhetherornotfarmerscould
    usetreatedstrawinaconventionalhay/silageandconcentratedietforheifers.Alargeproportionoftheproductionofstraw
    treatmentplantsinEuropeispresentlybeingusedasaningredientincommercialconcentratemixturesatratesofbetween5
    and20%ofthemixtures.Thereisnoinformationtodateonthevalueoftreatedstrawusedinthisway.

    Figure4.Theeffectsoftimeandofpelletingonthedigestibilityofstrawtreatedbytheindustrialprocess(refertoparagraph
    52).
    Source:Rexenetal.,1975.

    55. Manyexperimentshavebeendoneinwhichdrytreatedstrawhasbeenneutralizedwithacidbeforefeedingit.Inmostof
    theseexperimentsthiswasdoneonlyontheassumptionthatitwouldimprovethefeedingvalueofthetreatedstraw.Afew
    comparisonshave,however,beenmadebetweenunneutralisedandneutralised,treatedstraw.Rexenetal.(1975b)fedcows
    atrestrictedlevelsonfactorymadestrawpellets(containingonlyureaandmineralsupplements)andsimilarpelletswhichhad
    beenneutralisedwithHCl.ThestrawpelletswerepresumablymadeintwostagesinordertospraytheHClonandmixthe
    supplements.Organicmatterdigestibilityincreasedby3percentageunitsandpalatability,assessedbyeatingbehaviour,was
    improved.Thesamepatternwasalsoobservedwhenthestrawsweremixedwithconcentratesinaratioof1:1.Junkerand
    Pfeffer(1976)foundanincreaseinintakeoffactorymadetreatedstraw(5%NaOH)ofabout5%byneutralisingwith5lof
    propionicacidper100kgstraw.Greenhalghetal.(1973)reported,ontheotherhand,thatfarmscale,dailytreatedstraw
    neutralisedwithpropionicacidwasnobetterthanunneutralisedstrawinanexperimentwithsheepfedadlibitum.Raineand
    Owen(1976)fedsheepadlibitumonalkalispraytreatedstraw(3.5,7.0and10.5kgNaOH/100kgstraw)preparedandfed
    dailywhichwasunneutralisedorneutralisedpartlyorcompletelywithHCl.Concentratesupplementationamountedto20%of
    thediet.Neitherintakenordigestibilityweresignificantlyaffectedbyneutralisationatanyleveloftreatment.Thustheredoes
    notseemtobesufficientimprovementinfeedingvaluetowarranttheextraexpenseofneutralisation.Itmayalsobeadded
    thattheutilisationoftreatedstraw,asitisusuallyfedinEurope,wouldlikelybeimprovedbymakingitmorealkalineandnot
    less(paragraph62).
    56. AvariationonthefactoryprocessusingNaOHhasbeendevelopedintheGermanDemocraticRepublic(Bergneretal.,1976
    Bergneretal.,1974a,1974band1976MullerandBergner,1975Mulleretal.,1976).Sodiumhydroxideisnotusedureais
    mixedwiththestrawatarateof2%beforebeingpelleted.Ifthetemperatureduringpelletingisincreasedtoabout150,the
    ureaisdecomposedandtheNH3releasedreactswiththestraw,increasingitsdigestibilityandnitrogencontent.Inone
    experiment(Bergneretal.,1974b)theorganicmatterdigestibility(bysheep)ofchaffedstrawwasincreasedfrom38to52by
    thisprocess.Organicmatterintake(fromthestrawpartofthedietonly)increasedfrom10to29g/kgW0.75.Inamilkingcow
    experiment(Bergneretal.1976)untreatedstraworstrawtreatedwith2%ureaand2%NH4CO3werefedasthesole
    roughageandinathirddiethayandrootswerefedasroughage.Theperformanceofthecows(yieldlevel615kgmilk/day)
    onthetreatedstrawwasasgoodasthatofthecowsonthetraditionaldietofhayandroots.Thefoodintake,milkyieldandfat
    percentageofmilkofcowsonuntreatedstrawfellincomparison.Crdinarypelletpressesdonotdevelopsufficientheatduring
    pelletingtodecomposeurea.Themachinesusedbytheseworkerspresumablyhavesmalleropeningsand/orthickerdiesand
    accordingly,ahigherpowerrequirement.Themethodlookspromising,buttheconsultantdoesnothaveenoughinformationto
    assessitspracticalityoreconomicfeasibility.Ammoniais,ingeneral,lesseffectivethanNaOH,beingaweakalkali(see
    paragraph80),butdoesaddextranitrogentotreatedstrawatthesametimeasthestrawistreatedanddoesnotcause
    pollution).

    Farmscaletreatment
    57. Farmscaletreatmentmethodsarethosethatcanbeusedontheindividualfarm.Theyaresimpleandequipmentcostscan
    usuallybepaidbytheindividualfarmer.Thesecostsvaryfromafew(US)dollarsforagardensprinklingcanandahayforkto

    about$10,000foroneoftheDanishfarmmachines.Themethodsvaryintheireffectivenessandthereasonsforthiswillbe
    highlightedinthefollowingparagraphs.Thereappearstobegreatopportunityforfurtherimprovisationafewsuggestionswill
    begiveninthisreportitself.
    Dailytreatmentanddirectfeeding
    58. DrystrawissprinkledorsprayedwithadiluteNaOHsolutionsothatitisuniformlywetted.Itisdesirabletofeedthestrawthe
    dayafteritistreatedasdigestibilityincreasessignificantlywithtimeoverthefirst24haftertreatment(Ololadeetal.,1970
    Owen,1978fingerlingandSchmidt,1919).Afreshbatchispreparedeveryday.Theoperationmaybedonebyhandwhere
    onlyafewanimalsaretobefedusingasprinklingcanand_a_forktoturnthestrawwhilstitisbeingsprinkled.Forcomplete
    anduniformwetting,experiencesuggests200lofsolutionper100kgstraw.Ifapressuresprayerisusedthiscanbereduced
    to100l.Fortreatinglargerbatchesofstrawahorizontalfeedmixeroramixertrailerdesignedtomixsilageand
    concentratesmaybefittedupwithapumpandspraynozzles.Inthiscaseuniformwettingcanbeachievedwith50lof
    solution.Otheringredientsinthedietcansubsequentlybemixedwiththestrawinthesamemixer.Otherequipmentmightbe
    devised.Forexample,aspeciallydesignedscrewaugerwithspraynozzlesinsidewouldgiveacontinuousflowoftreated
    straw.
    59. Thismethodisthesimplestofallthefarmscalemethods,butisunfortunatelylessefficient.Thisisclearfromtheresultsofin
    vitrostudies.Ololadeetal.(1970)treatedstrawwithaninitialdigestibilityof42%with4gNaOH/100gstraw(table10).
    Digestibilityincreasedto54whenkeptat23for24hours,butto60whenheatedto80foronly15minutes.Intheindustrial
    process(paragraph52)andthebulktreatmentandstackingmethodonthefarm(paragraph71)both,asimilarincreasein
    digestibilityinvitrooccursasaresultoftheheatingthestrawissubjectedtofollowingsprayingwithalkali.Strawtreatedbythe
    dailytreatment,drymethodhasneverbeencomparedwiththeseothermethodsinasingledigestibilitytrialwithanimals,and
    comparisonsamongtrialsaredifficult.Anattemptmayhoweverbemade.Strawtreateddailywith45kgNaOH/100kgfed
    adlibitumwithlimitedconcentrateshasrarelybeenfoundtohaveincreasedindigestibilitybymorethan10percentageunits.
    IntheexperimentsofRexenandVestergaardThomsen(1976)andAlietal.(1977),however,thefactorytreatmentofstraw
    increaseddigestibilityby16unitswhenfedadlibitumtosheepindietscontaining30%concentrates.Toachievethisdegreeof
    improvementindigestibilitywiththedailytreatmentmethod,muchgreateramountsofNaOHareapparentlyneeded.Inan
    experimentbyFernandezCarmonaandGreenhalgh(1972)inwhichsheepwerefeddietscontaining92%strawtreatedwith
    8kgNaOH/100kg,digestibilityincreasedby16units.Inalaterexperiments(Greenhalghetal.,1976PirieandGreenhalgh,
    1977)withstrawfedinlambandbeeffatteningdietsatlevelsof50and40%theorganicmatterdigestibilityofthestrawwas
    increasedby18and20units,respectively,whentreatedwith8kgNaOH/100kg.Eveninthislatterexperiment,however,
    digestibilityincreasedonly2.252.5units/kgNaOHcomparedto3.9intheexperimentsofRexenandVestergaardThomsen
    (1976)andAlietal.(1977).
    60. Strawtreatedbythismethodismoist,hasapleasingyellowcolourandasmellofcausticsoda.Animalseatitreadilyand
    whenfedadlibitumusuallyeat1020%moreofitthanofuntreatedstraw.ThepHis10orabove.Sodiumcontentincreases
    approximately0.6gpercentageunitsforevery1kgNaOH/100kgadded.Whentreatedwith45kgNaOH/100kg,titratable
    alkalinitywillbeequivalentto12kgNaOHandat8kgtheamountwillbeabout4kg(ChandraandJackson,1971
    Piatkowskietal.,1974FernandezCarmonaandGreenhalgh,1972Rexen,Isrealsen,BuskandWaagepetersen,1975).
    61. Theresultsofanumberofexperimentshaveshownthatindietswherestrawconstitutes70%ormoreofthediet,theleast
    amountofalkalithatwillgivethemaximumincreaseindigestibilityisintherange36kg/100kg(seereviewbyJackson,

    1977).Inamorerecentexperimentinwhichtreatedstrawwasmixedwithberseemforageinaratioof1:1onadrymatter
    basis,digestibilityincreasedsignificantlyuptoalevelof9kgNaOH/100kgstraw(NaikandSingh,privatecommunication
    1977).Itwouldthusappearthatthepotentiallyhigherdigestibilityofstrawtreatedwithmorethan6kgNaOHcanberealised
    indietsinwhichthestraw,withitshighalkalinityandsodiumcontent,isdilutedwithotherfeeds.Sinceeventhishighlevelof
    alkaligaveeconomicalincreasesingrowth(ofheifers)(table16),itissuggestedbytheconsultantthatNaOHtreatmentlevels
    canprofitablybeincreasedto79kgwherestrawconstitutesonly50%orsoofthediet.

    Table15.Theeffectofdrytreatmentofstraw(dailytreatmentmethod)with8kg
    NaOH/100kgontheperformanceoflambs,beefsteersandmilkingcows

    Drymatter
    intake,kg

    LAMBS(36kginitialweight)
    Untreated
    strawdiet
    0.56
    (50%
    concentrates)
    Treatedstraw
    diet
    0.85
    (50%
    concentrates)
    STEERS(300kginitialweight)
    Untreated
    strawdiet
    8.60
    (60%
    concentrates)
    Treatedstraw
    diet
    9.67
    (60%
    concentrates)
    Allconcentrate
    7.88
    diet
    COWS
    Untreated
    strawdiet
    10.8
    (50%
    concentrates)
    Treatedstraw
    diet
    13.4
    (50%
    concentrates)

    Emptybodyweight
    gain,kg

    Milk
    Fat
    Total
    yield,kg content,% solids,%

    0.08

    0.14

    0.78

    1.03

    1.16

    17.6

    3.54

    12.27

    19.0

    3.74

    12.82

    Source:Greenhalghetal.(1976)forlambsandcowsPirieandGreenhalgh(1977)forsteers

    62. NotonlyarehigherlevelsofNaOHfeasibleinmixedstrawdiets,butmayevenbeessentialifconcentratesconstitutean
    importantpartofthediet(i.e.,morethanabout40%).Levyetal.(1977)fedhighconcentratediets(6070%concentratesand
    3040%straw)tofatteningbulls.Strawtreatedwith4kgNaOH/100kgwasverylittlebetterthanuntreatedstrawintermsof
    animalperformance,butthestrawtreatedwith8kgNaOHwasconsiderablybetter.Greenhalghetal.(1976)andPirieand
    Greenhalgh(1977)fedsheepandbeefcattleonbarleybasedconcentratedietscontaining5060%concentratesand4050%
    straw.Treatmentofthestrawresultedinalargeincreaseinorganicmatterdigestibility(18and20units,respectively)intake
    andweightgainwerealsoimprovedmarkedly(table15).Earlieritwaspointedoutthatsuchincreasesshouldnotalwaysbe
    expectedwithhighconcentratediets(paragraph23).Thesuccessoftheseexperimentsappearstobeduetothefactthatthe
    strawwastreatedwith8kgNaOHratherthan45kg.DepressedstrawdigestibilityiscausedbyaloweringofrumenpHby
    therapidfermentationofstarch.Itcanonlybesupposedthatintheseexperimentsthehighleveloftitratablealkalinity
    (unreactedNaOH)acteddecisivelytopreventafallinrumenpH.RumenfluidpHwasnotmeasuredintheseexperiments.
    Incidentallyexperiencehasshownthatstrawtreatedwith8kgNaOHshouldbefedmixedwiththeotheringredientsinthediet
    andnotseparately,asitissomewhatunpalatable.
    63. TheuseofCa(OH)2intreatingstrawhasalwaysbeenofinterest,asalreadymentioned(paragraph41),becauseitischeaper
    thanotheralkalis.WithspraytreatedmaterialCa(OH)2hasconsistentlybefoundinferiortoNaOH(reviewsbyJackson,1977
    andKlopfenstein,1976).Gharibetal.(1975b),however,foundthatwhentreatedpopularbarkwasensiledfor150days
    Ca(OH)2wasaseffectiveasNaOH.WilkinsonandGonzalezSantillana(1977)ensiledtreatedbarleystrawfor90daysand
    foundCa(OH)22/3rdsaseffectiveasNaOH(seealsoparagraph75).Comingbacktothedailytreatmentandfeedingof
    straw,mixturesof1kgCa(OH)2and3kgNaOHwhenusedtotreat100kgstrawhavebeenfoundinseveralexperiments
    (reviewbyKlopfenstein,1976)tobesuperiorto4kgNaOHintermsoftheperformanceofgrowinglambsandcalves.Itisnot
    knownwhetherthisisduetotheeffectofthechemicalsonthedigestibilityofstraworanutritionaleffectoftheaddedcalcium.
    64. AvariationofthesimplespraytreatmentdescribedaboveistheBolidenmethod.Thismethodhasbeendevelopedbya
    privatecompanyinSweden,NidBolidenABofHelsingborg.Strawissprayedwithanalkalisolutionandthenwithanacid
    solutioninaspeciallydesignedapparatus.TheunitseenbytheconsultantattheAgriculturalUniversityofNorwaycouldtreat
    a500kgofbaledstrawperday.Aschematicdiagramoftheapparatususedisgiveninfigure5.Inthemorningafreshbatch
    ofbaledstraw(500kg)isplacedinthetreatmentchamberonthemeshfloor.AnNaOHsolutionsufficienttoprovide22.5kg
    NaOH(4.5kg/100kgstraw)ispumpedintothefunnelunderthechamber.Thewatersupplytothefunnelisthenturnedon.
    Asthefunnelbeginstofillupapumpstartsandpumpsthesolutionontothestrawthroughspraynozzlesinatravelling
    overheadsprayboom.Thestrawbecomessaturatedinabout11/2hoursafterwhichexcesssolutiondrainsbackintothe
    funnelandisrecirculated.Afloatvalueinthefunnelcontrolstheflowofwaterintothefunnel.About1800lofsolutionismade
    andatequilibriumallbutabout100lisinthesaturatedstraw.Achargeof22.5kgofCa(OH)2isalsointroducedintothe
    systemasasuspensioninthewater.Thetreatmentsolutioniscirculatedfora4hours.Thesaturatedstrawisthenallowedto
    standovernight(about16hours).Sevenlofanacidmixtureisthenpumpedintothefunnelandcirculationresumedfor
    another2hours.Theacidmixtureisapatentedproductsoldbythecompany.ItcontainsHC1andH3PO4.ThepHofthe
    strawisbroughtdownto89.Afurtherhourorsoisallowedfordrainingandthenthestrawcanberemovedandfed.The
    apparatuscanthenbeloadedwithfreshstraw.

    Figure5.ChamberfortreatmentofstrawbytheBolidenmethod(refertoparagraphs64and65).
    65. Thetreatedstrawisofcoursesaturated(20%drymatterapproximately)andinthisrespectresembleswettreatedstraw.
    Chemically,however,itresemblesdrytreatedstrawneutralisedwithmineralacid.Ithassufficientcalciumandphosphorusto
    eliminatetheneedfortheusualmineralsupplements.ThestrawisbeingevaluatedattheAgriculturalUniversityofNorway
    andatthemomentverylittleisknownaboutitsfeedingvalue.Digestibilityinvitroofgrabsamplesfromuntreatedandtreated
    baleshasbeendeterminedthevaluesare45(3950)foruntreatedand68(6575)fortreated(Sundstl,private
    communication1977).Itisnotpossibletoassesstheeffectivenessofthismethodfromthislimiteddata.Feedingtrialswill
    havetobedone.ItissuggestedthatsuchtrialsaimatdistinguishingamongtheeffectsofNaOH,Ca(OH)2andacid.The
    methodshouldalsobecomparedinasingletrialwiththesimplerdailytreatmentmethoddescribedinthepreceeding
    paragraphsusing4.5kgNaOH.

    66. Considerableexperimentationwithammoniatreatmenthasbeendoneinthelastfewyears.Thestackingmethodinwhich
    anhydrousammoniaisusedisdescribedinparagraphs7983.Developmentworkonthetreatmentofstrawinairtighttanks
    hasbeencarriedoutattheBiotechnicalInstituteatKolding(Rexen,1977WaagepetersenandVestergaardThomsen,1977).
    Acylindericaltankwhichcanaccomodate80baleshasbeentested.Anhydrousammonia(3.5kg)isintroducedandcirculated
    byafan.Thetankisinsulatedtoconservetheheatproducedbythechemicalreactionoftheammoniawiththestraw,whichis
    considerable.Afivedaytreatmentperiodhasbeenfoundtogiveanincreaseinenzymedigestibility(ofbarleystraw)of15
    units(27to42)whichcorrespondstoanincreaseininvitroorganicmatterdigestibilityof14units(5468)(B.Rexen,1977).
    Theaveragetemperatureinsidethetankduringthefirst24hourswas38.Inanothertrialwiththesametanksteamwas
    introducedtoraisethetemperaturetoanaverageof70.Thetreatmentperiodlastedonlyoneday.Calculateddrymatter
    digestibilityinvitroincreasedfrom57to75.AtankmanufacturedbyacommercialfirminDenmark,whichisundergoing
    testingattheBiotechnicalInstituteatKolding,isfittedwithelectricheatingcoilstomaintainauniformtemperatureof70for24
    hourssincetheearliertestshowedthat,inordertotreatonebatcheffectivelyeveryday,thistemperatureisneeded.
    Somethingwillbesaidaboutthefeedingofammoniatreatedstrawinalaterparagraph(81).
    67. AgreatmanydigestibilityandfeedingtrialshavebeencarriedoutwithstrawtreateddailywithNaOHandfeddirectly.The
    rangeinincreasesindigestibilityinvitroofpublishedexperimentalresultsfromsome3dozendigestibilitytrialsis0to22
    percentageunits.DifferentlevelsofNaOHanddifferenttypesoftestdietswereusedinsomeadlibitumfeedingwasfollowed
    andinothersrestrictedfeedingdifferenttypesandagesofanimalswereusedinsomecasesthetreatedstrawwas
    neutralisedandmanymorefactorscouldhavecontributedtothisvariability.Itis,however,desirable,andreasonablypossible
    also,toindicatetheexpectedextentofimprovementwithadlibitumfeedingofstrawcontainingdiets.Thesewouldbe10units
    forstrawtreatedwith45kgNaOH/100kgstraw,allowed24hcuringtimeandfedindietscontaining7080%ormoreof
    straw.This10unitsreferstoanincreaseinderivedstrawdigestibility,calculatedbyassumingthatthedigestibilityoftheother
    componentsofthedietarethesameforthedietscontainingtreatedanduntreatedstraw.Indietscontaining4060%other
    feeds(concentratesand/orforage),strawtreatedwith79kgNaOH/100kgshouldbeexpectedtoincreaseindigestibilityby
    17unitsifthedietsarefedadlibitumandthestrawiscuredfor24hours.

    Table16.Theeffectofdrytreatment(dailytreatmentwithNaOH)ofwheatstrawonthe
    performanceofdairyheifersfedawheatstrawberseemdiet

    Drymatterintake,g/kgW 0.75
    Organicmatterdigestibility,%
    Liveweightgain,kg
    Dailyfeedcost,Rs./animal
    Feedcost/kggain,Rs.
    Daystogain100kg

    109

    109

    59
    0.49
    1.70
    3.47
    204

    67
    0.64
    2.13
    3.33
    156

    *Strawspraytreated(farmscale)with9kgNaOH/100kgstrawandfedimmediately.
    Source:NaikandSingh,privatecommunication1977.

    Treatedstraw*

    Untreatedstraw

    68. Examplesoftheresultsofsomeproductiontrialswithdailytreated(NaOH)aregivenintables1517.Aneconomicanalysisof
    someofthesedietsistakenupinparagraph88.

    Table17.Theperformanceofcalvesonuntreatedandtreatedstrawdiets(Source:Singh
    etal.,1975.
    Untreatedstrawplus
    groundnutcake

    Strawconsumption,
    kg/day
    Concentr.consumption,
    kg/day
    Gain,kg/day
    Totalfeedcosts,Rs./day
    Feedcost/kggain,Rs.
    Daystogain100kg

    Treated*strawplusgroundnut
    cake

    4.5

    6.0

    0.8

    1.0

    0.25
    0.95
    3.80
    400

    0.42
    1.39
    3.31
    238

    *Strawspraytreated(farmscale)with3.3kgNaOH/100kgstrawandTedimmediately.

    Bulktreatmentfollowedbystacking
    69. Onmanyfarmstheremaybereasonswhythebulktreatmentofstrawforawholeseasonorforamonthorsoismore
    attractivethandailytreatment.IfthestrawistreatedinbulkwithNaOHtherecanbeabonusofenhancedeffectivenessofthe
    addedalkali.Capitalcostsofequipmentandstructuresmaybehigherhowever.
    70. TheDanishfarmmachinesmanufacturedbyTaarupandbyJ.F.Fabrikenproduceatreatedstrawsimilartothatemerging
    fromtheNaOHtreaterintheindustrialprocess.Thebalesareshredded,aconcentratedNaOHsolution(usually27%)is
    sprayedon(5kgNaOH/100kgstraw)andthenthestrawpassesthroughalongmixingchamberinwhichthestrawis
    squeezedorrubbedbetweenanintricateseriesofrotatingandstationaryblades.ThepenetrationoftheNaOHisthus
    facilitated.Thetreatedstrawisthenblownintoapile.Ifthepileisbigenough(minimum34tonnes)thetreatedstrawwillheat
    uptoatemperatureof8090.Theheatingiscausedbytheaccumulationoftheheatliberatedbythechemicalreactions
    betweentheNaOHandthestraw.Thetemperaturereachesapeakduringthefirst3daysandthendeclinesforafurther15
    daysorsotoambienttemperature.Asaresultofthisheating,moistureevaporatesleavingthestrawdryenoughtostoreifthe
    initialmoisturecontentofthestrawdoesnotexceed17%beforetreatment.Ifinitialmoisturecontentismorethan17%there
    willbelessheatingandinsufficientdryingleavingamaterialwhichwillgomouldyorwhichcanheatupagainduetobacterial
    fermentactionsuchmaterialappearstobehave,infact,likedamphay.Thestackmustbemadeataplacewhereitisopenon
    atleastonesideandatthetoptoensureadequatedrying.Strawtreatedinthiswayshouldnotbeputinasilobecauseitwill
    probablyoverheatandbecomeafirehazard.
    71. Thetreatedstrawisdry,hasanattractivegoldencolourandsmellsslightlyofNaOH.Theincreasesindigestibilityresulting
    fromthistreatmentareshownintable18.ThesevaluesweredeterminedbythestaffoftheBiotechnicalInstitute,Koldingand

    theyhavebeensuppliedtotheconsultantbyMr.PederKjeldsenandMr.NielsArnePedersenofJ.F.Fabriken,Snderborg.
    Theincreaseindigestibilityinvitrowith5kgNaOH/100kgstrawisidenticaltothatoffactorytreatedstraw.Itisobviousthat
    theheatingthatoccursinthestackaftertreatmentisvitaltothishighefficiency.Thedigestibilityincreaseisnotuniform
    throughoutthestackbutvarieswiththeextentoftemperaturerise,whichis,ofcourse,mostinthecentreandlessnearthe
    surface.Thevaluesshownintable18areweightedaverages.Samplesofmorethan50lotsoffarmertreatedstrawhave
    beenanalysedandhaveaveraged68%organicmatterdigestibilityinvitro(KjeldsenandPederson,privatecommunication
    1977).

    Table18.Thedigestibilityofuntreatedandtreatedstraw(5kgNaOH/100kgstraw)(J.F.
    Fabrikenmachine)

    Enzyme
    Calculatedorganicmatter
    digestibility,
    digestibilityinvitro,%*
    %

    Untreatedstraw
    18
    Treatedstrawonleaving
    35
    machine
    Treatedstrawfromstack
    43
    15daysaftertreatment

    Titratablealkalinity,g
    ofNaOH/100gstras

    48

    62

    2.3

    69

    0.4

    *Calculatedusingtheregressionequation:Y=33.24+0.83X,whereYisorganicmatterdigestibilityinvitroandXisenzymedigestibility(B.Rexen,1977).
    Source:J.F.Fabriken,Snderborg,Denmark1977.

    72. Asisthecasewithfactorytreatedstraw,bulktreatedandstackedstrawhasrarelybeencomparedwithuntreatedstrawina
    feedingexperiment.Oneexperimentisknowntohavebeendonewithmilkingcows(Kristensen,privatecommunication
    1977)andonewithgrowingheifers(Andersen,1977).Intheformer,strawwasfedadlibitumwithfixedamountsofmolasses
    (5kg)andaconcentratemixture(6.4kg).Treatmentincreasedtheintakeofstrawfrom5.5to7.6kgandfatcorrectedmilk
    yieldfrom20.4to22.2kg.Inthelattertrialheiferswerefedtreatedbarleystrawadlibitumand3kgotherfeeds.Strawintake
    increasedfrom3.4to3.6kgandweightgainfrom0.70to0.78kg/day.Neitheroftheseresultsisimpressive,butthetypeof
    dietinwhichthestrawwasfedwasperhapsnotconducivetoalargerresponsefromtreatedstraw.Theexperimentonmilking
    cowsiscommenteduponfurtherinparagraph82.
    Bulktreatmentfollowedbyensiling
    73. Theresultsofseveralexperimentshaveshownthatstrawspraytreatedwith601201ofNaOHsolutionandensiledcanbe
    storedforuptooneyear.ThereisnomicrobialfermentationandthestrawremainsstableduetoitshighpH.Thedigestibility
    doesnotincreaseduetoensiling(WilkinsonandGongalazSantillana,1977b).Thetemperatureoftheensiledmassrises
    (Wilkinson,privatecommunication1978),butprobablynotenough(duetothehighwatercontentofthestraw)toreacha
    temperatureofabout80degrees(seetable10)whichwouldincreasetheeffectivenessofthealkali.Atambientoreven
    somewhathighertemperatures,digestibilitydoesnotincreaseafterthefirst24h(BramanandAbe,1977Gharibetal.,
    1975aGharibetal.,1975b).

    Table19.Performanceoflambsfedwheatstrawdiets*
    Drymatter
    intake,g

    Diet

    Liveweight
    gain,g

    Feed:gain
    ratio

    Derivedorganicmatter
    digestibility,%

    Untreated
    straw

    908

    36

    25.0

    49

    Treated**
    straw

    1226

    160

    7.6

    60

    *70%strawand30%concentratesupplement
    **strawspraytreatedwith4kgNaOH/100kgstraw
    **assumingaconstantdigestibilityof90%fortheconcentratesupplement.
    Source:Hasimogluetal.,1969.

    74. Treated,ensiledstrawhasgivenverygoodresultsinseveralproductiontrials.Ondietscontaining70%ormoreoftreated
    strawliveweightgainsoflambshavebeenincreased4_fold(tables19and20).Theresultsofanotherfeedingexperimentwith
    calves(table21)showhowtreatedandensiledstrawcanbeusedtoextendgoodqualitygrasssilageinrearingcalves.
    Althoughthetreatedstrawinthiscasewasnotasdigestibleasthegrasssilage,adietcontaining2/3rdstreatedstrawstill
    gaveweightgainsofmorethan0.5kg/day.Klopfenstein(1976)summarisedtheresultsof3experimentswithcalvesinwhich
    maizesilagewascomparedwithtreated,ensiledmaizehusks(table22).Theresultsoftheselattertwotrialsaswellasthose
    ofpiatkowskietal.(1974b)(describedinparagraph77)areparticularlyusefulastheyindicatethefeedingvalueoftreated
    strawinrelationtootherroughagessilagesinthiscaseandgiveanindicationofhowitcouldbeusedinconventionalhigh
    roughagedietsonwhichyoungstockisfed.Aneconomicanalysisofthedataintable22hasbeendonebytheauthorandwill
    bepresentedinparagraph93.

    Table20.Performanceoflambsonmaizestoverdiets*
    Diet

    Drymatterintake,g

    Liveweightgain,g

    Feedgainratio

    Untreatedstover

    950

    18

    25.3

    Treatedstover**

    1380

    89

    7.4

    *Dietscontained25%ofasupplementbasedonbrewers'driedgrainsandurea
    **Strawspraytreatedwith3kgNaOHand1kgCa(OH) 2/100kgstrawandensiled
    Source:Lamm,1976.

    75. TheensillingoftreatedstrawseemstoofferapossibilityofusingCa(OH)2.Manyexperimentshaveshownthatwhen
    Ca(OH)2issprayedonstrawithasverylittleeffectondigestibilityifthestrawisfedthesamedayorthenextday(Gharibet
    al.,1975bVermaandJackson,1975).Gharibetal.(1975b),however,foundittobeaseffectiveasNaOHifthetreated
    material(poplarbark)wasensiledfor150days.Witha90dayensillingperiodCa(OH)2wasabout2/3rdsaseffectiveas

    NaOH(WilkinsonandGonsalezSantillana,1977a).TheadvantageofCa(OH)2overNaOHis,ofcourse,itslowercost.
    76. AspecialsituationinwhichtheensillingoftreatedstrawmaybeusefulisinItaly.Paci(1955)reportedthatricestrawisstill
    greenatharvestintheautumnandthatthereisinsufficientsunnyweathertodryit.Hetriedensillingitwithmineralacidswith
    goodresults.Alkalitreatmentandensilingmightbeabetteralternative.AlloverEuropemuchstrawisrainedonbeforeitcan
    bepickedupfromthefield.Itcouldbesuccessfullykeptandusedasafeedbyalkalitreatingandensiling.
    77. Piatkowskietal.(1974b)treatedbarleystrawwith5kgNaOH/100kg(100lsolution)andafter2weeksensileditwithgreen
    maizeforageinthefollowingproportionsonadrymatterbasis:17:83and34:66,respectively.Therewasagreateracid
    productionfromthemaizeduringthesubsequentfermentationandtheamountsofresidualsugarswerereduced.ThepH
    valuesofpuremaizesilageandthetwomixedsilageswere3.8,4.0and4.3,respectively.Theorganicmatterdigestibilityof
    thethreesilageswas69%,indicatingthatthedigestibilityofthetreatedstrawwasthesameasthatofthemaize.Theredoes
    notseemtobeanyadvantageofthispracticeovermixingtreatedstrawwithmaizesilageatthetimeoffeeding.Bymixingthe
    treatedstrawwiththefreshmaizeatthetimeofensilingratherthanatthetimeoffeeding,thebenefitofthetreatedstrawin
    raisingthepHofthedietwasnotrealisedthealkalinityofthestrawincreasedacidproductionfromthesugarsinthemaize.
    ThomasandWilkinson(1975)foundthatraisingthepHofmaizesilage(from3.95to5.45)byaddingsodiumbicarbonate
    increasedvoluntaryconsumptionby12%.Thustherewouldseemtobeadefiniteadvantageofmixingtreatedstrawand
    silagetogetheratthetimeoffeeding.

    Table21.Theperformanceofcalvesonsilage,treatedstrawandsilagetreatedstraw
    diets
    Diet*
    Grasssilage
    Silage:straw**
    (67:33onadrymatter
    basis)
    Silagestraw
    (33:67onadrymatter
    basis)
    Straw
    SEofmeans

    Drymatterintake,%
    ofLW

    Organicmatter
    digestibility,%

    Liveweightgain,
    kg/day

    2.44

    74.0

    0.89

    2.42

    71.4

    0.75

    2.44

    71.3

    0.55

    1.94
    0.07

    67.8
    0.8

    0.15
    0.04

    *Inadditiontothesilagethecalveswerefedureaprills(46%N)andsoyabeanmeal(7.2%Ninthedrymatter)attheratesof2.5%ofsilage/strawdrymatterand0.3%of
    liveweight,respectively.
    **Strawwasspraytreatedwith7.5kgNaOH/100kgandensiledfor76days.
    Source:WilkinsonandGanzalezSantillana,1977b.

    78. AnovelapproachtotreatingstrawinthesilohasbeenstudiedbyOjiandMowat(1977).Theyensiledmaizestoverafter
    sprayingitwith101ofa50%solutionofurea/100kg.Initialmoisturecontentofthestoverwas55%.Alltheureawas

    decomposedwithin20days.Theammoniareleasedwouldpresumablyreactwiththestoverandincreaseitsdigestibility.This
    possibilityshouldbeinvestigated.

    Table22.Performanceofcalvesondietsofmaizesilageandtreated*andensiledmaize
    husks

    Liveweightgain,kg
    Drymatterintake,kg
    Feed/gainratio

    Maizesilagediet**
    0.75
    7.26
    9.62

    Treatedmaizehusksdiet***
    0.75
    7.17
    9.60

    *Strawtreatedith3kgNaOHand1kgCa(OH) 2/100kgstraw
    **90%maizesilageand10%supplementsonadrymatterbasis
    ***80%maizehuskand20%supplementsonadrymatterbasis
    Source:Klopfenstein,1977

    Bulktreatmentwithammoniainstacks
    79. AmmoniatreatmentofstrawhasastrongappealbecauseoftheadvantagesithasoverNaOHtreatment.Theseare:no
    residualalkaliandanincreasednitrogencontentinthestraw.Threewaysofapplyingammoniahavealreadybeendescribed
    (paragraphs56,66and78).Inthestacktreatmentmethodastackofstrawbales2mhighand4.5msquareismadeinthe
    openonagroundsheetof0.2mmpolyethylene1010minsize(figure6).Thedimensionscanvaryandthesearegivenas
    anexamplethedimensionsforaparticularsituationwilldependupontheamountofstrawtobetreatedandthestandard
    widthsofpolyethylenssheetingavailable.Inbuildingthestacka22cmlathshouldbeplacedinbetweenthe3rdand4th
    layers,and68balesareplacedonthetopatthecentretogiveaslopetotheplasticcover.Thelathwilllaterbepulledoutto
    makeaholeinwhichtheammoniadeliverypipecanbeinserted.Thestackisthencoveredwitha1010mtopsheet,
    leavingafreemarginof0.70cmallaroundwhichcorrespondstothefreeedgesofthegroundsheet.Thesefreeedgesare
    thenrolleduptogetheron3sidesasshowninfigure6.Thedeliverypipefromtheanhydrousammoniatankeristheninserted
    intothestackandNH3addedattherateof3.5kgkg/100kgstraw.Afterwithdrawingthedeliverypipe,thefourthsideis
    quicklyclosed.InNorthernEurope8weeksarerecommendedfortreatmentduringthewinter,butinthesummerorinwarmer
    climatesthemaximumincreaseindigestibilityisachievedinlesstimeonlyabout4weeks.Thestackmustbeaeratedfora
    dayorsoafteropeningbeforethestrawisfedtoanimals.Themethod,aswellasthefeedingvalueofthetreatedstrawhave
    beendescribedindetailbySundstoletal.(1977b)ArnasonandMo(1977)andKernanetal.(1977).Themethodcouldbe
    adoptedtostacksofloosestraw,longorchopped.Ammoniahydroxidesolutionscanbeusedinsteadofanhydrousammonia.
    80. AdisadvantageofthismethodoftreatmentisthatNH3isaweakerbasethanNaOHandthusthesamedegreeof
    improvementindigestibilityisnotpossiblewithNH3aswithNaOH.Digestibilityinvitrohasbeenfoundtoincreasebya
    maximumofonly15percentageunits.Thismaximumoccursatabout3kgNH3/100kgstraw.Anotherdisadvantageisthat
    about2/3rdsoftheammoniaused(when3.5kg/100kgstrawapplied)remainsunreacted.Thismustbecarefullyevacuated
    fromtreatedstacks.Ifstrawisdamp,someofthisexcessammoniaisretainedinthestraw,makingitunplatable.Further,it

    representsawasteofvaluableNH3.ItshouldbepossibletodevisesystemsinwhichthisNH3isrecycledandused.
    81. AnumberofdigestibilitytrialshavebeendonetocompareuntreatedwithNH3treatedstraw.Thesehavebeendonewith
    sheep.Theincreasesrangedfrom817units.Severalfeedingexperimentshavebeendoneandtheresultsaresummarised
    byArnasonandMo(1977)Sundstoletal.(1977b)andHombetal.(1977).AswithNaOHtreatmentofstraw,voluntary
    intakeisincreasedbyNH3treatment,unless,asalreadymentioned,thestrawisdamp.AnexampleofthepotentialofNH3
    treatmentofstrawforimprovingtheweightgainofcattleisgivenintables23and24.Thedataindicateagoodresponseto
    treatmenteveninadiethighinconcentrates.Theresultsofatrialinwhichtreatedstrawwasnobetterthanuntreatedhave
    alsobeenreported(KvaleandHomb,1977)theproblemherecouldconceivablehavebeeninefficienttreatmentwhichcan
    easilyoccuriftheplasticsheetgetsaholeinit.Severalexperimentshavebeendoneonmilkingcows.Theresultsofonein
    whichtreatedanduntreatedstrawwerecomparedaregivenintable25.Thetreatmentofthestrawresultedinalittleincrease
    inmilkyieldeventhoughconcentrateandbeetconsumptionwerelessonthetreatedstrawdiet.Intwootherexperiments(Mo,
    1975and1976)NH3treatedreplacedsomeofthegrasssilageinthedietsofmilkingcows.Onanaverageoffour
    comparisons3kgofNH3treatedstrawplus1kgconcentrateswasfoundtobeequivalentto3kgofgrasssilagedrymatter.
    CalculatednetenergyvaluewaslessthanfortheBeckmanntreatedstrawreportedonbyHombetal.(1977)andequivalent
    toonlyaveragequalitysilage.

    Figure6.ProcedureforthebulkdtreatmentofstrawwithNH3instacks(refertoparagraph79).
    Source:Sundstletal.,1977a.

    Table23.TheeffectofNH3treatmentofstrawontheliveweightgainsofsteers*

    Untreatedstrawdiet

    Strawintake,kg**
    Liveweightgain,kg

    Treatedstrawdiet

    3.4

    4.3

    0.22

    0.53

    *Steersweighed300kginitially.
    **Inadditiontotreatedstrawadlibitum,thesteerswereeachfed3kggrasssilageand2kgofaconcentratemixtureperday.
    Source:PestalozziandMatre,1977

    82. Intheexperimentonmilkingcowsreferredtointhepreceedingparagraph(seetable25)thetreatmentofstrawwas
    apparentlyequivalenttoonlyabout1kgconcentratemixture.Equallypoorreturnsfromstrawtreatmentwereobservedinthe
    experimentofKristensen,privatecommunication1977)(paragraph72).Intakeofstrawincreasedduetotreatmentinthese
    experimentsandpresumablydigestibilityalso.IntheexperimentofGreenhalghetal.(1976)(table15),cowsfedastraw
    concentratediet(50%strawand50%concentrates)consumed10.8kgdrymatterontheuntreatedstrawdietand13.4kgon
    thetreatedstrawdiet.Theyproduced17.6and19.0kgofmilkdaily.Thus2.6kgextrafood,containing1.3kgconcentrate,
    plustheextraenergyresultingfromthetreatmentofallthestraweatenproducedonly1.4kgmilk.Thesametwodietswere
    fedtolambsandweightgainsweredoubledbystrawtreatment.Thepoorshowingoftreatedstrawintheseexperimentswas
    probablybecausethescaleofconcentratefeedingwassetforuntreatedstrawandthustheanimals,alreadyadequatelyfed,
    wereunabletorespondtotheimprovedfeedingvalueofstrawbyproducingmoremilk.Insuchexperiments,threediets
    shouldbecompared(paragraph25).Thescaleofrationingconcentratesshouldbethatappropriatefortheconventional
    roughage.Thesamescaleshouldalsobefollowedforthetreatedanduntreatedstrawdiets.Thevalueoftreatedstrawand
    alsooftreatmentcouldthenbedetermined.

    Table24.TheeffectofNH3treatmentofstrawontheliveweightgainsofgrowingcalves
    (Source:Nicholson,etal.,1977).

    Materialcompositionofdiet,%
    Barleystraw
    Barleygrain
    Soyabeanmeal
    Vitaminsandminerals
    Feedconsumed,kg/day
    Liveweightgain

    Untreatedstrawdiet

    50
    32.75
    15
    2.25
    5.5
    0.39

    Treated*strawdiet

    50
    37.75
    10
    2.25
    5.9
    0.53

    Feed:gainratio

    14.4

    11.2

    *Strawtreatedwith3.5%NH3foraminimumof30days.

    83. ThenitrogenboundbystrawduringNH3treatmenthasbeenshowntobeutilisedbyanimals(Mo,1977).

    Table25.PerformanceofmilkingcowsfeduntreatedorNH3treatedstraw

    Strawintake,kgDM
    Concentrates,kgDM
    Beetpulp,kgDM
    Milkyield(4%FCM),kg

    Untreatedstrawdiet
    6.1
    9.3
    2.0
    19.0

    Treatedstrawdiet
    6.9
    8.8
    1.8
    19.4

    Source:Rissanen,etal.,1977.

    Biologicaltreatment
    84. Thepossibilityofbiologicalmethodsofstrawtreatmenthasagreatappealasanalternativetotheuseofexpensive(interms
    ofmoneyandenergy)chemicals.Pollutionwouldalsobereduced.Itmustberemembered,however,thatwhateverorganism
    isgrownonthestrawmustobtainitsenergyfromthestrawitself.Organismswhichdegradecelluloseandhemicelluloseareof
    nousesincetheyonlydepletethestrawofnutrientswhichtheruminantitselfcandigestevenwithoutanytreatment.
    Successfulbiologicaltreatmentmustbebasedupontheuseoforganismwhichdegradeslignin.Whilethereisnoorganism
    thatdegradesonlylignin,therearesome,notablythewhiterotfungi,whichdegrademoreligninthantheydocellulose,thus
    leavingaresiduewithalowerpercentageofligninthantheoriginalmaterial.Bakeretal.(1975)havetestedseveralsuch
    strainsofwhiterotfungionsawdust.Thedigestibilityofthesawdustinvitrowasimproved,andthedegreeofimprovement
    washighlycorrelatedwiththedegreeofligninremoved.KirkandMoore(1972)foundtwostrainswhichincreasedthe
    digestibilityinvitroofsawdustfrom46to74%inaperiodof23months.Thesawdustlost20%ofitsoriginalweightand50%
    and20%ofitsoriginalligninandcarbohydrates,respectively.Theseresultsarecertainlyencouragingandexperimentsusing
    theseorganismsonstrawshouldbetakenup.Thelongtreatmentperiodsneededforthistreatmentwouldnotprobablybea
    disadvantagefortreatmentofstrawonthefarm.
    85. Severalmethodshavebeendevelopedforproducingsinglecellproteinusingstrawasanenergysource,eitherdirectly,by
    cultivatingcellulolyticorganismsonit,orindirectlybyhydrolysingitspolysaccharideschemicallyorenzymaticallyandusingthe
    resultingmonosaccharidestofeedyeasts.Onegroupofworkershaveexperimentedwithgrowingyeastsonchemically
    degradedstrawandthenfeedingthedegradedstrawalongwiththeyeasttocattle(USDA,1977).Thestrawisinitially
    pressurecookedwithH2SO4andlaterneutralisedwithNH3,againunderpressure.Thishydrolysesstrawpolysaccharides
    (presumablyhemicelluloses)givingsome20%fermentablesugars.Yeastsarethengrownonthehydrolysedstrawfor35h.
    Theentirematerialisthendriedwithhotairandfedtocattle.Ithasacrudeproteincontentof710%(presumablyNsalts
    wereaddedwhentheyeastwascultured).Digestibilityisreportedtobe47%.Nothingmuchseemstobeaccomplishedbythis
    elaborateprocess.Judgingbythedigestibilityvalueof47,theavailabilityofstrawcarbohydratestotheruminantisnot
    increased.Someinorganicnitrogenisconvertedtomicrobialproteinwhichenrichesthestraw.Buttheruminantdothatitselfif

    thestrawissupplementedwiththeurea.However,apilotplanthasbeenbuiltanddataonfeedingvalueandcomparative
    feedingcostsshouldbeforthcoming.

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