Mathematics by Catherine E.

Housecroft
Tutor to accompany Chemistry

by Catherine E. Housecroft and Edwin C. Constable

Introduction
The aim of the Mathematics Tutor is to summarize some essential mathematical skills needed for chemistry. Before beginning to work through the
Mathematics Tutor, study Appendix 1 in Chemistry; it contains common
mathematical symbols. Ensure that you know what the symbols mean:
these symbols are used in the textbook Chemistry without explanation.
Note also that:
.
.

sig. g. means signicant gures;

dec. pl. means decimal places.

Table 1 is a checklist of important formulae dealing with angles in triangles,

areas, surface area and volumes. Their applications are varied and you
should be familiar with how to use the formulae. Identify the keys on your
calculator for nding the sine, cosine and tangent of an angle; they are
probably marked
,
and
respectively.
The Mathematics Tutor contains numerous problem sets, the answers to
which can be found at the end of the Mathematics Tutor.

The constant p
p is a mathematical constant, dened as the ratio of the circumference to
diameter of a circle. The value of p is 3.141 592 653 59 (no units). Find the
key on your calculator that enters p.
The SI derived unit of plane angle is the radian. It is related to p by the
equation:

1 radian


180 8
57:2968
p

Thus, 1808 p radians, and 3608 2p radians.

"

If you need help with

rounding off numbers,
see Section 2

Problem set 1
1. Find the length of the hypotenuse in each of the following right-angled
triangles in which the other two sides are of length (a) 5.0 and 6.25 cm,
and (b) 6 and 8 cm.
2. Evaluate (a) sin 458, (b) cos 808, (c) sin 368 sin 908, (d) 2 sin 508 giving
each answer to 3 dec. pl.
3. Two angles in a triangle are 508 and 658. What is the third angle?
4. Consider a general triangle with sides a, b and c, and angles A, B and C.
(a) Find a if b 2 cm, c 4 cm and A 478. (b) Find c if a 6 cm,
b 4 cm and C 56:38.
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MATHEMATICS TUTOR
Table 1 Some useful formulae: trigonometry, areas and volumes
Formula
x2 y2 z2 (Pythagoras's
theorem)
y
z
x
cos 
z
y
tan 
x
sin 

For a right-angled triangle:

Cosine rule:
a2 b2 c2
For any triangle:

2bc cos A

b a c

2ac cos B

c2 a2 b2

2ab cos C

Sum of angles:
A B C 1808
Area of a square of side a

a2

Volume of a cube of side a

a3

Area of a rectangle of length a and width b

ab

Volume of a cuboid of length a, width b and height c

abc

Diameter of a circle of radius r

2r

Circumference of a circle of radius r

2pr

Area of a circle of radius r

pr2

Surface area of a sphere of radius r

4pr2

Volume of a sphere of radius r

3
4
3 pr

5. The notation sin2  means `the square of sin '. Prove for the right-angled
triangle shown in Table 1 that: sin2  cos2  1.
6. Calculate the radius of a circle of circumference 20.2 cm.
7. Calculate (a) the diameter and (b) the area of a circle of radius 8.2 cm,
giving your answer to 1 dec. pl.
8. What is the volume of a sphere of radius 2.25 mm?
1
9. Conrm that (a) sin 458 cos 458 p; (b) tan 458 sin 908 cos 0 1;
2
1
(c) sin 0 cos 908 0; (d) sin 308 cos 608 12; (e) tan 308 p
3
10. Find x if (a) sin x 0:906, (b) cos x 0:454 and (c) 2 sin x 1:9925.
[Hint: you must nd sin 1 or cos 1 of the number.]

Signicant gures
What are signicant gures?
Experimentally measured values are subject to some degree of uncertainty. If
you weigh a solid and record the mass as 5 g, it indicates that you are less
sure of the exact mass than if the mass is recorded as 5.0 g. Recording 5.00 g
indicates that the mass is known with even more certainty. The value of 5 g
has one signicant gure (1 sig. g.), 5.0 g has 2 sig. g., and 5.00 g has 3 sig. g.
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Signicant gures

Some values are `exact' and in these cases it is not relevant to assign significant gures, e.g. the scale of relative atomic masses is dened so as to give all
atomic masses relative to 12 C 12 (exactly).
Some results are quoted to a given number of decimal places. If a number is
quoted to n dec. pl., there are n digits (including zeros) after the decimal
point, e.g. 8.334 is quoted to 3 dec. pl. and to 4 sig. g.

Answers to calculations: working with experimental data

Many chemical calculations involve manipulating data quoted to dierent
numbers of signicant gures. The result of the calculation must be quoted
according to several rules.

Rule 1: Integers without zeros

An integer is a whole number. The number of signicant gures in an integer
corresponds to the number of digits.
.
.

5 is quoted to 1 sig. g.
68 is quoted to 2 sig. g.

Rule 2: Numbers less than 1 beginning with zeros

Leading zeros come at the beginning of a number, e.g. 0.002. Ignore leading
zeros when working out the number of signicant gures in a number:
.
.

0.006 is quoted to 1 sig. g.;

0.000555 is quoted to 3 sig. g.

Rule 3: Numbers less than 1 ending with zeros

Trailing zeros come at the end of a number, e.g. 2000. Trailing zeros are signicant in a number that contains a decimal point:
.
.
.

0.500 is quoted to 3 sig. g.;

0.040 is quoted to 2 sig. g.;
5:00  10 2 is quoted to 3 sig. g.

Rule 4: Adding and subtracting numbers

"

Mr and Ar : see Chapter 1 in

Chemistry

When adding or subtracting a series of numbers, the nal answer should be

quoted to the same number of decimal places as in the least precise number in
the series. For example: to nd Mr for HF, look up the relative atomic masses
of H and F:
Ar for H 1:008
Ar for F 19:00

Therefore: Mr for HF 1:008 19:00 20:008

but since Ar for F is quoted to only 2 dec. pl. the answer should be given as
Mr 20:01
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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

Rule 5: Multiplying and dividing numbers

When multiplying and dividing a series of numbers, the nal answer should
be quoted to the same number of signicant gures as in the least precise
number in the series.
Worked example

Find the area of a rectangle of sides 8.712 cm and 4.55 cm.

Area 8:712 cm  4:55 cm 39:6396 cm2

but we are only justied in quoting the answer as 39.6 cm2 because the least
precise number in the data is given to 3 sig. g.
It is not relevant to assign a number of signicant gures to an integral
(whole number) multiplier; e.g. the perimeter of a square of side 2.3 cm
could be found by:
Perimeter 2:3 cm 2:3 cm 2:3 cm 2:3 cm 9:2 cm

or
Perimeter 4  2:3 cm 9:2 cm

The answer of 9.2 cm depends only on the number of sig. gs. in the measured
quantity (2.3 cm).

Rounding off
In the calculation above to nd the area of the rectangle, we rounded o the
answer from 39.6396 cm2 to 39.6 cm2 . Follow these rules when rounding o
numbers:
.

If the digit to be removed is <5 (or the digits to be removed begin with a
digit <5), round down. e.g. 1.4243 is rounded down to 1.42 to 3 sig. g., or
to 1.4 to 2 sig. g.
If the digit to be removed is >5 (or the digits to be removed begin with a
digit 5), round up. e.g. 6.4587 is rounded up to 6.46 to 3 sig. g., or to 6.5
to 2 sig. g.

When you use a calculator, it is often easy to forget about signicant gures,
and to simply write down the answer displayed on the calculator. You must
stop and think! Are the digits valid? If the calculation involves several steps,
do not round o at each step. Only round o the nal answer. (In some
worked examples in Chemistry, we do not follow this rule because we want
to show all the steps of the calculation.)

Problem set 2
1. To how many dec. pl. are the following numbers quoted: (a) 0.02, (b) 8.99,
(c) 9.100, (d) 5.2, (e) 0.1124?
2. To how many sig. g. are the following numbers quoted: (a) 665, (b) 0.140,
(c) 2.34, (d) 0.75, (e) 0.505, (f ) 0.5050, (g) 0.006 and (h) 33?
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Exponential notation

3. Which of the following masses are given to 2 sig. g. (a) 0.02 g, (b) 5.00 g,
(c) 5.0 g and (d) 2.2 g?
4. Calculate the area of a square of side 4.67 cm and quote the answer to
(a) 3 sig. g. and (b) 2 sig. g.
5. Calculate the volume of a rectangular box of sides 4.1 cm, 3.4 cm and
5.6 cm.
6. The volume of a cubic container is 6.9 m3 . What are the dimensions of the
container?

Exponential notation
Expressing large and small numbers in exponential form
Scientic numbers are often extremely large or extremely small. Therefore,
exponential notation is used to express them, i.e. a number in the form
n  10x . For example, multiplying the number by 102 makes the number
one hundred times larger and multiplying by 10 2 makes it one hundred
times smaller. Note how the decimal point `moves along' the number, e.g.
2:4  103 2 400
5:6  106 5 600 000
7:2  10

0:000 72

Most scientic calculators have a key marked

. To enter the number
2  106 , press the key sequence
.
To enter the number 2  10 6 , enter the key sequence
or
. Important! 10x stands for 1  10x . When entering,
e.g. 106 into your calculator, you must enter 1  106 . Do not forget the
`1' part of the number.

Problem set 3
1. Use your calculator to carry out the following calculations, and give
the answers in exponential notation: (a) 104 2:0  105 ;
1:52  102
(b) 5:60  105  3:44  10 6 ; (c) 4:5  10 3 2 ; (d)
;
3:21  108
9:8  10 3
(e)
4:5  10 5
2. Using Table 1.3 in Chapter 1 of Chemistry to help you, express each of the
following distances in m: (a) 125 pm; (b) 0.34 nm; (c) 45 cm.

Other uses of exponents

1

A number can be raised to any power, e.g. x4 , x2 , x 3 , x6:7 . Some powers have
specic meanings, for example:
.
.

x2 means `the square of x'

x3 means `the cube of x'
If this method does not work, consult your calculator manual, e.g. the key may be marked
instead of

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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

.
.
.

p
1
1
x2 means `the square root of x', i.e. x2 x
p

1
1
x3 means `the cube root of x', i.e. x3 3 x
1
x 1 means `the reciprocal of x', i.e. x 1
x

On your calculator there should be two keys labelled

.
.

and

xy means `raising x to the yth power';

p
y
x1=y x and means `taking the yth root of x'.

Two results are of general importance:

.

1
n

1
xn
1
p
n
x

Problem set 4
Use your calculator to do the following problems.
p
3
1. Show that (a) 24 16; (b) 34 81; (c) 216 6; (d) 82:5  181.
2. Conrm the following: (a) 0:26 6:4  10 5 ; (b) 0:53 0:125;
(c) 2:40  104 3 1:38  1013 .
1
3. By substituting in any value of x, show that (a) x 2 2 and
x
1
1
(b) x 2 p .
x

Logarithms
If a number N is written in an exponential form:
N ax

then, x is the logarithm to the base a of the number N, and the equation can
also be expressed in the form:
x loga N

In chemistry, two logarithmic bases are commonly encountered:

.
.

Common logarithms are logarithms to the base 10, i.e. log10 , and are
usually written as log (sometimes, lg).
Natural logarithms are logarithms to the base e, i.e. loge , where
e 2:7183. A natural logarithm is written as ln.

On your calculator, nd the keys assigned for taking common and natural
logarithms. They are probably marked
and
respectively.
The number of signicant gures quoted in the logarithm is determined as
follows. Consider the number 14.5, which has 3 signicant gures. The value
of log 14.5 should be quoted as 1.161 with 3 decimal places.
.
.

For common logarithms, it is always true that:

For natural logarithms, it is always true that:

log 10n n
ln en n

Table 2 lists some other important relationships involving logarithms.

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Logarithms

Table 2 Some important relationships involving logarithms.

For common logarithms

For natural logarithms

log xa a log x

ln xa a ln x

log xy log x log y

ln xy ln x ln y

x
log log x
y

ln

x
ln x
y

ln

log

log y

log x

ln y

ln x

Problem set 5
1. Use your calculator to conrm that (a) log 102 2:009;
(b) log 3:39 0:530; (c) ln 58:0 4:060; (d) ln 0:622 0:475;
(e) log 2  10 8 7:7.
2. Without using a calculator, determine the following: (a) log 104 ;
(b) log 10 5 ; (c) log 1  106 ; (d) log 10 15 ; (e) log 107:7 . (You will see
the importance of this exercise when you come to the pH calculations
in Chapter 15 of Chemistry.)
So far we have been concerned with taking the logarithm of a number. However, the reverse process is equally important and involves an exponent. i.e.
nding the number N from the equation:
N ax

For a common logarithm, N is found using the equation:

N 10x

For a natural logarithm, N is found using the equation:

N ex

On your calculator, nd the keys marked

obvious, consult the calculator manual.
Worked example

and

. If these keys are not

Find x in the following equation:

0:034

log x

First rewrite the equation in the exponent form:

x 10

0:034

On your calculator, x can be found by entering 0.034 followed by the key

sequence
. This gives x 0:925.

Problem set 6
1. Evaluate the following: (a) log 106 ; (b) ln 98; (c) ln 0:56; (d) log 10 4 .
2. y and z are related by the equation: z 10 y .
Find the value of y for each of the following values of z: (a) 0.33; (b) 0.45;
(c) 8.76.
3. Evaluate the following: (a) e2:29 ; (b) ln1:2  108 ; (c) log 22:3; (d) 105:67 .
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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

Solving a quadratic equation

Problems dealing with, for example, equilibria (Chapter 15 in Chemistry)
may require you to solve a quadratic equation. A quadratic equation in
which the variable is x has the form:
ax2 bx c 0

where a, b and c are constants. A quadratic equation has two solutions (or
roots).
The values of x that satisfy a given quadratic equation may be found by
one of two methods.

Method 1
If the equation factorizes, the solutions are readily found.
Worked example

Find the roots of the equation: 2x2 4x

60

Rewrite the equation in the form:

x 32x

2 0

This process is called factorizing, and sets the equation up in a form that is
readily solved for x.
The equation:
Exercise. Check the
factorization is correct by
expanding
x 32x 2 0 back to
the original form of
2x2 4x 6 0.

x 32x

2 0

contains two factors: x 3 and 2x 2. The product of the two factors

is zero, so either one of the factors must equal zero. You can therefore nd
the two solutions of x as follows:
x30

;x

or
2x

20

; 2x 2

;x1

These values of x are the roots (or solutions) of the quadratic equation.

Method 2
The general method for solving a quadratic equation is as follows.
If: ax2 bx c 0
p
b  b2 4ac
then: x
2a
In most chemical applications (e.g. in calculations dealing with equilibrium
constants), you should apply this equation rather than attempt to factorize
the quadratic equation.
Worked example

Find the values of x that satisfy the equation: 3x2

4x 0:5 0

By comparing this equation with the general form:

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Plotting and interpreting graphs

ax2 bx c 0

we can see that:

a 3;

4;

c 0:5

Solutions of x are given by:

x

b

p
b2 4ac
2a

Therefore:
x

4 

q
42 430:5

p
4  10
x
6
x 1:2 or 0:14

23

Problem set 7
1. Factorize the equation 3x2 4x 1 0, and hence nd the roots of the
equation.
2. Find solutions of x for the equations: (a) x2 x 2 0 and
(b) x2 3:5x 0.
3. Find the roots of the equation: 0:3x2 1:2x 0:1 0.
4. What values of x satisfy the equation: 2:2x2 1:8x 0:5 0?

Plotting and interpreting graphs

Experimental data are often analysed by plotting a graph. Although
computer-aided graphing packages are readily available, it is still essential
to understand the fundamentals of graph plotting.

Linear plots (straight lines)

The equation:
y mx c

describes a straight line and shows the way in which the function y depends
on x. The gradient (or slope) of the line is given by m, and c is the intercept on
the y axis when x 0. The point x 0, y 0 is called the origin; the origin
can be written in the (x, y) Cartesian coordinate notation as (0, 0).
Figure 1 illustrates the graph corresponding to the equation:
y 5x 2

When x 0, the line intercepts the y axis at a value of y 2. By comparing

the equations:
y 5x 2

and
y mx c
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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

Fig. 1 Straight line graph for the

equation y 5x 2.

we see that m 5 and c 2. From the graph, the gradient of the line can be
measured by taking any two points on the straight line; let us choose two
points x1 and x2 with corresponding values y1 and y2 (see Figure 1). It is
usual to refer to these points as having the coordinates x1 ; y1 and
x2 ; y2 . The gradient of the line is given by:
Gradient (or slope) of the straight line

y2
x2

y1
x1

Figure 2 shows two linear plots; in Figure 2a, the line has a positive gradient
and in Figure 2b, the line has a negative gradient. You can spot the sign of the
gradient by inspection of the equation for the straight line. For example, the
equation:
y 3x 6

has a positive coecient for x and so the gradient of the line is positive. The
equation:
y

0:67x 15

has a negative coecient for x and so the gradient of the line is negative.
The following questions give practice in plotting graphs, and in
rearranging equations. The term `making y the subject of the equation'
means putting the equation in the form of `y . . .'. In order to nd the intercept, you may have to extrapolate the line, i.e. extend it to reach the value
corresponding to x 0.

Fig. 2 Examples of linear plots with (a) positive and (b) negative gradients. The sign of the gradient is determined by the sign of
the coecient m.
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11

Plotting and interpreting graphs

Problem set 8

y
1 3x.
2:1
(b) By plotting a graph, show that the following data points are consistent
with the rearranged equation:

1. (a) Make y the subject of the following equation:

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

2.1

14.7

27.3

39.9

52.5

2. Plot a graph of x against y using the following data, and determine the
equation of the line.
x

1.50
7.10

13.1

3.50
21.2

5.20
27.9

9.00
43.1

3. At a constant pressure of 1:00  105 Pa, the volume V (in m3 ) of 1 mole of

a gas varies with temperature T (in K) according to the equation:
V 8:314  10 5 T

(a) Use the following data to conrm the above relationship. (b) What
is the intercept of the line and what is the physical meaning of the
value? (c) Comment on the need to use all of the data given, rather than
a smaller data set.
T/K
V/m

273

298

310

320

330

0.0227

0.0248

0.0258

0.0266

0.0274

4. Rearrange the following equations making y the subject, and show that
each corresponds to a linear relationship between y and x.
a

y 1:3
3x 2:2;
6

b 1:2  10 4 x

5:4  10 3 2 y
:
0:02

Non-linear plots

Exercise. In Figure 3,
measure the gradient of the
curve at two more points
and hence show that the
gradient increases as x
increases.

Any plot that is not a straight line is non-linear. The equations of non-linear
plots take many dierent forms, and numerous examples are given in the
accompanying textbook Chemistry. For a linear plot, the gradient is constant
at all points on the line. For a non-linear plot, the gradient has dierent
values at dierent points on the graph. Figure 3 shows an example of a
non-linear plot. The gradient at a given point on the curve is found by
drawing a tangent to the curve at that point, and calculating the gradient
of this line. (You will apply this method in Chapter 14 of Chemistry when
you study rates of reaction.) In Figure 3, to nd the gradient of the curve
at the point where x 3, mark the point on the curve where x 3; this is
point A in Figure 3. Now draw a tangent to the curve exactly at this point.
The tangent is a straight line, and its gradient can be found as in Figure 1.
From Figure 3, the gradient at point A is:
Gradient

y2
x2

y1 4:2 2:0
0:04

55 6
x1

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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

Fig. 3 A graph of the function:

y x3 5. To nd the gradient
of the curve at point A, a tangent
is drawn to the curve at the point,
and its gradient is determined.

Differentiation: an introduction
First order derivatives:
The equation:

dy
dx

y mx c

describes a straight line, and shows the way in which the function y depends
on x. In this case, the rate of change of y with respect to x is equal to the
gradient, m, of the line and is a constant value at every point on the line.
Mathematical functions have many dierent forms and, correspondingly,
the shapes of graphs of these functions are dierent. Three examples are
shown in Figure 4. In each graph, the rate of change of y with respect to x

Fig. 4 The shape of a graph depends on the relationship between the variables; here, the variables are x and y.
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13

Differentiation: an introduction
Table 3 Selected standard derivatives
y

dy
dx

constant, c

xn

nxn

1
x
xn
ex
e

nx

dy
.
dx

1
n 1

n
xn 1

ex

ax

ae

ax

dy
dx

ln x

1
x

sin x

cos x

cos x

sin x

sin ax

a cos ax

cos ax

a sin ax

varies for dierent values of x. Moreover, for a given value of x, the rate of
change of y with respect to x depends on the relationship between x and y,
e.g. consider the point at x 10 in each graph in Figure 4.
The rate of change of y with respect to x is given by the dierential
dy
coecient of y with respect to x, and is denoted by
. This is commonly
dx
known as a derivative; we dierentiate the function y with respect to x in
dy
order to obtain .
dx
Derivatives have particular forms and some important ones are listed in
Table 3. Their applications are illustrated in the following examples.
Worked example 1

Dierentiate the function y 2x3 5x 7 with respect to x.

y 2x3 5x 7

Worked example 2

Find

dy
4
if y 2 .
dx
x
y

Worked example 3

Find

dy
6x2 5
dx

4
x2



dy
2

4
dx
x3

8
x3

dy
if y ln 2x.
dx
y ln 2x

; From Table 1: y ln 2 ln x
ln 2 is a constant, and therefore:

dy 1

dx x

Problem set 9
1. Dierentiate the following functions with respect to x.
(a) y 3x 6
(b) y 4x2 8x 9
(c) y 2x
1
3
(e) y sin 2x cos 2x
(f) y
(d) y 4x
x
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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

2. Find the derivatives with respect to x of the following functions where a

and b are constants.
(a) y ex
(b) y 3ex
(c) y e2x
bx
ax
bx
(d) y 4e
(e) y e e
(f ) y e ax

Using

dy
to nd a gradient
dx

dy
, substitution of a given value of x
dx
allows you to nd the gradient of the line or curve at this particular point.

Having found the general form of

Worked example

Find the gradient of the curve:

y 2 ln x
at the point x 20.
First, find

dy
:
dx

y 2 ln x

At the point where x 20:

dy 2

dx x
Gradient

dy
2

0:1
dx 20

Problem set 10

dy
when
1. Dierentiate the function y 2x2 4x, and nd the value of
dx
x 3.
2. What is the slope of the curve y x4 at the point x 2?
3. Does the graph of y 2 ln x have a positive or negative gradient at the
point x 2:5?
2
4. For the graph of y , nd the gradient at the point x 0:5.
x
dy
for the function y 2 cos x 3 sin x.
5. (a) Find the general form of
dx
(b) Evaluate this dierential for x 908.

Turning points:

d2 y
dx 2

Graphs such as that in Figure 5 possess turning points. At a maximum, the

gradient changes from a positive to negative value. At a minimum, the
Fig. 5 A plot of y sin x is called
a `sine wave'; it is an example of a
graph that possesses turning
points.

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Differentiation: an introduction

15

gradient changes from a negative to positive value. Check these denitions by

looking at Figure 5 which shows two maxima and one minimum. Information about turning points for a function that varies with x can be obtained
d2 y
by taking the second derivative, 2 , of the function. Once you have found
dx
dy
d2 y
, dierentiate again to nd 2 .
dx
dx
For a turning point at a maximum:

d2 y
<0
dx2

For a turning point at a minimum:

d2 y
>0
dx2

Exactly at the maximum or minimum point (look at Figure 5), the gradient
dy
0.
of the graph is zero, i.e.
dx
Worked example

Find the values of x that correspond to turning points in the graph of

equation:
y 2x3 x2 2
and identify each turning point as a maximum or minimum.
First, nd the general forms of

dy
d2 y
and 2 :
dx
dx

y 2x3 x2 2
dy
6x2 2x
dx
d2 y
12x 2
dx2
The turning points occur when

dy
0
dx

i.e. when: 6x2 2x 0

The solutions of this quadratic equation are found by factorization:
6x2 2x 0
2x3x 1 0
x3x 1 0
;

x0

or

3x 1 0

1
3

Now substitute these values for x into the equations for the turning points:
d2 y
When x 0,
12x 2 2
dx2
d2 y
and this corresponds to a minimum because 2 > 0.
dx
1
d2 y
,

12x

2
When x
3
dx2
d2 y
and this corresponds to a maximum because 2 < 0.
dx
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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

dy
d2 y
and 2 . If y is a funcdx
dx 2
dy
d y
can be written as f 0 x, and 2 is written
tion of x denoted by f x, then
dx
dx
as f 00 x. The notation f x simply stands for y is a function of x.

Another type of notation is sometimes used for y,

Problem set 11
dy
d2 y
and 2 for the functions (a) y sin x, (b) y cos x and (c) ln x.
dx
dx
2. For the function: y 3x3 3x
dy
d2 y
nd (a) , (b) 2 and (c) information about the turning points of the
dx
dx
graph of this function.
1. Find

3. For the function: y x3 2x2 5

dy
d2 y
, (b) nd
(a) nd
and (c) determine the turning points of this
dx
dx2
function.
4. Show that, between the limits of x 908 and x 2708, a plot of y cos x
has one turning point. Is this a maximum or a minimum?

Integration: an introduction
A denite integral as an area under a curve
Consider a curve with the general equation y f x. A plot of a representative function is shown in Figure 6. Suppose you need to determine the area
under the curve bounded by (i.e. enclosed by) the x axis (i.e. when y 0)
and between certain values of x, i.e. between specied limits. In Figure 6,
the area of the shaded section between the limits of x a and x b could
be calculated by:
.
.
.

dividing the shaded region into an innite number of vertical strips drawn
parallel to the y axis,
nding the area of each strip, and
summing the areas together.

Fig. 6 The area under a curve for

y f x between specied limits
x a and x b (the shaded
area) is given by the denite
b
integral
f x dx.
a

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Integration: an introduction

These three steps can be achieved mathematically in one step by nding the
denite integral of f x with respect tox between the integration limits x a
and x b. The notation for this is

f x dx. Examples of nding areas

under curves are given in the discussion of entropy in Chapter 16 of Chemistry.

Indenite integrals
A second use of integration is to answer the question: `if we have an
dy
expression for , what is the relationship between x and y?' Just as there
dx
are standard derivatives (see Table 3), so there are standard integrals. Those
listed in Table 4 are indenite integrals because there are no limits specied
for the integration. If:
dy
f 0 x
dx

then, by separating the x and y terms (i.e. rearranging the equation as we did
earlier in the Mathematics Tutor), and integrating, we have:

dy

f 0 x dx
f 0 x dx

If we integrate without limits, i.e. evaluate an indenite integral, then an

integration constant, c, must be introduced. The reason for this is clear if
we consider the following three functions:
y 4x 3
y 4x 10
y 4x 22

Dierentiating each of these equations gives the same answer:

Table 4 Selected standard indenite integrals,

the integration constant.
f 0 x
a (a constant)

1
x 1
x
1
x n
xn

ax c
2

x
c
2

xn

xn 1
c
n1
(except for n

ex

ex c

eax

eax
c
a

f 0 x dx. The constant, c, in each case is

f 0 x

f 0 x dx

cos x
sin x
cos ax
sin ax

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f 0 x dx

ln x c
n

x
n

1)

dy
4.
dx

1
n

c
1
1xn

sin x c
cos x c
sin ax
c
a
cos ax
c
a

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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

Suppose now that you are evaluating the integral

4 dx. That is, you know

the derivative of a function is 4 and you want to nd the function. From

Table 4, we can write:

y 4 dx 4x c

With the information we have, c could be any value and we cannot unambiguously nd the function. However, given values of x and y at a
particular point, c can be evaluated. For example, if we know that y 7
when x 1, then we can write:
y 4x c
74c
;c3

Therefore, the complete function is:

y 4x 3

In Chapter 14 of Chemistry, integration constants come into calculations

involving rate equations.

Problem set 12
1. The integrated form of an equation is: y 3x2 6x c.
If the curve for this equation passes through the point x 0, y 2, what
is c?

1
2. Evaluate the integral y
dx, given that y 0:5 when x 1.
2
x

3. Evaluate the integral y 2 cos x

x 0.

3 sin x dx, given that y 2 when

Integrating between limits: denite integrals

Now let us look again at the question of integrating between limits, and the
application of integration to nding the area under a curve. Notation is
important, and is best illustrated with an example.
Worked example

Find the area under the curve y 3x2 between the limits of x 4 and x 1.
The area under the curve is found by integrating the equation y 3x2
between the limits of x 4 and x 1:

4
Area y dy
3x2 dx

The notation
x 1.

y dy

4
1

4
1

species that the upper limit is x 4 and the lower limit is

3x2 dx


4
x3 c 1
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Summary and further reading

19

Again, notation is important. The general integral is written within square

brackets, and the upper and lower limits must be shown. This notation
stands for the dierence between the integrals when x 4 and x 1.

4
Area x3 c 1
43 c

13 c

63 square units

Notice that the integration constants, c, cancel and so there is no need to

evaluate c.

Problem set 13
1. Find the area bounded by the x axis and the part of the curve
y 3x3 6x2 5 that lies between
1the limits x 5 and
6 x 0.
2
2. Evaluate the denite integrals (a)
x 1 dx, (b)
ex dx,
2:3
1
4
(c)
x 1 dx.
1:2

Functions that tend to innity

Exponential decay is an important concept for reaction kinetics and this
is discussed in Chapter 14 of Chemistry. Exponential decay follows the
dependence:
ye

and is an example of a function that tends to innity. Figure 7 shows a plot of

e x against x. For x 0, e0 1, and so the curve has a nite starting point.
As x increases, the function e x decreases, but it only reaches zero when x is
innity (x 1). It is usual only to show that the curve tends towards a value
of x 1.
Fig. 7 A graph of the function
y e x.

10

Summary and further reading

In the Mathematics Tutor, we have summarized some important mathematical skills required for rst year university chemistry. The concepts of vectors
and partial dierentials are introduced as required in the main textbook
Chemistry. Further practice is provided in the following books:
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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

G. Doggett and B.T. Sutclie (1995) Mathematics for Chemistry, Longman,

Harlow.
S.K. Scott (1995) Beginning Mathematics in Chemistry, Oxford University
Press, Oxford.

Answers to problem sets

Problem set 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
10.

(a) 8.0 cm; (b) 10 cm

(a) 0.707; (b) 0.174; (c) 1.588; (d) 1.532
658
(a) 3 cm; (b) 5 cm
y2 x 2 z 2
sin2  cos2  2 2 2 1
z
z
z
3.2 cm
2
(a) 16.4 cm; (b) 211.2 cm
47.7 mm3
(a) 65:08; (b) 63:08; (c) 85:08

Problem set 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

(a) 2; (b) 2; (c) 3; (d) 1; (e) 4

(a) 3; (b) 3; (c) 3; (d) 2; (e) 3; (f) 4; (g) 1; (h) 2
(c); (d)
(a) 21.8 cm2 ; (b) 22 cm2
78 cm3 (to 2 sig. g. because each length is given to 2 sig. g.)
1.9 m

Problem set 3
1. (a) 2:1  105 ; (b) 1.93; (c) 2:0  10 5 ; (d) 4:74  10 7 ; (e) 2:2  102
2. (a) 1:25  10 10 m; (b) 3:4  10 10 m; (c) 0.45 m

Problem set 5
2. (a) 4; (b)

5; (c) 6; (d)

15; (e) 7.7

Problem set 6
1. (a) 6; (b) 4.58; (c) 0.58; (d) 4
2. y log z; (a) 0.48; (b) 0.35; (c) 0.943
3. (a) 9.87; (b) 18.60; (c) 1.35; (d) 4:68  105

Problem set 7
1.
2.
3.
4.

x 1, or x 13
(a) x 1, or x 2; (b) x 0, or x
x 3:9, or x 0:085
x 0:22, or x 1:0

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Answers to problem sets

Problem set 8
1. y 6:3x 2:1
2. y 4:0x 7:12
3. (b) c 0; this can be seen from equation; physical signicance is that at
0 K, the volume occupied by the gas is 0 m3 ; (c) experimental data may
contain erroneous points or points of low precision, and any calculation
should not be biased towards these points
4. (a) y 18x 11:9; (b) y 0:082x

Problem set 9
1. (a) 3; (b) 8x 8; (c) 2; (d)

12x 4 ; (e) 2 cos 2x

2 sin 2x; (f )

2. (a) ex ; (b) 3ex ; (c) 2e2x ; (d) 4bebx ; (e) aeax bebx ; (f )

ae

ax

1
x2

Problem set 10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

dy
dy
4x 4; when x 3,
16
dx
dx
dy
dy
4x3 ; when x 2,
32
dx
dx
dy 2
; at x 2:5, gradient is positive
dx x
dy
2

; gradient 8
dx
x2
dy
2 sin x 3 cos x; (b) 2
(a)
dx

Problem set 11
dy
d2 y
dy
d2 y
dy 1
cos x; 2 sin x; (b)
sin x; 2 cos x; (c)
;
dx
dx
dx x
dx
dx
d2 y
1

dx2
x2
1
2. (a) 9x2 3; (b) 18x; (c) turning points at x p (minimum) and
3
1
x p (maximum)
3
3. (a) 3x2 4x; (b) 6x 4; (c) turning points at x 0 (minimum) and
4
(maximum)
x
3
dy
d2 y
4.
sin x; 2 cos x; turning point at 1808 (minimum); other turndx
dx
ing points are outside the limits of x 908 and x 2708
1. (a)

Problem set 12
1. c 2

1
x
3. y 2 sin x 3 cos x
2. y 1:5

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MATHEMATICS TUTOR

Problem set 13
1. 694 square units
8
2. (a) ; (b) 349; (c) 0.65
3

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