Structures 1

Laboratory Report 1

Student Particulars

Title of Experiment

: Buckling Test

Student Name

: Sri Kartikeayan S/O Raja Gopal

Student ID

: SCM014634

Subject

/ Subject code : Structures 1 / ECS 3213

Lecturer

: Ir. Pan

Date Submitted

: 22th August 2014

Abstract:
The main purpose of this experiment is to determine the yield stress, ultimate strength, Youngs
modulus (elastic Modulus), and behavior of given material when subjected to unaxial loading
and plot the graph of stress versus strain. In this experiment, a tensile test machine, steel and
aluminum specimen and some measurement apparatus is used. The load is applied to the
specimen by the tensile test machine. The load and dial gauge reading is recorded during this
experiment. A graph with Stress vs. Strain curve for the specimen and its elastic modulus, yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength is pointed out. The reduction in area, percentage of
elongation, yield strength and ultimate strength is determined after the experiment has been
done. The relationship between stress and strain is established and discussion and conclusion has
been made.

Introduction/Theory:
Axial loading is produced by two or more collinear forces acting along the axis of a long slender
member. This type of loading occurs in many engineering elements that make up machine,
bridge and building trusses. When a structure member or machine component is subjected to the
external forces (applied loads and support reactions), internal resisting forces will develop within
the member or components to balance the external forces.
Stress is the intensity of the internal force on the cross-sectional area of a body. In this test, the
internal distribution of internal forces has a resultant force that is normal to exposed crosssectional area of a simple bar. Thus,
=

F
A

, where

(Equation 1)
= stress (Pa), F = Force (N) and A = cross sectional area ( m

When the axial loading is applied to the body, individual points of the body generally move with
the direction of the external force. This movement of points is generally known as displacement
(vector quantity) that will involve a translation and rotation of the body as a whole and neither
the size nor the shape of the body is changed. The change in any dimension associated with these
displacements is known as deformation.
A normal strain is the quantity used to measure the change in size (elongation) during
deformation. The strain may be result of a stress, of a change in temperature, or of other physical
phenomena (grain growth or shrinkage). In this test, only strain resulting from changes in stress
is considered. The change in length of a simple bar under an axial loading is:

L0

, where

(Equation 2)
= Strain,

= Elongation (m) and

L0

= Initial length (m)

The modulus of elasticity is a material property, that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of
the most important properties of solid materials. Mechanical deformation puts energy into a
material. The energy is stored elastically or dissipated plastically. The way a material stores this
energy is summarized in stress-strain curves. Stress is defined as force per unit area and strain as
elongation or contraction per unit length. So the formula for elastic modulus is:

E=

(Equation 3)

, where E = Elastic modulus (MPa),

= Stress (MPa) and

= Strain

This relationship between loads and deformation in a structure or machine components can be
obtained by plotting a stress-strain diagram. It also depends on the dimension of the members as
well as type of material they are made.

By analyzing the stress-strain curve of a body, a number of mechanical properties of the material
can be determined. Yield strength is defined as the stress required to produce a specified amount
of plastic deformation or permanent set in the body. The yield strength is always a practical
measure of the limit of elastic action of a material:

Yield Strength=

Load at thelimit proportionality

Area

(Equation 4)

The maximum stress on the original cross-sectional area that develops in the body before fracture
is called ultimate strength or ultimate tensile and the term can be modified as compressive or
shearing strength:

Ultimate Strength=

Maximumload
Area

(Equation 5)

When the ultimate strength of the body is reached, the cross-sectional area of the body will start
to decrease or neck down and the resultant force that can be carried by the specimen decreases
until rupture.

Components:

A.
B.
C.
D.

Specimen
Dial gauge
Digital load indicator
Power switch

Experimental method :
1. The diameter of the specimen at various places is measured and the average is recorded
down.
2. The specimen is marked at 10mm interval along its length.
3. Two marks are punched on the specimen using the provided puncher.
4. The specimen is fixed to the machine by pushing the top grip upwards and the specimen
is inserted into the bottom grip.
5. The extensometer is fixed to the specimen. The screw pins is make sure so that they are
resting in the 2 marks.
6. The dial gauge readings are recorded into Table 1.
7. The tensile machine is powered on using the power switch.
8. The motor switch is pressed to position A.
9. The machine is stopped when the reading is about 0.5 1kN. This is to preload and take
up all the loose fitting in the machine.
10. The zero readings of the dial gauge and load indicator is created.
11. The motor switch is turned to position A.
12. The reading of the load cell, extensometer and the dial gauge is recorded.
13. The extensometer is removed and continues the experiment using the dial gauge only
when the extensometer reading starts to increase at a fast rate.
14. The motor is switched off by pressing the motor switch position O.
15. The specimen is removed from the grips and joined back the specimen.
16. The final length is measured and the diameter at the broken section.
17. The motor switch is pressed to position M to return the crosshead to the original position.

Results and Analysis:

Aluminium:
Aluminium

Load,
F (N)

Crosssectional
area
(mm2)

Calculated
Stress, =
F/A (N/mm2)

Calculated
Length L
(mm)

Calcula
ted
Strain,
=
L/L0
(mm/m
m)

Young's
Modulu
s, E
(N/mm2
)

0.00

0.00

0.0000

301

10.58

0.05

0.0009

603

21.19

0.11

0.0020

906

31.83

0.16

0.0029

1201

42.20

0.23

0.0042

1507

52.95

0.29

0.0053

1801

63.28

0.34

0.0063

2099

73.75

0.39

0.0072

2399

84.29

0.44

0.0081

2708

95.15

0.49

0.0090

105.52

0.52

0.0096

3304

116.09

0.58

0.0107

3603

126.60

0.62

0.0114

3910

137.39

0.67

0.0123

4200

147.58

0.71

0.0131

4509

158.43

0.77

0.0142

4807

168.90

0.82

0.0150

5109

179.52

0.86

0.0158

5408

190.02

0.91

0.0168

5702

200.35

0.99

0.0182

6000

210.82

1.12

0.0206

6300

221.36

1.40

0.0258

6397

224.77

1.62

0.0298

3003

27.34

0
11485.8
05
10458.9
85
10803.7
16
9962.77
9914.71
4
10106.4
76
10268.6
36
10402.6
15
10544.2
94
11018.3
59
10868.6
84
11087.5
99
11134.4
02
11286.4
11
11172.6
05
11253.3
4
11334.5
11338.6
21
10988.9
69
10221.1
12
8585.73
4
7534.01
1

Yield

Ultimate

Stress versus Strain

250.00

200.00

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.0000 0.0030 0.0060 0.0090 0.0120 0.0150 0.0180 0.0210 0.0240 0.0270 0.0300
Strain (mm/mm)

2
Young modulus = 11338.62N/ mm

Aluminium:
Specimen diameter = 6.0mm
2

Cross-sectional area = 28.46 mm

Gauge length = 60mm

Percentage of elongation al=

Final lengthInitial length

100
Initial length

6.67

64 mm60 mm
100
64 mm

STEEL:
Steel
Load,
F (N)

Calculated
Stress, =
F/A (N/mm2)

Calculated
Length L
(mm)

Calcula
ted
Strain,
=
L/L0
(mm/m
m)

Young'
s
Modulu
s, E
(N/mm2
)

0
343

0.00
12.05

0.00
0.03

0.0000
0.0006

525

18.45

0.05

0.0009

730

25.65

0.07

0.0013

1031

36.23

0.13

0.0024

1391

48.88

0.19

0.0035

1601

56.25

0.23

0.0042

1997

70.17

0.29

0.0053

2229

78.32

0.33

0.0061

2695

94.69

0.39

0.0072

105.73

0.43

0.0079

3390

119.11

0.47

0.0087

3698

129.94

0.50

0.0092

4014

141.04

0.54

0.0099

4434

155.80

0.56

0.0103

0
21814.1
25
20033.3
8
19897.0
99
15131.4
4
13968.1
36
13280.9
28
13138.4
76
12887.2
74
13184.3
61
13351.1
5
13761.5
32
14111.1
31
14182.3
61
15106.8

3009

Crosssectional
area
(mm2)

28.27

4722

165.92

0.58

0.0107

5105

179.37

0.59

0.0109

5464

191.99

0.61

0.0112

5708

200.56

0.63

0.0116

6035

212.05

0.65

0.0120

6386

224.39

0.67

0.0123

6627

232.85

0.68

0.0125

6970

244.91

0.71

0.0131

7354

258.40

0.73

0.0135

7605

267.22

0.75

0.0138

7981

280.43

0.77

0.0142

8281

290.97

0.78

0.0144

8559

300.74

0.79

0.0145

8916

313.28

0.81

0.0149

9255

325.19

0.84

0.0155

9541

335.24

0.85

0.0157

9942

349.33

0.88

0.0162

10269

360.82

0.89

0.0164

10583

371.86

0.91

0.0168

10875
11123

382.12
390.83

0.93
0.95

0.0171
0.0175

11520

404.78

0.98

0.0180

11856

416.58

1.01

0.0186

04
15533.2
71
16508.5
4
17090.1
47
17286.5
51
17714.4
98
18185.2
4
18594.0
07
18730.0
68
19141.8
8
19346.5
21
19775.6
84
20255.9
73
20670.9
71
21001.4
84
21021.4
21
21416.0
76
21555.3
97
22014.2
09
22188.7
24
22310.6
22338.9
76
22428.0
41
22396.5

12070

424.10

1.03

0.0190

12320

432.89

1.06

0.0195

12669

445.15

1.08

0.0199

12980

456.08

1.11

0.0204

13348

469.01

1.16

0.0214

13643

479.37

1.18

0.0217

13955

490.34

1.23

0.0227

14286

501.97

1.25

0.0230

14525

510.37

1.28

0.0236

14894

523.33

1.31

0.0241

15101

530.60

1.35

0.0249

15434

542.30

1.39

0.0256

15739

553.02

1.44

0.0265

16033

563.35

1.51

0.0278

16328

573.72

1.63

0.0300

82
22358.1
04
22175.3
14
22381.2
08
22310.8
77
21954.4
79
22059.3
55
21646.5
99
21805.4
76
21650.6
58
21692.2
69
21342.0
86
21185.0
08
20853.5
3
20258.2
9
19112.1
84

Yield strength:290.70 N/
2

mm

Ultimate strength= 573.72 N /mm

Stress versus Strain

600.00
500.00
400.00
300.00
200.00
100.00
0.00
0.0000 0.0030 0.0060 0.0090 0.0120 0.0150 0.0180 0.0210 0.0240 0.0270 0.0300
Strain (mm/mm)

2
Young modulus: 14182.36N/ mm

Steel:
Specimen diameter = 6.0mm
2

Cross-sectional area = 28.46 mm

Gauge length = 60mm

Percentage of elongation steel=

Final lengthInitial length

100
Initial length

63 mm60 mm
100
60 mm

Reference:
1. http://tpm.fsv.cvut.cz/student/documents/files/BUM1/Chapter15.pdf
2. http://esminfo.prenhall.com/engineering/shackelford/closerlook/pdf/Shackelford_Ch6.pdf