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Electromagnetics (I)
901 25110 04

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CHAPTER5
Electromagnetic Potentials and Topics for
Circuits and Systems

Two quantities of fundamental importance, resulting from Maxwells

equations in differential form, are the electromagnetic potentials:
the electric scalar potential and the magnetic vector potential.

 We begin the discussion of topics for circuits and systems with two
important differential equations involving the electric potential and
discuss several applications based on the solution of these
equations, including the analysis of a p-n junction semiconductor
and arrangements involving two parallel conductors.
We then introduce an important relationship between the (lumped)
circuit parameters, capacitance, conductance, and inductance for
infinitely long, parallel perfect conductor arrangements, and consider
their determination.
Next we turn our attention to electric- and magnetic-field systems,
that is, systems in which either the electric field or the magnetic field
is predominant, leading from quasistatic extensions of the static
fields existing in the structures when the frequency of the source
driving the structure is zero. The concepts of electric- and magneticfield systems are important in the study of electromechanics.
We shall also consider magnetic circuits, an important class of
magnetic field systems, and the topic of electromechanical energy
conversion.

 For any vector A,

From Gauss law for the magnetic field,
By defining the vector A known as the magnetic vector potential.

If the curl of a vector is equal to the null vector, that vector can be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar, since the curl of the gradient
of a scalar function is identically equal to the null vector.

From Stokes theorem

Gradient of a scalar field

In the Cartesian coordinate system,

In cylindrical coordinate system,

In spherical coordinate system,

Physical Interpretation of gradient

 Since dl cos a is the distance between the two surfaces along an and
hence is the shortest distance between them, it follows that
is
the maximum rate of increase of at the point P.
Thus, the gradient of a scalar function F at a point is a vector having
magnitude equal to the maximum rate of increase of F at that point
and is directed along the direction of the maximum rate of increase,
which is normal to the constant F surface passing through that point;
that is,

where dn is a differential length along an.

The concept of the gradient of a scalar function we just discussed is
often utilized to find a unit vector normal to a given surface.

The value of the gradient at the point (2, 4,

1) is

Thus, the required unit vector is

 The quantity F in (5.13) is known as the electric scalar potential.

The electric scalar potential F and the magnetic vector potential A
are known as the electromagnetic potentials.
The electric scalar potential F is related to the source charge
density ; the magnetic vector potential A is related to the source
current density J.
For the time-varying case, the two are not independent, since the
charge and current densities are related through the continuity
equation.
H J D
B A
t
J A B
E
For static fields, that is, for
independent. J A B
A
B
F
F E
E

the two potentials are

! Homogeneous media, e, m=const.

To introduce the Laplacian of a scalar and the Laplacian of a vector.

To uncouple the equations.

Laplacian of a scalar field

In Cartesian coordinates

In Cylindrical coordinates

In Spherical coordinates

 Laplacian of a vector field

In Cartesian coordinates

Helmholtzs theorem: a vector

field is completely specified by
its curl and divergence.

We are at liberty to specify

the divergence of A
(the Lorenz condition)

The Lorenz condition implies the continuity equation.

=0
the Lorenz condition

=0
the continuity equation

! Homogeneous media, e, m=const.

5.2 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS

For the static field case,
The potential function then is such that the electric field lines are
orthogonal to the equipotential surfaces.

From Section 2.1 that

is
the voltage between points A and B.
Thus, the potential difference in the
static field case has the same
meaning as the voltage.
Without the minus sign, the voltage between A and B would be the
negative of the potential difference between A and B.

 For a time-varying electric field, the voltage between two points A

and B is in general dependent on the path followed from A to B to
evaluate
since, according to Faradays law,

is not in general equal to zero.

For static fields,
The potential difference (or voltage) between two points A and B in a static
electric field is independent of the path followed from A to B.
Thus, the potential difference (or voltage) between two points in a static electric
field has a unique value.
Replace F by V,

 Electric potential due to a point charge

The electric field intensity due to a point charge Q
its direction is radially away from the point charge
its magnitude is

Since the equipotential surfaces are everywhere orthogonal to the

field lines, it then follows that they are spherical surfaces centered at
the point charge.

Here we can conveniently set C equal to zero,

0 C V , i.e., R is chosen as the ref. point.

Potential of a point charge

superposition

 The equipotential surfaces are given by

r 2 sec constant
The direction lines of the electric field are

r csc2 constant and constant

(1) they must originate from the positive

charge and end on the negative charge
(2) they must be everywhere perpendicular
to the equipotential surfaces.

 Electrocardiography()
A technique in everyday life in which the potential field of an
electric dipole is relevant is electrocardiography.
This technique is based on the characterization of the
electrical activity of the heart by using a dipole model.
The dipole moment, p, referred to in medical literature as
the electric force vector or the activity of the heart, sets up
an electric potential within the chest cavity and a
characteristic pattern of equipotentials on the body surface.
The potential differences between various points on the
body are measured as a function of time and are used to
deduce the temporal evolution of the dipole moment during
the cardiac cycle, thereby monitoring changes in the
electrical activity of the heart.

 consider the xz-plane

go from Q1 to Q2 along the x-axis
Potential of a point charge

superposition

 the equipotential lines are orthogonal to the direction lines of E so

that they are tangential to the unit vector
To correct the position, we make
use of the fact that
Thus, the incremental distance
required to be moved opposite to
the electric field to increase the
potential by DV is DV/E.
Hence, the distances required to
be moved opposite to the x- and zdirections are respectively
DV/E )(Ex/E)
DV/E )(Ez/E)

Potential of a point charge

We will, however, find later that we have to choose

the reference point for zero potential at a finite value
of r.
superposition

Reference point

By setting

In view of the cylindrical symmetry about the line charge, (5.40) is the
general expression in cylindrical coordinates for the potential field of the
infinitely long line charge of uniform density.
It can be seen from (5.40) that a choice of
is not a good choice, since
then the potential would be infinity at all points. The difficulty lies in the fact
that infinity plus a finite number is still infinity. We also note from (5.40) that
the equipotential surfaces are
The result of Example 2.6 shows that the electric field due to the line charge
is directed radially away from the line charge. Thus, the direction lines of E
and the equipotential surfaces are indeed orthogonal to each other.

 Magnetic vector potential due to a current element

For a current element I dl situated at an arbitrary point, the magnetic

vector potential is given by
(see Ch.10.1)

5.3 POISSONS AND LAPLACES EQUATIONS

The static electric potential is related to the static electric field

E 0
Maxwells divergence equation for D

Assume e is uniform,
Its known as Poissons equation
It governs the relationship between the volume charge density in a
region of uniform permittivity to and the electric scalar potential V in
that region.
It also follows from letting
in

 In Cartesian coordinates,

For the one-dimensional case in which V varies with x only,

 the formation of the space charge layer

there is a tendency for the holes to diffuse to the n side and recombine with the
electrons. Similarly, there is a tendency for the electrons on the n side to diffuse
to the p side and recombine with the holes.
also known as the depletion layer
an electric field directed from the n side of the junction to the p side so that it
opposes diffusion of the mobile carriers across the junction, thereby resulting in
an equilibrium.

The space charge density

Since the semiconductor is electrically

neutral,

To solve (5.58) for V, we integrate it once

note that

Proceeding further, we integrate

and obtain

First set the potential at x=-dp arbitrarily equal to zero to obtain C3 equal to zero.
Then we make use of the condition that the potential be continuous at x=0 since the
discontinuity in dV/dx at x=0 is finite, to obtain

The depletion layer width is smaller, the heavier the doping is. This property
is used in tunnel diodes to achieve layer widths on the order of 10-6 cm by
heavy doping as compared to widths on the order of 10-4 cm in ordinary p-n
junctions.
Application of Poissons equation: for a given charge distribution the
potential distribution.
Application of Poissons equation: given the functional dependence of the
charge density on the potential. For a given potential charge distribution

Remarks for solution of the Poissons Equation

The potential function of a point charge is the impulse response or

the Green function of the Poissons equation.
The potential function of a charge distribution is the convolution of
the charge distribution and the Green function.

 If the charge density in a region is zero, then Poissons equation

(5.53) reduces to
This equation is known as Laplaces equation.
It governs the behavior of the potential in a charge-free region
characterized by uniform permittivity.
In Cartesian coordinates,
Laplaces equation is also satisfied by the potential in conductors
under the steady-current condition.

The problems to which Laplaces equation is applicable consist

of finding the potential distribution in the region between two
conductors, given the charge distribution on the surfaces of the
conductors, or the potentials of the conductors, or a combination
of the two.
The procedure involves the solving of Laplaces equation subject
to the boundary conditions on the surfaces of the conductors.

The surface of a PEC is a equipotential surface!

(farads, F)

 If the medium between the plates is a conductor, then the

conduction current density is given by
The conduction current from the higher potential plate to the lower
potential plate per unit area of the plates is
The ratio of this current to the potential difference is the
conductance G (reciprocal of resistance) per unit area of the plates.

The units of conductance are siemens (S).

V=V0

V=0

 To solve one-dimensional Laplaces equations

the case in which V is a function of the cylindrical coordinate r only, pertinent to
the geometry of a capacitor made up of coaxial cylindrical conductors.
the case in which V is a function of the spherical coordinate r only, pertinent to
the geometry of a capacitor made up of concentric spherical conductors.

5.4 CAPACITANCE, CONDUCTANCE, AND

INDUCTANCE
Each of which is a cross-sectional view of a pair of infinitely long
coaxial perfectly conducting cylinders with a material medium
between them.
In (a) and (b), a potential difference of V0 is applied between the
conductors, whereas in (c), a current I flows with uniform density in
the +z direction on the inner cylinder and returns with uniform
density in the -z direction on the outer cylinder.

(a) Perfect dielectric

(b) Conductor

(c) Magnetic material

 In (a) perfect dielectric,

C
2e

l ln(b / a)

C : (F)

C: :(F/m)

In (b) conductor,
Jc E

V0
r ln(b / a)

(a) Perfect dielectric

ar

the current per unit length

Ic

V0

r ln(b / a)

J c rd ar

G G 2
l ln(b / a)

rd

2 V0
ln(b / a)

G : (S)

:(S/m)
(b) Conductor

 In (c) magnetic material,

The Amperes law in integral form

I
2 r

B mH

for a r b

mI
a
2 r

for a r b

(The magnetic flux per unit length)

r a

mI
mI b
dr
ln( )
r a 2 r
2
a

B dra

According to L
I
L m b
L
ln
l 2 a

L : (H)

:(H/m)

(c) Magnetic material

A material with parameters e , m and ; an example of (a), (b) and (c) reveals

G
C

and

Only one of the three parameters C ,

LC

me

and L is independent. It is a

general result valid for all arrangements involving two infinitely long,

parallel perfect conductors embedded in a homogenous medium.

(b)

(a)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Example 5.7 Capacitance, conductance, and inductance per unit

length for a parallel-wire line
(1) Consider an infinitely long, straight-line charge of uniform density L 0C/m.

We try to obtain the electric potential due to the line charge.

Due to the cylinder symmetry, the Solution to the DE
1 V
(r
) 0 for r 0 V A ln r B
r r r
With two boundary conditions (BCs)
2V

(1) V (r0 ) 0 (reference)

(2) D dS

eA
r

(2 rl )

D e E eV

L 0 r0
ln
2e r

(cf. Example 5.4)

(2) Consider two infinitely long straight line charges of equal and opposite
uniform charge densities L 0 C/m and L 0 C/m.
superposition

L 0 r01 L 0 r02
V V1 V2
ln
ln
2e r1 2e r2
By choose the reference point, such that r01 r02 V
The equipotential surfaces are given
( x b) 2 y 2
2

k
( x b) 2 y 2
2
k
1
x 2 2b 2
y 2 b2 0
k 1

k 2 1 2
2k
( x b 2 ) y 2 (b 2 ) 2
k 1
k 1

r2
const, say k
r1

L 0 r2
ln
2e r1

k 2 1 2
2k
( x b 2 ) y 2 (b 2 ) 2
k 1
k 1
This equipotential equation represents cylinders having axes along
k 2 1
( x, y ) (b 2 ,0)
k 1
L0
2k
ln k .
The radii equal to b 2
corresponds to the potential
2e
(k 1)

(3) Place perfectly conducting cylinders in any two equipotential surfaces

without disturbing the field configuration

Letting the distant between their centers be 2d and their radii be a
2k
k 2 1
a

b
and
d b 2
k 2 1
k 1
d d 2 a2
(0 k )
Solving these two equations for k k
a
The potential of right (k 1) and left (k 1) are given by

d
V L 0 ln
2e

d
V L 0 ln
2e

d 2 a2
a
L0 d d 2 a2
d 2 a2

ln
a
2e
a

L0 d d 2 a2
V0 V V
ln
e
a
Put parallel-wire line.

L0
V0

e
ln[(d d 2 a 2 ) / a]

e
cosh 1 (d / a)

G=
L=

The inductance per unit length given are for external inductance.
If the conductors in a given configuration are not perfect, then the
currents flow in the volumes of the conductors instead of being confined
to the surfaces. We have to consider the magnetic field internal to the
current distribution in addition and the internal inductance appears.

Example 5.8
Internal inductance per unit length of a solid cylindrical conductor
A current I A flows with uniform volume density J J 0 az A/m2 along an
infinitely long, solid cylindrical conductor of radius a and returns with uniform
surface density in the opposite direction along the surface of an infinitely long,
perfectly conducting cylinder of radius b and coaxial with the inner conductor.
Applying Amperes circuital law 2 rH r 2 J 0 (r a)
m J0r
or H H a J 0 r a B m H
a
2
2
m J 0 rldr
d i B (area of the rectangle)
2

(a)

(b)

 d i B (area of the rectangle)

m J 0 rldr

2
This flux surrounds only the current flowing within the radius r.
Let N be the fraction of the total current I linked by this flux.
2
current flowing within radius r ( a) J 0 r 2 r
N

2
total current I
J 0 a
a
The contribution form the flux d i to the internal flux linkage
associated with the current I is the product of N and the flux

m J 0la 2
r m J 0lr
i Nd i
dr
r 0
r 0 a
8
2
a

Li

m J0 a2 8 m
(internal inductance)

2
Il
J 0 a
8

The general expression for the internal inductance is

1
Nd

S
I

where S is any surface through which the internal magnetic flux associated
with I passes.
N

For external inductance, N is independent of d Lext d N

I S
I
N=1 for surface current or N is the number of turns of the winding.
Self-inductance: inductance associated with a current distribution by virtue
of its own flux linking it.
Mutual-inductance: if we have two independent currents I1 and I 2 we
can talk of the flux due to one current linking the second current.
L12 N1

12
I2

and

L21 N 2

21
I1

L12 L21

(Cheng p.274)

Example 5.9 Mutual inductance per unit length between a single

wire and a two-wire telephone line

Applying Amperes circuital law to a circular path

around the single wire
mI
B1 0 1 a
2 r

m0 I1 y
d 21 B1dy cos a
dy d B dS
2
2
2 (h y )
(a)
a b
a b
m0 I1 y
21 d 21
dy
y a
y a 2 ( h 2 y 2 )
m0 I1 h 2 (a b) 2

ln
4
h2 a 2

L 21

m0 h 2 ( a b) 2

ln
(H/m)
2
2
I1
4
h a
21

(b)

5.5 ELECTRIC- AND MAGNETIC-FIELD SYSTEMS

How lumped circuit theory is based upon approximations resulting from
the neglect of certain terms in one or both of Maxwells curl equations.
Such approximations, valid at low frequencies, are known as quasistatic
approximations.
The determination of the low-frequency terminal behavior of a physical
structure via a quasistatic extension of the static field existing in the
structure when the frequency of the source driving the structure is zero.
The quasistatic extension consists of starting with a time-varying field
having the same spatial characteristics as that of the static field, and
obtaining the field solutions containing terms up to and including the first
power in w, the radian frequency, leading to the concept of electric- and
magnetic-field systems.

(Neglect the fringing of the field)

Consider the case of an inductor (d l , w)
(1) Static behavior : current source I 0 at z l

I0
w az
Js
I 0 a
w z

for x 0
for x d

I0
for x 0
( H J s an )
w a y
I0

ay
H
w
I0 a
for x d
y
w
mI
B m H 0 a y for 0 x d
w
m dl
By dl
I 0 (magnetic flux)
w

I0

m dl
w

(inductance)

for 0 x d

(2) Quasistatic behavior : sinusoidal current source I (t ) I 0 cos wt at z l

H0

I0
cos wta y
w

(the subscript 0 denotes that the field of the zeroth of power in w )

I I0
In terms of phasor notation
I
H y0 0
w
The time-varying magnetic field gives rise to an electric field in accordance with

Maxwells curl equation for E . In this case,

By 0
H y 0
Ex
E

m
x jwm H y 0 (phasor form)
z
t
t
z
E
I
I
x jwm 0 Ex jwm 0 z C
z
w
w
w
I
[ Ex ]z 0 0 C 0 Ex1 jw m z I 0 [ Ex1 ]z l jwml 0
w
w
The voltage developed across the current source is
b

V [ Ex1 ]
a

z l

dx jw

m dl
w

I0

or

V jw LI 0

(the field at
the input of
structure)

!Exo=0

Its input behavior for low frequencies is essentially that of a single inductor of
value equal to that found from static-field considerations.

Beyond quasistatic approximation:

The electric field E x1 gives rise to a magnetic field in accordance with

Maxwells curl equation for H .

H y

H y
Ex
(phasor form)

jwe Ex
z
t
z
Substituting Ex1 for E x ,
2
2
H y
w
me
z
z
or H y 2
I 0 C ''

w 2 me I 0
2w
z
w
H y 0 already satisfies the boundary condition J S an H at z l
w 2 me ( z 2 l 2 )
I0
H y 2 0 at z l H y 2
2w

The magnetic field gives rise to an electric field in accordance with

Maxwells curl equation for E .

jw 3 m 2e ( z 3 3l 2 z )
Ex
jw 3 m 2e ( z 2 l 2 )
I 0 C '''
jwm H y 2
I 0 or Ex 3
6w
z
2w
Zero tangential electric field on the conductor surface [ Ex 3 ]z 0 0 C ''' 0

w 3 m 2e l 3 I 0
jw 3 m 2e ( z 3 3l 2 z )
Ex 3
I 0 [ Ex 3 ]z l j
3
w
6w

2w 5 m 3e 2l 5 I 0
, and so on.
Continuing in this manner, [ Ex 5 ]z l j
15
w
[ Ex ]z l [ Ex1 ]z l [ Ex 3 ]z l [ Ex 5 ]z l ...
!Exo=0
3 2
2
5 3 2 5
I0
w m e l I0
2w m e l I 0
jwml j
j
...
w
3
w
15
w
m I0
1
2

3
5
j
w
me
l

(
w
me
l
)

(
w
me
l
)

...

e w
3
15
m I0
tan w me l
or [ Ex ]z l j
e w

The validity of quasistatic approximation for an inductor :

for

[ Ex ]z l j

I
m I0
w me l jwml 0
e w
w

The condition under which the quasistatic approximation is valid is

or
For frequencies beyond which (5.105) is valid, the input behavior of
the structure is no longer essentially that of a single inductor.
or
where p f is the wavelength corresponding to f in the dielectric region
between the plates. It tells us that the length of the structure must be very
smaller than the wavelength.

Physical structures can be classified as electric- field systems and magneticfield systems, depending on whether the electric field or the magnetic field
is predominant.

(1) Magnetic-field systems

The structure of Fig. 5.19 is a magnetic-field system.
The quasistatic magnetic field gives rise to a time-varying
electric field, but the corresponding displacement current

is so small that its effect in adding to the quasistatic

magnetic field is negligible.
(2) Electric-field systems
V
If the structure of Fig. 5.19 is open-circuited at z 0 and
driven by a voltage source at z l , the only field would be
the electric field. The system would then be an electric-field
system. The quasistatic electric field would give rise to a
time-varying magnetic field, but the corresponding value of
B t would be so small that its effect in adding to the
quasistatic electric field would be negligible and, hence, it
can be omitted from Maxwells curl equation for E .

H J
B
E
t
B 0
E

Fig. 5.19 (b)

E 0
H J
D

D
t

(3) When the medium between the plates is conductive, a conduction current
flows between the plates in accordance with J J c E and the analysis
for low-frequency input behavior results in both electric and magnetic fields

of the first order in w. We shall illustrate this by means of an example.

Example 5.10 Determination of low-frequency behavior of a resistor

by quasistatic field approach
(1) Static behavior : constant-voltage source V0

V0
V
ax J c E 0 ax
d
d

The conduction current gives rise to a static

magnetic field in accordance with Maxwells
curl equation for H .

H Jc E
In this case,

H y

Ex

V0

z
d
V z
H y 0 C1
d

The surface current density on the plates must be zeros at z 0 [ H y ]z 0 0

V0 z
d

ay

(2) Quasistatic behavior : sinusoidal voltage source V V0 cos wt

V0
cos wt ax
d

V z
H 0 0 cos wt a y
d
E0

In terms of phasor notation for V V0 ,

(the subscript 0 denotes that the

H y0
field are of the zeroth power in w )
The time-varying electric field and
magnetic field give rise to
magnetic field and electric field

D
E
H 0 e 0
t
t
B
H 0
E 0 m
t
t

H y

V0
d
V z
0
d

Ex 0

Rewrite equations in phasor form

jwe Ex 0 jw

eV0
d

Ex
mV0 z
jwm H y 0 jw
z
d

H y1 jw
Ex1 jw

eV0 z
d

m V0 z 2

2d
The surface current density on the plates must be zeros at z 0 C2 0
b
m V0l 2
C3 jw
V [ Ex ] dx is satisfied by Ex 0 alone.
a
z l
2d
m V0 ( z 2 l 2 )
Ex1 jw
2d

eV z
H y1 jw 0
d

C2
C3

The result for H y1 is, however, not complete, since Ex1 gives rise to a conduction
current of density proportional to w which in turn provides an additional
c

contribution H y1 to H y1 .

H yc1
z

Ex1 jw

m 2V0 ( z 2 l 2 )

H jw
c
y1

m 2V0 ( z 3 3zl 2 )

C4

6d
The surface current density on the plates must be zeros at z 0 C4 0
eV0 z
m 2V0 ( z 3 3zl 2 )
H y1 jw
jw
d
6d

2d

The total field components correct to first power in w are

V0
m V0 ( z 2 l 2 )
Ex Ex 0 Ex1 jw
d
2d
V0 z
eV0 z
m 2V0 ( z 3 3zl 2 )
H y H y 0 H y1
jw
jw
d
d
6d

The current drawn form the voltage source is

I w[ H y ]z l (

wl
d

jw

e wl
d

jw

m 2 wl 3
3d

)V

The input admittance is

I
e wl wl
m l 2
e wl
1
Y jw

(1 jw
) jw

d
m l 2
V
d
d
3
d
(1 jw
)
wl
3
e wl
1
1
jw

jwC
d
m dl
L
d
jw
R ( jw )
wl
3w
3

low frequency

For 0 I jw

e wl
d

V jwCV

Consider frequencies slightly beyond those for which the quasistatic

approximation is valid for the structure of Fig. 5.19.
I0
w 3 m 2e l 3 I 0
[ Ex ]z l [ Ex1 ]z l [ Ex 3 ]z l jwml j
w
3
w
b

V [ Ex ]
a

jw
I0

z l

dx jw

m dl
w

I0 j

w 3 m 2e dl 3 I 0
3

m dl

1
m dl e wl
1
I 0 [1 w 2 (
)(
)] jw LI 0 [1 w 2 LC ]
w
3
w
d
3

V
V
1
1
C

(1 w 2 LC ) V (
jw )
1
3
jw L
3
jw L[1 w 2 LC ] jw L
3

Fig. 5.19 (a)

Remarks for the Quasistatic Approximation and Beyond

0

Parallel plate

0
0

1
2

Beyond Quasistatic Approximation

0

0
0
1
1
2

0
1
0
0

0
0

0
1
C
1

5.6 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

(a) A toroidal conductor :
uniform conductivity cross-sectional area A
circumference l
potential difference V0 across an infinitesimal gap a-b

J c (from a to b)
(a) Toroidal conductor

Ic
(b) A toroidal magnetic core :
uniform permeability m

cross-sectional area A

circumference l
current I A through a wound wire of N turns

(b) Toroidal magnetic core

Consider magnetic flux density on the boundary and

Bn : B1 sin a1 B2 sin a 2
B
B
tan a1 m2
1 tan a1 2 tan a 2

H1
H2
tan a 2 m1
H t : H1 cos a1 H 2 cos a 2

B2 sin a1

1 ( B is confined in the core)

B1 sin a 2
sin a1
m

1000
m
,
a

89
0.057
a1 3 16'
Ex: If 1
0
2
sin a 2

a1

a2

(b) Toroidal magnetic core

Fig. 5.23(a): the electric circuits
Fig. 5.23(b): the magnetic circuits -- in applications involving
electromechanical systems, typical examples of which are
electromagnets, transformers, and rotating machines.

(a) For the toroidal conductor :

E dl V0

(at mean radius)

assume E is uniform over the cross-sectional area and E Em

lEm V0 Em

V0
V
V A
J c Em 0 I c J c A 0
l
l
l

V0
l

(resistance of the electric circuit)

I0 A

(b) For the toroidal magnetic core :

(a) Toroidal conductor

assume H is uniform over the cross-sectional area and H H m

lH m NI 0 H m
m Bm A

NI 0

(at mean radius)

NI 0
m NI 0
Bm m H m
l
l

m NI 0 A
l

l
(reluctance of the magnetic circuit)
m A (unit : ampere-turns per weber, A-t/Wb)
(b) Toroidal magnetic core

Analogy between the toroidal conductor and the toroidal magnetic core

V0 NI 0

EH

Jc B m

Ic

RR

V0 El RI c
emf
(a)
(a) Toroidal conductor

Vm NI 0 Hl R
(b) Toroidal magnetic core

(b)

mmf

In this case, the reluctance is a purely function of the dimensions of the circuit.

For the ferromagnetic materials, m m ( B) is a function of the magnetic flux

density in the material.

Consider a example of the magnetic circuit

A 2 cm2 (cross-sectional area)

l 20 cm (circumference)
The material of the core be annealed sheet steel for which the B versus H
4
Relationship is shown below. In order to establish 3 10 Wb

1.5 (Wb/m2) H 1000 (A/m)

NI Hl NI 1000 20 10 200 R
2

Fig. B versus H curve for annealed sheet steel

200
2
6
(A-t/Wb)

10
4
(3 10 ) 3

(b) Toroidal magnetic core

Governing Equations for Electric and Magnetic Circuits

For electric circuit

Kirchhoff voltage law (for emf)
Kirchhoff current law

V E l R I
I 0
j

k k

k k

For magnetic circuit

Kirchhoff law for mmf
Kirchhoff law for magnetic flux

mj
j

N j I 0 j H k l k R k k
0

Example 5.11 Determination of the ampere-turns for a specified

flux in the air gap of a magnetic circuit
A1 A3 3 cm2 A2 6 cm2

l1 l3 20 cm

l2 10
20 cm

lg 0.2 cm

4
determine the value of NI required to establish 4 10 Wb in the air
gap,

2 1 3

3 g

Applying Amperes circuit law to

the right and left loops
H dl NI

NI H 2l2 H 3l3 H g lg
NI H 2l2 H1l1

H1l1 H 3l3 H g lg
annealed sheet steel

(a)
(b)

(c)

N turns carrying current I

Since fringing flux occurs in the air gap, the effective cross section of the air
gap is ( 3 l ) 2 3.07 cm2
g

Bg

g
( Ag )eff

4 104

1.303 (Wb/m2)
4
3.07 10

A1 A3 3 cm2

Bg

1.303
7
Hg

0.1037

10
(A/m)
7
m0 4 10

4 104

1.333 (Wb/m2)
3 g B3
4
A3 A3 3 10
H 3 475 (A/m) (from the Fig)

annealed sheet steel

Fig. B versus H curve for annealed sheet steel

N turns carrying current I

Knowing the values of H g and H 3

H1l1 H 3l3 H g lg H1l1 475 0.2 0.1037 107 0.2 103 302.4 (A)

H1

302.4
1512 (A/m) B1 1.56 (Wb/m2)
0.2

(from the Fig)

1 B1 A1 1.56 3 104 4.68 104 (Wb)

2 1 3 2 4.68 104 4 104 8.68 104 (Wb)

2 8.68 104
2
B2

A2

6 10

1.447 (Wb/m ) H 750 (A/m)

Finally we obtain the required number if ampere-turns to be

NI H 2l2 H1l1 750 0.1 302.4 377.4 (A)

Ri

li
Hl
i i for i 1,2,3, g
mi Ai Bi Ai

R1 646,154 (A-t/Wb) R2 86,386 (A-t/Wb)

R3 237,559 (A-t/Wb) Rg 518,420 (A-t/Wb)

(from the Fig)

5.7 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Parallel-plate capacitor with a movable plate

V Q, Q Fe

(electric energy

mechanical energy)

Ex: an electrical motor and an electrical generator

In the electromechanical system, the energy balance can be expressed as

For simplicity, assume to be lossless Energy dissipated = 0

To compute the mechanical force Fe (V is held constant)

(1) Applying an external force Fe to the movable element and displacing the
element by an infinitesimal distance in the direction of external force.

stored mechanical energy = 0

Fex dx VIdt dWe

( We : electric stored energy)

dQ
(charge conservation)
dt

Fex dx VdQ dWe

or

Fex

dWe
dQ
V
dx
dx

(2) To neglect fringing at the edges

charge Q on the plate and electric field E between the plates is uniform

e 0V 2 A dWe
e 0V 2 A
1
1 V 2
2
We e 0 E Ax e 0 ( ) Ax

2
2
x
2x
dx
2x2

e 0 AV

e 0 AV
dQ

2
dx
x

(V is held constant,
Q CV
since the voltage source
x
was kept connected to
dWe
dQ e 0V 2 A e 0 AV 2
1 e 0 AV 2 the capacitor plates in
Fex
V

the process of displacing

2
2
dx
dx
2x
x
2 x2
the plate.)
(3) (Q is held constant, the voltage source is not connected to the capacitor plates
in the process of displacing the plate)

dQ
0
dx

2
dWe d 1
d
1
Q
1
Q
( e 0 E 2 Ax) [ e 0 (
) 2 Ax]
dx
dx 2
dx 2
Ae 0
2 Ae 0
2
1 1 e0 A 2
1 e0 A 2
1 Q

(
V)
V
Fex
2
2
A
e
x
2
x
2 Ae 0
0
(Q = CV)

1 e 0 AV 2
1 Q2
Fe
ax
ax
2 x2
2 Ae 0

Example 5.12 Energy conversion in a parallel-plate capacitor with a

movable plate
Applying a source of mechanical force F Fe . By appropriately varying

V and F , the system is made to traverse the close cycle in the Q x plane
(1) final state = initial state

electrical stored energy (if) = 0

mechanical energy input + electric energy input = 0
electric energy output = mechanical energy input

(2) Wmechanical input

ABCA

Fx dx

ABCA

Wmechanical input

Fex dx Fex dx Fex dx Fex dx

From A toB , x remains constant

2Q02
Ae

0
and Fex
2 2
Q0 x
2 Ae 0 d 2

Fex dx 0

from B to C
from C to A

d
2Q02
Q02 x 2

dx
dx
x d Ae
x 2 d 2 Ae d 2
0
0
2d

2Q02 d 7Q02 d 5 Q02 d

e 0 A 6e 0 A 6 e 0 A
(converted from mechanical energy
to electric energy)

Energy conversion in a magnetic-field system

(magnetic energy

mechanical energy)

Two approaches (1) constant I (2) constant result in equivalent expression for Fe
no voltage is induced in the coil

electric energy input = 0

(1) Applying an external force Fe to the armature and displacing it by an

infinitesimal distance in the direction of external force.

Fex dx dWm Fex

dWm
dx

( Wm : the magnetic stored energy)

magnetic

Electromagnet

(2) Neglecting fringing of flux across the air gap and noting the displacement of
the armature changes only the magnetic energy stored in the air gap.

H gap

Am0

(Wm ) gap

(Y is held constant)

1
2
2x
2
2[ m0 ( H gap ) Ax] m0 (
) Ax
2
Am0
Am0

two gaps

cross-section area of gap

dWm d
2

[(Wm ) gap ]
dx
dx
Am0

2
2
Fex
Fex
ax
Am0
Am0

Electromagnet

(3) The expression for Fe in terms of the current I (I is held constant)

assume mcore

m0 H corelcore H gaplgap

( lcore and l gap are the lengths of the core and air gap.)

NI 2 H gap x
Fe

m0 N 2 I 2
4x

H gap

NI
2x

gap

m0 NIA
2x

Bgap

m0 NI
2x

ax

(converted from magnetic energy

to mechanical energy)

Electromagnet

Energy and Force (D.K. Cheng Ch. 3.11 & 6.12-13)

Electrostatic Energy

1 N
1
We QkVk or We Vdv
2 k 1
2 V
1
1
1 D2
2
We D Edv eE dv
dv
2 V
2 V
2 V e

Electrostatic Forces
For fixed charges
For fixed potential

Magnetic Energy

1
1
1 Q2
2
We CV QV
2
2
2 C

FQ We
FV We

1 N
Wm I k k
2 k 1
1
1
1 B2
2
Wm H Bdv mH dv
dv
2 V
2 V
2 V m

Magnetic Forces
For fixed flux linkages
For fixed current

1 2 1
1 2
Wm LI I
2
2
2 L

F Wm
FI Wm

! Homogeneous media, e, m=const.

! Homogeneous media, e, m=const.

Uniqueness of Electrostatic Solutions (D.K. Cheng Ch. 4.3)

Uniqueness Theorem: A solution of Poissons equation (of which

Laplaces equation is a special case) that satisfies the given
boundary conditions is a unique solution.
The importance of this theorem will be appreciated when we
discuss the method of images.

2V2
e
2V1

Vd V1 V2 2Vd 0

From fA f A A f and set f Vd , A Vd

Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd Vd
2

a
ds

V
d d n d dv
S

The method of images (D.K. Cheng Ch. 4.4)

There is difficulty to solve the Laplaces equation + BCs.

It is easier to solve the potential distribution by setting up
appropriate image (equivalent) charges.
The method of replacing bounding surfaces by appropriate image
charges in lieu of a formal solution of Laplcaes equation is called
the method of images.

V 0
(1) V ( x,0, z ) 0
Q
(2) V
, for R 0
4e 0 R
2

(3) V 0, for x, y, z
(4) By symmetry,V ( x, y, z ) V ( x, y, z ) and V ( x, y, z ) V ( x, y, z )

 Point charge and conducting planes

Q

-Q

-Q

-Q

 Line charge and parallel conducting cylinder

 Charge sphere and ground plane

HW #5
Due 6/18/2010


FTP
IP: 140.112.171.110
Port: 351
: EM
: EM

1. 06/25()10:20~12:00 ()
2. Ch 3.4-Ch 5.4