Analytic Geometry For Colleges, Universities & Schools Ebook

ll
mmill
AfTRONOMY
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
FOR
COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS.
BY
E.
VV.
NICHOLS,
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE VIRGINIA MILITARY

INSTITUTE.
LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN,

BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.
COPYRIGHT, iwi,
BY LEACH, SIIKWELL, & SANBOKN.
C.
J.
PETERS & SON,
TYPOGRAPHERS AND ELECTROTYPERS.

PRESS OF BERWICK
&
SMITH.
Nsf
PEEFACE.
THIS text-book
is
designed
and Technical Schools.

to prepare a
make
it
work
for
The aim
for beginners,
Colleges,
of
and
the
Universities,
author has been
at the
same time to
for the requirements
of
comprehensive
For the methods of develop
ment of the various principles he has drawn
largely upon his
sufficiently
the usual undergraduate course.
experience in the class-room.

all
home and
authors,
In the preparation of the work
foreign,
have been freely consulted.

In the first few chapters
discussion of each principle.
whose works were
available,
elementary examples follow the

In the subsequent
chapters
sets
of examples appear at intervals throughout each chapter,

and are so arranged as to partake both of the nature of a
review and an extension of the
At the
preceding
principles.
end of each chapter general

examples, involving
extended application of the
are
principles deduced,
the benefit of those
who may
a more
placed for
desire a higher course in the
subject.
The author takes pleasure

cussion
of
Surfaces,"
Mathematics
in
appears as the
He
by
in calling attention to a
and Lee University,

chapter in this work.
Washington
final
"Dis
A. L. Nelson, M.A., Professor of
which
takes pleasure also in

acknowledging his indebtedness
PREFACE.
Prof. C. S. Venable, LL.D., University

of
Prof. William Cain, C.E., University
of
to
and
Virginia, to
North
Carolina,
of Pennsylvania,
to Prof. E. S. Crawley, B.S., University
for assistance rendered in reading
and revising manuscript,
and for valuable suggestions given.

E.
LEXINGTON, YA.
January, 1893.
W. NICHOLS.
CONTENTS.
PAET
I.
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.

CHAPTEK
I.
CO-ORDINATES.
PAGES
ARTS.
1-3.
4-6.
The Cartesian or Bilinear System.

The Polar System. Examples
CHAPTER
Examples
....
II.
LOCI.
7.
Locus of an Equation.
8.
Variables.
9.
10-16.
17, 18.
The Equation
Constants. Examples
Relationship between a Locus and
of a
...
9
10
its
Equation
Discussion and Construction of Loci.

Methods of Procedure. Examples
CHAPTER
Locus
....
11
...
11
Examples
23
III.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
21.
The Slope Equation. Examples

The Symmetrical Equation. Examples
The Normal Equation
22.
Perpendicular Distance of a Point from a Line.
19.
20.
25
29
32
Ex
26.
amples
Equation of Line, Axes Oblique. Examples
General Equation, Ax + B?y + C =
Equation of Line passing through a Point. Examples
Ex
Equation of Line passing through Two Points.
27.
Length
23.
24.
25.
37
.
38
39
amples
of
33
35
Line joining
Two
Points.
Examples
...
41
CONTENTS.
vi
ARTS.
29.
30.
Intersection of
Two
PAGES
.......
= ......
28.
Examples
Lines.
Ax + By + C + K(A a5 + BV + e )
Examples.
Angle between Two Lines.
Ex
General
.................
amples
CHAPTER
IV.
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
31.
32.
33*
34 35
Objects
of.
............
Illustration
Examples
to a Parallel System.
an Oblique System. Rectangular
Rectangular System to
also Rectangular. Examples.
System to Another System
Polar
a
to
System. From a Polar
Rectangular System
Examples. General
System to a Rectangular System.
From One System
Examples
....... .........
CHAPTER
THE
V.
CIRCLE.
Equation of Circle
38.
Generation of Circle.
General Equation of
39.
Polar Equation of Circle
36, 37.
~rv
ou
Circle.
....
Concentric
Circles.
59
Ex
.................
............
Supplemental Chords .............
Tangent. Sub-tangent ............
Normal. Sub-normal .............
General Equations
Tangent and Normal. Examples
Tangent ..............
Length
amples
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45, 46.
of
of
Radical Axis.
Radical Centre.
Examples
.....
47.
Condition that a Straight Line touch a Circle.
48.
Equation of Tangent
Chord of Contact
Pole and Polar
49, 50.
51.
^7
............
...............
.....
Conjugate Diameters.
Examples.
CHAPTER
General Examples
VI.
THE PARABOLA.
52, 53.
70
Slope
Generation of Parabola.
tions
Equation of Parabola.
Defini
................
...........
Parabola
54.
Construction of
55.
Latus-Rectum.
Examples
77
CONTENTS.
Vil
PAGES
ARTS.
57-59.
Polar Equation of Parabola

Tangent. Sub-tangent. Construction of Tangent
60, 61.
Normal.
Sub-normal
62.
Tangents
at Extremities of
63.
ici
56.
= +
88
.
89
90
Latus-Rectum
91
92
64.
Examples
y%
Tangent Line makes Equal Angles with Focal Lines and
Axis
Condition that a Straight Line touch the Parabola.
95
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71, 72.
73.
c$
Slope
Equation of Tangent
Locus of Intersection of Tangent and Perpendicular from
Focus
Locus of Intersection of Perpendicular Tangents
Chord of Contact
Pole and Polar
Conjugate Diameters
Parameter of any Diameter. Equation of a Diameter
...
at the Extremities of a Chord.

General Examples
Tangents
CHAPTER
95
96
97
97
98
98
100
Examples.
101
VII.
THE ELLIPSE.
74, 75.
76. 77.
Generation of Ellipse. Definition. Equation of Ellipse

Focal Radii
78.
Construction of Ellipse
Latus-Rectum.
Polar Equation of Ellipse
81.
Supplemental Chords
Tangent. Sub-tangent
Tangent and Line through
Centre
85.
86,87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
108
Ill
79.
84.
106
109
80.
82,83.
Eccentricity.
Examples
.
114
115
Point
of
Tangency and
H8
...
Methods of constructing Tangents

Normal. Sub-normal. Examples
Normal bisects Angle between the Focal Radii
Condition that a Straight Line touch the Ellipse.
...
118
119
....
122
Slope
Equation of Tangent
Locus of Intersection of Tangent and Perpendicular
from Focus
Locus of Intersection of Perpendicular Tangents
Equation of Chord of Contact
Pole and Polar
Conjugate Diameters
.
123
124
125
125
126
126
CONTENTS.
via
ARTS.
95, 96.
97.
98.
99.
PAGK8
Equation of a Diameter.
Conjugate Diameter
2
a"
a*
Co-ordinates of Extremities of
129
b*
130
...
Parallelogram on a pair of Conjugate Diameters

Relation between Ordinates of Ellipse and Circles on
Axes
100, 101.
131
133
Construction of Ellipse.
General Examples
Area
CHAPTER
of Ellipse.
Examples.
134
VIII.
THE HYPERBOLA.
102,103.
104, 105.
100, 107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112,113.
114.
Generation of Hyperbola. Definitions.

Equation of
Hyperbola
Focal Radii
Eccentricity.
Construction of Hyperbola. Latus-Rectum
Relation between Ellipse and Hyperbola
....
116, 117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126, 127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
144
146
Conjugate Hyperbola. Examples

Polar Equation of Hyperbola
146
Supplemental Chords
Tangent, Sub-tangent
Tangent and Line through Point of Tangency and
150
149
Centre
115.
141
143
Method
Normal.
151
of constructing
Tangents
151
Sub-normal.
Examples
Angle between the Focal Radii
Condition that a Straight Line touch the Hyperbola.
Slope Equation of Tangent
Locus of intersection of Tangent and Perpendicular
through Focus
Locus of intersection of Perpendicular Tangents
Chord of Contact
Pole and Polars
Tangent
bisects
Conjugate Diameters
Conjugate Diameters lie in the same Quadrant
Co-ordinates of
Equation of Conjugate Diameter.
Extremities of Conjugate Diameter
2 =
a12
a2
b2
Parallelogram on a pair of Conjugate Diameters. Ex
...
150
b"
amples
Asymptotes
Asymptotes as Axes.
Vertex
152
154
155
155
155
156
156
156
157
157
158
159
160
Rhombus on
Co-ordinates of
162
CONTENTS.
ARTS.
132.
PAGES
Tangent Line, Asymptotes being Axes. The Point

of Tangency
Intercepts of a Tangent on the Asymptotes
Triangle formed by a Tangent and the Asymptotes
Intercepts of a Chord between Hyperbola and its
.............
133.
134.
135.
....
Examples.
General Examples
CHAPTER
165
165
...
165
Asymptotes.
164
IX.
GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

136, 137.
The General Equation.
138.
First Transformation.
139.
Second Transformation
a = 0. c -
140, 141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
.......
....
..........
Discussion
Signs of Constants
...........
Summary .............
..............
=
...........
............ .....
General Summary. Examples .........
..."
6-<4ac
62
62
4 ac
>
4 ac
CHAPTER
170
171
172
173
175
175
176
177
173
X.
HIGHER PLANE CURVES.

147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
Definition
EQUATIONS OF THE THIRD DEGREE.

The Semi-cubic Parabola
Duplication of Cube by aid of Parabola
The Cissoid
Duplication of Cube by aid of Cissoid
The Witch
...........
......
............
................
188
190
1 91
193
194
EQUATIONS OF THE FOURTH DEGREE.

153.
154.
155.
156.
.........
.....
The Limacon ............
The Lemniscate ...........
The Conchoid
Trisection of an Angle by aid of Conchoid
196
198
JQQ
201
TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS.
158.
The Curve
The Curve
159.
The, Cycloid
157.
...........
...........
........
of Sines
of
Tangents
203
204
206
CONTENTS.
PAGES
ARTS.
SPIRALS,
160.
Definition
161.
The
The
The
The
The
162.
163.
164.
165.
PART
208
Spiral of
Archimedes
208
210
212
213
Hyperbolic Spiral
Parabolic Spiral
Lituus
214
Examples
Logarithmic Spiral.
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
II.
CHAPTER
I.
CO-ORDINATES.
166.
The Tri-planar System.
167.
Projections
168, 169.
Length
of
Line
joining
170.
Angles. Examples
The Polar System
171.
Relation
217
219
Examples
Two
Points.
Directional
220
222
between Systems.
ordinates.
Examples
CHAPTER
Transformation of Co
223
II.
THE PLANE.
226
172.
Equation of Plane
173.
Normal Equation
174.
175.
Symmetrical Equation of Plane

General Equation of Plane
176.
Traces.
177.
178.
Perpendicular from Point on Plane

Plane through three Points
179.
Any Equation between
227
229
of Plane
.
Intercepts
229
.
three Variables.
230
231
232
Discussion.
233
Examples
CHAPTER
III.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

180.
181.
Equations of a Straight Line

Symmetrical Equations of a Straight Line
236
237
CONTENTS.
xi
ARTS.
PAGES
182.
To
183.
184.
Planes
Line through One Point
Line through Two Points.
185.
Intersecting Lines
242
Angle between Two Lines

Angle between Line and Plane
243
247
191-193.
Transformation of Co-ordinates
The Cone and its Sections
194, 195.
Definitions.
186, 187.
188.
189, 190.
find
where a given Line pierces the Co-ordinate

238
239
Examples
246
Equation of a Conic.
CHAPTER
239
Examples
250
254
IV.
DISCUSSION OF SUHFACES OF THE SECOND OKDER.

General Equation of the Second Degree involving three
Variables. Transformations and Discussion
.
The Ellipsoid and varieties

The Hyperboloid of One Sheet and varieties
The Hyperboloid of Two Sheets and varieties
The Paraboloid and varieties
Surfaces of Revolution.
Examples
259
262
....
.
265
267
269
273
CO-ORDINATES.
PAST
CHAPTElt
I.
THE CARTESIAN OR BILINEAR

SYSTEM.
of objects are determined by

other
some
objects whose positions are
referring
assumed as known. Thus we speak of Boston as situated
Here the ob
west.
in latitude
north, and longitude
is referred are the equator and the
Boston
which
to
jects
meridian passing through Greenwich. Or, we speak of Bos
ton as being so many miles north-east of New York. Here the
1.
THE
relative
them
positions
to
reference are the meridian of longitude through

and New York itself. In the first case it will be
each
observed, Boston is referred to two lines which intersect
other at right angles, and the position of the city is located
when we know its distance and direction from each of these
objects of
New York
lines.
In like manner, if we take any point such as P x (Fig. 1) in

the plane of the paper, its position is fully determined when
we know its distance and direction from each of the two lines
which intersect each other at right angles in
and
This method of locating points is known by the

that plane.
name of THE CARTESIAN, or BILINEAR SYSTEM. The lines of
1

X,
Y, are called CO-ORDINATE AXES, and, when
read separately, are distinguished as the X-AXIS and the
Y-AXIS. The point 0, the intersection of the co-ordinate
reference
axes, is called
the ORIGIN OF CO-ORDINATES, or simply the
ORIGIN.
x and y which measure the distance of the

from
the Y-axis and the X-axis respectively, are
point P!
The
lines
FIG.
1.
the distance (x ) from

called the co-ordinates of the point
the Y-axis being called the abscissa of the point, and the dis
f
tance (y ) from the X-axis being called the ordinate of the
point.
Keferring to Fig. 1, we see that there is a point in each

of the four angles formed by the axes which would satisfy
the conditions of being distant x from the Y-axis and distant
2.
y from the X-axis.
This ambiguity vanishes when we com

In the case
bine the idea of direction with these distances.
of places on the earth s surface this difficulty is overcome by

using the terms north, south, east, and west. In analytic geome
are used to serve the same
try the algebraic symbols -f- and
purpose.
All distances measured to the right of the Y-axis
CO-ORDINA TES.
are
called positive
abscissas
measured
those
3
to
the
left,
negative ; all distances measured above the X-axis are called

all distances below, negative.
With this
positive ordinates
the
co-ordinates
of
the
become
understanding,
(V, y )
point Pj.
;
of
2,
(-
of
P (- x f
3,
of
P4
-y
(x
).
3. The four angles which the co-ordinate axes make with

each other are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4. The first angle is above
the X-axis, and to the right of the Y-axis the second angle
above the X-axis, and to the left of the Y-axis the third
;
is
angle is below the X-axis, and to the left of the Y-axis the
fourth angle is below the X-axis and to the right of the
;
Y-axis.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Locate the following points
(2.
1,
(0, 1),
(-
1,
2), (3,
What
(-
4, 0), (0,
(0, 1),
3).
are the lengths of its sides ?
Ans.
Vl3,
The ordinates of two points are each

them situated with reference
the line joining
Ans.
line
0),
Locate the quadrilateral, the co-ordinates of whose ver

(2, 0), (0, 3),
5.
2,
- 4).
tices are,
4.
(-
1),
Locate the triangle, the co-ordinates of whose vertices
are,
3.
- 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3,

- 4).
(0, 0), (3, 0), (0,
The commoji
joining them
abscissa of two points

situated ?
is
5, 5,
V 13.
how
is
to the X-axis ?
Parallel, below.
how
is
the
6. In what angles are the abscissas of

points positive ?
In what negative ?
In what angles are the ordinates of points negative ?

7.
In what angles positive ?
In what angles do the co-ordinates of points have like

In what angles unlike signs ?
signs ?
8.
9.
The base
X-axis and
the origin
its
of an equilateral triangle coincides with the

is on the Y-axis at the distance 3 below
vertex
required the co-ordinates of its vertices ?

Ans.
(i- V12, 0), (0,
3), (-i V"l2,
ordinate
is
and how
is it
situated ?
Ans.
straight line passing through the

an
ing
angle of 45 with the X-axis.
11.
0).
moves that the ratio of its abscissa to its

=
1, what kind of a path will it describe,
always
If a point so
10.
The extremities
of a line are the points
origin,
and mak
1,
(2, 1), (
2)
construct the line.
the ordinate of a point is

0, on which of the
If the abscissa is
?
co-ordinate axes must it lie ?
12.
If
13.
Construct the points
the line joining them

14.
Show
is
2,
3), (2, 3),
bisected at
that the point (m, n)
and show that
(0, 0).
is
distant
Vm +
2
?i
from
the origin.
15. Find from similar triangles the co-ordinates of the
middle point of the line joining (2, 4), (1, 1).
Ans.
($,$).
THE POLAR SYSTEM.

4. Instead of locating a point in a plane by referring it to
two intersecting lines, we may adopt the second of the two
methods indicated in Art. 1. The point P 1? Fig. 2, is fully
determined when we know its distance

PI
X (= 0) from some given point
tion P!
to
X. If we give all values from
line
values from
to 360
to
(=
in
oo
and direc
some given
to r, and all
r)
easily seen that the position

be located.
0, it is
of every point in a plane may

This method of locating a point
is
called the
POLAR SYSTEM.
CO-ORDINA TES.
The point
is called the POLE
the line
X, the POLAR
Axis, or INITIAL LINE the distance r, the EADIUS VECTOR
;
the angle 0, the DIRECTIONAL or VECTORIAL
;
The
POLAR CO
ANGLE.
distance r and the angle

ORDINATES of a point.
0,
(r, 0),
are called the
In measuring angles in this

system, it is agreed (as in
trigonometry), to give the positive sign (+) to all angles meas5.
FIG.
ured round to the

sign
(-)
to those
2.
left from the

polar axis, and the opposite
measured to the right. The radius vector
considered as positive
(+) when measured from the
pole toward the extremity of the arc (0), and
negative (-)
when measured from the pole
away from the extremity of the
(r)
is
arc
(0).
few examples will make
points clear.
If r
2 inches and
this
method
of locating
45, then (2, 45) locates a point

PI 2 inches from the pole, and on a line
making an ano-le
of -f 45 with the initial line.
If r
=-2
inches and
45, then (- 2, 45) locates a
2 inches from the
pole, and on a line making an
angle of 45 with the initial line also but in this case the
point is on that portion of the
boundary line of the angle
which has been produced backward
the
point
If
=2
inches and 9
= - 45,
through
then (2,
pole.
- 45)
locates a
below
inches from the pole, and out on a line lying
point P 4 2
it.
with
45
of
the initial line, and making an angle
45 )
2,
45, then (
2 inches and 6
If r
the
to
pole),
locates a point P 2 directly opposite (with respect
the point
P4
=-
=-
- 45).
(2,
in analytic geometry oi express

6. While the usual method
it
and seconds (,
minutes,
in
is
degrees,
ing an angle
of
terms
in
convenient to express angles
frequently becomes
radius of the
is equal in length to the
arc
whose
the angle
UNIT.
CIRCULAR
is called the
measuring circle. This angle
ot
centre
the
at
that angles
from
,
We
same
know
"),
geometry
each other as the arcs included between

and ff be two central angles, we
hence, if
circle are to
their sides;
have,
arc
_.
&
Let
ff
= unit
angle
~"arc
then arc
=r
(radius
of
measuring
circle).
_
Hence
= 360,
Hence,
circular unit
.
If
arc
-.
r 6
= arc
common
r
360
circular unit.
measure, then arc
=2
TT
= 2irr.
circular unit.
Therefore the equation,
= 2 X circular
360
TT
unit,
...
(1)
between the two units of measure.

expresses the relationship
j
EXAMPLES.
an
What is the value in circular measure of
From (1) Art. 6, we have,
1.
= 30 X 12 = 2 circular unit.
30 = - circular unit.
TT
360
..
angle of 30 ?
CO-ORDINA TES.
2.
What
are the values in circular measure of the

following
angles ?
1, 45, 60,
3.
What
3
90,,
120, 180, 225, 270, 360.
are the values in degrees of the

following angles?
4"
*
4"
4.
What
5.
Locate the following points
is
8"
the unit of circular measure ?
Ans.
(2,
(-
40),
4,
57, 17
45.".
90), (3,
135).,
^3,
(-
1,
180),
- 1, - *),
6.
2,
Locate the triangle whose vertices

are,
/
3
\
\
5
1
-7T \, M, -TT
4
-
7.
The base of an equilateral
triangle (= a) coincides with
the initial line, and one of its vertices is at
the pole
re
quired the polar co-ordinates of the other two vertices.
;
(a>
8.
The polar
co-ordinates
of
a point
are ( 2,
\
three other ways of

locating the
same
point,
~\
4
()).
Give
using polar
co-ordinates.
Ans.
9.
a.,
Construct the line the co-ordinates of whose extremities
8
10.
How
being ( 3,
is
-\
the line, the co-ordinates of two of

f 3,
its
points
situated with reference to the initial
Ans.
Parallel.
Find the rectangular co-ordinates of the following points

11-
13
4,
LOCL
CHAPTER
II.
LOCI.
THE Locus OF AN EQUATION
7.
generatrix as
it
moves
is
the
path described by
its
in obedience to the laiv expressed in the
equation.
The EQUATION OF A Locus

the
law subject
to
the algebraic expression of
is
which the generatrix moves in describing that
locus.
If we take any point P 3 equally distant from the X-axis

and the Y-axis, and impose the condition that it shall so move
,
FIG.
that the ratio of
its
ordinate to
3.
its
abscissa shall always be
equal to 1, it will evidently describe the line

algebraic expression of this law is
It
and
is
The
1,
or y
Pi-
= x,
called the Equation of the Locus.

line
is called the Locus of the Equation.
P^
The
Again
10
we take the point P 4 equally

make it so move that the ratio of
if
distant from the axes, and

ordinate to its abscissa
its
at any point of its path shall be equal to

1, it will describe
In this case the equation of the locus is
the line P 4 P 2
.
y~
1,
and the
8.
first,
line
P4 P 2
or y
x,
the locus of this equation.
is
be observed in either of the above cases (the

for example), that while the point P 3 moves over the
It will
line P 8 PU its ordinate and abscissa while always equal are

yet in a constant state of change, and pass through all values
For this reason y and x are
from
oo, through 0, to -|- GO.
called the
VARIABLE
or
GENERAL CO-ORDINATES
of the line.
we
consider the point at any particular position in its

x
as
at P, its co-ordinates (
?/) are constant in
path,
of
to
this
the point, and to
and
value,
position
correspond
If
this position alone.
The
variable co-ordinates are represented
by x and
of the moving
y, and the particular co-ordinates
point for any definite position of its path by these letters
with a dash or subscript or by the first letters of the
Thus (x ?/), (x lt yi), (a, ), (2, 2)
alphabet, or by numbers.
correspond to some particular position of the moving point.
;
EXAMPLES.
1.
Express in language the law of which y
algebraic expression.
Ans. That a point shall so
move
= 3x
-f-
is
the
in a plane that its ordinate
shall always be equal to 3 times its abscissa plus 2.

2.
3.
The sum
a quantity a is
point so moves that its ordinate
b
to
its
abscissa
a
; required the
quantity
always equal
of
the
law.
expression
algebraic
b.
Ans. y -\- a
\x
a
of the squares of the ordinate and abscissa of

a 2 what is the
is always constant, and
moving point
equation of
its
path
Ans.
x2
+y
==
a2
LOCI.
11
Give in language the laws of which the following are
4.
the algebraic expressions
^-2,*= -6.
2y--.|.
y
4 z2
z.
2 x 2 -f 3
2
?/
= 6.
if
= 2px.
a^f
5 y2
z2
= 18.
=a6
2
9. As the relationship between a locus and its equation

constitutes the fundamental conception of Analytic Geometry,
important that it should be clearly understood before

We have
entering upon the treatment of the subject proper.
it
is
been accustomed in algebra to treat every equation of the

x as indeterminate. Here we have found that this
form y
equation admits of a geometric interpretation ; i.e., that it repre

sents a straight line passing through the origin of co-ordi
nates and making an angle of 45 with the X-axis. We shall
find, as
we
dental,
which does not involve more than three variable quan
tities, is
proceed, that every equation, algebraic or transcen
susceptible of a geometric interpretation.
We
shall
geometric forms can be expressed alge

braically, and that all the properties of these forms may be
find, conversely, that
deduced from their algebraic equivalents.

Let us now assume the equations of several loci, and let us
locate and discuss the geometric forms which they represent.
10. Locate the geometric figure whose algebraic &wwdent is
We
its
know
= 3x+2.
that the point where this locus cuts the Y-axis has
in the equa
0.
If, therefore, we make x
abscissa x
we
shall find the ordinate of this point.

Making the
substitution we find y
2.
Similarly, the point where the
tion,
locus cuts the X-axis has
for the value of its ordinate.
Mak-
t+T*
12
in the equation, we find x

ing y
the axes and marking on them the points
we
will have
two points of the required
successively equal to
1, 2, 3,
1,
2,
- 3,
f.
locus.
Drawing now
Now make
etc.
in the equation, and
find the corresponding values of y.

the result thus
let
us
tabulate
convenience
For
Values of x
Corresponding
2
3
"
"
_2
Values of y
5
8
11
FIG.
"
4.
a line through them we

Locating these points and tracing
have the required locus. This locus appears to be a straight
LOCI.
13
We
line
and it is, as we shall see hereafter.
shall see also
that every equation of the first degree between two variables
The distances Oa and Ob
represents some straight line.
which the
line cuts off on the co-ordinate axes are called

INTERCEPTS. In locating straight lines it is usually sufficient
to determine these distances, as the line drawn
through their
extremities will be the locus of the equation from which their
values were obtained.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Locate the geometric equivalent of
I,-..-l_2*
Solving with respect to y
y=-2x +
The extremities
we
in order to simplify,
have,
2.
of the intercepts are

(0,2),
(1,0).
Locating these points, and drawing a straight line through

them, we have the required locus.
Construct the loci of the following equations
5.
6.
12.
2y
Is
cx
-cl
= 3x.
10.
i-
11.
the point (2, 1)

2x
3 ? Is
y
-y=-3 y
_2x.
on the line whose

(6, 9) ?
NOTE.
If a point is on a line,
the equation of the line.
its
Is (5, 4) ?
equation
Is (0,
co-ordinates
must
is
- 3) ?
satisfy
14
13.
Which
of the following points are on the locus of the
2
equation 3 x
(2, 1),
14.
+2y = 6?
2
(V2,
(0,V3),
0),
2x
1,
Construct the lines y
show by similar
11.
-2x = 3y
0), (2,
V3)
line
6.
Construct the polygon, the equations of whose sides are
y
16.
(- V2,
1, 3),
Write six points which are on the

- y
15.
(-
Discuss
= sx
a;,
= 5.
and y
-f-
saj
+ 4,
and
triangles that they are parallel.
and
x*
construct the equation
+ y* =
Solving with respect to
y =
=t
16.
y,
we
Vie - X
have,
2-
The double sign before the radical shows us that for every
we assume for x there will be two values for y, equal
value
and with contrary
This is equivalent to saying that

signs.
for every point the locus has above the X-axis there is a cor
responding point below that axis. Hence the locus is symmet
with respect to the X-axis. Had we solved the equation

with respect to x a similar course of reasoning would have
shown us that the locus is also symmetrical with respect to the
Y-axis. Looking under the radical we see that any value of x
less than 4 (positive or negative) will always give two real
values for y ; that x
0, and that any
J- 4 will give y =
value of x greater than -j- 4 will give imaginary values for y.
Hence the locus does not extend to the right of the Y-axis
x
4.
farther than x
-f- 4, nor to the left farther than
rical
Making
= 0,
=
0,
y
we have y
"
"
=
=
_j_
-j-
4.
LOCI.
15
Drawing the axes and constructing the points,

- 4), (4, 0), ( 4, 0), we have four
(0, 4), (0,
points
of
the locus
i.e.,
B,
A, A!.
Y
B
FIG.
Values of x
5.
Values of y
Corresponding
+ 3.8 and 3.8

+ 3.4 and - 3.4
+ 2.6 and - 2.6
2
3
-1
-2
-3
-4
+ 3.8 and - 3.8

+ 3.4 and 3.4
+ 2.6 and - 2.6
Constructing these points and tracing the curve,
we
find
it
to be a circle.
This
might readily have been inferred from the form
of the equation, for
we know
that the
sum
of the squares
16
the
(OC) and ordinate (CP^ of any point Pj

equal to the square of the radius (OPj).
We might, therefore, have constructed the locus by taking
the origin as centre, and describing a circle with 4 as a radius.
NOTE, x
for any assumed value of y, or y
-JL
_j_ 0,
of
abscissa
in the circle
is
any assumed value of x always indicates a tangency. Re

ferring to the figure we see that as x increases the values of
y decrease and become -j- when x = 4. Drawing the line
for
represented by the equation x

to the curve.
We
= 4,
we find that it is tangent

we proceed that any two
shall see also as
coincident values of either variable arising from an assumed

or given value of the other indicates a point of
tangency.
12.
Construct and discuss the equation

9 x2
16 y 2
144.
we have
?/,
144
9 x2
16
=
y =
"
Drawing the axes and laying

four points of the locus
Values of x
1
2
3
4
1
3
4
=
=
gives y
i.e.,
B,
off
-j-
these distances,
A,
Corresponding
"
4-4:.
Values of y
4 2.9 and - 2.9
"
+2.6
((
_i_
"
we have
Fig. 6.
+2.9
"
-r-
2.6
"
"
2.9
"
"
"
-J-
Locating these points and tracing the curve through them,

the required locus.
Referring to the value of y we
see from the double sign that the curve is symmetrical with
we have
respect to the X-axis.
The form
of the equation (containing
LOCI.
17
of the variables), shows that the locus

only the second powers
with
Looking
is also
respect to the Y-axis.
symmetrical
FIG.
6.
under the radical we see that any value of x between the

4 will give two real values for y ; and that
4 and
limits
will give imaginary values for
any value beyond these limits
Hence the locus is entirely included between these limits.
y.
with which we shall have more to do hereafter,
This
is
curve,
called the ELLIPSE.
13.
Discuss and construct the equation

2
2/
Solving,
we have
is symmetrical with respect to the

of
the
as
and
equation contains only the first power
X-axis,
As
to the Y-axis.
with
not
it
is
that
respect
symmetrical
x,
will always give real values for y,
every positive value of x
the locus must extend infinitely in the direction of the posi
tive abscissae and as any negative value of x will render y
We
see that the locus
18
imaginary, the curve can have no point to the left of the

hence the curve
Making x
0, we find y
-j- 0;
passes through the origin, and is tangent to the Y-axis.
Y-axis.
Making y
= 0,
we
find
hence the curve cuts the
X-axis at the origin.
Values of x
Corresponding
"
2
3
4
From
is
Values of y
2 and
+2.8
+ 3.4
+4
these data
we
-2
- 3.4
-4
-2.8
easily see that the locus of the equation
represented by the figure below.
FK;.
This curve
14.
is
called the
7.
PARABOLA.
Discuss and construct the equation

4 z2
9 ?2
36
Hence
We see from the form of the equation that the locus must
be symmetrical with respect to both axes. Looking under
19
LOCI.
the radical, we see that any value of x numerically less than

3 will render y imaginary. Hence there is no
_j_ 3 or
We see also that
point of the locus within these limits.
any value of x greater than

values for
The
y.
3 or
3 will always give real
locus therefore extends infinitely in the
direction of both the positive

3.
limits x
=i
Making x = 0,
we
find
and negative
-J-
abscissae
from the
hence, the curve
does not cut the Y-axis.
Making y
= 0,
we
find
the X-axis in two points
Value of
4
x.
(3, 0), (
-j-
hence, the
Corresponding.
Values of y
+
+ 2.6
+ 3.4
+ 1.7
+ 2.6
-6
4-3.4
1.7
5
6
-4
FIG.
This curve
is
called the
curve cuts
3, 0).
8.
HYPERBOLA.
and
"
"
"
- 1.7
- 2.6
- 3.4
- 1.7
-2.6
"
- 3.4
20
15.
We
have in the preceding examples confined ourselves
RECTANGULAR equations
of equations whose loci were referred to rectangular
Let us now assume the POLAR equation
axes.
to the construction of the loci of
i.e.,
and discuss and construct
Assuming values
for
6 (1
cos 0)
it.
6,
we
find their cosines
convenient table of Natural Cosines.

values,
we
Substituting these
find the corresponding values of
Values of 6
Values of cos
1.
.86
.50
6
6
160
- .50
- .94
180
200
240
1.
.94
.50
270
(1
(1
(1
6 (1
30
90
r.
Values of r
60
120
from some
.86)
.50)
)
+ .50)
+ .94)
6 (1 + 1
6 (1 + .94)
6 (1 + .50)
6 (1 6
(1
6 (1
300
.50
6 (1 -- 50)
330
.86
6 (1
.86)
=
= .84
= 3.
= 6.
= 9.
= 11.64
= 12.
= 11.64
= 9.
= 6.
= 3.
= .84
as the
the initial line OX, and assume any point
a
series of lines, making the
draw
this
point
Through
pole.
assumed angles with the line OX, and lay off on them
the corresponding values of r.
Through these points, tra
the
have
we
required locus.
cing a smooth curve,
Draw
LOCI.
FIG.
This curve, from

16. Discuss
and
its
9.
heart-like shape,
is
called the CARDIOID.
construct the transcendental

equation
y
NOTE.
21
= log x.
transcendental .equation
is one whose decree

power of analysis to express.
Passing to equivalent numbers we have
= x, when 2 is
the base of the system of
logarithms selected.
As the base of a system of
logarithms can never be nega
tive, we see from the equation that no
negative value of x can
Hence the locus has none of its
satisfy it.
to
ti-anscends the
&
the left
points
the other hand, as
every positive value of
x will give real values for
y, we see that the curve extends
the direction of the
infinitely
of the Y-axis.
If
y = 0,
On
positive abscissae
then
22
If
0,
then
2*
The
.-.
= log
.-.
co.
at a unit
locus, therefore, cuts the X-axis
distance on
the positive side, and continually approaches the Y-axis with

out ever meeting it. It is further evident that whatever be
the base of the system of logarithms, these conditions must
x.
hold true for all loci whose equations are of the form a?
Values of x
1
Corresponding
Values of y
"
"
"
"
.5
"
.25
traced through them will

Locating these points, the curve
be the required locus.
FIG.
10.
This curve is called the LOGARITHMIC Curve,

being taken from its equation.
its
name
LOCI.
23
The preceding examples explain the method

employed
17.
in constructing the locus of

any equation. While it is true
that this method is at best
be made
approximate, yet it
may
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes by assuming

for one of the variables values which differ from each other
by very small quantities. It frequently happens (as in the

case of the circle) that we
may employ other methods which
are entirely accurate.
In the discussion of an equation the first
step, usually,
it with
respect to one of the variables which enter
18.
is
to solve
into
it.
The question
of which variable to select
is
immate
rial in
principle,
yet considerations of simplicity and conven

ience render it often times of
The sole
great importance.
difficulty, in the discussion of almost all the higher forms of
If this difficulty can
equations, consists in resolving them.
be overcome, there will be no trouble in
tracing the locus and
discussing it.
If, as frequently happens, no trouble arises in
the solution of the
equation with respect to one of the vari
then that one should be selected as the

dependent
variable, and its value found in terms of the other.
If it is
equally convenient to solve the equation with
to either
ables,
respect
of the variables
selected
which enter into
it,
whose value on inspection
then that one should be

will afford the
discussion.
EXAMPLES.
Construct the loci of the
following equations
1.
2.
+ l-0.
2jr-4
y
-.,
2
3.
2y
4.
4aj 2
10.
= 10.
+ 5s
-9 =-36.
2
5.
fi+4
6.
**+y-
7.
8.
35
?/
= ^ cos
= logy.
2
simpler
24
Construct the loci of the following

9
10.
11.
si.yÔ.
x + 2 ax + a = 0.
x - a* = 0.
2
12
yi_9 = 0.
13.
7/
2 xy
+ x - 0.
2
14.
x*-x-6 = 0.
15.
or -j-
6 ==
+4x - 5
0.
16.
17.
x*-7x + l2 = 0.
18.
x2
0.
+ 7 z + 10 =
Factor the first member: equate each factor

NOTE.
and construct separately.
0.
to 0,
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
CHAPTER
25
III.
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
19. To find the equation of a straight line, given the angle

which the line makes with the X-axis, and its intercept on the
Y-axis.
FIG.
11.
Let C S be the line whose equation we wish to determine.

Let SAX
and OB
b.
Take any point P on the line
=
PM
to OY and BN
to OX.
Then (OM, MP) = (x, y) are the co-ordinates of P.
From the figure PM = PN + OB = BNtan PEN +
and draw
||
||
BN = OM = x,
..
and tan PBN = tan SAX = tan

Substituting and letting tan a = s, we have,
(I)
b,
but
26
Since equation (1) is true for any point of the line SC, it
true for every point of that line hence it is the equation of
the line. Equation (1) is called the SLOPE EQUATION OF THE
is
STRAIGHT LINE
COROLLARY
If
= tan
b =
in
sx
1.
(1),
called the slope.
is
we
have,
(2)
a line which passes through the
for the slope equation of

origin.
COR.
If s
2.
y
which
is,
as
it
we have
in (1),
=b
ought to
be, the
equation of a line parallel to
the X-axis.
COR.
3.
If
oo,
then
90, and the
line
becomes
parallel to the Y-axis.
Let the student show by an independent process that the

equation of the line will be of the form x = a.
SCHOLIUM. We have represented by the angle which the

makes with the X-axis. As this angle may be either
acute or obtuse, s, its tangent, may be either positive or nega
line
tive.
The
line
may
also cut- the Y-axis either above or below
the origin; hence, b, its Y-intercept,

From these considerations
negative.
=-
sx
-{-
it
appears that
+b
represents a line crossing the

== sx
be either positive or
may
first
angle
represents a line crossing the second angle
y =
sx
represents a line crossing the third angle
= sx
represents a line crossing the fourth angle.
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
27
EXAMPLES.
The equation of a
and intercepts.
1.
slope
line
Comparing with
we
y,
22
1
x H
(1)
Art.
Making y
Y-intercept.
is
2y
+x=3
required
its
have,
3
.
19,
we
and
= 3 = X-intercept.
find s
in
the
equation,
we have
3.
Construct the line 2 y -\- x
The points in which the line cuts the axes are
2.
O,
?V
and
(3,
3).
-*/
Laying these points
off
on the axes, and tracing a straight
through them, we have the required
line
thus
~F-+fLay
off
OB =
draw
BN OX and make it = 2, also

NP OY and make it = + 1.
||
||
The
line
through
P and B
the required locus.

TÎ^T
-*
For
locus.
solving the equation with respect to
tan
BAX.
.-.tan
BAX
is
y,
we
Or otherwise
have,
28
3.
Construct the line 2 y
we
Solving with respect to y,
have,
Lay
||
to
also
3.
off
OX
NP
||
BO = 5 = |
and make it = 2
to OY and make
straight line
BK
Draw
draw
it
1.
P and B
through
will be the required locus.
= - = tan PBN = tan
For
BAX =
Hence, in general,
s.
to the left of
BN
is
laid off to the right or
according as the coefficient of
is fiositive
or negative.
Give the slope and intercepts of each of the following

and construct
lines
4.
Ans.
5.
&
= - 2, a = - -
1,
^^
x-
6.
* ==
- 12,
8.
~
3
+2x = 1 -
y.
9.
a and 6 in the answers above denote the X-intercept

NOTE.
and the Y-intercept, respectively.
THE STRAIGHT
What
14.
29
angle does each of the following lines cross ?

10.
= 3x +
11.
= - x + 2.
12.
1.
=2
a;
1.
\<^
Construct the figure the equation of whose sides are
2y
15.
LINE.
+ s-l = 0, 3^=2x + 2, y = - x -
I.
Construct the quadriiftfc&rai the equations of whose sides
are
= 3,
l,
= 2,
= 0.
20. To find the equation of a straight line in terms of
its
intercepts.
FIG.
Let S C be the
line.
Then OB
OA =
12.
= b = Y-intercept,
= X-intercept.
The slope equation of

Art. 19. equation (1),
y
a line
sor
and
we have determined
/>.
to be
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
30
From
the right angled triangle
tan
GAB =
tan
AOB, we
BAX =
have,
= OB
OA
.-.-.--*.
a
Substituting in the slope equation,
This
is
called the
we
have,
SYMMETRICAL EQUATION
of the straight
line.
COR.
1.
+ and b +, then we have,

-= 1, for a line crossing the
If a
ni
rvt
\-
first
j-
and
If a
+, then
---f-^ = lisa line crossing the

a
If
and
-f-
and
--
=1
is
a line crossing the third angle.
then
----- *-
second angle.
then
If
angle.
=1
is
a line crossing the fourth angle.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Construct
NOTE.
Y-axis.
1.
Lay off 3 units on the X-axis and

Join their extremities by a straight
2 units on the
line.
Across which angles do the following lines pass
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
31
Give the intercepts of each, and construct.
+ |=1.
2-
/v,
Q
o
7/
if
4.
i*^
*
^
^
57^ =
"Q
r>
-i
-
^^
AXV-~)C7^-
z--<r^-
K"
Write the slope equations

construct
-f~V=l.
the
of
following lines, and
6.
r-IS-7.
3
s.
y
2
T ?.6 = _
+
i.
y-ix-2.
O
.
-J
O
J
5
10.
Write y
+ 6 in a symmetrical
."
7-
form.
1
1.
/-t
A
O*^"
/>
Given the following equations of straight

their slope and symmetrical forms
lines, to write
11.
+ 3z-7 = z + 2.
^^ = ~ 3
2y
23
13.
a?
12.
14
2?
x
43
_2x-l
32
To find the equation of a straight line in terms of the

perpendicular to it from the origin and the directional cosines
21.
of the perpendicular.
The Directional cosines of a line are the cosines

it makes with the co-ordinate axes.
NOTE.
the angles which
FIG
Let OS
Let
be-
the
line.
AOP =
triangles AOP and BOP, we
OA = -OP- OB = OP
OP = p, BOP
From
the
13.
==
7,
have
COS 7
COS
that
is,
7.
cos w
cos 7
Substituting these values in the symmetrical equation,

Art. 20. (1),
+ y-b =
x cos
which
is
1,
we
have, after reducing,
+ y cos 7 = p
the required equation.
(1)
of
THE STRAIGHT
Since
90
This form
and
COR.
and the
COR.
NORMAL EQUATION
(1)
of the straight line.
becomes parallel to the Y-axis.
line
= 90,
If
2.
= 0, then
x =p
If
1.
more frequently met with than that given in
is
called the
is
= sin hence
+ y sin = p
(2)
cos y
cos
cc
33
LINE.
then
y*=p
and the
If x
22.
becomes parallel to the X-axis.
line
+ y sin = p be the equation of a given line,

+ y sin a = p -- d is the equation of a parallel
cos
then x cos
For the perpendiculars p and p j- d coincide in direction

line.
hence the lines
since they have the same directional cosines
to which they are perpendicular are parallel.
;
COR.
Since
1.
p
it
is
evident that d
therefore, (x
the origin
is
-J-
-p =
is
the distance between the lines.
_j_
If,
be a point on the line whose distance from

d,
we have
+ y sin = p
=
x cos
d
y
x cos u
.-.
"
-\-
-J-
d.
sin
(1)
a point (x
y ) from the line
found
-\- y
by transposing the constant
term to the first member, and substituting for x and y the co
Let us. for example, find the
ordinates x y of the point.
distance of the point ( y~3, 9) from the line x cos 30
y sin
Hence the distance

sin a
x cos a
=p
of
is
30
5.
From
(1)
= V3 cos 30
-f 9 sin 30
34
From
.*.
Fig.
sin= / =
-2
_L
t=
<2
|-
^b
+6
Vtt 2
the expression for the distance of the point (x
line
J/
Hence
is
13 we have cos
whose equation
is
of the form -
+b=
?/)
from a
1.
Let the student show that the expression for d becomes
VA + B
2
when the equation
of the line
See Art. 24, Equation
given in
is
general form.
its
(1).
EXAMPLES.
1.
line
The perpendicular Kit

makes an arfgle
= 5 and
equation of the
fall
from the origin on a straight

with X-axis required the
of 30
line.
V3
Ans.
sc
+ =
//
2. The perpendicular from the origin on a straight

makes an angle of 45 with the X-axis and its length =
required the equation of the
line.
Ans.
3
What
is
the distance of the point
(2.
Ans.
Find the distance of the point from the

following cases
x -\-y
4) from the
From
(2,
5.
From
(3, 0)
to
6.
From
(0, 1)
to 2
7.
From
(a, c) to
5) to
1.
?/
=
- x = 2.
1.
SJT
= 2.
line
line in each of the
|
|
line
V2
i.
4.
10.
b.
^^
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
35
23. To find the equation of a straight line referred to

oblique axes, given the angle between the axes, the angle which
the line makes with the X-axis and its Y-intercept.
NOTE.
Oblique axes are those which intersect at oblique
angles.
M
N>
FIG. H.
%
it
Let CS be the line whose equation we wish to determine,

being any line in the plane YOX.
Let YOX = ft SAX =
OB = b.
Take any point P on the line and draw
PM to OY and ON to SC
,
From
NP = OB = b.
==
,
the figure
From
||
||
PM = y, OM = a, NOX
then,
triangle
= MN + NP = MN + b
ONM, we
MN
sin
OM
sin
(1)
have,
NOM
MNO
sin
sin
Substituting the value of

(1),
we
drawn from
.M"N"
this equation in
have,
Sin
=
sin
(/?
"
x
)
+b
...
(2)
36
This equation expresses the relationship between the co

Bnt as the point
ordinates of at least one point on the line.
selected was any point, the above relation holds good for
every point, and is, therefore, the algebraic expression of the
law which governed the motion of the moving point in de
It is therefore the equation of the line.
scribing the line.

COR. 1. If b
=
?/
0,
then
sin
sin (p
(3)
a)
the general equation of a line referred to oblique axes

passing through the origin.
is
COR.
2.
If b
=
y
and
=o
then
0,
(4)
the equation of the X-axis.
COR.
3.
If
ft
and
/3
.
But tan
This
19
is
<t
=s
5.
= tan n x
y = sx
if
-J-
-\-
the axes are
made
rectangular,
ft.
ft-
See Art.
the slope equation heretofore deduced.
(1).
Cor.
then
(5)
the equation of the Y-axis.

COR. 4. If (3 = 90
i.e.,
then
If
/3
= 90 and = 0, then
y = sx. See Art. 19, Cor.
ft
1.
EXAMPLES.
makes an
two units
Find the equation of the straight line which

1.
angle of 30 with the X-axis and cuts the Y-axis
distant from the origin, the axes
making an angle
with each other.

Ans.
2.
had been assumed rectangular

what would have been the equation ?
If the axes
ple above,
Ans.
of
=x
in the
-JL-
60
-f-
2.
exam
+ 2.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
37
The
co-ordinate axes are inclined to each other at an

of
angle
30, and a line passing through the origin is inclined
to the X-axis at an angle of 120,
required the equation of the
3.
line.
Ans.
24.
is
y
y
=
f\
,/q
vo
Every equation of the first degree between two variables
the equation of a straight line.
Every equation of the first degree between two variables

can be placed under the form
Ax
in
y,
+ By + C
which A, B, and C may be either

Suppose A, B, and C are not zero.
we
and whose slope
from which
If
(1)
finite or zero.
with
(2)
(1) Art.
the equation of a straight line

-
have,
Comparing equation
is
A = 0,
it
then
was derived
?/
is
.19,
we
see that
whose Y-intercept
hence
(1),
the
it
equation
the equation of a straight
line.
the equation of a line parallel to the X-axis.

If
= 0,
then x
the equation of a line

parallel to the Y-axis.
If
= 0,
then y
=-
A
B
X)

passing through the origin.
Hence, for all values of A, B, C equation (1) is the equa
tion of a straight line.
^
38
25.
To find the equation of a straight
line
passing through
a given point.
Let (V, y
be the given point.

is to be straight,
its
Since the line
y = sx + b
which
in
and
...
equation must be
(1)
be determined.
b are to
of a line expresses the relationship which

of every point on it; hence
co-ordinates
the
exists between
when
the co-ordinates of any
satisfied
be
must
its
Now, the equation
equation
for the general co-ordinates x and
point on it are substituted
the
We
equation of condition.
have, therefore,
y.
=sx
But a straight
...
(2)
cannot in general be made to pass

cut off a given distance (b) on
line
through a given point (x /),

the Y-axis, and make a given angle (tan. = s) with the X-axis.
We must therefore eliminate one of these requirements. By
,
subtracting (2) from
which
is
COR.
(1),
we have,
=s
3)
1.
If
0,
then
= SX
(4)
on the
the equation of a line passing through a point
Y-axis.
COR. 2. If y
0, then
is
y
is
=s
(x
(5)
the X-axis.
the equation of a line passing through a point on
COR.
3.
If
=
y
and y
= 0,
then
= sx
the equation (heretofore

through the origin.
is
determined), of a line passing
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
39
EXAMPLES.
1.
Write the equation of several lines which

pass through
the point
2.
is the equation of the line which

passes through
and makes an angle whose tangent is 2 with the
2),
(1,
(2, 3).
What
X-axis ?
Ans. y
3.
straight line passes through (

with the X-axis.
What
angle of 45
1,
is its
3),
2 x
4.
and makes an
equation ?
Ans. y
=x
2.
Required the equations of the two lines which contain

and 60, respectively
(a, b), and make angles of 30
4.
the point
with X-axis.
Ans.
y
26.
-b = ^.(x-a).
(x",
Since the line
which
and
we
line passing
through
be the given points.
straight its equation
= sx + b
b are to
Since the line

y"),
y")
is
(x",
V3
To find the equation of a straight
two given points.

Let (x r y ),
in
-b = ?L=JL
must be
(1)
be determined.
required to pass through the points (x

have the equations of condition.
y
y"
is
=
=
8X
#t"
+
+
y ),
(2)
...
(3)
As a straight line cannot, in general, be made to fulfil more

than two conditions, we must eliminate two of the four con
ditions expressed in the three
equations above.
Subtracting (2) from (1), and then (3) from (2), we have,
y
y
- y = s (x - x
- = s (x y"
)
x")
40
member by member, we
Dividing these,
tf-y"
Hence
-x"
^^
(x
(4)
OC
3C,
is
have,
~ xx

r
then
COR. 1. If y
=
-y =
y
y",
which
is,
COR.
tf>
it
2.
is
or y
should be, the equation of a line

then
If x
as
to the X-axis.
||
x",
which
>
0,
or x
||
to the Y-axis.
EXAMPLES.
2, 8)
required both
Given the two points (
1, 6). (
line
the
passing through
the slope and symmetrical equation of
1.
them.
Ans.
vertices of a triangle are

required the equations of its sides.
2.
The
=(-
+ 4,
2 x
(-
2, 1),
|
3,
+|=
-4)
1.
(2, 0)
= 5 X + 11
oy = 8
-\4:X
(y + x = 2.
(
Ans.
Write the equations of the lines passing through the points

3.
Ans.
4.
?/
(1,4), (0,0)
Ans.
5.
6.
(-2,3),(-3,-l)
(0,2),(3,-1)
Ans.
= 4x-f-ll.
7.
7 y
2.
+ 2 x = 24.
(-3,0)
Ans. y
8.
+ =
(2,0),
= 0.
(-l,-3), (-2,4)
Ans.
(-2,4)
Ans.
= 4 x.
x
(5,2),
+ 7 x + 10 = 0.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

27.
To find the length of a
line joining
FIG.
Let (x
i/),
(x",
y"}
41
two given points.
15.
be the co-ordinates of the given points
L = FT" = required length.

Draw
and P A to OY, and PC to OX.
We see from the figure that L is the hypothenuse of a
P,
P".
P"B
||
||
right
angled triangle whose sides are
PC
P"C
Hence,
PT"
= AB = OB - OA = - x
- EC = if - y
=
x"
P"B
=L=
1.
If
- xY
fa"
x
and y
the origin, and we have
Con.
2
V*"
for the distance of a point
and
= 0,
2
y"
(y
r::~y lY
the point
...
from the
(l)
coincides with
(2)
origin.
EXAMPLES.
Given the points (2, 0), (
2, 3)
required the distance
between them also the equation of the line passing through
them.
Ans. L = 5, 47/-f3;r =6.
1.
42
2.
what
The
vertices of a triangle are

are the lengths of its sides ?
(2, 1)
1,
2)
Give the distances between the following points

0)
(2, 3), (1,
(4,
5), (6,
(-
(0, 2),
Ans.
11.
What
is
Ans. Area
28.
To
(-
2,-l),
9.
(a,
ft),
10.
(-
2, 3),
(0, 1)
(2,
0)
d)
(c,
V5.
(-
a, 6).
2.
the expression for the area of a triangle whose

(V, y
),
(a",
= \ \x
./iTicZ
8.
0)_
0)
(0, 0), (2,
vertices are
0)
V20.
1,
Ans.
6.
(-
3,
-_!)
^ws.
5.
3,
VlO.
Ans.
4.
7.
2)
V8, VlOJ V2fr
Ans.
3.
(y"
")
(*
y")>
",
Âe intersection
?
")
- /) +
f
*"
(y"
xf
"
(y
y")]-
of two lines given by their
equations.
Let
y
y
= sx
=s +6
-f- b,
and
a:
be the equations of the given lines.

Since each of these equations is satisfied for the co-ordinates
of every point on the locus it represents, they must -ttt-tke
samer-tim* be satisfied for the co-ordinates of their point of
Hence, for the
intersection, as this point is common to both.
So
the equations are simultaneous.
co-ordinates of this
treating them,
we
pointfind
b
s b
sb
for the co-ordinates of the required point.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the intersection of y
= 2x + 1
and 2 y
Ans.
= x - 4.
(-2, -3).
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

2.
The equations
43
of the sides of a triangle are
required the co-ordinates of
its vertices.
(MH-i,
\o
oj
Ans.
Write the equation of the
=
]
which shall pass through

and 3 y
x
8=0,
and make an angle with the X-axis whose tangent is 4.
3.
the intersection of 2 y
3x
-f-
line
-f-
Ans.
4.
What
the
x -f
2,
= 3 x -f 2,
Ans.
5.
x2
The equation
2
-f-
?/
= 4 x -|- 10.
are the equations of the diagonals of the quadri

equations of whose sides are y
x-\-l =Q,
lateral
10
is
+2x+2 =
and y
23 y
;c
+ 2 = 0, 3y
A*
and
a;
6.
whose equation is
required the length of the chord.
of a chord of the circle
=x
-f-
Ans.
29. If
30 x
+ By -f C =
+By+C =
(1)
.
(2)
be the equations of two straight lines, then
Ax -f By + C
+K
(A a;
+ B y +C =
)
...
(3)
(K being any constant quantity) is the equation of a straight

line which passes through the intersection of the lines
repre
sented by (1) and (2).
It is the equation of a straight line
because
it
variables.
an equation of the first degree between two

See Art. 24.
It is also the equation of a straight
is
which passes through the intersection of (1) and (2).

it is obviously satisfied for the values of x and
y which
simultaneously satisfy (1) and (2).
Let us apply this principle to find the equation of the line
which contains the point (2, 3) and which passes through the
intersection of y = 2 x -\- 1 and 2 y + a; = 2.
line
since
44
From
(3)
we have y
2a
+ K(2y +
sc
2)=0
for the equation of a line which passes through the intersec

But by hypotheses the point (2, 3) is
tion of the given lines.
on
this line
hence 3
4-1 + K
K
Substituting this value for
we
(6
+ 2-2) =0
have,
or,
1 ==
Let the student verify this result

for the required equation.
by finding the intersection of the two lines and then finding
the equation of the line passing through the two points.
30.
To find the angle between
given by their
lines
tivo
equations.
M,
Yrf
FIG.
Let
y
y
16.
= sx +- and
= sx+ V
/>.
be the equations of
s
SC and MN,
= tan
and
respectively
tan
then
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

From
45
the figures
=
.
(f
(f
-\-
a.
From trigonometry,
tan
.-.
cp
=
tan
= tan -
1 -f ss
COR.
1.
If s
=

= 90
the lines are perpendicular.
These results may be obtained geometrically.
SCHOL.
If the lines are parallel, then, Fig. 16,
If they are perpendicular
= 90
.-.
= s = tan
tan a
.-.
+
(90
+ ss = 1 tan
1-1 = 0.
-{-
-f
tan
= -
cot
tan a
1 4- tan
tan
EXAMPLES.
1.
What
and 2y
is
the angle formed by the lines y
+ 2cc + l=0?
= 90.
46
2. Required the angle formed by the

8 = 0.
6x
and 2 y
3.
(2,
Ans.
3x
y
Perpendicular to 2 ?/
(b)
= 0.
= 0.
3x
5=0.
2 y
= 8,
(5)
3y
-j-
2x
= 1.
Given the equations of the sides of a triangle

a -f- 2 and y =
3 required.
l,
y = 2#
+ y=
(a)
q>
Required the equation of the line which passes through

1) and is
Ans. (a) 3 x
4.
y -\-ox
(a) Parallel to 2
(b)
lines
The angles of the triangle.

The equations of the perpendiculars from
vertices to
sides.
(c)
5.
The lengths
What
relation exists
y
y
y
y
6.
What
of the perpendiculars.
between the following
lines
= SX +
= SX 3.
= SX -\- 6.
= SX + m.
b.
relation exists between the following:
y
y
= sx -[= sx
b.
-j- c.
Find the co-ordinates of the point in which a perpen

1 = 0.
2 a;
dicular through (
2, 3) intersects y
7.
,.
8.
Find the length of the perpendicular
origin on the line
2y-\-x
(,r
let fall
from the
= - V80.
= 4.
Ans.
be the equations of three straight lines, and /,

m, and n be three constants which render the equation
B ty-j-C"
THE STRAIGHT
I
+ By + C) + m
(Ax
C")
LINE.
47
+ Wy -f
By
n (Af x
CO
(Afx
an identity, then the three lines meet in a point.
Find the equation of the bisector of the angle between

Ax + By + C = and Afx -f B y -f C = 0.
Ax + By
= __ (A x +j^y + CQ
10.
the two lines
+_C
"
VA + B
2
VA + B
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
straight line makes an angle of 45 with the X-axis

off a distance
2 on the Y-axis what is its equation
and cuts
when
the axes are inclined to each other at an angle of 75 ?

Ans. y
-Y/2 x -j- 2.
2.
Prove
3
y
3.
a;
-f-
that
If
the
lines
=x
(1,
-{- 1,
3 intersect in the point
(x
and
tremities of a line,
ordinates of
its
(x",
y"}
show that
=2x+2
and
0).
are the co-ordinates of the ex

I
t~,
S-
1_2.
a rf the co
j
middle point.
of the sides of a triangle are y = x -f- 1,

x
1 required the equations of the sides of
the triangle formed by joining the middle points of the sides
4.
a;
The equations
= 4,
of the given triangle.
(y
Ans.
lyo
^
5.
=x
,
JL
+4
4
q
O.
Prove that the perpendiculars erected at the middle
points of the sides of a triangle meet in a
NOTE.
Take the origin
common
at one of the vertices
point.
and make
the X-axis coincide with one of the sides. Find the equations
of the sides and then find the equations of the
perpendiculars
;
at the
middle points of the
sides.
The point of intersection
of any two of these perpendiculars ought to
satisfy the equa
tion of the third.
48
6.
Prove that the perpendiculars from the vertices of a

meet in a point.
triangle to the sides opposite

7.
Prove that the line joining the middle points of two of

is parallel to the third side and is equal
the sides of a triangle

to one-half of it.
8. The co-ordinates of two of the opposite vertices of a

square are (2, 1) and (4, 3) required the co-ordinates of the
other two vertices and the equations of the sides.
Ans. (4, 1), (2, 3) y
4.
2, x
1, y
3, x
;
9.
Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other.
Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other
10.
at right angles.
11.
Prove that the diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
12.
Prove that the diagonals of a square are equal and
bi
sect each other at right angles.
The distance between the points (x, y) and

the
algebraic expression of the fact.
give
13.
Ans. (x
The points
14.
1)2
15.
3) are equi-distant
points
(x",
at an angle
2), (
What
16.
2)
= (x -
2)
(y
circle circumscribes the triangle
(3, 4), (1,
Ans.
I)
=4
- 2) = 4
2
(y
2
.
from the point
Express the fact algebraically.
(x, y).
(x
(1, 2), (2,
(1, 2) is
is
y"),
(3
1,
2)
3)
or,
whose
+ y = 4.
vertices are
required the co-ordinates of its centre.

Ans. (2, 1).
the expression for the distance between the

inclined
(x ?/ ), the co-ordinate axes being
,
- xj +
2
V<V
(y"
- yj + 2
-x
(x"
(y"
-y
cos
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
49
17. Given the perpendicular distance (p) of a straight line

from the origin and the angle () which the perpendicular
makes with the X-axis required the polar equation of the line.
;
Ans.
cos (0
18.
origin on the line

19.
Required the length of the perpendicular from the
What
the point
is
+|=
2 4
AnSt
the equation of the line which passes through

and makes an angle of 45 with the line
2),
(1,
1.
whose equation
is
-\-
2x
1 ?
Ans.
- x
+_
of two lines passes through the points (1, 2),

the other passes through the point (1,
3), and
makes an angle of 45 with the first line required the
20.
One
4,
3),
equations of the lines.

Ans.
= 1.
x + 1, and y =
3, or x
y
in the normal equation of a line, through
21. If p =
what point does the line pass, and what does its equation
Ans. (0, 0) y = s x.
become ?
;
22.
r sin
Required the perpendicular distance of the point (r cos $,

Ans. r
from the line x cos
y sin = p.
p.
0),
Given the base of a triangle

the squares of its sides == 4 c 2
the vertex is a straight line.
23.
of
= 2 a,
Show
and the difference

that the locus of
24. What are the equations of the lines which pass through
the origin, and divide the line joining the points (0, 1), (1, 0),
into three equal parts.
2 y
x.
Ans. 2 x
?/,
25.
If (x
y ) and
show that the point
(x",
y")
be the co-ordinates of two points,
+ nx m + "/^divides the
m+n
m n
mx
"
y"
ii
ne
-\-
joining
n.
them
into
two parts which bear to each the
ratio
50
CHAPTER
IV.
IT frequently happens that the discussion of an
equa
and the deduction of the properties of the locus it
represents are greatly simplified by changing the position of
the axes to which the locus is
the
referred, thus
31.
tion,
simplifying
equation, or reducing
some desired form. The operation

accomplished is termed the TRANSFORMATION
it
to
by which this is
OF CO-ORDINATES.
FIG.
The equation
of the line PC, Fig. 17,
when
axes
= sx
and
its
is
-f b
referred to the axes
17.
and X.
If
we
refer
equation takes the simpler form
= sx
it
to the
we
If
refer
it
to
Y"
and
X",
51
the equation assumes the yet
simpler form
y"
appears that the position of the axes materially
it
Hence,
affects the
- 0.
form of the equation of a locus referred to them.
The equation
NOTE.
of a locus
which
referred to rec
is
of
tangular co-ordinates is called the KECTANGULAR EQUATION
the locus when referred to polar co-ordinates, the equation is
called the POLAR EQUATION of the locus.
;
To find the equation of transformation from one system
32.
of co-ordinates to a parallel system, the origin being changed.
FIG.
18.
and Y as axes,
be any plane locus referred to
be any point on that locus. Draw PB to OY
then from the figure, we have,
of P when referred
(OB, BP)
(x, y) for the co-ordinates
CM
Let
and
let
||
to
and
= (# ,/) for the
(O A, AP)
to
Y
DO
and
(OD,
origin.
co-ordinates of
P when
referred
(a,
b)
for the
co-ordinates
of
the
new
52
From
OB = OD
the figure
hence
-f
DB
x and y
=b
BP = BA
and
-\-
+ AP
are the desired equations.

As these equations express the relations between x, a, x y,
on the locus they express the relations
b, and y for any point
f
Hence, since the
between the quantities for every point.
CM
Q
expresses the relationship between
equation of th locus
the co-ordinates of every point on it if we substitute for
x and y in that equation their values in terms of x and y

the resulting or transformed equation will express the rela
tionship between the x and y co-ordinates for every point
on it.
EXAMPLES.
1.
What
origin
is
does the equation y
removed
+1
3x
become when the
to (2, 3) ?
Ans. y
Construct the locus of the equation 2 y

fer the origin to (1, 2) and re-construct.
2.
3.
The equation
of a curve
is
2
?/
2
-f x
(2,
origin
2) ?
What
does the equation
become when the origin
is
2
?/
- 2 x* -
removed
to
(
The equation
of a circle
is
x*
2
?/
4.
taken at
+ y = 16.
+ 6x - 3 =
2y
1
?
)
Ans. 2
5.
is
-\-
Trans
x2
Ans.
4.
= 2.
4 x
4 y
-\-
what does the equation become when the
= 3x
2
?/
=a
4 x2
when
1.
referred
does this
rectangular axes through the centre. What
left-hand
the
at
equation become when the origin is taken
to
extremity of the horizontal diameter
33.
53
To find the equations of transformation from a rectangu-
lar system to
an
oblique system, the origin being changed.
D
FJG.
19.
Let P be any point on the locus CM.

Let O Y O X be the new axes, making the angles y and
with the X-axis. Draw PA to the Y -axis also the lines
,
||
O D, AL, PB
AF, O K to
||
From
the figure,
we
to the Y-axis,
the X-axis.
||
and
have,
OB = OD
PB = DO
+ O N + AF,
+ AN + PF.
and
OB = x, OD = a, O N == x cos 6, AF =
PB = y, DO = b, AN = x sin 0, PF =
But
hence, substituting,
we
cos
g>,
sin

<p
for the required equations.
COR.
1.
If a
= 0,
have,
and
= x! cos
= x sin B
= 0,
-f-
-f
y cos
y sin
coincides with 0, and
<p
go
...
we
(2)
for the equations of transformation from a rectangular system

to an oblique
system, the ori-gin remaining the same.
54
= 90 + 6, coincides with
2. If a = 0, b = 0, and
and the new axes X and Y are rectangular. Making these
substitutions, and recollecting that
COR.
we
g>
cos
(p
sin
(f
= cos (90 + 0) = sin

= sin (90 + 0) = cos
0,
and
9,
have,
=x
y = a
y sin 9 \
cos
+ ?/ cos
sin
,^
one rectangular system

/or &e equations of transformation from
the
to another rectangular system,
origin remaining the same.
If we rind the values of x and y in equations (2)
NOTE.
in terms of x and y we obtain the equations of transforma
tion from an oblique system to a rectangular system, the
origin remaining the same.
EXAMPLES.
16 become when the

does the equation x*
if
?
45
of
an
angle
axes are turned through
Ans. The equation is unchanged.
2.
tion
What
1.
1
required the equa
The equation of a line is y = x
axes
to
referred
when
making angles of
line
same
the
of
;
45 and 135
with the old axis of
x.
Ans.
3.
when
-\A-
does the equation of the line in Example 2 become

an
referred to the old Y-axis and a new X-axis, making
What
angle of 30
with the old X-axis.

Ans.
2 y
= (V3 -
1)
2.
34.
To find the equations of transformation from a

rectangu
lar system to a polar system, the

origin
FIG.
Let
angle
55
(a, b)
g>
be the pole and
with the X-axis.
point on
it.
From
non-coincident.
20.
S the
initial line,
CM
Let
the figure,
and pole
we
making an
be any locus and

have,
any
OB = OD
BP = DO
But
OB = x,
BP = y,
+ O F,
+ FP.
=
OD a, O F = O P cos PO F = r cos (B +
DO = FP = O P sin PO F = r sin (0 +
g>)
b,
<p)
we
=a
=
b
y
x
have,
-f-
-(-
r cos
qp))
+?
r sin (B
COR.
1.
If the initial line
usual to so take
it)
x
y
cp
= 0,
is
parallel to the X-axis
(it is
and
= a + r cos
= b + r sin
)
)
become the equations of transformation.

COE.
line
2.
If the pole is taken at the

origin 0,
made coincident with
the X-axis a
and the
initial
= 0, b = 0, and = 0.
g>
56
Hence, in this case,
s-rcosfl)
(3)
= r sin 6
will be the required equations of transformation.
35.
system
1.
To find the equations of transformation from a polar

to a rectangular system.
When
From
and
the pole
initial line coincides
equations
adding
by division
tan
origin are coincident,
and when the
with the X-axis.

2
cc
we
Art. 34,
(3),
+y
2
;
have, by squaring and
and,
We
have, also, from the same
equations,
Vx +
2.
When
the pole
and
Vx + y
origin are non-coincident,
and when
the initial line is parallel to the X-axis.
From
a simi
equations (2) of the same article, we have, by
lar process,
= (x- ay +
tan. 6 = y^~~-
r*
x
cos
=x
sin0
=_y
,,
(y
also
b)
V(*
ay
(y
57
EXAMPLES.
The rectangular equation of the circle is x + y = a

what is its polar equation when the origin and pole are coin
2
1.
cident and the initial line coincides with the X-axis ?

Ans.
The equation
2.
of a curve
is (x
+y
=a
= a.
(x
re
and initial being taken as

quired its polar equation, the pole
in the previous example.
a 2 cos 2 0.
Ans. r 2
Deduce the rectangular equation of the following curves,

assuming the origin at the pole and the initial line coincident
with the X-axis.
= a tan sec
^ws. o^ = a? y.
sec
4. r = a tan
= a y.
2
3.
;c
r2
=a
6.
sin 2
2
Ans.
5.
(x
a (cos
2
Ans. x 2
y
r ==
2
?/
=2a
scy.
sin 0)
=a
y}
(x
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
Construct each of the following
the origin to the point indicated, the
to the old, and reconstruct
straight lines, transfer
new axes being
parallel
1.
2.
3.
4.
= 3 x + 1 to (1, 2).
to (- 1, 2).
2 y - x - 2 =
_
i
=
to
4
(- 2, - 1).
y
y + x _f_i = o to (0, 2).
_|_
What do
referred to
5.
6.
7.
8.
= sx + b to d).
- 2).
y + 2 = to (2,
= mx to w).
y -4o; + c = 0to(d,0).
(c,
a;
?/
(Z,
the equations of the following curves become when

a parallel (rectangular) system of co-ordinates
passing through the indicated points ?

9.
10
"
11.
3 x2
+2y =
2
= 4 *(1
9 y2
6, (
0).
>>-
- 4x = 2
V2
12.
36
(3, 0).
/_ 2
58
What
13.
X-axis
is
Y-axis
is
does the equation x 2 -f- y 2

4 become when the
turned to the left through an angle of 30 and the
turned to the right through the same angle ?
14. What does the equation x

axes are turned through an angle of
2
15.
What
,y
=a
45
become when the
the polar equation of the curve y 2
is
pole and origin being coincident, and the

ing with the X-axis ?
16.
The polar equation
of a curve
is
2 px, the
initial line coincid
=a
(1
-f-
2 cos 0)
required
rectangular equation, the origin and pole being
coincident and the X-axis coinciding with the initial line.
its
Ans.
-f
(x
2 ax) 2
a 2 (x 2
-f
).
Required the rectangular equation of the following curves,

the pole, origin, initial line, and X-axis being related as in
Example
17.
16..
20.
asec 2 ?-.
2
cos 2
Ans. x 2
18.
19.
= a sin
r = aO.
0.
=a
2
.
21.
22.
r
r
= a sin 2 0.
-2r (cos + V3 sin
Find the polar equations of the

equations are
23.
24.
whose rectangular
= y (2 a - x).
4a x = y (2 a
x).
xs
loci
25.
26.
= a x - x\
x* -f y* = a*.
2
a*y
= 5.
6>)
THE CIRCLE.
CHAPTEE
59
V.
THE CIRCLE.
36.
THE
generated by a point moving in

remain at the same distance from a
will be observed that the circle as here de
circle is a curve
the same plane so

fixed point.
fined
is
It
as to
the same as the circumference as defined in plane
geometry.
37.
Given the centre of a
circle
and
radius
its
to
deduce
its
equation.
Y
Let C
(^ $)
be the centre of the
point on the curve.
OX
then
circle,
PM
to
||
and
OY
let
and
be any
CN
^^
= (*(, &
MP) = (x, y)
(OA, AC)
(OM,
Draw CA and
)
are the co-ordinates of the centre C.
are the co-ordinates of the point P.
||
to
60
Let CF
From
a.
CN
ON
NP
But
have,
+ NP = CP ... (1)
= (OM - OA) = -^,
= (MP - AC) = (y -^) and
=a
2
(a;
CP 2
Substituting these values in

2
(x
we
the figure,
-1^)
we
(1),
have,
-$) = a
2
(y
for the required, equation.

For equation (2)
relation existing between the co-ordinates of
the circle
(2)
expresses the
any point (P) on

between the co
hence it expresses the relation

ordinates of every point.
It is, therefore, the equation of the
;
circle.
If in (2)
we make x
a*
+ ,f
CC
or,
symmetrically,
=
=a
- 4-
= 0,
and y
.
=1
?/
have,
(3)
(4)
CL
we
for the equation of the circle when referred to

rectangular
axes passing through the centre.
Let the student discuss and construct equation
(3).
See
Art. 11.
COR.
factor,
1.
we
If
we transpose x z
have,
2
?/
i.e.,
(a
+ x)
in (3) to the second
x)
(a
in the circle the ordinate
is
member and
a mean proportional between
the segments into which it divides the diameter.

COR. 2. If we take L, Fig. 21, as the origin of co-ordinates,
and the diameter
as the X-axis, we have,
LC
H
= x = a and y = 0.
These values of x and y

(x
a)
in (2) give
2
?/
=a
2
,
2
2
2 ax
reduction, x
y
(5)
for the equation of the circle when referred to rectangular
or, after
THE CIRCLE.
61
axes taken at the left hand extremity of the horizontal

diameter.
38.
Every equation of the second degree between two varia

which the coefficients of the second powers of the
variables are equal and the term in xy is missing, is the
equa
bles,
in
tion
of a
circle.
The most general equation

these conditions obtain
ax 2
of the second degree in
which
is
+ ai/ + cx+dy+f=Q.
(1)
Dividing through by a and re-arranging, we have,

a
If to both
members we now add

c
4 a2
the equation
may
d*
4 a2
be put under the form
4 a2
this with (2) of the preceding article,
Comparing
that
it is
we
see
the equation of a circle in which

c
~a
d
~2~o
are the co-ordinates of the centre and
COR. 1. If ax 2 -{be the equation

-f ex
dy -f- m
of another circle, it must be concentric with the circle
repre
sented by (1) for the co-ordinates of the centre are the same.
ay"-
Hence, when the equations of
circles
have the variables in
62
their terms affected with equal coefficients, each to each, the
Thus
circles are concentric.
are the equations of concentric circles.
EXAMPLES.
What
is
of the
the equation
circle
when
the origin
is
taken.
What
1.
At D,
Fig. 21 ?
Ans.
x2
2.
At K,
Fig. 21 ?
Ans.
x2
3.
At H,
Fig. 21 ?
Ans.
x2
+ f - 2 ay = 0.
+ if + 2 ay = 0.
+ if + 2 ax = 0.
are the co-ordinates of the centres, and the values of
the radii of the following circles ?

4.
Ans.
5.
a; a-t-
2 ,*
7.
+2
2 z2
X2
?/
2, 3),
= 4.
= 2.
= 3.
4) a
= 5.
+ 4a;-6y-3=0.
(-
^tns.
(1, 1),
= 0.
8x
?/
Ans.
(2,0),
_ 6 x = o.
(3, 0),
8.
xz
?/
4 x -f 8
?/
= 0.
.
9.
x 2 H-
10.
x2
11.
x2
2
12.
13.
x2
2
?/
mz
+^ +G=
2/
+ = m.
4* = + =c +^
cz +
=/
2
?/
?/
2/
7/
wy.
(2,
THE CIRCLE.
Write the equations of the
circles
63
whose
and whose
radii
centres are
14.
= 3,
18.
(0, 1).
x*+y -2y = 8.
15. a -2, (1, - 2).
19.
Ans. x + if -2x + 4 y + 1 =0.
20.
16. a = 5, (- 2, - 2).
+ y -f 4 + 4 = 17.
17. a = 4, (0, 0).
21.
= 16.
= m,
= 5,
(b, c).
Ans.
b, (c,
d).
^4rcs.
ic
The radius
of a circle
-\-
is
what
is its
24.
(2, i).
equation
x 2 -f
common
centre the point
Find the equation of a
(2,
circle passing
?/
Write the equations of two concentric
have for their
A;,
if it is
4ic=2?
Ans.
?/
concentric with x 2
23.
&).
cc
22.
(7,
a;
?/
cc
circles
1).
= 21.
which
through three
given points.
39.
To deduce the polar equation of the
circle.
B
FIG.
The equation
of the circle
(X
-XY+
22.
when
(y
referred to
_ y Y = a\
OY,
OX
is
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY,
64
To deduce the
curve, then
polar equation let
be any point of the
(OA, AP) = (x, y)

- (* y )
(OB, BO )
= (r, 0)
(OP, POA)
,
= (/,
= r cos
(00 O OB)
,
From
A=
the figure,
OB =
(
a;
we
=r
cos
AP = y = r sin
BO = y = r sin
(r sin
- / sin
Squaring and collecting, we have,
+ sin 0) + r (cos + sin

=a
sin
r + r - 2 r/ cos (0 -
+ sin
ff
2
.
- 2 r/ (cos
cos
&e polar equation of the
is
i.e.,
^(cos
0,
0,
have,
r cos
r C os 6
a*
(1)
circle.
This equation might have been obtained directly from the

triangle*
COR.
tre
OO P.
1.
If
= 0, the initial line OX passes through the cen
and the equation becomes

r2
COR.
2.
Tf
+/
= 0,
2 rr cos
and /
= a,
=a
2
.
the pole lies on the circum
ference and the equation becomes
= 2 a cos
= 0, and / = 0,
COR.
3.
If
0.
the pole
is
at the centre
and
the equation becomes

r
40.
= a.
To show that the supplemental chords of the
each other.
perpendicular
The supplemental chords of a
circle are
to
circle are those chords
diameter and
pass through the extremities of any
other on the circumference.
which
intersect each
65
FIG.
23.
Let PB, PA be a pair of supplemental chords.

prove that they are at right angles to each other.
The equation of a line through B ( a, o) is
For a
line
through
y = s
Multiplying these,
if
(a, o),
We
wish to
we have
a).
(x
member by member, we have

a 2) ... (a)
ss (x*
for an equation which expresses the relation between the

co-ordinates of the point of intersection of the lines.
Since the lines must not only intersect, but intersect on the
circle
whose equation
this equation
above
is
must subsist
hence, dividing,
same time with equation
at the
(a)
we have
"1
or,
+ ss =
...
(1)
Hence the supplemental chords
of a circle are perpendicular
to each other.
Let the student discuss the proposition for a pair of chords

passing through the extremities of the vertical diameter.
66
To deduce the equation of the tangent
41.
FIG.
to the circle.
24.
Let CS be any line cutting the

Its equation is
circle in the points
(#
),
P"
(x",
y").
(x
Since the points (a/, y ),

the equations of condition
/**
(x",
/"I
~~
(Art. 26, (4)
are on the circle,
y")
/2
).
).
we have
These three equations must subsist at the same time hence,

subtracting (2) from (1) and factoring, we have,
;
(x
+
y
x
x")
(*
x")
y,
_|_
y"
.x"
(y
y")
(y
Substituting in the equation of the secant line
If
point
we now revolve the secant
when the
will approach
secant
;/
CS becomes
line
y")
"
it
becomes
upward about
P"
the
will finally coincide with it

tangent to the curve. But when
and
THE CIRCLE.
P
coincides with
in (3)
we
P",
x"
and
?/
?/";
hence, substituting
have,
y
or, after
67
y"
=-
(*
(*)
*")>
reduction,
+ yy _;..;..
"
a-x"
or,
(5)
symmetrically,
for the equation of the tangent.
SCHOL. The SUB-TANGENT for a given point of a curve is the

distance from the foot of the ordinate of the point of tangency
to the point in
in Fig. 24,
which the tangent intersects the X-axis
AT
its
value
we
have,
P".
make y
OT =
But
thus,
the sub-tangent for the point

To find
in the equation of the tangent (5) and
is
AT = OT - OA =
x"
x"
= an ~ x = V,//2
-2
sub-tangent
"2
To deduce the equation of the normal to the

The normal to a curve at a given point is a
dicular to the tangent drawn at that point.
42.
The equation
24, is
of
any
y"
through the point
line
= s (x -
x")
...
circle.
line
perpen
P"
(x",
y")
Fig.
(1)
In order that this line shall be perpendicular to the tangent

P"T, we must have
1
But
Art. 41, (4)
-f
s
88
= 0.
~
y"
hence,
we must have
=V
x"
68
Therefore, substituting in
y"
we
(1),
-*(*-
have,
(2)
*")
or, after
reduction,
yX
-X
"
y"
...
(3)
for the equation of the normal.

see from the form of this equation that the
the circle passes through the centre.
We
normal to
SCHOL. The SUB-NORMAL for a given point on a curve is

the distance from the foot of the ordinate of the point to the
In the circle,
point in which the normal intersects the X-axis.
we
see
from Fig. 24 that the

Sub-normal =
By methods
43.
the last two articles,

(x
to be
-x
x" .
precisely analogous to those developed in

we may prove the equation of the tangent
- x )* + (y- y Y = *
- x ) + (y - y )
)
and that of the normal to be
- x ) -(x(y -y")
(x
(x"
(y"
- y } = a*
-y
Let the student deduce these equations.
x")
(x"
(y"
...
(1)
(2)
EXAMPLES.
1.
dy
What is
+f=
0,
the polar equation of the circle ax 2

ex
ay*
the origin being taken as the pole and the X-axis
as the initial line ?
Ans.
r2
+ (- cos
\a
2.
x2
What
is
+ f = 25
equation of
(3,
- sin
a
\r
J
What
+ /a = 0.
the
tangent to the circle

of the subAns. 3 x
4y
25 J^.
The value
4) ?
tangent ?
3.
the
at the point
-f
the equation of the normal to the circle

37 at the point (1, 6) ? What is the value of the
x 2 -f if =
sub-normal
is
?
--
Ans. y
= 6x
1.
THE CIRCLE.
What
4.
x2
circle
are the equations of the tangent and normal to the

20 at the point whose abscissa is 2 and ordi-
if
-f-
69
Give also the values of the sub-tangent and

sub-normal for this point.
nate negative ?
Ans.
cc
- 4 = 20
=8
?/
Sub-tangent
?/
+4 =
= 2.
cc
sub-normal
Give the equations of the tangents and normals, and the

values of the sub-tangents and sub-normals, to the
following
circles
5.
6.
7.
+ ?f = 12, at (2, + V8). = 25, at (3, - 4)!

x +
= 20, at (2, ordinate +).
x +
x -f if = 32, at (abscissa +,
4).
x + y = a at
y = m, at (1, ordinate +).
= &, at (2, ordinate
x
+ = 18, at (m. ordinate -f).
= 45 and the
Given the circle x +
x*
z
?/
?/
8.
9.
10.
a?
-|-
11.
(6, c).
-j- ?/
12.
cc
).
7/
13.
+ =
line 2 y
x
2
required the equations of the tangents to the circle which are
parallel to the line.
?/
Ans
What
14.
x~
2
2/
f3*
{3*
+ 6y = 45.
+ 6y=-45.
are the equations of the tangents to the circle
= 45 which are perpendicular to the line

,
2y
-f-
=2?
(3y- 6x^45.
- 3 y = 45.
x + y = 9
16 x
The point
1
2
(3, 6) lies outside of the circle
the
of
the
required
equations
tangents to the circle which
pass through this point.
X
3
Ans.
A
4
3x
15.
y
16.
70
What
17.
(x
2)
equation of the tangent to the circle

the point (4, 4) ?
Ans. 2 x -f y
12.
the
= 5 at
3)
(y
The equation
18.
the
is
x2
circle
-\-
y*
of one of
=9
is
two supplementary chords of

x -|- 2, what is the equation
of the other ?
?/
-f 3
.x
== 9.
Find the equations of the lines which touch the circle

2
2 =
r* and which are parallel to y = sx -f- c.
a) -\- (y
b)
19.
(x
x 2 + ?/ 2
4 x + 4 ?/ = 9
of
the
normal
at
the
the
point whose
required
equation
abscissa == 3, and whose ordinate is positive.
Ans. 4 x
y = 10.
The equation
20.
of a circle
is
44. To find the length of that portion of the tangent lying

between any point on it and the point of tangency.
Let (xu
this point
be the point on the tangent. The distance of

1/1)
from the centre of the circle whose equation is
(x
V(a>!
-f-
(y
-xY+
<*?
- y y.
(y,
is
evidently
See Art. 27,
(1).
But
this distance is the hypothenuse of a right angled tri

whose
sides are the radius a and the required distance
angle
d along the tangent

d*
COR.
1.
If
=
d2
as
it
hence
(x,
-xy+
and y
= 0,
(2/1
then
= x^ + ^ - a
- yY - ^
(1)
...
(i)
becomes
2
.
(2)
ought.
45.
To deduce the equation of the radical axis of two given
circles.
The RADICAL AXIS OF TWO CIRCLES is the locus of a point

from which tangents drawn to the two circles are equal.
THE CIRCLE.
71
FIG.
Let
(x
\
+ (v
+ (y
x")
y/
\*/
(x
25.
}
/
y")
=a
=b
2
,
be the given
Let P (XD yi) be any point on the radical axis

the preceding article, we have,
d2 =
d2 =
.:
6/1
y")
(x"
(y"
Calling, for brevity,
w iH
y")
y)
-f (y t
hence, reducing,
- x x,+2
-f-
(#15 2/i)
+ Vl - y + yi 2
x")
( Xl
2
(x,
by definition
2
-x )
(x,
y ) y,
2
a2
b
we
then from
a2
b2
a2
( Xl
x")
have,
2
x"
circles.
-y
2
y"
the second
member m, we
see that
satisfy the equation.

2
(x"
-x )x+2
(y"
=m
(1)
But (xu 1/1) is any point on the radical axis hence every
It is, therefore, the re
point on that axis will satisfy (1).
;
quired equation.
COR.
then,
is
1.
If c
and
be the equation of two circles,
the equation of their radical axis.
72
2. From the method of deducing (1) it is easily seen

the two circles intersect, the co-ordinates of their points
of intersection must satisfy (1) hence the radical axis of two
COR.
that
if
intersecting circles is the line joining their points of intersection,
PA,
Fig. 25.
Let the student prove that the radical axis of any two
circles is perpendicular to the line joining their centres.
To show that the radical axes of three given

a common point.
46.
circles in
tersect in
Let
= 0,
= 0,
and
c"
be the equations of the three circles.

Taking the circles two and two we have for the equations of
their radical axes
c
c
-c =
- =
_c =o
c"
(1)
...
(2)
"
(3)
evident that the values of x and y which simultaneously

will also satisfy (3) hence the proposition.
and
It is
satisfy (1)
(2)
The intersection of the radical axes of three given circles
THE RADICAL CENTRE
called
is
of the circles.
EXAMPLES.
Find the lengths of the tangents drawn to the following
circles
1.
(x
2)
(y
3)
16 from
(7, 2).
Ans.
2.
x>
(y
+ 2)
10 from
4.
5.
_ a y + if = 12 from
x 2_f2/ 2_2^+4?/-2 from
x + y = 25 from (6, 3).
VlO.
d=^/3.
(b, c).
(a-
(3, 0).
Ans.
(3, 1).
Ans.
V20.
THE CIRCLE.
6.
7>
g.
+y 2
x2
(3
a )2
+y
2 x
10 from
73
(5, 2).
= 3.
Ans. d
(^
6)2
4y
rom
c f
10 rom
f
(d,
/).
(0, 0).
Give the equations of the radical axis of each of the follow

ing pairs of circles
9.
10.
13.
+_ y
3)2
| (x
(
x2
2
|X
_^_
*
|x
_|_ (
^2
4y
^2
_|_
_
_
2 y
3)2
0.
16
+- y = 16.
=
I) +
^s.
o.
-4?w.
= 2 y.
a?
a?
i-
= 0.
1 (x
= 0.
_9 _
2/
a?.
14.
Find the co-ordinates of the radical centres of each of the

following systems of circles
15.
= 9.
- 2 = 25.
2
16.
+ if - 4 x + 6 y - 3 =
-4* = 12.
=
6
| x
=
(.T +
= 9.
J
I) + f
(^
__ 2
4. 4 y = 10.
( ^2 + yj
x + if - k* =
-j= d.
//
(
x-
_j_
?/
_|_
y>
7.
7/
a,
18.
G,
^rcs.
(1,
3).
0.
x8 4-3^
.2
17.
-4w.
ft
?/
?H
-f-
//
I)-
74
47.
To find the condition that a straight
= sx + b
+ =
line
2
a2
must fulfil in order that it may touch the circle x
y~
In order that the line may touch the circle the perpendicu
lar let fall from the centre on the line must be equal to the
.
radius of the circle.
From
= bcosy =
p
r2 (1
hence,
is
we have
Art. 21, Fig. 13,
= VI
+ tan.
=r=
+s =b
2
(1)
the required condition.

COR. 1. If we substitute the value of b
the equation y
-==
sec y
= sx +
y = sx
b,
AVC
_j_
drawn from
(1) in
have
Vl +s
...
(2)
for the equation of the tangent in terms of its slope.
48. Two tangents are drawn from a point without the circle ;
the points oftangency.
required the equation of the chord joining
FIG.
26.
y ) be the given point, and

tangents through it to the circle.
Let
(x
let
PT",
P P,
be the
THE CIRCLE.
75
deduce the equation of

The equation of a tangent through
It is required to
PP
/X
.
is
P"
y")
(#",
\yy^_
xx"
Since
on this
is
(a/, ?/)
the equation
line, its co-ordinates
must
satisfy
hence
The point
rt
(x",
1/1/ =
1
+ ^~
a
x"
2
aT
?/"),
therefore, satisfies the equation
it is a point on the locus represented by

similar
(1).
source of reasoning will show that P is also a point of this
locus.
But (1) is the equation of a straight line hence, since
.-.
it
is satisfied
for the co-ordinates of both
P"
equation of the straight line joining them.

49.
chord of a given
and P,
It
circle is revolved
is,
it is
the
therefore,
about one of
its
points ; required the equation of the locus generated by the

point of intersection of a pair of tangents drawn to the circle at
the points in which the chord cuts the circle.
Let
Fig. 27, be the point about which the chord

It is required to find the equation of the
locus generated by Pj (x l5 yj, the intersection of the tangents
revolves about P
1?
1? as the line P
P AB
(x
),
revolves.
AP BP
From
AB
the preceding article the equation of the chord
X^X
?/!?/ =
-,
^"""^
Since
(a/,
y)
on this
is
a2
xx
hence
Cb
we have
line,
a"
-\
y y == l
1
%
Cf
/1
(1J
AB
is
76
is satisfied
for the co-ordinates of
the locus represented by
(1).
any pair of tangents drawn
But
(x lt
y-^)
is
hence
lies
on
the intersection of
to the circle at the points in
hence (1)
position, cuts the circle
will be satisfied for the co-ordinates of the points of intersec
which the chord, in any
tion of every pair of tangents so drawn.
the equation of the required

(1) is, therefore,
observe that equation (1) is identical with (1) of
the preceding article hence the chord PP" is the locus whose
Equation
locus.
We
equation
we
sought.
The point P
(**
+& =
THE POLAR
1-1-21
(i
(x
y)
is
and the
of the point
called
line
THE POLE
PP"
(x>,
y>)
of the line
(^ + ^f
1\
is
PP"
called
with regard to the circle
THE CIRCLE.
77
the
principles here developed are perfectly general,
the
circle.
within
or
be
without^ on,
pole may
Let the student prove that the line joining the pole and the
centre is perpendicular to the polar.
As the
The terms pole and polar used

no connection with the same terms used
NOTE.
I.
co-ordinates, Chapter
If the polar of the point P (x y ), .Fig. 27, passes through

XD yi), then the polar of P (x 1? yi) will pass through P
1
50.
PI
The equation
of the polar to
xx
~a*
In order that
yu
But
f
(x
(x
) is
y^ may be on
(aj 1?
this line,
we must
have,
a2
this is also the equation of condition that the point

f
y ) may lie on the line whose equation is
^ _i_M
"
a2
a2
But
^~
a2
in this article have

in treating of polar
this is the equation of the polar of P! (x^ y-^
hence
the proposition.
To ascertain the relationship between the conjugate diam
51.
eters
of the
A pair
circle.
to be conjugate when they are

the curve is referred to them as axes its
equation will contain only the second powers of the variables.
of diameters are said
so related that
when
x2
Let
2
?/
ascertain
OY OX
,
a2
(1)
its centre and axes.

becomes when referred to
axes making any angle with each other, we must
be the equation of the
To
what
circle,
referred to
this equation
substitute in the rectangular equation the values of the old
78
co-ordinates in terms of the new.
have
=x
=x
x
y
+y
+y
cos 9
r
sin
From
the
+ 2 x y cos
((f
FIG.
1,
we
cos 9
sin cp
equations of transformation.
values in (1) and reducing, we have,
for
Art. 33, Cor.
Substituting these
+x =a
2
0)
2
.
(2)
28.
diameters
Now, in order that OY OX may be conjugate
the term containing x y in (2)
that
related
so
be
must
they
must disappear; hence the equation of condition,
,
- 6) =
= 90, 0*9-e
9
cos
...
(cp
The conjugate diameters of the

As there
dicular to each other.
circle are therefore
are an infinite
perpen
number
of
the circle which satisfy the condition of being

pairs of lines in
the circle there
at right angles to each other, it follows that in
diameters.
are an infinite number of conjugate
THE CIRCLE.
79
EXAMPLES.
1.
-|-
Prove that the line y = V3 x -+- 10 touches the circle

2
= 25, and find the co-ordinates of the point of tangency.
?/
_ y
f5
__
2.
What must be the value of b in

2
may touch the circle x +
=2x +b
order that the line
?/
16
^7i.
3.
What must be the value of

4 may touch the circle x
= sx
4.
_|-
The
y
V80.
-L,
in order that the line
=2?
-f if
Ans.
#2
5
3,
-L_
V7.
slope of a pair of parallel tangents to the circle

16 is 2 required their equations.
;
Ans.
^j
= 2x -
V80.
Two tangents are drawn from a point to a circle required

the equation of the chord joining the points of tangency in
each of the following cases
;
5.
From
6.
From
7.
From
8.
From
(4, 2)
(3,
to x
4) to or
(1, 5) to
+ if = 9.
+ if =
+
4x
+2y =
^4ws.
3x
+ 4 y = 8.
8.
=c
?/
Ans.
16.
Ans. x
(a, 6) to
cc
7/
9.
10.
Of
= 16.
2
.
v4?is.
What
5 y
-\-
9.
ax
by
-{-
=c
are the equations of the polars of the following points

(2, 5)
Of
(3,
with regard to the
4)
circle
with regard to the
circle
+ y- = 16 ?
cc
5 y
-,
16+16
x + if = 9 ?
^715. 3 x + 4 y = 9.
2
80
11.
Of
(a, b)
with regard to the
circle
x2
-\-
What
12.
are the poles of the following lines
Of 2 x
-f 3 y
= m?
y-
Ans.
ax
= 5 with regard to the circle x
-f
Ans.
13.
Of ~
+ y = 4 with regard to the

Jg
14.
Of y
2
-
= 25 ?
(10, 15).
circle
+ fg = 1 ?
= sx + 6
= m.
by
-\-
2 4 )>
with regard to the circle
Ans
(-^r>i
Find the equation of a straight line passing through

x 2 -\- if
3 x -\- 4 y = 0.
0) and touching the circle
Ans. y = - x.
15.
(0,
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the equation of that diameter of a

drawn parallel to y = sx + b.
circle
which
bisects all chords
Ans.
2.
line
sy
+#=
0.
Required the co-ordinates of the points in which the

x-|-l = intersects the circle
2y
3. Find the co-ordinates of the points

drawn through (3, 4) touch the circle
in
which two
lines
and the
[The points are common to the chord of contact
circle.]
THE CIRCLE.
4.
(4,
The centre
0)
required
which touches the Y-axis
of a circle
its
81
equation.
2
Ans.
(x
4)
is
at
+ y = 16.
2
Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at the

= x -|- 3 is tangent.
origin and to which the line y
Ans. 2 x2 + 2 y* = 9.
5.
+y =
6.
Given x 2
2
16 and (x
4 required the
if
5)
equation of the circle which has their common chord for a
diameter.
7.
Required the equation of the circle which has the dis

(3, 4) from the origin as its diameter.
Ans. x* -j- ?/ 2
4 y = 0.
3x
tance of the point
8. Find the equation of the circle which touches the lines

x.
0, and y
3, y
represented by x
9.
Find the equation of the
points
(-
(1, 2),
(-
2, 3),
circle
- 1).
1,
which passes through the
10. Required the equation of the circle which circumscribes

the triangle whose sides are represented by y
4 x,
0, 3 y
4x
and 3 y
6.
Ans. x 2 -f ?/ 2
0.
| x
1| y
=-
Required the equation of the circle whose intercepts

are a and b, and which passes through the origin.
11.
12.
is
The
points
in the line
13.
circle
14.
The point
x2
ax
(4,
on a
whose centre
its
required
Ans. 2 x 2
2) is the
(3.
6) lie
circle
by
equation.
+2
2
?/
17 x
= 30.
middie point of a chord of the
= 16 required the equation of the chord.

= 16 and the chord y 4 x = 8.
x +
-\- if-
Given
and
(1, 5)
=x
= 0.
x 2 -f y z
Ans.
?/
Show
that a perpendicular from the centre of the circle bisects the

chord.
15.
Find the locus of the centres of
pass through
(2, 4), (3,
2).
all
the circles which
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY,
82
16.
Show
that
if
the polars of two points meet in a third

is the pole of the line
joining the first
point, then that point
two points.
17.
= 8,
Required the equation of the

and whose sub- normal = 2.
circle
whose sub-tangent
= 20.
x 1 -f y 2
Ans.
Required the equation of ihe circle whose sub-normal

= 2, the distance of the point in which the tangent intersects
the X-axis from the origin beinr = 8.
18.
x2
Ans.
19.
ax 2
Required the conditions
in
order
that
-f- ?/
the
= 16.
circles
+ aif + cx + dy + e = Q and ax + af + kx + ly + m =
may
be concentric.
Ans.
20.
k,
I.
Required the polar co-ordinates of the centre and the
radius of the circle

r2
2 r (cos
^/3 sin
0)
= 5.
Ans.
21.
line of fixed length so
moves that
60)
(2,
its
= 3.
extremities
remain in the co-ordinate axes required the equation of the

circle generated by its middle point.
;
22.
Find the locus of the vertex of a triangle having given

= 2 a and the sum of the squares of its sides = 2 b 2
the base
Ans.
x2
-j-
&
a2

the base = 2 a and the ratio of its sides
23.
Ans.
circle.
n
24. Find the locus of the middle points of chords drawn
from the extremity of any diameter of the circle
THE PARABOLA.
CHAPTER
83
VI.
THE PARABOLA.
THE
parabola is the locus generated by a point moving

same plane so as to remain always equidistant from a
fixed point and a fixed line.
The fixed point is called the Focus the fixed line is called
the DIRECTRIX the line drawn through the focus perpendic
ular to the directrix is called the Axis the point on the axis
midway between the focus and directrix is called the VERTEX
52.
in the
of the parabola.
53.
To find the equation of the parabola, given the focus and
directrix.
Let
EC
be the directrix and let
the axis of the curve, and the tangent
be the focus.
OY
drawn
Let OX,
at the vertex
84
0, be the co-ordinate axes.

to OY, PB
and draw
PA
||
(OA, AP)
From
Take any point P on the curve

OX and join P and F. Then
to
||
y) are the co-ordinates of P.
(x,
FAP, we have
2
... (1)
generating the curve, we have
the right angled triangle
= AP = FP - FA
2
if
But from the mode of
FP = BP = (AO
2
and from the
+ OD) =
FA = (AO - OF) =
2
or, after
reduction,
As equation
true for every point
then
= 2 px
hence
(x
(x
OF)
OD = OF =
true for
is
(3)
(x
2
,
OF)
2
.
we have
(1),
+ OD) -
DF =p,
Let
+ OD)
we have
figure,
if
2
.
(2)
hence
(3)
of the parabola it
the equation of the curve.
any point
it is
is
COB. 1. If (x y ) and (x
are the co-ordinates of any
two points on the parabola, we have,
1
hence
2
?/
2
:
y"
\:x
y")
x"
i.e., the squares of the ordinates of any two points on the

bola are to each other as their abscissas.
para
SCHOL. By interchanging x and y, or changing the sign of

the second member, or both in (3), we have
2
y
2px for the equation of a parabola symmetrical
=~
with respect to X and extending to the left of Y;

x 2 = 2 py for the equation of a parabola symmetrical with
respect to Y and extending above X.
x2 =
2 py for the equation of a parabola symmetrical
with respect to Y and extending below X.
Let the student discuss each of those equations.
See
Art. 13.
THE PARABOLA.
54.
85
To construct the parabola, given the focus and
FIG.
First Method.
Let
DR
directrix.
30.
be the directrix and
let
be the
focus.
From F
FD on the directrix it
Take a triangular ruler ADC
and make its base and altitude coincide with the axis and
Attach one end of a string, whose
directrix, respectively.
the perpendicular
let fall
will be the axis of the curve.
is AD, to
the other end to a pin fixed at F.
Place
the point of a pencil in the
loop formed by the string and
stretch it, keeping the point of the
pencil pressed against the
length
base of the triangle. Now, sliding the

triangle up a straight
edge placed along the directrix, the point of the pencil will
describe the arc OP of the parabola for in
every position of
the pencil point the condition of its
being equally distant
from the focus and directrix is satisfied. It is
easily seen, for
;
instance, that
FP = PD
when
the triangle
is
in the position
ADC
that
Second Method.
Take any point C on the
axis
and erect
86
the perpendicular P CP.

as a centre and DC (=
With F
Measure the distance DC.
as a radius describe the arc of a
FP)
P CP in P and P P and F will be points of

the parabola. By taking other points along the axis we may,
by this method, locate as many points of the curve as may be
cutting
circle,
desired.
55. To find the Lotus-rectum, or parameter of the parabola.

The L AT US-RECTUM, or PARAMETER of the parabola, is the
double ordinate passing through the focus.

The abscissa of the points in which the latus-rectum pierces
the parabola
is
2i
Making
this substitution in the equation
= 2px
*
= 2^y* = 2 p
2 y = 2 p.
2
?/
we have
Hence
COR.
1.
Forming a proportion from the equation

if
i.e.,
any
= 2px,
(
we have
x:y:\y. 2p;
the latus-rectum of the parabola is a third proportional to

abscissa and its corresponding ordinate.
EXAMPLES.
Find the latus-rectum and write the equation of the parab
ola which contains the point
1.
5.
8,
?/-
Ans.
4.
What
is it
is
?/
x.
(_,
= b- x.
a
2).
-,?/=a
parabola x* =
Ans.
the latus-rectum of the
defined in this case ?
b*
8,
(a, I).
x.
(-2,4).
Ans.
How
3.
(2,4).
Ans.
S.
-x.
a
THE PARABOLA.
87
6. What is the equation of the line which

passes through
the vertex and the positive extremity of the latus-rectum of
any parabola whose equation is of the form if
2px ?
Ans. y
7.
The focus
of a parabola
vertex of the curve
what
is
is its
when symmetrical with
(a)
"
"
at 2 units
= 2 x.
distance from the
equation
respect to the X-axis ?
"
"
"
(b)
Ans.
(a)
"
Y-axis?
= 8x,
(b)
x*
y.
Construct each of the following parabolas by three differ

ent methods.
8.
9.
12.
2
?/
10.
x2
11.
x2
= 6 y.
= - 10 y.
What
are the co-ordinates of the points on the parabola

where the ordinate and abscissa are equal ?
Ans. (0, 0), and (6, 6).
=6x
13.
x2
= Sx.
- 4 x.
if =
if
Required the co-ordinates of the point on the parabola

whose ordinate and abscissa bear to each other the
=4y
ration 3
Ans.
2.
What
(6, 9).
the equation of the parabola when referred to

2
the directrix and X-axis as axes ?
Ans. y 2
2px p
14.
is
Find the points of intersection of the following

15.
if
16.
x2
= 4 x and 2 y
Ans.
17.
18.
= 0.
(0, 0), (16, 8).
= 6 y and y x 1 = 0.
8 x and
y* =
+ 3 = 0.
=
= 8.
2x and x +
if
a:
?/
Ans.
19.
x*
20.
x2
(2, 2), (2,
= - 4 y and 3 x + 2 if = 6.
= 4 y and if = 4 x.
2
- 2).
88
To deduce the polar equation of
56.
the parabola, the focus
being taken as the pole.
The equation
To
we have
FX
= + r cos
= r sin
0.
0.
(1),
we have
= p~ + 2pr cos
sin
= 1 cos 9
= p -\-2pr cos 9 + r cos 9 = (p + r cos 0)
r cos
r =p
2
9.
?-
But
sin
r2
.-.
.-.
2
,
9,
-\-
solving,
1
cos B
We
Let
might have deduced this value directly as follows

P (r, 9) Fig. 29 be any point on the curve then
;
= D A = DF -f FA = p + r cos 9
r=p + rvosO.
r =
cos 9
1
9 = 0, r = oo
e = 90, r = p.
9 = 180, r =
|
9 = 270, v = p.
9 = 360, r =
FP
i.e.,
Hence
COR.
*-
If
If
If
If
If
An
-,
1.
is
and the pole F
1,
is
Fig. 29,
for the equation of transformation, Art. 34,
or,
OY, OX,
(1)
refer the curve to the initial line
Cor.
of the parabola referred to
f = 2px
oo.
these results.
inspection of the figure will verify
THE PARABOLA.
89
To deduce the equation of the tangent to the parabola.

be the points in which a secant line cuts
(V, y ),
57.
If
y")
(x",
the parabola, then
y-y =
,~
will be its equation.
parabola,
(-**)
",
(!)
Ou
OC-
Since (V,
?/),
(#",
y")
are points of the
we have
y
2
/2
7/
= 2px
= 2X
...
(2)
3)
These three equations must subsist at the same

hence, subtracting (3) from (2) and factoring, we have
y
x
i.e.,
y"
time
2p
==
f
-x"
+y"
Substituting this value in (1), the equation of the secant
becomes
When
the secant, revolved about

y ) coincides with
(x",
to the parabola (x
or,
y".
Making
y"},
this substitution in (4),
simplifying, recollecting that

yy"
=p(x+x")
2
y"
=2
...
becomes tangent
hence x
r
(x",
y")
we
px".
x",
have,
we have
(6)
for the equation of the tangent to the parabola.
To deduce the value of the sub-tangent.

Making y = in (6), Art. 57, we have
= OT, (Fig. 31)
x = -
58.
x"
which the tangent intersects

But the sub-tangent CT is the distance of this
for the abscissa of the point in
the X-axis.
point from the foot of the ordinate of the point of tangency;

i.e., twice the distance just found; hence
Sub-tangent
=2
x"
;
90
i.e.,
the sub-tangent
is
equal
to
double the abscissa of the point
of tangency.
59.
The preceding
principle affords us a simple method of

constructing a tangent to a parabola at a given point.
Let
be any point of the curve. Draw the ordinate P"C, and measure 00.
Lay off OT = 00.
P"
(a;",
y")
FIG.
A
at
line joining
T and
P"
31.
will be tangent to the parabola
P".
60.
To deduce the equation of the normal
The equation
of any line through
= s(x-
y-y"
We have found Art. 57,

s
to the
P"
(#",
x")
y"}
Fig. 31,
(1)
hence, for the slope of the normal
,P
is
(5) for the slope of the tangent
~7"
.__*:.
parabola.
P"N,
we have
P"T
THE PARABOLA.
Substituting this value of
-y"
for the equation of the
=-
we have
s in (1),
^ (*
normal
91
(2)
*")
to the
parabola.
To deduce the value of the sub-normal.
61.
Making y
in (2) Art. 60,
we
have, after reduction,
x=*p+af = ON; Fig. 31,

Sub-normal = NC = p
.-.
Hence
to the
-\-
the sub-normal in the parabola
is
x"
x"
constant
= p.
and equal
semi-parameter FB.
62.
To
shoiv that the tangents
drawn
at the extremities of
the latus rectum are perpendicular to each other.

The co-ordinates of the extremities of the latus-recturn are
?
,
for the upper point,
and
for the lower point.

j
Substituting these values successively in the general equa

tion of the tangent line, Art. 57 (6), we have
yp
= plx
-yp=plx +
or, cancelling,
x+|
(1)
y=-*-f
(2)
for the equations of the tangents. As the coefficient of x

in (2) is minus the reciprocal of the coefficient of x in
(1), the
lines are perpendicular to each other.
COR.
that x
1.
Making y =
?.
in (1)
and
(2),
we
find in each case
hence, the tangents at the extremities of the
92
and the
same point.
latus-rectum
in the
The values
directrix meet the axis

of the parabola
of the coefficients of
these tangent lines
make
x in
angles of 45
(1) and (2) show that

with the X-axis.
63. To deduce the equation of the parabola when

referred to
the tangents at the extremities of the latus-rectum as axes.
FIG.
The equation
of the parabola
if = 2px
We
wish to ascertain what
curve
is
Let
DY DX
referred to
(x
when
referred to
the figure,
OC
CP )
we
OY, OX,
is
(1).
this equation
as axes.
becomes when the
be any point of the curve
i/)
(OC,
From
32.
= (x,
y),
and (DC
then, Fig. 32
,
CP
have,
= DC - DO = DK + C M - DO;
(a*
tf).
THE PARABOLA.
93
but
DK = x
= r^C, C M = /cos 45 =
cos 45
V2
hence
V2
V2
Substituting the values of x and

(2/
- *T -
V2
?/
DPF, we
we
in (1),
(C
In order to simplify this expression

the triangle
= MP - C K
..,
|
*
DO =|
-\
CP
have, also,
V2
p
--^=-- 5r
2
V2
JK
V2
We
-X-,
let
-^
2/
have,
2
DP = a
then from
(2)
have,
DF =p =
a cos 45
-^=-
V2<
by
2,
we
have,
x )2
(/
?/
or,
Adding 4
a?
ic
= 2a
2
a:
.-.
transposing, x
...
or,
is
a2
4- ?/)
= 4;ry,
<X+/-a)
(V
and multiplying through

,
/+
a2
= 0.
both members, the equation takes the form
?/ to
or
in (2)
+y
-[-
^x
2x *y *
yx
-J-
-+- ?/
a;
?/
=a
...
symmetrically, dropping accents,
^
;
(3)
94
/EXAMPLES.
What is the polar equation of the parabola, the pole

1.
being taken at the vertex of the curve ?
Ans. r
2p cot cosec 0.
Find the equation of the tangent to each of the following

value of the subtangent in each case
parabolas, and give the
2
Ans. y = x + 1 2.
= 4 x at (1, 2).
2.
:
3.
x2
2
4.
v/
5.
x2
= 4 y at (- 2, 1).
= - 6 x at
6, ord
= 8 y at (abs +,
= 4 ax at (a, 2 a).
=
at (m, m).
= ^y at (abs +,
(
6.
?/
7.
8.
a;
9.
x*
y + 1 =
=3
Ans. 2 y +
^rcs. x + y = 2
Ans.
a;
oj
+).
2).
2.
12.
4.
??ia;
= 2py
at
(abs-,
\
p).
p8
Write the equation of the normal to each of the following

parabolas
10.
11.
12.
13.
= 16 x at (1, 4).
To x = - 10 y at (abs +, - 2).
mx at
To if =
m, m).
To x = 2 m?/ at ofo To
if
2
\
\
*
of a parabola is x* _L_ y
?
curve
the
of
are the co-ordinates of the vertex
14.
The equation
Ans.
-a, -- a
4
V4
I
= 4x
and the line y

which is,
the
of
the
tangent
equation
required
15.
Given the parabola
if
what
to the line,
(a) parallel
(b)
perpendicular to the line.

x
Ans. (a) y
1, (b) y
= +
+ + 1 = 0.
a;
THE PARABOLA.
95
16. The point (1, 2) lies outside the parabola

if = 6x;
what are the equations of the tangents through the point to
the parabola ?
The point (2, 45) is on a parabola which is symmetri

with respect to the X-axis required the equation of the
parabolk, the pole being at the focus.
- 2 V2) x.
Ans. if
(4
17.
cal
18. The subtangent of a parabola

10 for the point (5, 4)
required the equation of the curve and the value of the sub
normal.
Ans.
64.
The tangent
focal line
drawn
to the
= ^x;*.
5
>
parabola makes equal angles with the
the point of tangency
to
y*
and
the axis of the
curve.
From
We
Fig. 31
we
have,
FT
= FO + OT =
4-
x".
have, also,
= DC = DO + OC = f +
FT =
FP"
.-.
The
triangle
x".
FP".
FP"T is
FP"T
therefore isosceles and

FTP".
65.
To find
the condition that the line
in order to touch the parabola y 2
= 2 px.
= sx + c must fulfil
Eliminating y from the two equations, and solving the

resulting equation with respect to x, we have,
- SC
(C8
- PY ~ C S
2 2
for the abscissae of the points oflntersection of the

parabola
and line, considered as a secant.
When the secant becomes
96
a tangent, these abscissas become equal but the condition for

in the numerator of
equality of abscissas is that the radical
;
(1) shall
be zero
hence
c s
= 0,
= --
or, solving,
2^
(cs
the condition that the line must
is
fulfil in
order to touch the
parabola.
COR.
we
1.
Substituting the value of

sx
c,
y
= +
V = sx +
have,
c in
the equation
(2)
^-S
for the equation of the tangent in terms of
its slope.
To find the locus generated by the intersection of a tan

to it from the focus as the point of
gent, and a perpendicular
the curve.
around
moves
tangency
66.
The equation
of a straight line through the focus
I?
is
)
we must
hence
have,
= sx + L
=
(2)
+ ^-
(3)
the equation of a line through the focus perpendicular to

the tangent. Subtracting (3) from (2), we have
is
or,
= 0,
=
is the
But x
equation of the required locus.
the perpendiculars from the
Y-axis
the
of
hence,
equation
for the
THE PARABOLA.
focus
to the
97
on the
tangents of a parabola intersect the tangents
Y-axis.
67.
To find
the locus generated by the intersection of two tan

to each other as the point of tan-
gents which are perpendicular

curve.
gencij moves around the
The equation
of a tangent to the parabola
The equation
= 8X +
f-g
-l*-fA
...*
=-
we
(1),
|.
is
...(2)
Subtracting (2) from
Art. 65 (2),
(1)
of a perpendicular tangent
is,
have,
(3)
the equation of the required locus. But (3) is the equa

hence, the intersection of all perpendicu
lar tangents drawn to the parabola are points of the directrix.
is
tion of the directrix
68. Two tangents are drawn to the parabola from a point

without ; required the equation of the line joining the points of
tangency.
be the given point without the parabola, and let

f
Since (x y is
X
be the points of tangency.
( 2, 2/2)
(X
on both tangents, its co-ordinates must satisfy their equations
Let (V,
>
?/)
2/")?
~)
hence, the equations of condition,
y"
2/2/2
The two points
yy
r
yy
+X"\
+x
(x
of tangency
satisfy
or
=p(x
=P
=p
=p
(*
(x
+
+x
z ).
(x",
y"),
(x 2
2/ 2 )
must therefore
),
(1)
Since (1) is the equation of a straight line, and is satisfied

for the co-ordinates of both points of tangency, it is the
equation of the line joining those points.
98
69.
To find the equation of the polar of the pole
(x,
with
2 px.
parabola if
The polar of a pole with regard to a given curve is the line
generated by the point of intersection of a pair of tangents
drawn to the curve at the points in which a secant line through
regard
to the
the pole intersects the curve as the secant line revolves about the
pole.
a course of reasoning similar to that of Art. 49,

prove the required equation to be
By
As the reasoning by means

fectly general, the pole
may
we may
which (1) is deduced is per

be without, on, or within the
of
parabola.
COR.
1.
If
we make,
hence, the directrix
is
in (1), (x
r
,
= | 0\
I
\z
(
we have
the polar of the focus.
70. To ascertain the position and direction of the axes,

other than the axis of the parabola and the tangent at the
be referred its equation will
vertex, to which if the parabola
remain unchanged in form.
FIG.
33.
THE PARABOLA.
Since the equation
to retain the
is
99
form
= 2px ... (1)

y*
y = 2p x ... (2)
f
let
when referred to the

we are now seeking.
be the equation of the parabola
axes,
It is
whose position and direction
be
the
whatever
that
obvious at the outset
position of
may
must be
-axis
Y
new
the
each
to
the axes relatively
other,
on the
must
be
new
the
and
the
to
origin
curve,
tangent
0, a
curve for, if in (2) we make x = 0, we have y =
;
which we can only account for by assuming the Y -axis

and the new origin in the positions indicated. This conclu
verified by the analysis which
sion, we shall see, is fully
result
follows.
Let us refer the curve to a pair of oblique axes, making

in the
any angle with each other, the origin being anywhere
The equations
plane of the curve.

Art. 33
(1),
= a -j- x cos 6 + y cos

= b x sin + y sin
r
-f-
q>
cos
<p)
Now,
+2
(1),
(b
sin
-f-
we have,
x
sin 2
(9
+2
(a)
sin
(b)
sin 2
(d)
= 0, then sin
and
(b sin
sin
g>
= 0.
2 pa = 0.
b sin
g>
sin
g>
q>
satisfied
= 0.
cos
<p
= 0.
and sin 2 = 0; i.e., conditions

assumed value of 6. But is
-axis makes with the old X-axis
(b) are satisfied for this
the angle which the new

hence, these axes are parallel.
If (a, b) be a point of the parabola ?/ 2
pa is an analytical expression of the fact
= 2px,
that the
we must have the following conditions
(d)
(a)
(1),
q>
cos 0) x -f b
2 pa
(3)
in order that this equation shall reduce to the same
form as
If
q>
g>.

2
2 x y sin
sin
sin 2
?/
transformation are,
of
new
orisrin lies
on the curve.
then
hence
(c)
=2
shows
100
S
1!L^
If
cos
= tan
= P, then
<f
gp
But
(d) is satisfied.
the
is
whose ordinate is b, Art.

slope of the tangent at the point
is the slope of the new Y -axis
and tan.
hence, the
new Y -axis is a tangent to the parabola at the point whose
ordinate is b .-. at (a, b) .% at the new origin.
57, (5),
<p
COR.
1.
Substituting
= cos =
that cos
and (d) in (3), recollecting

after dropping accents,
(a), (&), (c),
we have,
1,
-^S-*sin* y
% =p
letting
or,
sin
we have
"
cp
= 2p x
(4)
for the equation of the parabola when referred to O

The form of (4) shows that for every value
Fig. 33.
y has two
for x,
OX
Y OX
values, equal but of opposite sign
bisects all chords,
drawn
parallel to
OY
and
line
which
is
assumed
;
hence,
therefore a
diameter of the parabola.
A DIAMETER of a curve
NOTE.
tem of parallel chords.
is
bisects
a sys
\l
To show that the parameter of any diameter
71.
to
the focus
four times the distance from
that diameter cuts the curve.
Draw the focal line FO and the normal
to
Since the triangle

2
O FN
Since
61.
O FT
Hence
is
normal
at
in the triangle
AO = FO
AO N =
<y>
and
sin 2
g>
= FO
NO A,
AO = AN cot v =
FO
2 sin
cp
AN = p,
FO A
2 sin
In the triangle
hence
cos
equal
O N, Fig. 33.
Art.
64, the angle
isosceles;
is
<r.
is
the point in which
<JP
=p
sin
cp
cos
cp
(jp
cos
<JP.
Art.
THE PARABOLA.
.-.
FO =
2 sin 2
q>
i* -4
Sin*
2p = 4 FO
But
101
go
.-.
72.
To find the equation of any diameter in terms of the
and
slope of the tangent
The equation
of
= AO =
y
But from the triangle
b
the semi-parameter.
any diameter as
AO N,
= AX cot =
*L_
tan
is
Fig. 33,
is
we have,
<p
hence
OX
b.
CP
<:
(1)
To show that the tangents drawn at the extremities of

chord
meet in the diameter which bisects that chord.
any
73.
FIG.
Let
(x
/),
P"
(x",
y")
FP";
then
34.
be the extremities of the chord
y"
n (_;*>... (1)
102
its
is
The equation
equation.
are
P"
of the tangents at
(V,
y")
0",
^-p(* +
y/ -*(*
Eliminating x from
(2)
and
2)
(
*")
3
>
(3) by subtraction,
we
have,
intersection of the tangents.

for the ordinate of the point of
~~
But
(see (1)
"
is
the reciprocal of the slope of chord
Hence, since the chord
).
are parallel,
we
P"
and the tangent
P",
YT
have,
-y"
Substituting in (4)
it
becomes
-*.value of y with (1) of the preceding

is on the diameter.
the
see that
point of intersection
Comparing
article,
we
this
EXAMPLES.
1.
y
J
=
2.
What must be the value of c

4 x _L_ c may touch the parabola
?/
What
=3x +
3.
in order that the

2
Ans.
is
the line
the parameter of the parabola which
2 touches ?
is
to the parabola y
slope of a tangent
?
the
of
tangent
the equation
The
What
line
=8x?
6x
is
= 3 ^ _L
3.
on a tangent to a parabola required

the equation of the parabc
the equation of the tangent and
,=
the slope of the tangent
- 16 *.
l;
4a
4
The point
(1,
3) lies
4.^
^=
THE PARABOLA.
8 x
is
In the parabola y z
diameter whose equation
5.
what
the parameter of the
is
W=
103
Ans.
136.
6. Show that if two tangents are drawn to the

parabola
from any point of the directrix they will meet at right angles.
From
2
the point
8 x
5) tangents are drawn to ?/
required the equation of the chord joining the points of
Ans. 5 ?/
4^
8
0.
tangency.
7.
8.
What
(2,
the
are
equations of the tangents to
which pass through the point
2,
+ =
= 6x
2
?/
4) ?
Find the equation of the polar of the pole in each of the

following cases
9.
Of (-
3)
1,
with regard to y 2
= 4*.
Ans.
10.
Of
(2, 2)
with regard to if
11.
Of
12.
Given the parabola
(ay b)
with regard to y
?/
=x
Q.
2y
+ 2a; + 4 = 0.
= 4 x.
Ans.
+2=
x.
Ans.
2
2x
3y
2x
by
and the point
2 a
4,
= 0.
10)
to
find the intercepts of the polar of the point.
Ans.
13.
The latus-rectum of a parabola

8x
of the line y
4,
=4
= 0.
= 4:,b=-.
5
required the pole
Ans.
Given
(i,i).
10 x and the tangent 2 y

x
10 required
the equation of the diameter passing through the point of
tangency.
Ans. y
10.
14.
if-
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
Assuming the equation
point on the curve

directrix.
is
of the parabola, prove that every

equally distant from the focus and
104
Find the equation of the parabola which contains the
2.
points
(0, 0), (2, 3),
2, 3).
Ans.
What
3.
(-
are the parameters of the parabolas
through the point
3 x2
which pass
(3, 4) ?
Ans.
Find the equation of that tangent

4 = 0.
2 x
parallel to the line y
4.
Ans.
The parameter
5.
of a parabola
is
?/
8y
Y, and
f.
= 9x
which
is
16 a
0.
required the equation
perpendicular to the line

tangent
2 x -\- 2. Give also the equation of the normal which is
which
line
the
of
to
= 4 y.
is
line.
parallel to the given
2
4 x makes an angle of 45 with the
tangent to ?/
X-axis required the point of tangency.
Ans. (1,2).
6.
Show
that tangents
drawn
at the extremities of a focal
chord
7.
Intersect on the directrix.
8.
Meet
9.
That a
focus
10.
11.
is
at right angles.
line joining their point of intersection with the

perpendicular to the focal chord.
Find the equation of the normal
in terms of its slope.
Show that from any point within

may be drawn to the curve.
the parabola three
normals
12
Given the parabola
to construct the tan-
+ cos 6
vectorial angle =
1
60, and to find the

gent at the point whose
line.
initial
angle which the tangent makes with the
60.
Ans. 61
13.
Find the co-ordinates of the
extremity of the latus-rectum being
pole, the
its polar.
normal
at one
THE PARABOLA.
In the parabola y 2
4 x what
chord which the point (2, 1) bisects ?
14.
is
105
the equation of the
Ans.
15.
The polar
of
any
point in a diameter
is
=2x
3.
parallel to the
ordinates of that diameter.

16.
The equation
of a chord of y*
10 x
is
=2x
required the equation of the corresponding diameter.

17.
Show
that a circle described on a focal chord of the
parabola touches the directrix.

18.
The base
of a triangle
gents of the base angles

vertex is a parabola.
b.
=2a
and the sum of the tan
Show
that the locus of the
Required the equation of the chord of the parabola

=2px whose middle point is (m, n}.
n = x
m
A
19.
y-
Ans.
p
20.
angle
chord of the parabola if

2 px makes an
with the X-axis required its length.
focal
cp
Ans.
-?-.
Show
that the focal distance of the point of intersec

to a parabola is a mean
proportional to
the focal radii of the points of tangency.
21.
tion of
two tangents
Show that the angle between two tangents to a parab

one-half the angle between the focal radii of the
points
of tangency.
22.
ola
is
23.
The equation
is y = a
of a diameter of the parabola y 2

2 px
required the equation of the focal chord which this
diameter bisects.
24. The polars of all points on the latus-rectum meet the
axis of the parabola ?/ 2
2 px in the same point required the
co-ordinates of the point.
Ans.
106
CHAPTER
VII.
THE ELLIPSE.
74.
THE ellipse
that the
sum
is
the locus of a point so moving in a plane
of its distances from
constant and equal to a given

called the Foci of the ellipse.
two fixed points
line.
If
is
always
The
the
fixed points are

points are on the
the given
given line and equidistant from its extremities, then
line is called the TRANSVERSE or MAJOR Axis of the ellipse.
75.
To deduce
the equation of the ellipse, given
the,
foci
and
the transverse axis.

Y
FIG.
Let F, F! be the
OY
J_ to
AA
foci
at its
co-ordinate axes.
and
35.
AA
Draw
OX
as the
middle point, and take OY,
THE ELLIPSE.
Let
also
PD
Let
FF
AA =
V?/
From
the
+ (x
c)
mode
y) are the co-ordinates of P.
20F
201\
hence
and
FPD
Vy +
=2
=2a
Vy + (x - c) + V y +
/
and FjPD, we
have,,
(#-{- c)
we
(a)
have,
+ c) = 2 a
2
(x
(1)
and reducing,
clearing of radicals,
+ x -c
2
(if
and
a2
FP =
c,
of generation of the curve,
r -f
or,
(x,
the right angled triangles
2a,
= /.
From
draw
OY.
to
Then (OD, DP)
FP
Draw PF, PFi
be ary point of the curve.

||
107
x2
a 2 (a 2
c )
...
(2)
As
this equation (2) expresses the relationship between the

co-ordinates of any point on the curve, it must express the
relationship between the co-ordinates of every point

hence
it is
Equation
(2)
elegant form.
may be made, however, to assume

Make x = in (2), we have,
2
?/
a2
for the square of the ordinate of the point in
curve cuts the Y-axis

this distance
by
we
b,
2
.-.
(= OB
which the
/2
).
Eepresenting
2
?
-b* ...
or,
have,
=a _
c = a
2
OB
i.e.,
a more
in (2)
(3)
and reducing, we have,
symmetrically,
for the equation

axes.
of ellipse
when
Let the student discuss equation
referred to
(4).
its
centre and
See Art. 12.
108
COR.
we make
If
1.
x -f y
which
is
COR.
=a
=a
2
the equation of a
circle.
we interchange a and
If
2.
we have,
in (4),
for the equation of an ellipse

lies along the Y-axis.
COR. 3. If (z y
we have from (4)
,
and
*L
(z",
(^
-z
we
b in (5),
have,
whose transverse axis
y")
- a/
are
(=2 a)
two points on the curve,
and
= -^ (a -
y"*
z"
x ) (a
(a
) (a
ordinates
the
of any two points on the
of
i.e., the squares
other as the rectangles of the segments in
ellipse are to each
hence, y
::
(a
y"
which they divide the transverse

COR.
4.
= x a and y
and dropping accents,
^x 2
tf ,f
_|_
2 atfx
for the equation of the ellipse,

of co-ordinates.
The
line
BB
Fig. 35,
x")
axis.
By making x
after reduction
76.
x"}
in
(4),
we have
(7)
being taken as the origin
is
called
the
CONJUGATE
or
and A
from the figure that
bisects all lines drawn through it and terminating
the point
the CENTRE of
is called
For this reason
in the curve.
MINOR
axis of the ellipse
VERTICES of the
ellipse.
the points
are called the
It is evident
the ellipse.
The
is
~ ** - -?
ratio
called the
this ratio is
ECCENTRICITY
always
<
See
1.
(3)
of the ellipse.
of c
The value
ures the distances of the foci F,
F from
x
Art. 75
...
(1)
It is evident that
= i Va - b
2
the centre.
meas
THE ELLIPSE.
If a
=b
then
in (1),
If b
=1
in (1), then e
when
the ellipse becomes a
zero.
i.e.,
when
the ellipse becomes a
becomes unity.
straight line the eccentricity
77.
i.e.,
becomes
circle its eccentricity
109
To find the values of the focal
radii,
/, of a point on
r,
the ellipse in terms of the abscissa of the point.
The FOCAL RADIUS of a point on the ellipse

of the point from either focus.
From equations
(a),
Art. 75,
= Vy +
we
from the equation of the
ellipse, Art.
^_ ( a 2
a2
have,
cf
(x
the distance
is
x 2\
^2
we
75
(4),
&_ X 2
have,
a2
hence, substituting
*
o
2 ex
/
t/V -
2 ex
=
r
Similarly
we
78.
c-
,.-
See
ex.
(1) Art.
76 ... (1)
find
<Z-
a
hence
-(X
= a + ex
(2)
Having given the transverse
axis
and the
foci of
any
ellipse, the principles of Art. 75 enables us to construct the

ellipse by three different methods.
First Method.
verse axis
AA
Take a cord equal

Attach one end of
in length to the trans

at F, the other at F
it
Place the point of a pencil in the loop formed by the cord

and stretch it upward until taut. Wheeling the pencil around,
while keeping, the point on the paper and tightly pressed
110
against the cord, the path described will be an arc of the

After describing the upper half of the ellipse, re
ellipse.
move the pencil and form the loop below the transverse axis.
By
a similar process the lower half
FIG
may
be described.
It is
36.
evident during the operation that the sum of the distances of

the point of the pencil from the foci is constant and equal to
the length of the cord i.e., to the transverse axis.
Take any point C on the transverse axis
Second Method.
;
and measure the distances
CA
A C,
AC.
With F
as a radius describe the arc of a circle
as a centre
also with
and
as a
CA as a radius describe another arc. The points

these arcs intersect are points of the ellipse.
which
in
B/
R,
the radii two other points P, P may be
interchanging
By
A smooth curve traced through a number of
determined.
centre and
points thus located will be the required ellipse.
Let the axes AA = 2

on any straight edge
= OA = a and DL = OB
Third Method.
Lay
given.
will do)
off
KD
MX
a,
BB =
2 b be
(a piece of paper
== b.
Place the
the position indicated in the

straight edge on the axes in
and L slide along the axes, the point
Then as
figure.
THE ELLIPSE.
describe the
will
DKE
For from the
ellipse.
are similar triangles
DK =
--
Ill
DL
lji
-a
_-
i.e.,
_
b
-//
DLH
figure
(x
and
and y being
the co-ordinates of D).
Hence, squaring, clearing of fractions, and transposing, we

have
2
z
a?tf _j_ &2X = a b ^
That is the locus described by D is an ellipse.

ment based upon this principle is commonly used
An
for
instru
drawing
the ellipse.
79.
To find the
The
latus rectum or
parameter of an ellipse.
parameter of an ellipse is the double
or dinate passing through the focus.
The abscissas of the points in which the latus rectum
2
b
-JSubstituting either
pierces the ellipse are x
of these values on the equation of the ellipse
latus rectum, or
we have
Hence
a2
(a
vV
Latus rectum
Forming a proportion from
(a
- b )) =
2
=2y=
a2
9 A2
...
a
(1)
this equation there results,
2y:2b::b:a ;
hence
i.e.,
2y
2 b
::
2 a
the latus rectum is a third proportional to the two axes.
EXAMPLES.
Find the semi-axes, the eccentricity,
of each of the following ellipses
and the latus rectum
1.
2.
3 x 2 -f 2 y 2
= 6.
^,^ = L
3.
4>
x2
4
+ 3 if = 2.
o __
6 =
2
2
3.2
112
60y
c
-\-
x-
a.
o.
Write the equation of the

9.
The transverse
V
-^-
-f-
?i.
having given
the distance between the foci
ellipse
= 10
axis
x-
or
Ans.
25
10.
Sum
= 18
of the axes
difference of axes
36
Transverse axis
10
-4^
the conjugate axis
l.
= 6.
Ans.
11.
$-
l-
= 1.
= y2
the
transverse axis.
x*
A
12.
tween
Transverse axis
= 20
conjugate axis
distance be
foci.
Ans.
13.
=1
4y2
25
25
Conjugate axis
= 10
distance between foci
Ans.
-j-
= 50.
= 10.
^+
y*
= 25.
Given 3y 2 + 4 a? 2 = 12 required the co-ordinates of the

point whose ordinate is double its abscissa.
14.
15.
Given the
ellipse 3
2
?/
+ 2 x = 12, and the line y

2
to find the co-ordinates of their points of intersection.
X1
(--=3-1, and the abscissa of a
64
15
.-2
16.
Given the
ellipse
point on the curve
required the focal radii of the point.

8T
Ans. r
7 T%, /
= V
THE ELLIPSE.
80.
113
To deduce the polar equation of the
ellipse, either focus
FIG.
Let us take F as the
From
the figure,
i.e.,
and
pole,
the co-ordinates of any point

r
a
ex
(1) we have,
.
37.
P
.
-\-
or,
reducing,
P FA)
From
(r, (9)
be
Art. 77
(ae
-f-
(1),
we have
r cos 0),
we have
,
*L
_
1
+ e cos
for the polar equation of

From Art. 77 (2),
FP
We
r cos 0.
Substituting this value of x in
=a
(FP
(1)
OD = OF + FD
= ae
r
let
of the ellipse.
...
(2)
the ellipse, the right-hand focus
= / = a + ez
readily determine from this value
cos
for the polar equation of the ellipse, the left-hand focus being
taken as tlje pole.
114
COR. If
= a (1
= FA,
=
/ a (1 + = F A.
=a-a
r = a (1 - e
r
0,
0)
e)
= 90,
If
= (1 + = FA
= a (1 - = F A
FM
r = a (1 - e
ft
/
If
= 270,
If
= 360,
To deduce
e)
e)
/
81.
= a (1 - e) = FA,
= a (1 + = F A.
e)
the equation of condition for the supplemental
chords of an ellipse.
Y
FIG. 38.
Let AP,
AP
The equation
be a pair of supplemental chords.

of a line through A (a. o) is
y
= a(l-e )=a-a- -=-^- = - = FN.

= 180,
If
= FM.
=
r
s (a;
r/).
THE ELLIPSE.
The equation
V =
Where
of a line through
s
(x
?/
= ss
a, 6) is
+ a).
we must have
these lines intersect

2
115
a 2)
(x
(1)
In order that the lines shall intersect on the ellipse their

equations must subsist at the same time with the equation of
the ellipse
Dividing
*- 5 (a ^^
(1)
or
(2),
ss
=-
for the required condition.

COR. If a
the ellipse
b,
ss
2)
we have
by
comes
= -
(3)
becomes
-a circle
and
(3)
be
1,
a relationship heretofore deduced. Art. 40 (1).

SCHOL. The preceding discussions have developed a remark
able analogy between the ellipse and circle.
As we proceed
we shall find that the circle is only a particular form of the
ellipse and that all of the equations pertaining to it may be
deduced directly from the corresponding equations deduced
for the ellipse
82.
Let
P"S
by simply making a

P"
(x",
y"),
cuts the ellipse.
As
= b in those equations.
= i!_(V2
2
2/"
the ellipse.
we must have
the points are on the ellipse,

,
to
(x ?/ ) be the points in which a secant

Its equation is, therefore,
= 4 (a- a-
AA
3/2}
2
*"
...
(3)
116
FIG.
39.
These three equations must subsist at the same time

subtracting (3) from (2) and factoring, we have
2/0
(/
r
hence
y
x
+ 2/0 =
P_
becomes
vâlue in (1) it
/
/,2
Eevolving the secant
_|_
line
"
becomes a tangent and x

we have
"-
x",
y"
for the equation of the tangent
(x",
(5)
P"
?/")
and
secant
,*;...
1
2
P"
xx
b
P (x y ) will approach
When this occurs the
i.e.,
a2
X)
upward about the point
the other point of intersection

will finally coincide with it.
or
-^-7T7
>-
hence
- i/\
-x
Substituting this
(4)
THE ELLIPSE.
COR.
If b
= a,
117
we have
_i_
yy
n
a*
for the equation of the tangent to the circle.
SCHOL. If we make x and y successively
tion of the tangent (5),
we have y
See Art. 41
and x
values of the variable intercepts
,,
hence
y"
IP
OT
d2
x
..
and x
These values
(6).
equa
= ^ for
x
the
"
y
,
in the
OT, Fig. 39
in the equation
2
2
*"
.
^~"
?/
give, after reduction,
for the equation of the ellipse, the

intercepts of its tangents
on the axes being the variables.

83.
Making y
.-.sub-tangent
in (5), Art. 82,
= DT = ^1 -
we have
x"
COR. If
.
a*
~x
x
x"
b = a,
"*
ff
then from Art. 41, Schol. a 2
sub-tangent in the circle
2
x"
rr<2
SCHOL. The value of the sub-tangent being

independent of
the value of the minor axis
(2 b) it follows that this value is
the same for every ellipse which is concentric with the
given
ellipse,
and whose common transverse axis
is
a.
118
of condition that a line shall pass through

the centre of the ellipse and the point of tangency is, Fig. 39,
84.
The equation
tx",
y"
.-.
the slope of this line
t==
The
is
^7
slope of the tangent at
a2
(x",
y")
is,
Art. 82,
y"
Multiplying,
But
(3)
Art. 81
...
i.e.,
ss
the tangent to the ellipse
and
the line joining the centre
and
the point of tangency enjoy the property of being supplemental

I)
chords of an ellipse whose semi-axes bear
is
COR. If
parallel
to
then s = t
a diameter of the
t,
parallel to the tangent

diameter.
chord
85.
is
to
each other the ratio
-.
chord
if one supplementary
ellipse, the other supplementary
i.e.,
drawn
at the extremity of that
84 afford us two different

principles of Arts. 83,
a given
of constructing a tangent to the ellipse at
The
methods
point.
First Method.
Art. 83, Schol. Let

draw the ordinate
P",
Through
point.
until it meets the circle described
P"
of the ellipse
Join
at F.
(AA )
P"
and
in
F; draw
P"T
Fig. 40, be the given
P"D
and produce
it
upon the transverse axis

tangent to the circle
FT
will be the required tangent.
THE ELLIPSE.
FIG.
P"
||
86.
from
RA
40.
Draw
Art. 84 and Cor.
Second Method.
centre, and
to
draw
AR
119
||
to
P"R
will be tangent to the ellipse at
To deduce the equation of the normal
The equation
of
any
line
through
P"R
P"T
P".
to the ellipse.
P"
(x",
through the
drawn through
y"),
Fig. 39, is
S (X
y
(1).
In order that this line and the tangent at
shall
be perpendicular their slopes must satisfy the condition
?,"
X")
P"
We
+ S8 = o
(x" ,
y")
(2).
have found Art. 82 for the slope of the tangent
/==
"5-^
hence, the slope of the normal
is
s in (1),
normal
to
we have
the ellipse.
120
COR.
1.
If
then
b,
"
yx
which
xy"
becomes, after reduction,

0,
normal
line to the circle.
To deduce the value of the sub-normal
Making y
...
is the equation of the
87.
we
(3)
in the equation of the normal, (3), Art. 86,
ON = x
have, Fig. 39,
*x",
Sub-normal
COR.
If
1.
b,
then
Sub-normal for the
circle
x".
EXAMPLES.
Deduce the polar equation of the ellipse, the pole being
with the X-axis.
the centre and the initial line coincident
1.
at
A
Ans.
-.
2
sin
+b
cos 2
the
of
following
Write the equation of the tangent to each
of the sub-tangent in each case.
value
the
and
give
ellipses,
2z
2.
El
3.
+ 4y = 38at
2
+ 2.
(1, 3).
Ans.
!.
+ 6 y = 19
18.
at (1, ordinate positive).
1,
An,.
4.
._l,
at (2,0).
0.
^ + 3^- 11
J/l
_
o
1,
at
(2,-
at (0,
1)
V)
4as
_ 3y . 11;i
THE ELLIPSE.
8.
9.
+ te - 2,
2
m +
2
?/
- V2 -
at (1,
at (afo
1,
+,
121
6).
.5).
Write the equation of the normal to each of the following

the sub-normal.
ellipses, and give the value of
7/
+ 4 x = 39,
at
if
+2
= 44,
at
10.
11.
12.
^!_
13.
-+{
o
o
14.
^1
_|_
4-
ic
7/2
2
?/
-f- ?
1,
at (1,2).
at
^ ord
=mn
2
1,
2
,
ord negative).
ord
at
1?
ic
2,
1.
a,
15.
(3, 1).
).
_|_^
at (m, o).
2x
6
of a chord of an ellipse is y
the equation of the supplementary chord, the axes of
the ellipse being 6 and 4 ?
Ans. y
f
f x
16.
what
The equation
17.
is
Given the equation
j-
MID
= 1,
and
?/
re-
quired the equation of the tangents to the ellipse at the points

in which the line cuts tne curve.
18.
Given the ellipse
= 0;
(a)
= 1,
and the
line
required
The equation
"
(b)
(-
"
of a tangent to the ellipse
||
"1
to the line.
"
"
"
-{-
122
19.
The point
(4, 3) is
1G
+ 1P
outside the ellipse
1;
required the equations of the tangents to the ellipse which

pass through the point.
88. The angle fanned by the focal lines drawn to any point
of an ellipse is bisected by the normal at that point.
FIG.
41.
Let P"N be a normal at any point
We
have found, Art.
From
Art. 76
P"
(a;",
?/ ).
= OF = ae;
NF = OF OX = ae NF = OF + OX = ae +
NF NF
r
FP"
FP"
.-.
::
NF NF
::
P"F
hence
e?x"
But
P"F,
87, that
we have OF
.-.
Draw
(a
ex")
::
e*x"
(a
ex")
(a
FP"
ex")
= e (a - ex
= e (a +
+
ex")
ex")
Art. 77, (1)
P".
ff
and
(2)
THE ELLIPSE.
The normal,
P"F
into
cent sides.
therefore,
divides the base of the
triangle
two segments which are proportional to the adja
Hence
==
FP"jST
SCHOL.
123
1.
If
P"T
P"N.
be a tangent drawn at
P"C
FP"T
P",
we must have
between a
FP"N
and
the
the
angle
Hence,
right angle
(= FP"N).
tangent to the ellipse makes equal angles with the focal radii
for each of these angles is equal to the difference
drawn
to
SCHOL.
method
the point of tangency.

2.
The
principles of this article afford us another
drawing a tangent to the ellipse at a given point.

be a point at which we wish to draw a tangent.
Let
Pro
to R, making P"R = FP" join F and R.
duce F
A line
J_ to FR will be tangent to the ellipse
P"T, drawn through
of
P"
P"
P"
at
P".
89. To find the condition that the straight line y

must fulfil in order that it may touch the ellipse
4 + y. =
a
If
= SX
O
a2
we obtain the
-f-
i.
we consider the line

y
= sx
as a secant
and combine the equations
-\- C,
lr
co-ordinates of the points of intersection.
Eliminating y from these equations, we have
sa 2 c
ab
for the abscissas of the points of intersection. Now, when the

secant line becomes a tangent, these abscissas become equal.
Looking
at (1)
we
see that the condition for equality of ab-
124
numerator shall disappear
scissas is that the radical in the
hence
sV
or
is
s*a
-f-
=c
0,
2
.
(2)
the required condition.
COR. If we substitute the value of

equation of the line, we have
= SX -.
V*
+&
a2
for the equation of the tangent
drawn from
...
(2) in the
(3)
the ellipse in terms of
to
its
slope.
To find the
90.
gent
to
a tan
a
from focus as
locus generated by the intersection of
and a perpendicular
the ellipse
to it
the point of tangency moves around the curve.

The equation of a straight line through the focus (ae, o)
is
s (x
ae).
y
its
SX
y
be
must
equation
J-
V* 2
= - i (x -
+b
ae)
(1),
(2)
we now combine (1) and (2) so as to eliminate the slope

the
resulting equation will express the relationship be
(s),
tween the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of these
hence it will be the
lines in every position they may assume
If
equation of the required locus.

Transposing sx to the first member in (1),
of fractions
and clearing
(2)
and transposing, we have

y
sy
= Vs a + b
x = ae.
SX
-}-
-t-
2
.
Squaring these equations and adding, remembering that

2
a z e 2 Art. 76, we have,
ab
or
THE ELLIPSE.
125
hence, the circle constructed on the transverse axis of the ellipse
and
the locus of the intersection of the tangents

let fall from the focus on them.
is
the perpen
diculars
This circle
known
is
(See Fig. 45.
ellipse.
as the Major-Director circle of the
To find the locus generated by the intersection of two

tangents which are perpendicular to each other as the points of
tangency move around the curve.
91.
The equation
of a tangent to the ellipse
= SX +
The equation
a2
+b
is
2
.
(1)
of a tangent perpendicular to (1)
is
hence, by a course of reasoning analogous to that of the pre
ceding
article,
we have
xz
+ ?/ = a
2
-f b
(3)
The required locus is, therefore, a circle

2
ellipse and having its radius equal to Va
92.
out
concentric with the

-f-
2
.
Two tangents are drawn to the ellipse from a point with

required the equation of the line joining the points of
tangency.
Let
?/), Fig. 42, be the given point, and let

be
the points of tangency.
Since
2/2)
(x y ) is a
point common to both tangents, its co-ordinates must satisfy
?2
(a:
P"
(*2>
their equations
(x" ,
hence,
x"
a2
x xz
a2
Hence
(x",
y")
and
~W_
y yz
(a; 2
y z ) will satisfy the equation
y"),
126
As (1) is the equation of a straight line, and is satisfied for

the co-ordinates of both points of
tangency, it must be the
equation of the straight line which joins them.
93.
regard
To find the equation of the polar of the pole (V, /), with
to
the ellipse
2
~
1--1
FIG.
42.
the aid of Fig. 42, and a course of reasoning similar to

PiP", the polar to P
may be
shown to be
By
that of Art. 49, the equation of
xx
a2
COR.
PI
(î>
,y_y_
1.
b*
If the polar of the point P (x f ?/) passes

yi)j then the polar of P l (x^ T/J) will pass
(V, /).
through
through
(See Art. 50.)
94. To deduce the equation of the ellipse when referred to a

pair of conjugate diameters as axes.
A pair of conjugate diameters of the ellipse are those diam-
THE ELLIPSE.
127
which if the ellipse be referred its equation will contain

the
second powers of the variables.
only
eters to
The equation
axes
of the ellipse
when
referred to its centre and
is
we
refer the ellipse to a pair of oblique axes

at
the centre, we have, Art. 33, Cor. 1,
origin
If
x
y
=x
=x
having the
+ i/ cos
+ y sin y
cos
(p
sin
for the equations of transformation.
Substituting in
(1),
we
have
2
2
(a sin
2
2 (a sin
+ W cos 0) x + (a sin + tf cos ij

sin
+ 6 cos cos a y = aW ... (2)
2
q>
q>)
(?)
q>
for the equation of the ellipse referred to oblique axes.

But,
by definition, the equation of the ellipse when referred to a
pair of conjugate diameters contains only the second powers

of the variables
hence
;
a- sin
sin
cp
-f b cos
cos y
the condition that a pair of axes must

conjugate diameters of the ellipse.
is
Making the
co-efficient of
(3)
fulfil in
x y equal to zero in
order to be
(2),
we have
after dropping accents

2
2
(a sin
+6
cos 2 0) x 2 -f (a 2 sin 2
<p
+6
cos 2
<p)
=a6
2
... (4)
for the equation of the ellipse when referred to a

pair of con
jugate diameters. This equation, however, takes a simpler
form when we introduce the semi-conjugate diameters. Mak
ing y
and x
= 0,
successively, in (4),
a2
sin 2
(p
-M
cos 2
+6
cos 2
<p
we have
128
r
which a and
have
(5). we
in
ft
From
represent the semi-conjugate axes.
a? sin
|72
2
ft
cos 2
= ^L
_
^2
2
ft
in
Substituting these values of the co-efficients
(4),
we
have,
after reduction,
COR. As equation (6) contains only the second powers of

the variables, it follows that each of the two diameters to
which the curve is referred will bisect all chords drawn
parallel to the other.
SCHOL. The equation of condition for conjugate diameters

be put under the forms
(3) may
= --7 2
tan 6 tan
(7)
<p
we
see that the
81,
Comparing this expression with (3)
same result was obtained for the supplementary chords of an
Art.
if
ellipse; hence, Fig. 40,
ary chords, then
RP",
A R R A be
PR",
a pair of supplement
drawn through the centre
parallel
Again
to these chords, will be a pair of conjugate diameters.
we
see that the same relation
Art.
with
84,
(1)
comparing (7)
for a diameter and the tangent drawn at
ship was obtained
diameter and P"T
its
hence, Fig. 40, if P"R be a
:
extremity
be a tangent drawn at its extremity, then PR", drawn through
to RP".
the centre parallel to P"T, is the conjugate diameter
a
The equation of condition (7) being single equation con
;
unknown quantities (tan. 0, tan.

assume any value we please for one of them, and
will make known the value of the other hence,
taining two
there are
an
infinite
<r),
we may
the equation
in the ellipse
number of pairs of conjugate diameters.
THE ELLIPSE.
129
To find the equation of a conjugate diameter.
95.
Let
P"R,
RP
be a pair of conjugate diameters.
to find the equation of
R/P
We
wish
FIG.
The equation
P"
y"}
(*",
of the
wr"
By
tangent line
in/
yy
drawn through
_i
P R/
Art. 94, Schol., the diameter
equation must be the same
its
P"T,
is
xx
a2
hence
43.
is parallel to P"T
as that of the tangent,
the constant term being zero.
xx
.
(1)
or
...
is
the equation of a diameter expressed in terms of the co
(2)
ordinates of the extremity of its conjugate diameter.

COR. Let s represent the slope of the diameter P"R
from
(2)
_
bV
2
?/
jr
1
s
then,
130
^=^=
since
i
;
DP"
y"
hence we have
-~x
a
y=
(3)
for the equation of a diameter in terms of the

slope of its
conjugate diameter.
To find the co-ordinates of either extremity of a diam
96.
eter,
the co-ordinates of one extremity of
its
conjugate diameter
being given.
Let
Let
P"R
(x",
RT
and
y")
Fig. 43, be a pair of conjugate diameters.

be the co-ordinates of
We wish to find the
,
P".
terms of the co-ordinates of

The equation of condition that P (a/, y ) shall be on the
diameter P R is, Art. 95, (1)
co-ordinates (x
Since
(x
of
P."
X"
y ) is on the
V2
o/2
Eliminating y and
we
in
a;
ellipse,
we have
also
successively, from these equations,
find
These expressions, taken with the upper signs, are the co

ordinates of P
taken with the lower signs, they are the
;
co-ordinates of
97.
To show that the sum of the squares on any pair of
semi-conjugate diameters
on the semi-axes.
Let
P"
(x",
y"}
and
is
equivalent
f
(x
).
to the
sum of the squares
Fig. 43, be the extremities
THE ELLIPSE.
131
two semi-conjugate diameters. Let OP" = a

the triangles ODP", OD P we have,
from
then,
of any
OP =
r
;
...
"
and
But, Art. 96,
cc
=x +y
(1)
(2)
=~
and
hence
Adding
(1)
and
i/
2
x"
98.
hence,
_|_
P"R
The area
= 2a
),
is
+ -TT
//
==
-f
ft
(4)
PR
2ft
of the parallelogram
From
the figure
sin (180
),
to
the rectangle constructed
Fig. 44, be
OP"TR
is
OP"TR
0) )
= afb
OP"
=a
sin
sin
(
(9)
<9)
any two conju
= area BB H H.
P"P.
P"P
(<p
area of
equivalent
To prove that area CTC T
OR X
.-.
To show that the parallelogram constructed on any two
gate diameters.
= a!
2_ = l
-f 6
conjugate diameters
on the axes.
Let
(3}
we have
(3),
70X
but
a2
(1)
132
c
Fm.
From
the triangles
OD P
sn
Hence
sin
44.
0DP",
we have
.y"
OF
(qp
Mb
ab
a fb
0)
sin
go
cos 6
cos
g>
sin
THE ELLIPSE.
133
Substituting this value in (1) and multiplying through by

4,
we have
area
OP"TB
area
CTC
X 4 = 4 ab
= area BB H H.
;
i.e.,
T"
To show that the ordinate of any point on
99.
the ellipse is
the ordinate of the corresponding point on the

circumscribing
circle as the semi-conjugate axis of the
ellipse is to the semitransverse axis.
to
Let
(*
DP
DP"
/) and
Since
Since
P"
be the ordinates of the

corresponding points
P"
(x",
(x
(x" ,
) is
y"}
y"}.
on the
is
ellipse,
on the
circle
we have
whose radius
is a,
we have
Dividing these equations, member by member, we have

/
2
,
(since
oj
a;"
134
Similarly
we may prove
x1
x.2
::
that
b,
any point on the ellipse, and x 2

the corresponding abscissa of a point on the inscribed circle.
where
Xi is the abscissa of
is
The
100.
method
principles of the preceding article give us a

of describing the ellipse by points when the axes are
given.
From
0, Fig. 45, as a centre with radii equal to the semiDraw any

OB describe the circles
RA, BCB
axes OA,
radius
draw
OB
MN
||
OA
Since MJST
a point of the ellipse.
have
we
the
of
O,
triangle
is
BD
D N D R OM OR
::
i.
e.,
of the larger circle, cutting the smaller circle in

in
to
cutting the or din ate let fall from
b
y"
is
parallel to the base
hence, the construction.
101.
To show that the area of the
the circumscribing circle as the

to its
semi-major
ellipse is to the
semi-minor axis of the
axis.
FIG.
46.
area of
ellipse is
THE ELLIPSE.
Inscribe in the ellipse any polygon
its vertices draw the ordinates
from
135
AEE E E E A
2
ED^D^
/
,
and
producing
etc.
Joining
them upward to meet the circle in P, P 1? P 2;

these points we form the inscribed
polygon
etc.,
APP^PÂ
in
the circle.
Let (x, y ), (x yj,

y 2 ) etc., be the co-ordinates of
r
P, P 15 P 2 etc., and let (a;, y), (x , /),
be the co-ordi
y"), etc.,
nates of the corresponding points E,
1}
2 etc., of the ellipse.
,
(x",
(aj",
R R
Then
Area
Area RPD.R,
Area
hence
But, Art. 99,
Hence
AreaRDD^
Area
We
may prove in like manner that every corresponding pair

of trapezoids bear to each other this constant
ratio; hence,
by the Theory of Proportion, the sum of all the trapezoids in
the ellipse will bear to the sum of all the
trapezoids in the
circle the same ratio.
these sums
2,t and
Representing
2T, respectively, we have
2*
2T
As
this
by
relationship holds true for any
zoids, it holds true for the limits to
number
of trape
which the sum of the
trapezoids of the ellipse and the sum of the trapezoids of

the circle approach as the number of
trapezoids increase.
136
But these
the circle
limits are the area of the ellipse
area of ellipse
area of circle
Since the area of the circle
COR.
and the area of
hence
area of ellipse
TT
Since
a2
a2
TT
a 2 we have
,
area of ellipse
TT ab
TT ab
..
TT
is
=
:
TT
ab.
TT b*,
we
see that the area of the ellipse

tween the areas of the circumscribed
a mean proportional be
is
and
inscribed circles.
EXAMPLES.
1.
What must
be the value of
in order that the line
y = 2 x + c may touch the ellipse

! + JL == i ?
9
4
2
Ans.
= 5.
of an ellipse is 10 what must be

the value of the semi-conjugate axis in order that the ellipse
2.
may
The semi-transverse
touch the line 2 y
-\-
14
= 0?
Ans.
3.
What
~,2
x
_i_
whose inclination
drawn
,,,2
y
to X-axis
locus of
-4
a2
ellipse
= 45
the intersection of the tangents to the
=l
b
at the extremities of conjugate diameters
required
its
V24.
The
are the equations of the tangents to the ellipse
"*"
4.
is
an ellipse
equation.
Ans
=2.
THE ELLIPSE.
5.
Tangents are drawn from the point

a
frequired the
2
2/
137
(0,
8) to the ellipse
= i;
the
equation of
joining the points

Ans. 8 y
1
line
of
tangency.
Eequired the polar of the point

following ellipses
6.
*2
9.
What
with respect to the
= 9.
3/ 2
(5, 6)
0.
=1.
7.
are the polars of the foci ?
Ans.
-e
10.
What
is
the pole of y
= 3x
-f-
1 with respect to
(-
11.
The
line 3
y
T2
_^L
5x
2
_i_
7/
iL
is
_i
required the equation of the conjugate diameter.

Ans. 20 y
12.
12, 9).
a diameter of
+ 27 # = 0.
pair of conjugate diameters in the ellipse

?/ 2
T 2
_-f JL.^1
16
make
angles whose tangents are
with the X-axis

13.
What
is
^ and
^,
respectively,
required their lengths.
the area of the ellipse
?4
= 1?
10
.
TT
VlO.
138
The minor
14.
axis of an ellipse
to the area of a circle
and its area is equal

what is the length
is 10,
whose diameter
16
is
25.
Ans.
of the major axis ?

15. The minor axis of an ellipse is 6,
focal radii to a point on the curve is 16
axis, the distance between the
foci,
and the sum of the

required the major
and the
area.
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
What
1.
(2, 4)
2.
(6.
The major
4) is
3.
The
lines
18, and the point

the
equation of the ellipse.
required
axis of
on the curve
tal chords
an
ellipse is
13
+ 6 and y = ~ x -f ^ are supplemen
drawn from the extremities of the transverse
of an ellipse
4.
the equation of the ellipse which passes through

the centre being at the origin ?
is
2, 4),
The minor
axis of an ellipse
is
12,
and the
centre divide the major axis into four equal parts

the equation of the ellipse.
5.
sum
is
in
Assuming the equation

of the distances of
constant and
6.
of the ellipse
any point on the

for a point
an ellipse whose eccentricity
7.
What
foci
and
required
show that the
ellipse
from the
foci
to the transverse axis.
The sub-tangent
of the ellipse.
axis
required the equation of the ellipse.
is
whose abscissa
;
is
is
=6

AnSf
^L
+ ]_ =
l.
are the equations of the tangents to
which form with the X-axis an equilateral triangle
that the tangents drawn at the extremities of any

chord intersect on the diameter which bisects that chord.
8.
Show
THE ELLIPSE.
139
9. What are the

equations of the tangents
extremities of the latus-rectum ?
drawn
at the
10. Show that the pair of diameters drawn

parallel to the
chords joining the extremities of the axes are
equal and
conjugate.
A chord
11.
of the ellipse
H
16
"~9~
passes through the point (2, 3) and is bisected by the line

x
required the equation of the chord.
What
12.
are the equations of the

pair of conjugate
2
9x 2
144 which are equal ?
?/
eters of the ellipse 16
diam
Show
that either focus of an

ellipse divides the major
two segments whose
rectangle is equal (a) to the
rectangle of the semi-major axis and semi-parameter
to
13.
axis in
the square of the semi-minor axis.

14.
Show
(&)
that the rectangle of the

perpendiculars let fall
is constant and
equal to the square
from the foci on a tangent

of the semi-minor axis.
15.
A system
of parallel chords which make an

angle whose
2 with the X-axis are bisected
tangent
by the diameter of
an ellipse whose semi-axes are 4 and
3; required the equation
of the diameter.
16. Show that the

polar of a point
parallel to the conjugate diameter.
17.
on any diameter
is
Find the locus of the vertex of a

triangle having given
= 2 a, and the
product of the tangent of the angles
at the base
^2
Ans.
140
18.

= 2 a, and the sum of the sides = 2 b.
the base
Ans
19.
Find the locus of the intersection of the ordinate of
the ellipse produced with the perpendicular let fall from the
centre on the tangent drawn at the point in which the ordi
nate cuts the ellipse.

20. Find the locus generated by the intersection of two
tangents drawn at the extremities of two radii vectores (drawn
from centre) which are perpendicular to each other.
a2
Ans. a^
bW =
21.
line of fixed length so
remain in the co-ordinate axes
by any point of the
moves that
its
extremities
required the locus generated
line.
The angle AOP"

y (Fig. 45) is called the eccentric
Show that (a; ?/)
P
the
of
(# tf) on the ellipse.
angle
point
and from these values of the co-ordinates
(a cos cp, b sin
22.
<p)
deduce the equation of the

23.
ellipse.
Express the equation of the tangent at
(a;",
y")
in terms
of the eccentric angle of the point.
Ans.
- cos
a
24.
If
(a/, ?/),
(x",
?/ )
4-
y~
sin

THE HYPERBOLA.
CHAPTER
141
VIII.
THE HYPERBOLA.
THE hyperbola is the locus of a point so moving in a
the difference of its distance from two fixed points
that
plane
The fixed
is always constant and equal to a given line.
102.
points are called the Foci of the hyperbola. If the points

are on the given line produced and equidistant from its
extremities, then the given line is called the TRANSVERSE Axis
of the hyperbola.
103.
and
To deduce the equation of the hyperbola, given the foci
FIG.
Let F,
be the
OY 1 to AA
at its
foci,
and
47.
AA
Draw
OX
as the
middle point, and take OY,
142
PF
draw
Let
co-ordinate axes.
PF.
also
PD
||
OY.
= (x, y) are
=
AA 2 a, FF = 2 OF
Then (OD, DP)
the co-ordinates of P.
Let
== 2
OF =
the right angled triangles
FPD
=r
Draw
be any point of the curve.

to
c,
FP =
and F P
r
.
From
r
= Vy +
2
From
the
and /
(x
mode
~c)
= Vy +
and
(x
of generating the curve,
F PD, we
+ c)
have
2
.
(a)
we have
= 2 a.
Hence, substituting,
Vy +
+ c) 2
or,
(x
V?/
(x
clearing of radicals and reducing,
_a
(c*
- a if = a
x2
(c
c)
= 2a;
(1)
we have
a 2 ) ...
(2)

This equation, like that of the
ellipse (see Art. 75), may be put in a simpler form.
Let
This value in
or,
=b
a2
2
.
(3)
(2) gives, after
changing signs,
symmetrically,
4a~
b~
= l...(5)
for the equation of the hyperbola

and axes.
Let
Cor.
1.
the
student
If b
discuss
a in
x2
(5),
if
this
when
referred to
its
centre
(See Art. 14)
equation.
we have
a2
(6)
The curve represented by this equation is called the Êqui

lateral Hyperbola.
Comparing equation (6) with the equation
of the circle
we
the
see that the equilateral hyperbola bears the
common hyperbola
same
that the circle bears to the
relation to
ellipse.
THE HYPERBOLA.
COR.
If (V,
2.
143
are the co-ordinates of two

y ) and
we have from (4)
(x" ,
y")
points on the curve,
hence
= -*! (x -
2
:
?/"
a 2) and if 2
::
a) (x
(x
+ a)
-*i
a2
(35"*
a)
(x"
^)
(x"
-f a)
the squares of the ordinates of any two

points on the
hyperbola are to each other as the rectangles of the segments in
which they divide the transverse axis.
i.e.,
COR.
= x a and y
and dropping accents,
By making x
3.
after reducing
V-
x2
+ 2 ab x =
2
for the equation of the hyperbola,
104.
From equation
b =
4-
...
(3) Art. 103,
=y
in
(4)
we have
(7)
being taken as origin.
we have
vr~
this distance off above
and below the origin on the

the points B, B Fig. 47, Art. 103.
The line
BB i called the CONJUGATE Axis of the hyperbola. The
points A and A are called the VERTICES of the curve.
The
Laying
Y-axis,
we have
bisects all lines drawn through it and

point
terminating in
the curve
for this reason it is called the CENTRE of the
;
hyperbola.
The
ratio
Vet 2
-I-
62
-
1
a
>
e.
See
(3) Art.
103 ... (r
called the ECCENTRICITY of the

This ratio is
hyperbola.
2
1.
The value of c
b 2 measures the
evidently
-t Va
distance of the foci F,
from the centre.
is
>
If b
=a
in (1),
we have
= V2
for the eccentricity of the
equilateral hyperbola.
105. To find the values of the focal radii, r, r

of a point
on the hyperbola in terms of the abscissa
the
of
point.
From equations (a) Art. 103, we have
144
From
the equation of the hyperbola, (4) Art. 103,
we have
Hence, substituting
r
x2
\/
V a2
+x
a2
=
hence
Similarly,
we
106.
Tio
and
= ex
2
,
Art. 104 (1),
a ...
= ex + a
(1)
(2)
construct the hyperbola having given the transverse
the foci of the curve.
FIG.
First Method.
foci.
+c
find
axis
2 ex
48.
Let A A be the transverse axis and F, F the

ruler whose length is L and attach
Take a straight-edge
THE HYPERBOLA.
145
its ends at F so that the ruler can freely revolve about

Cut a piece of cord so that its length shall be
that point.
L 2 a, and attach one end to the free end of the ruler,
one of
and the other end to the focus F.
Place the ruler in the
position indicated by the full lines, Fig. 48, and place the
Stretch
point of a pencil in the loop formed by the cord.
the cord, keeping the point of the pencil against the edge of
the ruler.
If
we now
revolve the ruler upward about
the
the pencil, kept firmly pressed against the ruler,

point
will describe the arc AP of the hyperbola.
By fixing the
end of the ruler at F, we may describe an arc of the other
of
It is evident in this process that the difference of

the distances of the point of the pencil from the foci F ,F,
is always equal to 2 a.
branch.
Take any point D on the transverse axis.

Second Method.
Measure the distances A D, AD. With F as a centre and A D
with F as a centre and
as a radius describe the arc of a circle
;
AD
as a radius describe another
arc.
The
intersection
of
these arcs will determine two points, P 1? P 2 of the curve. By

interchanging centres and radii we may locate the points E, 1?
,
In this manner we
n the other branch.

>
many
may determine as
may require.
points as the accuracy of the construction
107. To find the lotus-rectum or parameter of the hyperbola.

The LATUS-RECTUM, or PARAMETER of the hyperbola, is the
double ordinate passing through either focus.
Making x
we have
-j-
V&
.-.
in the
2y
Forming a proportion from
2y:2b
i.e,
equation of the hyperbola
a
this equation,
we have
::b:a-,
the latus-rectum of the hyperbola is a third proportional to
the axes.
146
108.
The equation of the
and axes
is
a 2y 2
The equation
and axes
-+-
x2
ellipse
=ab
2
of the hyperbola
in the sign of b 2
2
its
centre
its
centre
when
referred to
is
expressions
referred to
Comparing these equations, we

is
when
If,
see that the only difference
therefore, in the various analytical

for the ellipse, we substitute
we have deduced
+ V
for & 2 or,
what is the same thing,

I
1 for b, we
will obtain the corresponding
analytical expressions for the
b
hyperbola.
To deduce the equation of the conjugate hyperbola.

hyperbolas are CONJUGATE when the transverse and con
jugate axes of one are respectively the conjugate and trans
verse axes of the other.
109.
Two
FIG.
Thus
49.
AA
be the transverse axis of the hyper

in Fig. 49, if
for its conjugate axis, then the hyperbola
bola which has
which has
BB
BB
for its transverse axis
and
AA
for its conjugate
THE HYPERBOLA.
axis
its
is
147
conjugate; and, conversely, the hyperbola whose

is BB and conjugate axis is AA has for its
transverse axis
conjugate the hyperbola whose transverse axis
whose conjugate axis is BB

We have deduced, Art. 103,
is
AA
and
*a1
=
b
(5),
(1)
for the equation of the hyperbola whose transverse axis lies

wish to find the equation of its conju
along the X-axis.
We
has
from the figure that the hyperbola which

for its conjugate axis
for its transverse axis and
It is obvious
gate.
BB
AA
bears the same relation to the Y-axis as the hyperbola whose

and conjugate axis is BB bears to the
transverse axis is
AA
X-axis
hence, changing a to I and b to
a,
x to y and y to x
we have
in (1),
-...
for the equation of the conjugate hyperbola to the hyperbola
whose equation is (1).

Comparing (1) and (2) we see that the equation of any
hyperbola and that of its conjugate differ only in the sign of
the constant term.
COR.
Since
V^
+ u2 = V
any hyperbola and those of
The
its
+b
2
,
the
focal
distances
eccentricities of conjugate
hyperbolas, however, are
For the hyperbola whose semi-transverse axis

a and semi-conjugate axis is b, we have
not equal.
Art. 104, (1) e
For
its
Vj
of
conjugate are equal.
conjugate hyperbola, we have
is
148
EXAMPLES.
and
Find the semi-axes, the eccentricity

of each of the following hyperbolas
the- latus-rectum
1.
2.
^1
2,2
4 X2
-^!
4
2
3.
?/
36
5.
3 y2
6.
a?/
1.
cc
bx*
12.
=-
aft.
16 x 2
= - 16.
7.
4 z2
4.
=_
16 y z
= - 64.
8.
- if = m.
-
ma?
TO.
Write the equation of the hyperbola having given
foci
axis
= 12
axis
= 10
The transverse
9.
the distance between the
= 16.
10.
The transverse
parameter
8.
Ans.
25
11.
Semi-conjugate axis
=6
The equation
-L
36
64
X2
13. The conjugate axis

double the conjugate.
is
10,
x2
The transverse
axis
is
8,
.<
1.
3 if
3 yz
3?
-
Io
and the conjugate axis
distance between foci.
16
6.
+ 6 = 0.
and the transverse axis

A
Ans
14.
?/
2
of the conjugate hyperbola, x
Ans.
l.
= 10.
the focal distance
Ans.
12.
-=
20
-fID
is
THE HYPERBOLA.
15.
149
Given the hyperbola

2
.2
10
,,2
jr
_i
required the co-ordinates of the point whose abscissa

its
is
double
ordinate.
l
16.
Vf Vj
Write the equation of the conjugate hyperbola
to each
of the hyperbolas given in the first eight examples above.

2
4 x* =
Given the hyperbola 9 y
focal radii of the point whose ordinate
36
17.
is
=1
required the
and abscissa
positive.
18.
Determine the points of intersection of
49 =
^~
=
+ $16
and
1.
16
1.
110. To deduce the polar equation of the hyperbola, either

focus being taken as the pole.
F as the pole, Fig. 47.

PFD) = (r, 0) be the co-ordinates
Let us take
Let (FP,
on the curve.
From
From
r = ex - a
=
OD OF + FD
r cos
x = ae
Art. 105, (1),
FP =
i.e.,
Fig. 47,
of
any point
we have
.
(1)
0.
-f-
and reducing, we have
Substituting this value in (1)
(I
-^
e
...
cos
(2)
for the polar equation of the hyperbola, the right

Similarly from Art. 105,
(2),
a-*
/ = *1
e cos
hand focus
we have
for the polar equation, the left
(3 )
hand focus being the
pole.
150
If
COR.
0,
/
90,
=
=
If
If
ae2
-f-
= a ae = FA
= a + ae = F A.
semi-latus rectum.
= semi-latus rectum.
=
=
a
a
r = - a + ae = FA,
T = a -ae= - F A
b
a 4- ae
r =
ae 2
= ISO
If $
270
ae
=
a
111. To deduce the equation of condition for the supple

mentary chords of the hyperbola.
By a method similar to that of Art. 81, or by placing b~
2
for b in (3) of that article, we have
=
aa
hence, the product of the slopes of any pair of supplementary
chords of an hyperbola is the same for every pair.
If
COR.
we have
b,
1, or, s
ss
1
,
S
.
tan
sum of
= cot
the two acute angles which
any pair of sup

make ivith the
plementary chords of an equilateral hyperbola
hence, the
X-axis
is
equal
to
90.
112.
to
the hyperbola.
adopted in the
entirely analogous
or substituting
57
Arts.
41, 82,
circle, or ellipse, or parabola,
2
2
find
we
Art.
of
b for b in (5)
82,
By
to that
method
xx"
~a7"
yy"_
"
a)
to be the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola.
THE HYPERBOLA.
151

operating on (1) of the preceding article (see Art. 83),
113.
By
we
find
Sub-tangent
114.
The
hyperbola
(0,
x"
*-
"*
a*
.
slope of a line passing through the centre of an

is
0) and the point of tangency
(x",
y")
The
slope of the tangent

t
Art. 112, (1)
is,
^L
.*1
a2
y"
Multiplying these equations,
=
Comparing
a)
$...
(1) of this article

ss
tt
with
(1) of Art. Ill,
we
find
(2)
Hence, the line from the centre of the hyperbola to the

point of tangency and the tangent enjoy the property of being
the supplemental chords of an
hyperbola whose semi-axes
bear to each other the ratio a
COR. If s = t, then s
t
if one
i.e.,
supplementary
chord of an hyperbola is parallel to a line drawn
through the
centre, then the other supplementary chord is
to the
;
parallel
tangent drawn to the curve at the point in which the line

through the centre cuts the curve.
115. The preceding principle affords us a
simple method
of drawing a tangent to the
hyperbola at any given point of
the curve.
152
FIG.
50.
Let P be any point at which we wish to draw a tangent.

7
to P O join C and A.
Join P and 0, and from A draw A C
will be the required
from
P
to
CA
The line P T, drawn
7
||
||
tangent.
To deduce the equation of the normal to the hyperbola.

can do this by operating on the equation of the tangent,
2
in the equa
as in previous cases, or by changing b into
tion of the normal to the ellipse, Art. 86, (3).
By either
116.
We
b"
method, we obtain

117. To deduce the value of the sub-normal.
By a course of reasoning similar to that of Art. 87,
sub-normal
COR. If
we have
*/
%
$-
= a,
sub-normal
i.e.,
7/2
in the equilateral
x"
hyperbola the sub-normal
the abscissa of the point of tangency.
is
equal to
THE HYPERBOLA.
153
EXAMPLES.
Deduce the polar equation of the hyperbola, the pole
1.
being at the centre.

7.2
^!__
a 2 sin 2
-\-
cos
Write the equation of the tangents to each of the follow

ing hyperbolas, and give the value of the sub-tangent in
each case.
3.
9 y2
2.
"I
._
= - 36,
1,
at
at
4 ^2
= _ 36j
= abj
5.
6.
a?/
7.
^1-J^ = 1,
at
~=T7T
4 x2
to 2
(4,
(5,
ord.
ord.
4 Ord
>
+).
+).
+)
at
at
at
(aft, ord. +).
(Vm,
0).
7^
Write the equation of the normal to each of the above

hyperbolas, and give the value of the sub-normal in each
8.
case.
9.
x
6
The equation of a chord of an hyperbola is y
what is the equation of the supplemental chord, the
axes of the hyperbola being 12 and 8 ?

A
Ans.
10.
= 4- x
Given the equations

-
Y-
=~
-f-
1,
and y
-x=
required the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola at the

points in which the line pierces the curve.
154
11.
One
of
z
?/2
the supplementary chords of the hyperbola

144 i s parallel to the line y -=x what are
_ if} x = _
the equations of the chords ?
16
Ans.
aj
Given the
12.
2x
hyperbola
What
is
if
T
is
118.
3
the
required
at the positive
end of
the equation of a tangent to
x2
which
3 if
normal
equations of the tangent and

the right hand focal ordinate.
13.
_16.
_
:
_,
"T
parallel to the line 2?/
+ l = 0?
lines drawn to any point

by the tangent at that point.
Art.
equation of the tangent line,
The angle formed by the focal
of the hyperbola
is bisected
in the
o
Making y
we have
112, (1),
= OT.
Fig. 50.
From
OF = OF = ae
OF - OT = FT = ae - -^ =
Art. 104, (1)
hence
OF
\
x
(ex"
+ OT = F T =ae + -^ = ~-a
FT F T
+ a.
JC
.-.
::
+ a);
**.
ex"
ex"
(ex"
a).
But from Art. 105 we have

a
FF =
=
FT
+a
-a
FF FT
FT F T FF FT
ex"
ex"
.-.
Hence
PT
::
::
ex"
ex"
+ a.
FFF
divides the base of the triangle

i.e., the tangent
are proportional to the adjacent
which
into two segments,
the angle at the vertex.
bisect
therefore
must
it
sides
;
THE HYPERBOLA.
155
P N, Fig. 50, is perpendicular to

bisects the external angle formed by the focal
Since the normal
COR.
the tangent,
it
radii.
The
SCHOL.
method
of
Let
point.
FP FT
,
this
article
us
gives
Draw
be the point, Pig. 50.
The
P T drawn
line
between the focal

119.
of
principle
another
drawing a tangent to the hyperbola at a given

so as
the focal radii
to bisect
the angle
radii will be tangent to the curve at
To find the condition that the
fulfil in order that
it
line
= sx + c
must
touch the hyperbola
may
^ K=l
a2
By
method similar
s
a2
to that
b
=c
employed in Art.
89,
we
find
2
.
(1)
for the required condition.
COR. 1. Substituting the value of

equation of the line, we have
y
= sx
sV -
4-
drawn from
...
(1) in
the
(2)
for the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola in terms of its

slope.
120.
To find the
to the
hyperbola and a perpendicular
to it
tangent
as the point of tangency moves around the curve.
x 2 -f if
is
of a
a
from focus
locus generated by the intersection
a2
(1)
the equation of the required locus.
(See Art. 90.)
121. To find the locus generated by the intersection of tivo

tangents which are perpendicular to each other as the points of
tangency move around the curve.

x*
is
+if
=a
b*
the equation of the required locus.
(1)
(See Art. 91.)
156
Two
122.
without
tangents are draivn
tangency.
^_
a2
is
yy_
b
=i
(i)
To find the equation of the polar of
with regard
to the
the pole (x
),
hyperbola
_-!...
is
hyperbola from a point
(See Art. 92.)
123.
to the
required the equation of the line joining the points of
(1,
(See Arts. 49 and 93.)
To deduce the equation of the hyperbola when referred

a pair of conjugate diameters.
124.
to
A pair
of diameters are said
to be
conjugate
when they
are so
related that the equation of the hyperbola, when the curve is

referred to them as axes, contains only the second powers of the
variables.
~2
a
is
,,,2
%b
=1
(1)
the required equation, and
a 2 sin
sin
tan 6 tan
or
2
b cos 9 cos

=~
a2
-
is
= 0,
(2)
the condition for conjugate diameters.

(See Art. 94.)
From the form of (1) we see that all chords
COR.
parallel to
SCHOL.
drawn
one of two conjugate diameters are bisected by the other.
From
hence
Art. Ill, (1)
ss
= tan
= tan
we have
tan
<p.
we have
tan cp i.e., if one of

s
s
0,
a
to
is
diameters
tivo conjugate
chord, the other conju
parallel
to
the
is
diameter
supplement of that chord.
parallel
gate
If,
therefore,
THE HYPERBOLA.
From
157
we have
Art. 114
= il;
a2
hence
If,
tt
therefore,
= tan
= tan
we have
0,
= tan
<p
i.e.,
if one of
a tangent of the hyper

the other conjugate diameter coincides with the line joining
two conjugate diameters

bola,
tan
the point of tangency
125.
From
is
and
to
parallel
the centre.
the condition for conjugate diameters,

tan
tan
9?
2
.
a*
we
see that the products of the slopes of any pair of conju

is positive; hence, the slopes are both
positive
gate diameters
or both negative.
gate diameters must
126.
It appears, therefore, that

lie in the same quadrant.
any two conju
To find the equation of a conjugate diameter.
FIG.
51.
158
Let
P"R"
be any diameter
then
B/,
drawn through the

/A
parallel to the tangent at

Art. 124, Schol.
jugate diameter.
The equation of the tangent at
centre
(P
P"
N)
P"
a2
xx"
or
y")
is
hence, the equation of
(#",
will be its con
PB
is
yy"
"
7)2
^.^x
a
(2)
y"
^V
But
is
= cot
=1
P"OX
the equation of a diameter in terms of the slope of
its
conju
gate diameter.
127.
To find the
diameter, the
of either extremity of a
co-ordinates
of one
co-ordinates
extremity of
its
conjugate
diameter being given.
Let the co-ordinates of
By
P"
y"),
(x",
Fig. 51, be given.
a course of reasoning similar to that of Art. 96,
The upper
the point
signs correspond to
lower signs to the point B/
we
(x
y)
find
the
}.
128. To show that the difference of the squares of any pair

the
of semi-conjugate diameters is equal to the difference of
squares of the semi-axes.
By a course of reasoning similar to that of Art. 97, or, by
2
2
2
for b in (4) of that article, we
b for b\ - b
substituting
find
a2
2
.
(1)
THE HYPERBOLA.
b
COR. If a
b, then a
has equal conjugate diameters.
129.
i.e.,
the equilateral hyperbola
To show that the parallelogram constructed on any two
conjugate diameters
on the axes.
By
159
is
to the
equivalent
rectangle constructed
a method similar to that of Art. 98,
4 a
Area
i.e.,
b sin
(g>
0)
= 4 ab
we can show
that
MNM N = Area CDC D
Fig. 51.
EXAMPLES.
The
1.
line
= 2 x + c touches
_
_
""
-i
the hyperbola
what
,y
is
the value of
tangent to the hyperbola
c ?
Ans.
2.
10
its
Y-intercept
j
i
12
2 required
;
its
V32.
-L,
slope and equation.
VI76
Ans.
tangent to the hyperbola 4?/

angle of 45 with the X-axis required
3.
_*!
has
2x
=
=
VlTO x
6
+ 2.
makes an
its equation.
2
are
drawn
to
the
9 x2
tangents
hyperbola 4 y
- 36 from the point (1, 2) required the
of
the
chord
equation
of contact.
;
4.
Two
Ans. 9 x
5.
What
focus ?
6.
the equation of the polar of the

Of the left-hand focus ?
What
is
is
the polar of
4 if
x2
(1,
7.
8 y
36.
right-hand
with regard to the hyperbola
^5.
4?
Find the diameter conjugate
to
=x
cc
?/
= 4.
in the hyperbola
.2
J/_
16
Ans.
160
8.
Given the chord y
^ _ t.
= 2x
=1
6 of the hyperbola
-f-
required the equations of the supplementary chord.

Ans. y
9. In the last example find the equation of the pair" of

conjugate diameters which are parallel to the chords.
2 x.
Ans. y
2 x, 9 y
10.
144
The point
(5,
^)
lies
on the hyperbola 9
if
16 x 2
required the equation of the diameter passing through

also the co-ordinates of the extremities of its conjugate
it
diameter.
;
130.
To deduce the equations of the
rectilinear asymptotes
of the hyperbola.
An ASYMPTOTE
of a curve
is
line
passing within a finite
distance of the origin which the curve continually approaches,

and to which it becomes tangent at an infinite distance.
FIG.
52.
THE HYPERBOLA.
161
The equation of the hyperbola whose transverse axis

along the X-axis may be put under the form
y*
~ (^ -
...
lies
(i)
(ju
DD CO
The equations of the diagonals,

constructed on the axes
BB are
,
AA
y
or,
squaring,
of the rectangle
-x,
a
2y"
7,2
x2
(2)
a/
r
where y represents the ordinates of points on the diagonals.

Let P (x, y] be any point on the X-hyperbola and let
Sub
(x, y } be the corresponding point on the diagonal DD
tracting (1) from (2) and factoring, we have
D"
<y-z/)0/+2/)
y =
hence
D"P
2
;
(3)
y
y
As the points
P recede from the centre, 0, their ordi
nates D"]ST, P N increase and become infinite in value when
and P are at an infinite distance.
But as the ordinates
D",
D"
increase the value of the fraction
(3), which represents their

becomes zero when y and y are
and P are continually approach
ing each other as they recede from the centre until at infinity
they coincide. But the locus of
during this motion is the
difference, decreases and

infinite
hence, the points
;
D"
D"
DD
infinite
diagonal
hence, the diagonals of the rectangle
constructed on the axes of the hyperbola are the
asymptotes of
;
the curve.
Therefore
= + * x and y = - - x
a
a
are the required equations.

COB. 1. If a
b, then
=
y =
i.e.,
45
-4-
x and
?/
the asymptotes of the equilateral

hyperbola
with the X-axis.
make
angles of
162
COR. 2. The equation of the hyperbola COD jugate to

may be put under the form
hence, aw hyperbola and

totes of each other.
COR.
3.
ti"
if/ie
its
p/ == _
conjugate are curvilinear
y
hence,
we have
(4),
i,
-=
(1)
"P
asymp
we have
(4),
Y\"
"\v
+y
-jr~>
rectilinear asymptotes of
>
an hyperbola and of
its
con
jugate are the same.

131.
To deduce the equation of the hyperbola when referred
to its rectilinear
asymptotes as axes.
FIG.
The equation
is
53.
of the hyperbola
when
referred to
OY, OX,
THE HYPERBOLA.
163
We wish to ascertain what this equation becomes when

OY OX the rectilinear asymptotes are taken as axes.
Let P be any point of the curve let Y OX = XOX = 0.
Then (OC, CF) = (x, y) (OD, DP = (x y
From the figure, OC = OK + DR CP = RP - DK
,
}.
y =
But from the triangle OAB, we have
x
i.e.,
hence, x
+y
(x
cos
(ij
-x
sin
B.
(x
-+-
Va^+ft

f
(x
or,
(9
+ 7/) 2
(y
we have
(1),
reducing and dropping accents,

2
a2
b
Xy
...
= -+
J__
34
= a* -f ^
2
,
(2)
for the equation of the hyperbola referred to its asymptotes.

In a similar manner we may show that
is
the equation of the hyperbola conjugate to
ferred to
COR.
asymptotes as axes.
Multiplying (2) by sin 2 6
(1),
when
re
its
we may
place the result in
the form
yx sin 2
that
is
therefore
^1A
+*
2
"
DP P H = ON. AH
area ODP P = area OMAN
8jn
hence, the area of the parallelogram constructed upon the co

ordinates of any point of the hyperbola, the asymptotes being
axes, is constant and equal to the area of the
structed upon the co-ordinates of the vertex.
rhombus con
164
132.
when
To deduce
the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola
the curve is referred to its rectilinear asymptotes as axes.

Y,
FIG.
54.
a course of reasoning similar to that employed in Arts,

41, 57, 82, we find the required equation to be
By
y-Y = -^(*-*")
X
or,
...
(i)
symmetrically,
1^=2...
COR. If we make y
=2
OM =
x
But
x"
in (2),
x",
OT.
.-.
(2)
we have
Fig. 54.
OM = MT
.-.
TD
= TD
hence, the point of tangency in the hyperbola bisects that por

tion of the tangent included between the asymptotes.
THE HYPERBOLA.
Since
133.
+ b\
= a +b
OT OT = a + b
4
2
or
x"y"
x"
a2
2 if
2
;
i.e.,
we have
a point of the hyperbola,
is
?/")
(x",
(see Fig. 54)
165
(1)
hence, the rectangle of the intercepts of a tangent on the

totes is constant
and equal
to the
sum of
asymp
the squares on the
semi-axes.
From
134.
(1) of the last article
sm
ing through by
we
have, after multiply
OT-^LfYl v
sin 20 =
n- J_ A 2
"f-^-
sin 2
(a
+b
sin
cos
0.
But, Art. 131,
sin
-J
2
sin 2
arm OTT
i.e.,
(t
Va + b
OT or
hence
.-.
cos
Va +
= a&
is
equivalent
to
arm OAD B.
Ae triangle formed by a tangent
asymptotes
to
the hyperbola
Draw the chord RB/, Fig. 54, parallel

Draw also the diameter OL through D.
Since TD = T D, we have B/L = BL.
135.
and
its
the rectangle on the semi-axes.

to the tangent
T.
Since
i.e.,
OL
is
LK = LH
LK = BL LH
a diameter,
we have
BL
B K = BH
hence
hence, the intercepts of a chord between the hyperbola

asymptotes are equal.
and
its
166
EXAMPLES.
What
1.
are the equations of the asymptotes of the hyper~2
bola
,.2
f-gAns.
What
| x.
-J-
are the equations of the asymptotes of the follow
ing hyperbolas
_.
3.
3 ^2
2 ^2
Ans.
=_
y = -^ Vf x.
mx
Uy 2
6. What do the equations given in the four preceding ex

amples become when the hyperbolas which they represent are
referred to their asymptotes as axes ?
The semi-conjugate axis of the hyperbola xy

what is the value of the semi-transverse axis ?
7.
25
Ans.
What
is
8.
are the equations of the tangents to the following
hyperbolas
8.
To xy
9.
To xy
=+
10. at (1, 10).
Ans.
Ans.
10.
To xy
11.
To xy
m, at
= - p,
1,
at
+ 10 x = 20.
= 3 x 12.
12, at (2, 6).
-\-
m).
2,
/
Required the point of the hyperbola xy

4.
the sub-tangent
12.
12 for which
Ans.
(4, 3).
an hyperbola
13. The equations of the asymptotes of

whose transverse axis = 16 are 3 y = 2 x and 3 y
2x
required the equation of the hyperbola.

*
"
64
256
THE HYPERBOLA.
167
14.
Prove that the product of the perpendiculars
from any point of the hyperbola on the
asymptotes
stant and
let fall
is
con
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
1.
10
The point
(6, 4) is on the hyperbola whose transverse

required the equation of the hyperbola.
is
Am.
25
400
Assume
the equation of the

hyperbola, and show that
the difference of the distances of
any point on it from the
foci is constant and
2 a.
2.
Required the equation of the hyperbola, transverse

axis
2 x and 3 y
6, which has 5 y
13 x for the equa
tions of a pair of conjugate diameters.
3.
^_^/_ = 1
An*.
9
78
that the ratio of the sum of the focal radii of
any
point on the hyperbola to the abscissa of the point is con
stant and
2 e.
4.
Show
5.
fulfil
What
are the conditions that the line
= sx
-f c
must
= 0.
in order to touch
-^
a
2
-2
b
1 at infinity
J ?
Ans.
_L_
6. Show that the

conjugate diameters of an hyperbola are
also the conjugate diameters of the
conjugate hyperbola.
7.
Show that the portions of the chord of an
hyperbola
included between the hyperbola and its

conjugate are equal.
8.
What is the equation of the line which
passes through
the focus of an
hyperbola and the focus of its conjugate
hyperbola ?
Ans.
168
Show
9.
that
when
and
_
a
are the eccentricities of
two conjugate hyper
bolas.
Find the angle between any pair of conjugate diame
10.
ters of the hyperbola.
Show that in the hyperbola the curve can be cut by

of two conjugate diameters.
one
only
11.
Find whether the line y = f x intersects the hyperbola

9 x2 =
144, or its conjugate.
12.
16 y~
Show that the conjugate diameters of the

hyperbola make equal angles with the asymptotes.
13.
Show
14.
eral
drawn from any point
that lines
equilateral
of the equilat
hyperbola to the extremities of a diameter
make equal
angles with the asymptotes.
In the equilateral hyperbola focal chords drawn parallel

to conjugate diameters are equal.
15.
from the focus of an hyper

perpendicular is drawn
show
the
bola to
asymptote
that the foot of the perpendicular is at the distance a
16.
(a)
from the centre, and

(b)
that the foot of the perpendicular
from the
17.
is
at the distance b
focus.
For what point of an hyperbola
is
the sub-tangent
the sub-normal ?
that in the equilateral hyperbola the length of
the normal is equal to the distance of the point of contact
18.
Show
from the
19.
centre.
Show
chord of
that the tangents drawn at the extremities of any

diameter which
hyperbola intersect on the
the
bisects the chord.
THE HYPERBOLA.
20.
Find the equation of the chord of the hyperbola

J?L -
J^!
is
=1
12
which
169
bisected at the point
(4, 2).
Required the equations of the tangents to
21.
J*L.
I*-
16
10
which make angles of 60
with the X-axis.
that the rectangle of the distances intercepted on

drawn at the vertices of an hyperbola by a
drawn at any point is constant and equal to the
Show
22.
the tangents
tangent
square of the semi-conjugate axis.
Given the base of a triangle and the difference of the
23.
tangents of the base angles
Show
24.
required the locus of the vertex.
that the polars of
(m, n) with respect to
the
hyperbolas
^1
2
_ J/l =
If
25.
1,
b*
ll
- ^1 =
V2
a2
1 are parallel.
from the foot of the ordinate of a point
hyperbola a tangent be drawn to the
circle
(x,
y) of the
constructed on
the transverse axis, and from the point of tangency a line be

drawn to the centre, the angle which this line forms with the
Show
transverse axis is called the eccentric angle of (x, y).
values
deduce
from
these
and
b
tan
sec
that
go,
go),
y)
(a
(x,
the equation of the hyperbola.

26.
If
(x
),
(x",
y")
are the extremities of a pair of
conjugate diameters whose eccentric angles are

that
<p
<p
90.
go
and
cp,
show
170
CHAPTER
IX.
THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

136. The most general equation of the second degree be
tween two variables is
2
2
(1)
ay + bxij + ex + dy + ex
+f=
whatever.
d, e, /are any constant quantities
this
which
loci
the
of
the
To investigate
equation
properties
of the constants as to
represents under all possible values
in
which
a, b,
c,
sign and magnitude
is
the object of this chapter.
The equations of the lines in

have had to do in preceding chapters,
137.
By + C = 0.
2
=
(Ax + B# + C)
_
_
Two
o.
yS.
2/2
Ax
-f
_j_
x2
7/2 _|_
xt
7/2
2
7/
=a
_ o.
= 2px.
0.
a plane, with which

are
we
Straight line.
Two coincident straight lines.
straight lines.
Circle.
Two
imaginary straight
lines.
Parabola.
= a 2^ Ellipse.
_
=
crb
tfxay
Hyperbola.
= a 2j^ Hyperbola,
a 2^2 _
0,2^2 _|_
2^,2
#83.2
we
Comparing these equations with the general equation,
them may be deduced from it by making the
constants fulfil certain conditions as to sign and magnitude.
the lines which
We
therefore, prepared to expect that
see that all of
are,
these equations represent will appear among the loci repre

sented by the general equation of the second degree between
two
variables.
find that these
equation.
In the discussion which

lines
is
to ensue
are the only loci represented
we
by
shall
this
EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE.
171
DISCUSSION.
138. To show that the
locus represented by
a complete equa
tion of the second degree between two variables is also represented

by an equation of the second degree between two variables, in
which the term containing xy is wanting.
Let us assume the equation

ex* +dy
ex
aif
bxy
(1)
and refer the locus it represents to rectangular axes, making
the angle
with the old axes, the origin remaining the same.
Prom Art. 33, Cor. 2, we have
+f=
=x
cos 6
sin 6
in
+bx
cos
Substituting these values
+ V + d y + e x +/=
2
y>
y sin
+y
for the equations of transformation.

in (1), we have,
a y*
(2)
which
= a cos
= 2 (a
c = a sin
d! = d cos
e = d sin
a!
+ c sin
6
sin B cos
2
-\- c cos
e sin
-J- e cos
c)
cos
b sin
+ b (cos 6
+ 6 sin cos
2
sin 2 0)
I
(3)
0, the angle through which the axes have been turned,

entirely arbitrary, we are at liberty to give it such a value
as will render the value of b equal to zero.
Supposing it to
Since
is
have that value, we have

or
2 (a
c)
(a
sin 2
c)
or
cos 6
sin
tan
20
(cos
^
.
Since any real
+b
-f b cos
number between
-f-
sin 2 0)
0,
(4)
(5)
GO
and
o>
is
the tan
gent of some angle, equation (5) will always give real value
for 20; hence the above transformation is
always possible.
Making
in (2),
a lf
for the
we
have, dropping accents,
+ eV + d y + e x +f =
equation of the locus represented by

equation, then, we shall confine our attention.
(1).
(6)
To
this
172
To find the value of a and c in terms of a, b,

Adding and then subtracting the first and third of
COR.
and
1.
c.
the equations in
we have
(3),
+a =c+a
(7)
= (c - a) cos 2 + b sin
Squaring
(4)
and
...
...
V(c
(7)
+ b*
a)
and
(8)
we have
adding to the square of (8),
Subtracting and then adding
(9)
we have
(9),
= i\ G + a- V(c - ay +Tj
= $ \c + a + V(c-a) + ^
(10)
COB.
and
To
2.
find the signs of a!
and
y=
...
Hence, the
2
i |( C
=-
of a
si#?is
(V
and
-(( -- 4 ac)
= 0,
.-.
)
.
(12)
depend upon the sign of the
ac.
<
+ * )h
2
<0
4
quantity b
The following cases present themselves
2
4 ac. The sign of the second
6
1.
2.
Multiplying (10)
we have
(11),
positive,
(11)
a and
= 4 ac. The
or c = 0.
member of (12)
are both positive, or both negative.
second
member
of (12)
becomes
zero,
is
.-.
cannot be equal to zero

would reduce (6) to
at the same time, for such a supposition
an equation of the first degree.]
2
4 ac. The sign of the second member of (12) is
3. b
and c negative, or a must be
a must be
be observed that
[It will
a and
>
negative,
positive
.-.
negative and
c positive.
7
To transform the equation a if + c x -f a ?/ + e a -f

the vari
f=Qinto an equation in which the first powers of
2
139.
ables are missing.
173
Let us refer the locus to a parallel system of rectangular

From Art. 32, we
axes, the origin being at the point (m, n).
have
a y = n
x = m
y
Substituting these values in the given equation, we have
2
*
=
c x
+
+f"
(2)
y +
in
e"x
d"ij
which
d"
c"
/"
Since
=2an +d
= 2 c w -f e
= a + cm +
?i
rf w-
??t
+/
make
as to
+d =
and 2
-f e
m=
and
=
.
2 a
see
3)
we may make
in general,
We
and w are entirely arbitrary, we may, in general,

2 a n
i.e.,
them such values
give
(4)
from these values that when a! and c are not zero,

is possible
and equation (2) becomes,
this transformation also
after dropping accents,
a if +cV+/"
Equation
...
(5)
we
observe, contains only the second power of

hence it is satisfied for the points (x, y) and
(5),
the variables
But only the equation of curves with centres

can satisfy this condition hence, equation (5) is the equa
tion of central loci.
When either a f or is zero, then n or in
(
y).
a?,
</
and the transformation becomes impossible.

two cases which require special consideration.
is infinite
arise
CASE 1. a! == o.
Under this supposition equation
Hence
140.
(6),
Art. 138,
cV-MV + ^+/=0
...
becomes
(1)
Referring the locus of this equation to parallel axes, the

origin being changed, we have for the equations of trans
formation
x
m x y n -f- y
174
Substituting in
C
V + dy + (2
2
Now,
make
i.e.,
we may
in general,
m+
we have
(1),
m + e ) x + c m* + d n + e m
= 0,
+f=Q
(2)
and w such values as to
m + d w + e m +/=
2
we may make
m=
m
If d
mation
is
is
-|- e^/î, -f-
/_
4/c
4
rZ
not zero (since a!

0, c is not zero), this transfor
possible and (2) becomes, after dropping accents,
x2
Or
2
COR.
and
f ,
If
-\-
= 0,
dy
jr
a
-^^...
0, (1)
c x*
or,
and
give
/Q\
(3)
becomes
+ e x+f=0
solving with respect to
...
(4)
x,
CASE 2. c = o.
Under this supposition equation
141.
(6),
Art. 138, becomes
Transforming this equation so as to eliminate ?/ and the

constant term, by a method exactly similar to that of the
preceding
article,
we
find
r
n =
J*
d*
nyi
- 4 a!f
J_
4fcV
and,
if e
is
not zero,
we have
f=--,*
(of is
not zero since
(2)
= 0)

COB. If
142.
= 0,
equation
Summarizing the
175
becomes
(1)
results of the preceding articles,
we
find that the discussion of the general equation
aif
bxy
+ ex + dy + ex +/ =
2
has been reduced to the discussion of the three simple forms

1.
a! if
+ cV +
x2
/"
= -
--
x.
= 0.
Art. 139, (5)
Art. 140, (3)
Art. 141, (2)
^-.
Art. 140, (5)
3.
^-.
Art. 141, (3)
The discussion now involves merely a consideration

sign and magnitude of the constants
of the
which enter into these
equations.
143.
tf
<
ac.
Under this supposition, since of and d are both positive or

both negative, Art. 138, Cor. 2, neither a! nor c can be zero
hence, forms 2 and 3 of the preceding article are excluded
;
from consideration.
The first form becomes either
ay
or
which
c a
of and c may have

any real value and
and
any sign
any value. Hence arise four cases
in
f"
may have
176
CASE
1.
If
has a sign different from that of a and c

whose semi-axes are
,
f"
equations (1) are equations of ellipses
GASP:
2.
If
f"
has the same sign as that of a and
equa
curves.
tions (1) represent imaginary

has a different sign from that of
c and
CASE 3. If a
f"
has
If
circles.
equations (1) are equations of
the same sign as of and c then the equations represent imagi
a and
/"
nary
curves.
CASE
nary
4.
If/"
= 0, equations (1)
are equations of taw imagi
the origin.
straight lines passing through
Hence, when
z
<
ac, every
equation of the second degree
an imaginary curve,
between two variables represents an ellipse,
at the
a circle, or two imaginary straight lines intersecting
origin.
b
Under
= 4 ac.
either a
this supposition, Art. 138, Cor. 2,
form (1) of Art. 142 is excluded.
- 0,
or
hence,
Resuming the forms
(3)
we have
~~
(>
four cases depending upon the sign and magnitude
of the constants.
are not zero,
CASE 1. If d and c in the first form of (2)
not
are
of
zero, then
form
second
the
in
(2)
and if e and a
of parabolas.
equations (2) are equations
177
Since the first form of (3) is independent of y, it

lines parallel to each other and to the Y-axis.
two
represents
The second form of (3) represents, similarly, two lines which
CASE
2.
are parallel to the X-axis.
CASE
3.
If
2
e"
<
4/b the
form of
first
(3)
represents two
lines.
imaginary
two imagi
If d 2
4/o/, the second form of (3) represents
lines.
nary
CASE 4. If e 2 = 4/c the first form of (3) represents one
<
straight line parallel to the Y-axis.

4 fa the second form of (3) represents one straight
If d 2
line parallel to the X-axis.
2
4 ac, every equation of the second degree
Hence, when b
between two variables represents a parabola, two parallel straight
lines, two imaginary lines, or one straight line.
145.
l>
>
ac.
Under this supposition, Art. 138, Cor. 2, since a! and

f
must have opposite signs, neither a nor c can be zero
hence forms (2) and (3) of Art. 142 are excluded from con
The first form becomes either
sideration under this head.
c
ay
-<fc
-y +
or
We
+/"
cV+/"
1.
If
=OJ
f has a different sign from that of a
(1) are equations of hyperbolas
/r
0=v
If
have here three cases.
CASE
still
equations
whose semi-axes are
andJ=v/r,
f has a different sign from that of
equations (1) are
equations of hyperbolas.
CASE
2.
If a
eral hyperbolas.
CASE 3. If f"
= 0,
secting straight lines.
equations (1) are equations of equilat
equations (1) are equations of two inter
178
4 ac, every equation of the second degree

between two variables represents an hyperbola, an equilateral
hyperbola, or two intersecting straight lines.
Hence, ivhen
>
The preceding discussion has
SUMMARY.
146.
elicited the
following facts
1. That the general equation of the second degree between
two variables represents, under every conceivable value of the
:
constants which enter into

bola, or one
2.
3.
it,
of their limiting
When
When
When
4&c
<
it
4ac
an
ellipse,
an
represents
it
a parabola, an hyper
cases.
ellipse, or
a limiting
case.
represents a parabola, or a limiting
case.
4.
4&c
>
if.
represents
an hyperbola,
or
a limiting
case.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Given the equation 3y 2
-\-
2 xy
+3x
Sx
Sy
to classify the locus, transform and construct the equation.

Write the general equation and just below
(a) To classify.
it the given equation, thus
:
+ bxy + ex + dy -f ex +/ =
8x =
8y
3 if + 2 xy + 3 x
ay
Substituting
#>
_ 4 aCj
the
co-efficients
we have
4 ac
tf
the
in
=4-
2
ac.
b
hence
and the locus belongs to the ellipse
36
class
= -
(1)
characteristic
32
<4
(b)
To
class, Art. 146.
refer the locus to axes such that the term containing
xy shall disappear.
From
Art. 138, (5),
we have
tan 2
hence
tan
20
o
.-.
2(9
= 90
.-.
6>
=+
= 45
oc,
(2)
EQUATIONÔF THE SECOND DEGREE.

new X-axis makes an angle of
X-axis.
Taking now (10), (11), (3), Art.
ing values, we have
i.e.,
the
of
179
45 with the old
-j-
138,
and substitut
= i \c + a - V(c - a)- + = 2.
= i \c + a + V(c- a) + J=4.
= dcosO e sin = V2 (d e) =
= d sin + e cos = V^ (^ + e =
l>*\
d
e
these
being zero),
2 y2
8 V2.
in
values
0.
J-
(9
Substituting
Art.
(6),
+ 4 x - 8 ViT x =0
2
138,
...
we have (/
(3)
To re/er ^^^ ôci^s to its centre and axes.

(c)
Substituting the values found above in (4), Art. 139,
have
U.
2c
= an + cm
2
Hence/"
(3).
-f
cf
found above in
2 if
f"
8,
Art. 139,
+4x
for the reduced equation.
= V2
(d)
Draw
X-axis.
curve
and
To
together with the values of a
we have
(5), Art. 139,
+ %- = 1
or
+ em +/=
dn
and
we
...
0,
(4)
The semi-axes
of the ellipse are
2.
construct.
the axis
OX
See
Draw OY
when
(b).
making an angle of 45 with the old

The equation of the
-Lto OX
referred to these axes
is
given in
(3).
Constructing
180
the point
(c).
(V2,
Draw O
when
Y"
referred to
i-
See
0) we have the centre of the ellipse.
The equation of the curve
to OX" at
.
Y",
as axes is given in (4).
FIG.
55.
V2 and 2, we can construct the

by either of the methods given in Art. 78.
Having the semi-axes,

ellipse
DISCUSSION.
If
in (1),
x
If
If
to the
If
= 0,
for the X-intercepts 0,
=-
in (1),
we have
in (3),
we have y
OD,
for the Y-intercepts 0,
_|_0;
i.e.,
OC,
the ellipse
is
tangent
Y -axis.
in (3),
x
If
we have
x = o in
(4),
we have
0,
we have
y=
=1=2.
for the
X -intercepts
0, OB,
= 2 V2.
for the
Y"-intercepts
A,
OA

If
in (4),
we have
X -intercepts O B, O O,
for the
V2.
-j-
Given the equation ?/ 2

2 xy -f # 2
2y
1
and construct the equation.
To classify.
2.
181
0, class
ify the locus, transform

(a)
aif
y
hence
bxy
+ ex
ajy 4-
4 ac
a?
dy
-f
2y
=4
+/ =
-f ex
1
= 0,
(1)
hence the locus belongs to the parabola

class, Art. 146.
To refer the locus to axes such that the term
(b)
containing
xy shall disappear.
From
Art. 138, (5),
we have
b
20=
tan
hence, substituting
tan 2
-1
= -45
...
...
(2)
Substituting the values of the coefficients in (10)

of Art. 138,
(11)
(3)
we have
= \ c + a + V(e a)
= 2.
b*\
= d cos
= 2 ( V2) = V2.
e sin
e = d sin
+ e cos = - 2 (- 1 V2) = + V2.
Substituting these values in (1), Art. 140 (since a =
0),
we have
2 x - V2 y + V2^ - 1 =
(3)
2
-f-
d!
(c)
To
refer the
parabola
to
a tangent at the vertex and the
axis.
Substituting the values of the constants in (a), Art.

140,
r
we have
m=-
^-7
= - V2 = - -35
e
4fc =
~~T^~~
4 d c
T~7^
4 V2
=-
nearly.
90 nearly.
J
182
is
Substituting the values of d and

not zero), we have
= iV2.y
c>
in (3), Art. 140

(since
(4)
for the reduced equation.

(d) To construct.
Draw
OX
making an angle
OY 1 to OX
of -- 45
with the X-axis
See (). The equation of the parabola

when referred to these axes is given in (3).
vertex
.35,
Constructing the point (
.90), we have the
draw
and O
of the parabola
See (c). Draw O
parallel to
the axes
OY respectively. The equation of the parab
The curve can now
ola referred to these axes is given in (4).
be constructed by either of the methods given in Art. 54.
.
OX
X"
Y"
183
DISCUSSION.
If
If
If
we have
in (3),
we have
==
OD
Y -intercept OK,
.707.
we have
for the
- V2 + yio
Jj
X -intercepts OL, OL
- V2 - Vio
Z=
4
If
OD,
V2
in (3),
*/
for the
~=-
00
.4.
for the Y-intercept
-l.
=-
in (1),
00,
for the Y-intercepts
y = 2.4
y
If
we have
in (1),
in (4),
?/
if
in (4),
_j_
-\-
bxy
ex 2
-f-
dy
2y + 6x
ex
-\-
f=
.
0.
= 0, classify
Given the equation ?/ -^ 2 cc 2

2 ?/ + 6 x
3
the locus, transform and construct the
equation.
(a) To classify.
3.
ay
0.
.
(1)
hence, the locus belongs to the hyperbola class, Art. 146.

(b) To ascertain the direction of the rectangular axes
(xy
being wanting).
tan
6
.-.
i.e.,
the
new X-axis
26
= 0;
is
c-
= -5_ = Q
-3
parallel to the old X-axis.
To refer the hyperbola
(c)
to
its
centre
and
axes,
we
have,
Art. 139, (4),
hence
1,
m=
-.
t
Substituting in the value of
/ =
hence
a n2
+cm +
2
f"
dn
=1
+em
/",
Art. 139, (3),
+/ = 1
we have
+9
184
This value, together with the values of a? and

2 if
4 x* = - 1
139, gives
(3)
To
(d)
in (5), Art.
construct.
FIG.
Construct the point
OX, and O
Y"
||
(%, 1),
is
and through
The equation
OY.
to
referred to these axes
57.
given in
We
(3).
tion that the semi-transverse axis
is
-.
it
draw O
of
the
X"
||
hyperbola
see from this equa
Laying
tance to the right and then to the left of

vertices of the curve A, A
off this dis-
we
locate the
DISCUSSION.
If
y
If
we have
in (1),
= o in
(1),
= 3, y =
we have
for the Y-intercepts
OC,
00
OD,
OD
1.
for the X-intercepts
+ V3
to
3- V3
If
in (3),
we have
= iVH^
2/
If
185
in (3),
we have
for the X-intercepts
A,
OA
.-4
From
this data
the student
readily determine the

focal distances of the
may
and the
eccentricity, the parameter,
hyperbola.
= 0,
Given the equation y 2 -\- x z

4 ?/
4#
1
the
ify
locus, transform and construct the equation.
4.
b2
(a)
<4
(b)
ac
.-.
the locus belongs to the ellipse class.
.-.
new X-axis
(m,w)=(-2,
(c)
x2
hence
class
-f-
is
to old X-axis.
||
2)and/"
= -9
=9
y-
the transformed equation of the locus, which from the form

of the equation is evidently a circle.
is
Locate the point
(d)
and with 3 as a
(2,
With
2).
this point as a centre,

it will be the re
;
radius, describe a circle
quired locus.
5.
2 xy
+x
b = 4 ac
= 45
2
(a)
(b)
.-.
new X-axis
We
to the old X-axis.
...
= 0.
parabola class.
.-.
a!
= 0,
2x
i.e.,
c = 2, d = 0,
- 2^0;
= 1 and x =
are the equations of the locus

(c)
inclined at an angle of
45
have also
when
The construction gives the
...
(1)
new
referred to the
lines
OX OY
,
axes.
as the
new
axes of reference.
Equations
drawn
||
(1) are
to the
the equations of the two lines

and at a unit s distance from
Y -axis
CM, C
it.
186
FIG.
58.
We may
construct the locus of the

given equation without
going through the various steps required by the general
method. Factoring the given equation, we have
(y
hence
+ V2)
=x
V2
(y
-x- V2) =
and y
=x
-f-
V2
the equations of the locus.

Constructing these lines
(OY,
being the axes of reference), we get the two
are
OX
CM, C
parallel lines
Classify, transform,
equations
6.
?/
and construct each of the

following
2 xy
+x +2y
2 x -f 1
= 0.
y
7.
8.
if
ajy
x2
- 1 = 0.
4. 5
a-s
12 x
- 12 y = 0.
=x
1.

9.
10.
2?/
4x
+ 2x -4?/2
+1
=0.
x2
7/2 _j_ jpa
_ 2 + 1 = 0.
x2
+ 2*+2 = 0.
187
2
7/
aj
(1, 0).
11.
2/
Imaginary
12.
ellipse.
+ x - 8 x + 16 = 0.
2
XT/
Parabola.
13.
2 xy -f x
if
+2x
= 0.
Parabola.
14.
4 ay
15.
?/
2x
0.
Hyperbola.
16.
2 or
+ 2 + 1 = 0.
?/
Two
intersecting lines.
- x + 2 y + 2 x - 4 = 0.
2
if
Equilateral hyperbola.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
+ x + 2 y + 1 = 0.
/ + 4 xy + 4 - 4 = 0.
2 XT/ + 2 x
2 y + 2 x = 0.
4
+ 4 x = 0.
if
x + 2 = 0.
2 jcy
2
?/
jcy
ic
2/
a;//
?/
188
CHAPTER
X.

147. Loci lying in a single plain and represented by equa
tions other than those of the first and second degrees are
We

shall confine our atten
tion in this chapter to the consideration of a few of those
curves which have become celebrated by reason of the labor
called
expended upon them by the ancient mathematicians, or which

have become important by reason of their practical value in
the arts and sciences.
EQUATIONS OF THE THIRD DEGREE.

148.
THE SEMI-CUBIC PARABOLA.
This curve
ordinate
OP
TT
let fall
is
the locus generated by the intersection of the

common parabola with the perpendicular
of the
from
its
vertex upon the tangent drawn at
as
the point of tangency moves around the curve.

1.
To deduce the rectangular equation.
T
be the point of tangency, and let P (x y )
be a point of the curve.
Let y 2 == px be the equation of the common parabola.
to the parabola
Since the equation of the tangent line T
Let
(x" ,
y")
is
Art. 57,
(6),
the equation of the perpendicular

vertex is
{r
(OM)
let
fall.
from the
189
FIG
Since
TT
is
*=*",
Combining
OY, we have
parallel to
(1)
and
(2)>
for its equation
(2)
we have
But
_ V4j^_
hence
2p
Squaring and dropping accents, we have
for the equation

of the semi-cubic parabola.
This curve is remarkable as
being the first curve
rectified,
that
is,
the length of a portion of
it
which was
was shown to
190
be equal to a certain number of rectilinear units. It derives

its name from the fact that its equation (3) may be written
xl
= p% y
To deduce the polar equation.

r
Making x = r cos 6 and y
2.
reduction,
r
=p
tan
sec
sin 9 in (3),
we
have, after
(4)
for the polar equation of the curve.
SCHOL.
Solving
(3)
with respect to
y,
we have
An
inspection of this value shows

(a) That the curve is symmetrical with respect to the
X-axis;
(b)
That the curve extends
infinitely
from the Y-axis in
the direction of the positive abscissas.
To duplicate the cube by the aid of the parabola.

Let a be the edge of the given cube. We wish to con
struct the edge of a cube such that the cube constructed on it
shall be double the volume of the given cube
i.e., that the
3
8 =
satisfied.
shall
be
a
2
x
condition
149.
FIG.
60.
191
Construct the parabola whose equation is

2
2 ax
i/
(1)
be the curve. Construct also the parabola whose
Let
MPO
equation
is
x*~y...
NPO be this
Then OA (= x)
Let
is
the abscissa of their point of intersection
the required edge.
we have
x8
(2)
curve.
For eliminating y between
(1)
and
(2),
= 2 a*.
This problem attained to great celebrity among the ancient

We shall point out as we proceed one of the
geometricians.
methods employed by them in solving

150.
The
THE
it.
CISSOID.
by the intersection (P) of

(OMM T) with the ordinate
DN
cissoid is the locus generated
the chord
(OM )
of the circle
s
FIG.
61.
192
MN (equal to the
M on the diameter
MN
ordinate
let fall
from the point
as the chord revolves about
through 0)
the origin 0.
It may also be defined as the locus generated by the inter
z
8 ax with the
section of a tangent to the parabola y
let fall on it from the origin as the point of
perpendicular
moves around the curve.
tangency

Let OT = 2 a, and let P (x, y) be any point
From the method of generation in this case
of the curve.
1.
First Method.
ON = N T.
MN = M
ON M we have
lST
From
.-.
the similar triangles
ONP,
NP ON M N ON
NP = y, ON = M N = VON N T =
ON = 2 a - x
:
But
oj,
V (2 -),
Hence
is
.y x
:
y.
::
V(2 a
x)
...
x 2 a
:
x.
(1)
The equation
Second Method.
parabola if
8 ax
is
of the tangent line to the
Art. 65, (2)
+
.
SX
2a
s
of a line passing through the origin

line is
this
to
pendicular
The equation
Combining these equations
so as to eliminate
s.
and per
we have
for the equation of the locus.
This curve was invented by Diocles, a Greek mathematician

of the second century, B.C.,
and called by him the cissoid from

word meaning
a Greek
It
"ivy."
193
was employed by him
in
solving the celebrated problem of inserting two mean propor

tionals between given extremes, of which the duplication of
the cube
is
PO^) =
0)
= OP = M K = OK - OM/.
OK = 2 a sec and OM = 2 a cos
r = 2 a (sec
cos 0),
r = 2 a tan 6 sin
From
the figure (OP,
we have
But
(r,
also r
hence
or
is
a particular case.
2.
the polar equation of the curve.
SCHOL. Solving
(1)
with respect to
y,
we have
=
x
2 a
An

(a) That the cissoid is symmetrical with respect to the
X-axis.
That x = and x = 2 a are the equations of its limits.

That x = 2 a is the equation of a rectilinear asymp
(b)
(c)
tote (SS
).
151. To duplicate the cube, by the aid of the cissoid.

Let OL, Fig. 61, be the edge of the cube which we wish to
Construct the arc BO of the cissoid, CO = a
duplicate.
CD = 2 CA =
B draw BO
LR intersecting BO in R.
being the radius of the base circle. Lay off

2 a and draw DT intersecting the cissoid in
and
at
Then
LR
erect the perpendicular

is the edge of the required cube
for the equation
of the cissoid gives
hence
HB =
2 a
The
HB = y, OH =
ig
PL _L
(since
- x).
CDT and HBT

CD CT HB HT.
similar triangles
:
::
give
x,
and
HT =
194
But
CD =
CT by
.-.
construction
hence
HT in the value of HB above gives

HB = 2QH3 hence HB = 2 OH
HB
triangles OHB and OLE are similar hence
HB OH LE OL
HB OH ::LK ::OL
HB = 2 OH hence LB, = 2 OL whence the
2
This value of
The
::
.-.
But
struction.
152.
HB = 2 HT
HT = HB
THE WITCH.
FIG.
62.
con

The witch
nate
the locus of a point
is
011
DP
195
the produced ordi-
of a circle, so that the produced ordinate

the diameter of the circle
as the ordinate
DM
OA
DA
outer segment
It
may
to
is
to the
is
of the diameter.
of a point P
its foot
also be defined as the locus
linear sine
DP
DM of an angle
from
at a distance
011
the
equal
to twice the linear tangent of one-half the

angle.
1.
From
First Method.
DP =
y,
we have
(2
- x),
y:2a:: V(2 a
x)
x 2a
:
x.
is
Second Method.
Let
But a
(1
(1
+ cos
hence
or,
MCO =
then by definition
= 2 a \ //a ^ ~ cos ^
V a (1 + cos 0)
- cos 0) = a - a cos = OC DC = OD == x, and
= a + a cos = OC + DC = OD = 2 a - x
0)
u = 2a
== 2
?/
of generation,
DA = 2 a
hence
mode
::
But
the
DP OA DM DA
OA = 2 a, DM = VOD DA = Vx
a tan 2
squaring
= ~2 a
This curve was invented by Donna Maria Agnesi, an Italian

mathematician of the eighteenth century.
SCHOL. Solving (1) with respect to y, we have
Hence
(a)
=t 2 a
the witch
is
x
J-~
V 2a
symmetrical with respect to the
X-axis.
(b)
(6-)
x
x
= and x = 2 a are the equations of its limits.

= 2 a is the equation of the rectilinear asymptote
SS
196
EQUATIONS OF THE FOURTH DEGREE.

THE CONCHOID.
153.
The conchoid is the locus generated by the intersection of

a circle with a secant line passing through its centre and a
fixed point A as the centre of the circle moves along a fixed
OX.
As the
line
intersection of the circle and secant will give two

points P, P, one above and the other below the fixed line, it
is evident that during the motion of the circle these points
will generate a curve with two branches.
is called the SUPERIOR BRANCH
MBM
FERIOR BRANCH.
(= OB)
is
called the
the DIRECTRIX
1.
The upper branch

the lower, the IN
The radius of the moving circle O P

MODULUS. The fixed line OX is called
the point A, the POLE.
Let
(x, y),
the intersection of the circle
PP P
and the

secant
and
let
AO P, be any
OA = a.
point of the curve.
The equation
of the circle
The equation
of the line
Making y
= sx
OP
Let
whose centre
AO P
197
b,
at
is
= OB =
(x
0) is
is
(1)
we have
in (1),
00
for the distance
But
00 =
hence
a
= b-
(2)
the equation of the circle.

If we now combine
(1) and (2)
the
s,
resulting equation will express the
relationship between the co-ordinates of the locus generated
by the intersection of the loci they represent. Substituting
the value of s drawn from
in
we have
is
so as to eliminate
(1)
(2),
*V-(P-tf)
is
We
might have deduced
triangles
Draw AT
ATP and O SP
||
PS:SO
e
2/)
(3)
simple way:
<>
this equation in the

following very
to OY.
OX, and
Since the
PT
to
are similar,
::PT:
TA
||
we have
Hence
_
This curve was invented

by Nicomedes, a Greek mathema
who flourished in the second
century of our era.
tician
was employed by him in

solving the problems of the
duplication of a cube and the trisection of an
angle.
It
198
2.
To deduce
From
the polar equation.
the figure
we have (AY being the
the pole)
(AP,
PAB)
But
AP =
hence
is
ACT
= a sec
and
0)
(>-,
OP
-t
initial line,
the polar equation of the curve.

SCHOL. Solving (3) with respect to
x,
we have
An

is symmetrical with respect to the
(a) That the conchoid
Y-axis.
(b)
(c)
That y
That y
= b and y =
= gives x =
b are the
-J-
tote.
If
(d)
comes a
(e)
then
cc
-t
equations of its limits.

the X-axis is an asymp
V&
2/
i.e.,
the conchoid be
circle.
If b
(/)
0,
oo,
>
If b
a,
a,
the inferior branch has a loop as in the figure.

coincide and the loop
and
the points
disappears.
(g)
If b
<
a,
the inferior branch
is
similar in form to the
a) is isolated]
branch, and the point
(o,
its
co-ordinates
though entirely separated from the curve,
satisfy the equation.
superior
i.e.,
still
To trisect an angle by the aid of the conchoid.

Let PCX be the angle which we wish to trisect. From C
with any radius as CD describe the semi-circle DAH. From
the point A draw AB J_ to CX and make OB = CD. With
A as a pole and OB as a modulus construct a conchoid on
CX as a directrix. Join H, the intersection of the inferior
bnuich and the circle, with A and produce it to meet the
154.
directrix in
then
CKA =
PCX.
199
FIG.
64.
H and C then from the nature

HK = HC = OB.
From the figure PCX == CAR + CKA
CAK = CH A = 2 CKA
but
PCX = 2 CKA + CKA.
hence
Therefore
CKA = 1 PCX.
For join
of the conchoid
We
might have used the superior branch for the same pur
pose.
155.
THE LIMACON.
FIG.
65.
200
The Iima9on is the locus generated by the intersection of

lines OP, CP which are so related that during their revo
lution about the points
and C the angle PCX is always
two
equal to | POX.
1. To deduce the polar equation.
Let
be the pole, and OX the initial
point of the curve, and let
(OP,
From
the triangle
POX)
::
Let
line.
be any
then
(r, 0).
OCP
sin
sin f
::
a sin
TT
Hence
POC, we have
OP OC
i.e.,
OC
<9
sin
sin 1
OPC
0.
From Trigonometry
= 3 sin \
r =
sin
hence
=
is
4 sin 3 \ = (3
a (3
4 sin 2 ^ 0),
+ 2 cos 0)
a (1
4 sin 2 \
0)
sin^ 0;
(1)
the polar equation of the limayon.

2.
To deduce
From
the rectangular equation.
we have
Art. 35,
r
cos
for the equations of transformation from polar to rectangular

co-ordinates.
Substituting these values in (1), we have
ax
Vx
x
or
- ^) =
4-
?/
(*
+y
SCHOL.
1.
From
the triangle
ODA, we have
OD = OA cos =
From
hence
2 a cos
OP = a + 2 cos 6
OP - OD = DP = a
.
(1)
0.
...
(2)
201
ODA
and the limayon

i.e., the intercept between the circle
of the secant through
is constant and equal to the radius of
the circle.
SCHOL.
If 6
2.
If B
If 6
If
156.
= 0, r = 3 a = OB.
= 90, r = a = OM.
= 180, r = - a = OC
= 270, r = a = OM
THE LEMXISCATA.
The lemniscata
is
the locus generated by the intersection of
a tangent line to the equilateral hyperbola with a perpen

dicular let fall on it from the origin as the point of tangency
moves around the curve.
FIG.
1.
66.
Since
(a",
?/ ) is a
have, Art. 103, Cor
The equation
point of the equilateral hyperbola,
1,
==
a2
of the tangent line

xx"
yy"
(1)
TP
is,
a 2 ... (2)
Art. 112,
we
202
rr
Since the slope of this line
OP
pendicular
is
the equation of the per
is
,*.
0)
and solving for

Treating (2) and (3) as simultaneous
y",
we
x"
and
find
.r

-
-+ ff
we have
(1),
(x
2
or
(x
T/
=a
(x
2
.
7/ )
(4)
This curve was invented by James Bernouilli. It is quadto the square constructed on the
rable, its area being equal
semi-transverse axis
OA.

We have Art. 34, (3), for the equations of transformation
x = r cos 0, y = r sin 9.
2.
These values in
2
(4) give
+ sin
=a
6
\r (cos
r4
therefore
r2
or
is
=^
0)J
2
r cos 2
a 2 cos 2
(9
\r* (cos
sin
2
<9)};
0,
...
(5)

a.
1 .-. r
cos
SCHOL. If
0, cos 20
values with
.-. r has two equal
90
2
cos
B
cos
If
45,
<
<
opposite signs.
If
45, cos 2
If 6
45
and
If $
If
= cos 90 =
(9
<135
.-.
0.
.-.
.-.
r is imaginary.
= 135, cos 2 = cos 270 =

- 1
e = 180, cos 2 6 = cos 360
>
=i
0.
a.
An examination of these values of r shows that the curve

formed by the asymptotes of the
occupies the opposite angles
hyperbola.
The curve
is
to both axes.
symmetrical with respect
203
TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS.
157.
THE CURVE OF
This curve takes
= sin
and may be defined

of the
SINES.
name from
its
its
equation
x,
as a curve
whose ordinates are the sines
corresponding abscissas, the latter being considered as
rectified arcs of a circle.
FIG.
To construct the
6?.
Give values to x which differ from

each other by 30, and find from a
"TABLE OF NATURAL
SIXES the values of the
corresponding ordinates.
Tabulating the result, we have,
curve.
Value of x
30
=5=
Corresponding
.52
60
90
^=
=^=
1.04
1.56
120
= i5 = 2.08
6
Value of y
.50
.87
1.00
.87

Value of x
150
180
210
Corresponding
Value of y
=~- = 2.60
6
= = 3.14
= 3.66
=
.50
TT
.50
240
~=
4.18
270
= 4.70
1.00
300
= i^ =
-.87
5.22
330
360
= 5.75
=
= 2 = 6.28
.50
TT
a smooth curve
points and tracing
As x may have
locus.
the
have
required
through them, we
of the
the
and
GO
equation
to
yet satisfy
any value from
Constructing
these
the curve itself extends infinitely in

curve, it follows that
abscissas.
the
both
of
positive and negative
the direction
158.
THE CURVE OF TANGENTS.
FIG.
68.

This curve also takes
= tan
its
name from
its
205
equation.
x.
To construct the curve. Give x values differing from each

other by 30 and find from a Table of Natural Tangents the
corresponding values of
Value of x
y.
Tabulating,
Corresponding
we
have,
Value of y
"
30
.57
"
.52
60
1.04
1.56
1.73
"
90
oo
120
= 4-^ = 2.08
"
= 5 - = 2.60
"
1-73
150
.57
180
210
= = 8.14
= 3.66
=
"
TT
.57
"
240
= 4.18
==
1.73
"
270
= 4.70
oo
"
300
330
360
= 5.22
^=
2
TT
"
5.75
6.28
1.73
.57
"
Constructing these points and tracing a smooth curve

through them, we have the locus of the equation.
This curve, together with that of the preceding article,
belong to the class of Repeating Curves, so called because
they repeat themselves infinitely along the X-axis.
206
159.
THE CYCLOID.
This curve is the locus generated by a point on the circum

ference of a circle as the circle rolls along a straight line.
The line
is called the BASE of the
cycloid the
OM
point P, the GENERATING POINT the circle BPL, the GEN

ERATING CIRCLE the line HB perpendicular to OM at its
middle point, the Axis. The points
and M are the VERTICES
;
of the cycloid.
1.
To deduce the rectangular equation, the origin
being
taken at the left-hand vertex of tJie curve.
Let P be any point on the curve, and the angle
which the
circle has rolled,
of the circle,
=2
ButOA = ayOB
CK =
a cos 6
AB
and
through
Let LB, the diameter
AP
= CB
CK.
=a AB = PK = a sin AP = y, CB = a,
0,
0,
=a9
y = a
x
0.
a.
OA = OB
Then
PCB
a sin
a cos
we have
...
(1)

between these equations, we have
Eliminating
=a
207
V2 ay
cos"
- ^2 ay -if
y
.
vers"
(2)

SCHOL. An inspection of (2) shows
values of y render x imaginary.
(a) that negative
When
(b)
or 4
TT
a, or 6
TT
a,
or etc.
When
= 0;
vers"
=2
but a vers" 1
TT
a,
hence there are an infinite number
and M.
of points such as
(c)
=a
0,
=2
a,
=a
vers"
TT
OB
but
3 TT a, or 5 ?r a, or 7 TT a, or etc. hence, there are

a vers" 2
an infinite number of points such as H.
2 a are equations of the limits.
and y
(d) y
v
and 2 a there
of y between the limits
(e) For e very value
are an infinite number of values for x.
2. To deduce the rectangular equation, the origin being at the
highest point H,
1
We
have for the equations of transformation

x
TT a
x
OA OB - PK
2
a
AP
B
/
y
=
=
These values in
x
y
But
H,
(1)
=
HK =
+
+
above give
= a (0
= a
a sin
TT)
,\
a cos
the angle through which the circle has rolled from

TT
Hence
=
= H
hence
x = a 6
-\-
a sin
= a (COS ff -
vers"
,.-.
1) }
-+V
2 ay
2
?/
(5)
The
usually attributed to Galileo.
With the exception of the conic sections no known curve
The fol
possesses so many useful and beautiful properties.
invention of this curve
is
lowing are some of the more important
208
1.
2.
3.
HDB = a
= 3 HDB = 3
OPHM = 4 HB = 8 a.
Area OPHDB O
area
Area of cycloid OHMO
Perimeter
TT
TT
a2
If two bodies start from

any two points of the curve
curve
being inverted and friction neglected), they will
(the
reach the lowest point
at the same time.
4.
5.
point
body rolling
down
this curve will reach the lowest
in a shorter time than if
it
were to pursue any other
path whatever.
SPIRALS.
160. The SPIRAL is a transcendental curve generated by a
point revolving about some fixed point, and receding from it
in obedience to some fixed law.
The portion of the locus generated during one revolution of

the point is called a SPIRE.
The circle whose radius is equal to the radius-vector of the
generating point at the end of the first revolution
the MEASURING CIRCLE of the spiral.
161.
THE SPIRAL OF ARCHIMEDES.
FIG.
70.
is
called

This spiral
209
the locus generated by a point so moving

its radius-vector to its vectorial
angle is
is
that the ratio of
always constant.
From
the definition,
we have
=c
r = c
hence
is
(1)
the equation of the spiral.
To construct the
spiral.
Assuming values for and finding from

ing value for r, we have
Values of
45
(1)
the correspond
Values of r
Corresponding
=^
^c
90=^
4
135
= ^L
180
=<*
270
^
=^
360
=2
225
_^ c
4
3*
..
T"

through them, we have a portion of the spiral.
Since
Since
number
=
=
gives r
0, the spiral passes through the pole.

gives r
makes an infinite
oo, the spiral
of revolutions about the
pole.
(9
oo
Since
2 TT gives r
the measuring circle.
=2
IT c,
OA (=
IT
c)
is
the radius of
210
162.
THE HYPERBOLIC
This curve
SPIRAL.
the locus generated by a point so moving that

the product of its radius-vector and vectorial angle is always
constant.
From
is
the definition
r
we have
c,
or
for the equation of the spiral.
FIG.
71.
To
construct the spiral.

Giving values to 0, finding the corresponding values of
we have
Values of
Corresponding
Values of r
oc
45
=Z
"
r,

Values of
135=
180
211
Values of r
Corresponding
7T
7T
"
7T
7T
225
TT
4
270
OTT
=-TT
"
315
GTT
=-TT
"
360
TTT
"
TT
oo
Constructing the points we readily find the locus to be a

curve such as we have represented in the figure.
oo there is no point of the spiral
Since 6
gives r
corresponding to a zero-vectorial angle.

Since
oo gives r
0, the spiral makes
an
of revolutions about the pole before reaching

Since 6
2-n- gives
infinite
number
it.
c is
the circumference of the measuring circle.

Let P be any point on the spiral then
SCHOL.
(OP,
POA) =
(r, 0).
and OP as a radius describe the arc PA.

circular
r 6, and from (1) c
r
Arc PA
measure,
By
hence
Arc PA
c
With
as a centre
i.e.,
the arc of any circle between the initial line and the
spiral is equal to the circumference of the
measuring
circle.
212
THE PARABOLIC SPIRAL.

This spiral is the locus generated
by a point so moving
that the ratio of the square of its radius-vector to its
vectorial
angle is always constant.
From the definition we have
163.
r*
or,
(1)

spiral.
FIG.
To construct the
Values of
45
72.
spiral.
Corresponding
Values of r
!T
4
90
2*
4
135
^
4
180
7T
((
V2 C7T
V3c

Values of
Corresponding
225
270
= ^T
3i5
= IJL
360
=2
213
Values of r
-JV5C
4
7C7T
oo
00

through them we have the required locus.
Since
gives r
0, the spiral passes through the pole.
Since
oo gives r
oo, the spiral has an infinite num
ber of spires.
=
=
=
=
THE LITUUS
or
This curve has for
its
164.
r2
TRUMPET.
equation
c,
FIG.
73.
214
If
0,
if
The Logarithmic
165.
This spiral
the ratio of
vector
oo
is
is
its
oo,
an asymptote to
initial line as
0.
its infinite
This curve has the

branch.
/SJjiraZ.
the locus generated by a point so moving that

vectorial angle to the logarithm of its radius
Hence
equal to unity.
or passing to equivalent
r
a*
numbers (a being the

.
(1)
for the equation of the spiral.
To construct
the spiral.
r
is
Let a
2,
then
= 29
the particular spiral
we wish
to construct.
base),
we have

Values of 6
215
Values of r
Corresponding
= 57.3
2 = 114. 6
3 = 171.9
4 = 229. 2
1
2
4
"
16
"
CO
<
- 1
= - 57.3
.5
-2=-114.6
- 3 = - 171.9
_ 4 = - 229. 2
.25
.125
.062
oo
smooth curve traced through these points
will
be the
required locus.
Since
a, it
1 whatever be the assumed value of

gives r
follows that all logarithmic spirals must intersect the
initial line at a unit s
Since
number
distance from the pole.
oo
the spiral makes an infinite
gives r
of revolutions without the circle whose radius
1.
GO
OA =
Since 6
r =
GO gives
0, the spiral
of revolutions within the circle
number
makes an
OA
infinite
before reaching
its pole.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Discuss and construct the cubical parabola

B
X
= ~rp*
2.
What
the polar equation of the Iima9on, Fig, 65, the
is
pole being at
Ans.
= 2 a cos -
0.
3
3.
cata
Let
is
OF
= OF = a Vf
Fig. 66.
Show
that the lemnis-
the locus generated by a point so

moving that the
216
product of its distances from the two fixed points F,

constant and
Discuss and construct the loci of the following equations

4.
5.
6.
7.
= tan
= cos
2/
a;
8.
is
12.
y.
a3
=x
axy.
x.
13.
jcl -j-
= sec*.
14.
4 + |r =
y?
a2
= sin y.
15.
= cot x.
16.
1.
l.
&3
sin 2
0.
<?/
sin 2
9.
10.
= cosec
= 3x ~ l
20.
a?
=a
sin 3 -
Q
2
?/
-4- a-?/
18.
r 2 sin 2
20
1.
o
2
1 rv
-|
19.
1.
= -1 1
~T~ Sill
C
.
sin
Discuss and construct the locus of the equation
96 a 2 ;/2
+ 100 ciV
J- V(ic
21.
x3
no
.
17.
ic.
Show
asymptotes
Ex. 20.
that y
of the
6 a) (a
^ x are
locus
x^
+ 6 a)
or
(x
8 a) (x
+ 8 a).
the equations of the rectilinear

represented by the equation of
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY,
PART
II.
CHAPTER
CO-ORDINATES.
I.
THE TRI-PLANAR SYSTEM..
determined when
we know its distance and direction from three planes which
intersect each other, these distances being measured on
166. The position of a point in space
lines
it
is
is
Although
drawn from the point parallel to the planes.
immaterial in principle what angle these planes make
with each other, yet, in practice, considerations

and simplicity have made it usual to take
They are so taken in what follows.
angles.
Let XOZ, ZOY, YOX be the CO-ORDINATE
Let OX,
secting each other at right angles.
CO-ORDINATE AXES and 0, their
intersection,
of convenience
them
at right
PLANES inter
OY, OZ be the
the ORIGIN of
CO-ORDINATES.
- XYZ.
Let P be any point in the right triedral angle
the
we
know
lengths
Then P is completely determined when
and directions of the three lines PA, PB, PC let fall from
this point on the planes.
As the planes form with each other eight right triedral
which satisfy
angles, there are evidently seven other points
the condition of being at these distances from the co-ordi
nate planes.
The ambiguity
is
217
avoided here (as in the case
218
of the point in a plane) by considering the directions in which

these lines are measured.
Assuming distances
to the right of
YOZ as positive,
distances
to the left will be negative.
4-Z
A/
-Y
-X
4-X
Assuming distances
XOY
6o*;e
as positive, distances
will be negative.
in front
Assuming distances
o/XOZ
as positive, distances ô
Âe rear will be negative.

r
Calling x 7/ z (= BP,
,
AP, CP, respectively) the co-orc?ithe FIRST ANGLE, we have the follow
waês of the point P in

in the
ing for the co-ordinates of the corresponding points
other seven
SECOND ANGLE, above
XY
plane, to left
of XZ plane, (- x y z ) P 2
THIRD ANGLE, above XY plane, to
r
of XZ plane, (- x - y z ) P 8
YZ
plane, in front
left
YZ
plane, in rear
CO-ORDINATES.
219
XY plane, to right YZ
P
y
(x
below XY plane, to right YZ
plane, in
FOURTH ANGLE, above
XZ
rear of
plane,
front of
XZ
FIFTH ANGLE,
plane, (x
SIXTH ANGLE, below
XY
PS-
plane, to left
YZ
plane,
in
plane, in front
P6
)
y
plane, (
SEVENTH ANGLE, below
plane, to left YZ plane, in
f
z ) P7
x
rear of XZ plane, (
y
EIGHTH ANGLE, below
plane, to right YZ plane, in rear
of
XZ
XY
of
XZ
plane, (x
XY
- P
i/,
8.
EXAMPLES.
1.
In what angles are the following points
(1, 2,
3),
(-
1, 3,
2),
(-
1,
2,
4), (3,
2, 1).
2.
State the exact position with reference to the co-ordi
nate axes (or planes) of the following points
:
(0, 0, 2),
- 1,
- 1),
0), (0,
(5, 1,
3.
(0),
2, 1, 2), (3, 1, 0), (3,

(3,
(1, 1,
0,
1),
(1,
2,
3),
1, 2), (2, 0, 3),
(0,
0,
2),
((4,
1,
1,
2,
2),
1).
In which of the angles are the X-co-ordinates positive ?

In which of the angles are the Y-co?
In which negative
ordinates positive ?
In which are the Z-co-ordinates negative?
167. Projections. The projection of a point on a plane is

the foot of the perpendicular let fall from the point on the
Thus A, B, and C, Fig. 75, are the projections of the
plane.
point P on the planes XZ, YZ, XY, respectively.
The
projection of a line of definite length on a plane is the

on that plane.
OC, Fig. 75, is the projection of OP on the
plane.
line joining the projections of its extremities
Thus
The projection
XY
of a line of definite length on another line

is that portion of the second line included between the feet of
the perpendiculars drawn from the extremities of the line of
definite length to that line.
220
Thus OM, Fig. 75, is the projection of OP on the X-axis.

The projections of points and lines as above de
;NOTE.
Unless otherwise stated, all projections
fined are orthogonal.
will be so understood in what is to follow.
168.
To find the length of a
line joining two points in space.
P"
FIG.
76.

P (a? tf, ) and
and
the
be
L (=P
required length. Draw
N
Join
OX.
to
NB
to
OY
and
CD
NA
to OZ
to
NO.
P
M
draw
and
and C
We observe from the figure that L is the hypothenuse of a
are P M and
right angled triangle whose sides
Let
Let
V"
(z",
y" ,
*"}
P"C
P")
||
||
||
||
P"M.
Hence
= NO =
but
=
...
(P"C
CO- OR DINA TE S.
= 0,
COR. If x
0, if
with the origin and
...
= 0,
2
V*"
221
then the point
2
y"
2
s"
...
coincides
(3)
expresses the distance of a point from the origin.
Given the length and the directional angles

of a line
joining any point with the origin to find the co-ordinates of the
169.
point.
The Directional angles of a line are the angles which

makes with the co-ordinate axes.
Let
its
(x, y, z),
Fig. 75, be
distance from the origin.
the line
OP = L will be
POX, POY, POZ = a, fa y,
point, then
any
Let
respectively.
OM, ON, OR
Since
on X, Y,
(== x, y, z) are the projections of
Z, respectively,
y
z
OP
we have
= L cos u
= L cos
= L cos y
ft
...
(1)
for the required co-ordinates.
COR.
Squaring and adding equations
+y + =L
x* + y + * = L
x*
but
hence
That
cos u -f cos
is,
the
/? -f-
(1),
we have
2
-f- cos
(cos
Art. 168 (3)
cos 2 /
sum of the squares of
ft
-f cos
y)
(2)
the directional cosines

of a
space line
is equal to
unity.
SCHOL. The directional angles of
any line, as P
Fig. 76,
are the same as those which the line makes
with three lines
drawn through 1J/ to X, Y, Z. The
on
projections of P
- x f if tf, z
three such lines are
Art. 168; hence
P",
||
x"
x"
y"
"
P"
x = L COS a
- y = L cos
z = L cos
ft
"
_^
"1
...
(3)
222
EXAMPLES.
Required the length of the
points
1.
(-
(1, 2, 3),
(3,
- 2,
following
(0, 3, 0), (3,
(0, 0, 0), (2, 0, 1).
Ans.
5.
0), (2, 3, 1).
(0, 4, 1),
V27.
(-
2,
1,
^ws.
6.
1, 0).
Ans.
7.
joining the
V14.
^tws.
3.
4.
2, 1, 1),
Ans.
2.
lines
(1,
-/5.
-2).
V38.
2, 3), (3, 4, 6).
Ans.
5.
Find the distance of the point
(2, 4,
3)
7.
from the origin
also the directional cosines of the line.

8.
line makes equal angles with the co-ordinate axes.

are its directional cosines ?
What
9.
Two
What
is
of the directional cosines of a line are
If (x
10.
Vf
and
the value of the other ?

f
,
and
show that
(a;",
y",
z")
are the co-ordinates of the
extremities of a line
x"
+
2
y"
z
"z"\
z"
2-J
are the co-ordinates of its middle point.
THE POLAR SYSTEM.

170. The position of a space point is completely determined
when we know its distance and direction from some fixed point.
For a complete expression of the direction of the point it is

The angles
necessary that two angles should be given.
usually taken are
The angle which the line joining the point and the
makes with a plane passing through the fixed
the line join
and
2d, The angle which the projection of
point
line in the
fixed
a
with
makes
that
on
the
plane
points
ing
1st,
fixed point
;
plane.
CO-ORDINA TES.
FIG.
223
77.
Let
be the fixed point and P the point whose
position we
wish to determine. Join O and P, and let XOY be
any plane
passing through 0. Let OX be a given line of the plane
XOY. Draw PB 1 to XOY and pass the plane PBO through
PB and OP. The intersection OB of this plane with XOY
will be the projection of
BOX
and the distance
(go)
OP on XOY. The angles POB (0),

OP (r), when given completely de
termine the position of P. For the angle cp determines the

determines the line OP in that plane,
plane POB, the angle
and the distance r determines the point P on that line.
This method of locating a point is called the POLAR SYS
TEM. The angles
and qo are called VECTORIAL
and
ANGLES,
the distance r
The point
terms of
called the
RADIUS VECTOR
when written (r, 9,

POLAR CO-ORDINATES.
P,
its
is
<p),
is
of the point.
said to be expressed in
It is evident
<P,
and
may
all
to 360 to
and
by giving all values from
values from
to oo to r that every point in
space
be located.
171. Given the polar co-ordinates of a point to

find its rec
tangular co-ordinates.
Draw OY 1 to OX and in the plane BOX draw OZ 1 to
;
224
OY
and OX, and
Draw
BA
||
to
(OA, AB, BP)
From
From
OB =
From
(x,
BOP, we have
sin
6.
ABO, we have
= OB
r cos
cos
.:
cp.
= r cos
the same triangle
y
y
x
cos
cp.
we have
= OB sin
= r cos 6 sin
qo,
= r cos 6 cos
=
r cos 9 sin
y
z = r sin
Henee
co-ordinate axes.
then, Fig. 77,

y, z) are the rectangular co-ordinates of P.
=r
the triangle
But
the triangle
z
OX, OY, OZ be the
let
OY
(p.
cp
cp
...
(1)
express the required relationship.

Con. If P (x, y, ) be the co-ordinates of any point on a
locus whose rectangular equation is given then equations (1)
are evidently the equations of transformation from a rectangu
lar system to a polar system, the pole being coincident with the
origin.
y,
Finding the values of

we have
r,
and
cp
from
(1) in
terms of x and
r= Vx + if +
= tan+
= tan2
(9
for the equations of transformation from a polar system

rectangular system, the origin and 2)ole being coincident.
to
225
CO-ORDINA TES.
EXAMPLES.
Find the polar co-ordinates of the following points
1.
2.
3.
(2,1,1).
(V3,
1,
(10,2,8).
4.
2 V3).
(3,
1, 4).
Find the rectangular co-ordinates of the following

5.
(5,
7.
30, 60).
(6,=,
Find the polar equations of the following

and origin being coincident
surfaces, the pole
9.
10.
+ ^2 + = a
z + sx + ty - c = 0.
X2
Ans. r
,2
sin
+ 5 cos
Find the directional cosines of the

ing pairs of points
11.
(1, 2,
12.
(4,
(-
1, 3, 2).
and
15. If (V, /,
)
the point
space points, show that
(z",
mx"
g>
cos
-f
sin
a.
qo
lines joining the follow
1), (3, 2, 1).
1, 2),
cos
+ nx
divides the line joining

n.
each other the ratio
:
14.
(0, 2, 0), (3, 0, 1).
1,
5), (4, 5, 6).
be the co-ordinates of two
")
+ ny
m+w
them
(2,
my"
7wT+ %
y",
13.
into
+ nz
m+n
mz"
two parts which bear to
226
CHAPTER
II.
THE PLANE.
To deduce the equation of the plane.
Let us assume as the basis of the operation the following
172.
property
If on a perpendicular to a plane two points equidistant from
the plane be taken, then every point in the plane is equidistant
:
these two points,

equally distant.
from
and any point not
in the plane
is
un
FIG.
Let
it
ABC
in E.
Draw
be any plane.
Produce
OR
until
the plane is equally distant

be any point of the plane let
;
OR 1
to
ABC, and meeting
RR = OR = p.
and R
from
Every point
Let
ON, MN,
MR
in
(x, y,*,)
the co-ordinates
THE PLANE.
of
R =
d,
e,
From
Then from
/, respectively.
PR
==
- xY + (e-
(d
the same article, equation
OF =
2
xs
227
(3),
+f+*
we have
Art. 168, (2),
yY + (/- zY
we have
2
5
hence, by the assumed property,

(d
- xY + (e-
yY
+ (/- *) = x + y + *
2
2
-
Simplifying this expression, we have

6 + f
+ ey +fz = d*+
*
dx
/1X
(1)
...
To find the equation of a plane in terms of
173.
pendicular
to it
from
the origin
and
the
per
the directional cosines of
the perpendicular.
be the directional angles of the perpendicu

Since ON, MN,
lar OR (=2p), Fig. 78.
(= d, e, f)
the projections of OR on the co-ordinate axes, we have (Art.
Let
/8,
and
169, (1)
MR
= 2p cos
e = 2^ cos
(3

cos2 ft H~ cos2 Y
that cos 2
cc
cos
?/
cos

EQUATION of the plane.
Since
(1),
1?
(1)
Art. 172,
+ z cos 7 = p
^8
and remembering
we h ave
Equation
OR = 2p = V^ +
cos
...
cos 7
2p
+/
(2) is
called the
(2)
NORMAL
2
,
equations (1) give

e
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
.SOLID
228
we have
(2),
e
~
for the equation of the plane expressed in terms of the co-or

dinates of a point on the perpendicular to it from the origin
and the perpendicular.

COR.
1.
If
we have
in (2),
+ y cos + z cos y =
x cos
ft
(4)
for the equation of a plane through the origin.
COR.
2.
= 90,
If
y cos
is
= 0,
cos
(3
+ z cos 7
hence
=p
(5)
the equation of a plane 1 to the YZ-plane.

90, we obtain similarly
ft
If
x cos
+ z cos 7 = p
for the equation of a plane

If Y
90, then
(6)
to the XZ-plane.
J_
x cos
is
the equation of a plane
COR.
3.
= 90
If
cos
?/
and
1L
.--cos
=p
/?
(7)
to the XY-plane.
(3
= 90,
...
then
(8)
is
the equation of a plane
to
YZ
and XZ, and hence
XY.
Similarly,
we
find
= --*
cos
(10)
COS
for the equations of planes
to
||
XZ
and
YZ
respectively.
||
to
THE PLANE.
COR.
If
4.
and
in (8), (9),
...
229
(10),
then
(11)
are the equations of
XY, XZ, and YZ,
respectively.
To find the equation of a plane in terms of
174.
in
its
tercepts.
OB =
OA
Let, Fig. 78,

=a,
perpendicular to the plane
OC
b,
OE (=p)
Since
c.
ABC, we have from
the right
is
tri
OEA, OEB, and OEC
angles
COS
...
0080=|
COS 7
(a)
=
J
Substituting these
reducing,
we have
*
a
values
+ -|b + *c = 1
normal
the
in
and
(1)

Equation (1)
METRICAL EQUATION of the plane.
175.
equation
is
called the
Every equation of the first degree between
SYM
three vari
ables represents a plane.
The most general equation of

three variables is of the form
the
-f
By
-f
C*
=D
(1)
Dividing both members of this equation by

we have
VA +
2
degree between
ABC
Ax
first
B2
+C
-2
2
A2
VA ~+ B + ni
C
^/A22
~"~
+B +C
2
T^22
*
y*
VA
-|-
B2
+C
VA + B + C
2
2
,
230
of Art. 173, we see that the co

the directional cosines of some
are
efficients of the variables
co-ordinates of one of its
the
of
terms
in
line
Comparing
(2)
with
(3)
expressed
and that the second member measures the distance of

the
a plane from the origin hence (2) and therefore (1) is
points,
equation of a plane.
To find the equations of the traces and the values of

the intercepts of a plane given by its equation.
176.
FIG.
ABC
Let
be the plane and
Ax
79.
let its
+ By + C2 = D.
To find the equations of the
1.
equation be
traces
AB, BC, AC.
the given plane with

traces are the intersections of
their equations, we
the co-ordinate planes hence, combining
The
have
Ax
+ By + Cz = D |
z
Ax
Ax
/<
Ax
+ B^ =
D<
Trace
011
XY (AB)
.(1)
+ By + C = D |
Cz
=D
")
Ax + Cs = D
I
.
j>
r
,
Q,,
__
j)^
Trace on
X Z (AC)
Trace on YZ (BC)
(2)
... (3)
THE PLANE.
231
intercepts OA, OB, OC.

The points A, B, C are the intersections of the given plane
with the co-ordinate planes taken in pairs ; hence, combining
To find the
2.
we have
their equations,
A*
+ By + C* = D
(4)
-nL
y-Q
-D
.
._ 00
COR.
If
the
=
cept = OB
oo
(5)
(6)
plane is perpendicular to XZ its Y-inter0.

Making B
hence, equation (5), B
Ace
in the general equation,
we have
+O=D
(7)
a perpendic
(7) and (2) are the same equations; hence,
ular plane and its trace on the plane to ivhich it is perpendic
ular have the same equation.
But
cos 7
177. If x cos a. -j- y cos ft -|p be the normal equa
a plane, then x cos u -\- y cos (3 -j- z cos 7
p -^ d is the
tion of
equation of a parallel plane at the distance d from it.

For the directional cosines of the perpendiculars are the
same hence, the perpendiculars are coincident hence, the

The distance of the planes apart is equal
planes are parallel.
to the difference of the perpendiculars drawn to them from
the origin but this difference is p -j- d
p i.e., J- d. Hence,
;
the proposition.
COR. If (V, ?/,
from the origin is p

X COS
_J_ d
be a point in the plane whose distance

d then
-]-
-|-
if COS
(3
COS 7
(1)
232
is its
distance from the parallel plane whose distance from

From equations (a), Art. 174, we have
is p.
the origin
=-
cos
a
hence
+ cos
cos 2
These values in
(1)
cos
+ cos
j8
cos 7
P;
^& + %
v
-~ -
1-
give
for the expression of the distance of a point

which is given in its symmetrical form.
from a plane
Let the student show that the expression for d becomes
_A^Vy
+ Cz:_-^
+B +C
(3)
of the plane is given in its general form.

the significance of the double sign in (1), (2), and
when the equation
What
is
(3)?
178.
the equation of a plane which passes through
To find
three given points.
Let (V, y
),
(x",
y" ,
*"),
we seek
Since the equation
(*"
is
y",
which A, B,
C,
")
^ the given points.
that of a plane,
Ax + By + Cz = D
in
it
must be
(1)
are to be determined by the conditions
imposed.
the co
Since the plane is to contain the three given points,
its
equation hence,
ordinates of each of these must satisfy
the following equations of condition
;.
Ax
Ax"
Ax
+ B// + C.~ = D
=D
+ B/ +
= D.
C
+ By +
C,~"
"
"
"
These three equations contain tlie/ow unknown quantities

from the equations the values of A,
A, B, C, D. If we find
THE PLANE.
B,
in terms of
233
and the known quantities, and substitute
term of the resulting equation will

(1), each
Let
as a factor.
these values in
D
A=
contain
AT>,
Substituting in
= B D,
(1),
= CD be
the values found.
we have
A Daj + B D?/ + C Vz = D.
A a + B y + C s = 1 ...
...
is
(2)
179.
The preceding discussion has
every equation of
the
first
elicited the
fact that
degree between three variables

It remains to be shown that every
represents a plane surface.

equation between three variables represents a surface of some
kind.
Let
=/(,
y)
1)
Since
be any equation between the three variables (x, y, z).
x and y are independent, we may give them an infinite number
For every pair of values thus assumed there is a
of values.
These values in (1) give the corre
point on the XY plane.
sponding value or values of z, which, laid off on the perpen
dicular erected at the point in the XY plane, will locate one
But the number

or more points on the locus of the equation.
of values of z for any assumed pair of values of x and y are
necessarily finite, Avhile the number of pairs of values which
be given x and y are infinite
a surface of some kind.
may
hence
(1)
must represent
If
-/(*,
q>
y)
(x, y)
(2)
be the equations of two surfaces, then they will represent their

For these equa
line of intersection if taken simultaneously.
tions can only be satisfied at the
same time by the co-ordinates
of points common to both.

Hence, in general, two equations
between three variables determine the position of a line in space.
234
If
=f(x,y)
=
=
<P
(^ y)
(x, y}
be the equations of three surfaces, then they will represent

simul
their point or points of intersection when considered as
Hence, in general, three equations
variables determine the positions of space points.
taneous.
letiveen
three
EXAMPLES.
Find
4.
11.
the traces
and intercepts
of the following planes:
The
from
directional cosines of a perpendicular let fall
of the
the origin on a plane are |
o
o o |;
== 4.
plane, the length of the perpendicular
,
An,
5+^ + f-l.
the plane whose intercepts are

Required the equations of
as follows
12.
1,2,3.
13.
2,
14-
1,
15.
3.
i,,
-
1,
-2.
"
4.
of
the equation of the plane, the equations
?
4
z
x
4
and
3 y
-jwhose traces are x
4.
z
3 ?/
a
16.
What
is
+ =
THE PLANE.
The
17.
co-ordinates of the projection of a point in the

2ov. the
plane are (2, 1) required
3y-}-2z
plane x
235
XY
XY plane.
the distance of the point from the
Ans.
f.
Write the equations of the planes which contain the follow

ing points
(-
18.
(1, 2, 3),
19.
(4, 1, 0), (2, 0, 0), (0, 1, 2).
20.
(0, 2, 0), (3, 2, 1),
21.
(2, 2, 2), (3, 3, 3),
1, 2,
1), (3, 2, 0).
((-
1, 0, 2).
!,-!,-
1).
Find the point of intersection of the planes

23. 2 x - y + z = 10.
22. a- + ^ _ z = 4.
x + ?/-2 = 3.
2^-33 + ?/ = 10.
2 x - 4 y + 5 = 6.
x -f T/ - 2 = 2.
24.
Find the distance of the point
(2, 1, 3),
from each of the
planes
25. .x cos
26.
27.
+ y cos
60
+
x
+ ^2 + 3 z = 4.
+z
60
3y
= 9.
cos 45
8.
--- + - =
325
28.
1.
Find the equation of the plane which contains the

and is parallel to the plane x
2 ij -\- z
6.
Reduce the following equations to their normal and sym
metrical forms
29.
point
(3, 2, 2)
30.
2x
3y
+z=
2
qo
o<6.
31.
1
,
~\-
cc
+2y
= ~.
o.
33. If s, s
represent the sides of the triangle formed by
the traces of a plane, and a, b. c represent the intercepts,
2
2
2
s
2 (a 2 -f b 2
s
c ).
show that s 2
s"
"
236
CHAPTEE
III.
THE STRAIGHT
180.
To deduce
LINE.
the equations of the straight line.
straight line in space is determined when two planes

which intersect in that line are given. (See Art. 179.) The
equations of any two planes, therefore, may be considered as
The
when taken simultaneously. Of the

of pairs of planes which intersect in and de
termine a space line, two of its projecting planes
that is,
two planes which pass through the line and are perpendicular
representing a space line
infinite
number
two of the co-ordinate planes

give the simplest equations.
For this reason two of these planes are usually selected.
to
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

Let
then
237
PBM
its
be the plane which projects a space line on XZ,

equation will be of the form
x
in which s = tan
= sz
a ( see Art. 176, Cor.)

and a
OA.
-j-
ZBP
Let P B
be the plane which projects the line on YZ,
then its equation will be
in
y=t*+b,
which t
tan ZB P and b
OA.
But the two planes determine the line
x
=
y
hence
= sz + a

COR. 1. If a
and b
= sz
= tz
0,
then
which pass through the

0, we have
are the equations of a line

and t
COR. 2. If s
for the equation of a line
origin.
to the Z-axis.
Since equations (1) express the relation
existing
between the co-ordinates of every point on the space line, if
we eliminate Z from these equations we obtain the immediate
COR.
||
3.
relation existing between x and

y for points of the line. But
this relation is evidently the same for all
points in the pro
and therefore for
jecting plane of the line which is 1 to
XY
trace on
its
on
XY
XY.
But the trace
hence, eliminating,
tx
is
the projection of the line
we have
= bs
at
(4)
projection of the line
sy
on XY.
have found, Art. 169, Schol., for the length of a
joining two points the expression
181.
line
We
T.-^-y _
COS a
y"
-j/
COS
(3
*"-:.
COS 7
238
L and
Eliminating
ordinates of
letting
cos
cos
for the
182.
z"
x",
y",
(=
x, y, z)
any point on the line, we have

x _ y
x
y _ z
To find where a
x-jx
cos 7
(3
SYMMETRICAL EQUATION
be the co
of a straight line.
line given by the equations
of
its
projections pierces the co-ordinate planes.
Let
1.
==
__
? I be the equations of the

fz-\-0 )
y
To find where the line pierces the XY-plane.
The equation
of the
line.
"f
XY-plane
is
Since the point of intersection is common to both the line

its co-ordinates must satisfy their equations.
and the plane,
Hence
= sz
y =
t-Z
-j-
-\-
are simultaneous equations.
So treating them we find
(a, b, 0)
to be the required point.

To find where the line pierces the XZ-plane.
2.
The equation
of the
XZ-plane
is
y-o.
Combining
this with the equations of the line,
for the required point.

To find where the line pierces the XZ-plane.
3.
x
y
= sz
=
tz
-{-
-f-
hence
<),
s
is
the required point.
b y are
simultaneous
we have
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

To find the equations of a
183.
pont.
Let
(x
239
a given
line passing through
be the given point.
Since the line
is
straight its equations are
a)
= te + b
y
in
ft
>
which the constants are unknown.

Since
to pass through the point (#

satisfied for the co-ordinates of
it is
must be
the equations of condition
y ,z
) its
equations
this point
hence
= sz + a
= tz + b \
f
,n\
As the
three conditions imposed by these four equations

in
cannot,
general, be fulfilled by a straight line, we must
eliminate one of them.
Subtracting the first equation in
group (2) from the first in group (1) and the second in group
(2) from the second in group (1), we have
x = s (z
z
- y = (Z - Z
,,
|
}
for the general equations of a straight line

passing through
point.
To find the equations of a
184.
line
passing through two
given points.
Let
(x
As the
fl
),
(x
y",
z")
line is straight its equations are
...
in
which the constants are
As
it is
to be determined.
to pass through (x
= sz
= tz
(i)
),
we must have
240
As
it is
to pass
x"
y"
through
=
=
sz"
tz"
(#",
+
+b
y",
z"),
we must have
also
(3)
As these six equations impose four conditions on the line,

we must eliminate two of them. The conditions of the
the line to pass through the
hence we must eliminate the other two.
Elimiting a and b from groups (1) and (2), by subtraction,
we hav6
z )
x
x = s (z
proposition, however, require
two points
-y =
Now, eliminating a and

X -X =
(z
-*
Eliminating
-y"
and
s (Z
t
(z
and
(2)
_
-
4)
(3),
we have
z")
z")
between
from
"
,j
) j
t
j
and
(4)
(5),
we have
EXAMPLES.
1.
Given the
line
the projection on
x
^
= z 1
=4^ _ 3
*?
-4-
)
r
required the equation of
XY.
Ans.
2.
How
2x
5.
are the following lines situated with reference to
the axes ?
x=2\ y=0\
?/
= 0)
a;
Find the co-ordinates of the points in which the following

lines pierce the co-ordinate planes
x=-z-l)
2x
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

6.
Given
(2, 1,
2), (3, 0, 2)
241
required
The length of the line joining the points.

The equation of the line.
The points in which the line pierces the
(a)
(7>)
(c)
co-ordinate
planes.
Find the equations of the

points
7. (2, 1, 3), (3,

8. (
1,
- 1).
9.
- 1, 2, 3), ( - 1,0, 2).
11.
of 45
which pass through the
lines
The
(2,
10. (1,
1,
1, 0), (3, 0, 0).
(-
2),
projections of a line on XZ and YZ make angles

respectively with the Z-axis, and the line in
(1, 2, 3)
required the equations of

~ ^^ w.
-/
*v
t*/
/y>
y
12.
The
2, 4, 3)
13.
(-
15.
= -4- - V 3 +
V3
vertices of a triangle are (2, 1, 3),

required the equations of its sides.
Is the point (2,
1,
- 2) ?
3)
Assume two
(3,
0,
1),
on the line which passes through
Write the equations of a
NOTE.
them
is
1, 3, 2), (3, 2,
14.
- 3).
and 30
space contains the point

the line.
-2,
1,
line
which
points in the plane
the plane
lies in
the line joining
will be a line of the plane.
Find the equation of a line through

y + z = 4.
(1,
2,
2)
which
parallel to the plane x

16.
Find the point
pierces the plane 3 x

17.
-\-
in
2 y
which the
z
= 4.
line
^
y
+2^ = 3
z + 2 = 0)
Required the equation of the plane which contains the
242
Find the point of intersection of the planes

z = 4, x
x + 3y
y + z = 2, 2 x
18.
+ y = 3.
Find the equations of the projecting planes of the

=4
a._2v
19.
line
20.
planes cross ?
z
2y
2, x
Which angles do the following

x -y. + z = 4:,2x +y -3z =
185.
To find the
equations.
Let
- =
1.
intersection of two lines given by their
= sz + a )
y-. + ft|
Mld
s z
y-^ +
a \
f
ft
;
intersection is com
of
the
Since
be the given equations.
point
mon to both lines, its co-ordinates must satisfy their equations.
Hence these equations are simultaneous. But we observe that
there are four equations and only three unknown quantities
the lines
hence, in order that these equations may consist (and
a certain relationship must exist between the con
;
intersect),
which enter into them. To find this relationship, we

eliminate x between the first and third, y between the second
and fourth, and z between the two equations which result.
stants
We
thus obtain
(s
s ) (b
&
(t
(a
-a =
)
for the required equation of condition that the two lines shall
If this condition is satisfied for any pair of as
intersect.
lines the lines will intersect, and we obtain the
co-ordinates of this point by treating any three of the four
which represent them as simultaneous. So treating
sumed
equations
the first, second, and third
we
obtain
a
^>
a
s
for the co-ordinates of the required point.

were prepared to expect
NOTE.
We
a
s
that our analysis
some conditional equation, for in assuming the

it would be an exceptional case
equations of two space lines
would lead
to
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

if
we
243
assumed them that the
so
lines which they represent

Lines may cross each other under
any angle in
space without intersecting. In a plane, however, all lines
except parallel lines must intersect. Hence, no conditional
intersected.
equation arose in their discussion.

186.
To find the angle between
tiuo
lines,
equations, in terms of functions of the angles

make with the axes.
Let
= sz
-f-
given by their
which the
lines
be the equations of the two lines. The

angle under which
two space lines cross each other is measured
by the angle
formed by two lines drawn through some
point parallel to
their directions.
FIG.
.
Let
OB
and
OC
will be their equations.
angle sought.
be two lines drawn through the origin
parallel to the given lines.
Let
81.
cp
Then
The angle between these
(= BOG)
be this angle.
lines
is
the
244
which the line BO makes

Let a
y represent the angles
the angle which
and
with X, Y, Z, respectively
P (x y z }
Take
axes.
same
the
with
makes
point
CO
any
on CO and join them by
on OB and any point
,
0",
",
y"
P"
Let
OF - I/,
From
OP"==
the triangle
But Art.
+ TL
IfO
j
P
P
OP".
ff>
168, equation (3)
and
(x"
//2
x"*+
cos
=L
L"
Substituting in
cos
<f
(1),
(*"
- *r
we have
~
<p
Ov
T~^T"
169, (1)
x
x"
y"*
But Art.
/-i\
(2)
=x +y +*
=
+^
- xj + (if - yj +
L"
-Lr
L.
2L07-
L2
P"
we have
OP",
COS
and
L",
z")
y",
(x",
a right line forming the triangle
= cos
cos
cos
cos
/?
=L
=
"
L"
(2),
cos
y"
+ cos
/3
cos
/3"
+ cos y
for the required relation.

90
COR. If v
=
+ cos
"
cos
cos
187.
To ymd ê
^3
cos y
cos
L"
y"
)3",
we have
"
cos
=L
=
?/
",
cos
)8"
+ cos
awr/Ze ^//-ic/i
^<?o
cos
=
y"
cos
y"
(3)
(4)
each
space Zmes maA;e with
the projections
other in terms of functions of the angles which
axes.
the lines make with the co-ordinate
of
be, as
of the lines
in the preceding article, the equations
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

drawn through the origin
(x, y
),
= sz
=
I/ 2
and, Art. 168,
Eliminating,
we
parallel to the given lines.
a point on the
is
Fig. 81,
first line,
2
x"
+y +z\
2
find
and since
have
vi
r/
P"
(x
x"
y"
is
y",
")
=s
= M,
=x +
L"
+s +
2
_~
vi
+ *+T
a point on the second line,
we
z"
and, Art. 168,
Since
we have
"
vi + s +
245
"
y"
-f-
^ //2
Hence,
Vl +
s*
But, Art. 169,
L/
Substituting these values

reducing,
we have
_
Vl +
2
.9
for the required

expression.
in
equation
Vl + s
(3),
/2
Art. 186,
12
and
246
COB.
1.
If
<f>
= 0,
are parallel
the lines
and equation
(1)
becomes
i
T= =4J^===.
Clearing of fractions and squaring,
we have
and
Performing the operations indicated, transposing
have
we
lecting,
of these quantities cannot be

hence
is equal to zero
But the sum of the squares
each separately
equal to zero unless
<
s?
t,
col
st
=s
(2)
The first
lines.
are the conditions for parallelism of space
in
lines
two
space are
two of these conditions show that if
are
their projections on the co-ordinate planes
parallel, then
conse
mere
a
is
s
third condition
t)
parallel
also.
The
(sf
and
quence of the other two,
may
be omitted in stating the
conditions for parallelism.

to each
90, the lines are perpendicular
COB. 2. If 9
other,
and equation
(1)
becomes
1
hence
is
+ ss +
=
+ ** +
it
3
>
the condition for perpendicularity in space.

with any one ot
Since the angle which a line makes
188.
of the angle which the
the co-ordinate axes is the complement
to which that axis is
line makes with the co-ordinate plane
the complements of
p, y
if we let
ft y be
perpendicular
,
respectively,
we have
for the sines of the angles
co-ordinate planes.
which a space
line
makes with the
THE STRAIGHT LINE.
247
189. To find the equations of transformation from one
system of co-ordinates to a parallel system, the origin being
changed.
FIG.
82.
Let X, Y, Z be the old axes and X Y Z the new.

Let P be any point on the locus CM. Draw
PB,
,
OL
||
to
OZ and
meeting
XOY
in B,
A K,
B and L. Draw BE
Y draw LX to BE
and produce it to A BE will be to

and LE to OX. Then (OA, AB,
BP)
;
||
||
||
y,
z)
are the
old co-ordinates of the point P.
(O
A A B B P) =
,
(a;
are the
new
co-ordinates of
the point P.
(OX, XL, LO )
new origin
From the figure
.
(a, b, c)
are the old co-ordinates of the
248
OA = ON + O A AB
,
hence
-f-
==
NL + A B BP = LO + B P
,
=b
-\- ?/,
=c+z
To find the equations of transformation from a rec

tangular system in space to an oblique system, the origin being
190.
the same.
FIG.
Let OX, OY,
OZ
83.
be the old axes, and
OX OY OZ
,
the
new.
Let u
OZ
Let
OZ
be the angles which
OX
makes with OX, OY,
u",
fi",
f be
the angles which
OY
makes with OX, OY,
respectively.
Let
OZ
ft,
respectively.
"
",
f"
be the angles which
OZ makes
with OX, OY,
respectively.
Let
be any point on the locus
CM.
Draw PB and PB
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

||
249
OZ and OZ respectively, and let B and B be the points

which these lines pierce the planes XOY and X OY
to
in
Draw B
OY
to
||
(OA, AB, BP)

point P.
(OA
then
A B B P) =
(x
are the old co-ordinates of the
y, z)
(x,
new
are the
co-ordinates of the
point P.
From
P,
on the X-axis
and
the perpendiculars PA,
let fall
then from the
figure,
BT>,
AL
we have
OA = OL + LD + DA
and DA are the projections of OA A B and
PB respectively on the X-axis, and each, therefore, is equal
to the line whose projection it is into the cosine of the
angle
which that line makes with the X-axis. (See Art. 169 (1) .)
LD
But OL,
OL = OA
=x
i.e., OL
cos
.-.
cos
LD = A B cos
DA = B P cos
LD = y cos
DA = z cos
,
"
",
hence, substituting, we have

r
X
x COS
-f- y COS
Similarly
=
=
x
y
z = x
cos
"
</
p+y
n"
-f z COS a
p +
-f if cos f + z
cos y
cos
cos
f
cos
"
p"
...
(1)
Y"
Of the nine angles involved in these equations, six only are

independent, for since the old axes are rectangular, we must
have (See Art. 169, equation
cos 2
cos 2
"
Con.
1.
we must have
cos
cos
cos
cos
"
cos
"
"
2)
the
new axes
to be rectangular also
in addition to equation
(2) the following condi
See Art. 186, Cor.
:
-f cos /? cos
cos
cos
"
y"
"
we suppose
tional equations
cos
"
If
).
2
-f cos /
cos 2
$"
cos 2
(2)
=1
+
p
cos
=1
+
+
cos
+ cos
+
f=1
cos 2
+
+
p
cos p
/3"
+ cos f cos =
+ cos f cos =
+ cos f cos y =
7"
p"
cos
/"
"
/?
(3)
"
Hence, in this case, only three of the nine angles involved

in equation
(1) are independent.
250
THE CONIC SECTIONS.

191..
The CONIC SECTIONS, or, more simply, THE CONICS,

from the surface of a right circular cone by
are the curves cut
a plane.
We wish to show that every such section is an ellipse, a
Art.
or one of their limiting cases.
parabola, an hyperbola,
146.
To deduce the equation of the
192.
FIG.
Let
any element
Draw DP
PK
to
||
84.
CAEA C be the conic surface,

CA about OZ as an axis.
the element
OZ,
as
||
KB
meet the base
generated by revolving
Let P be any point on
= c and OEC = 6.
and
intersecting OZ in D; draw
XY-plane
and K producing it to
to OY, and join
CE
to
conic surface.
let
OC
||
circle in E.
Then (OB, BK, KP) = (a?, y, z) are the co-ordinates

From the similar triangles COE, CDP, we have
50.-00_tan..
DP
OE
.(1)
of P.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

DC = 00 - PK = c -
But
z,
and
251
DP = OK = Vz +
2
hence,
z
i.e.,
is
(c
z)
= tan
=
(x
+ if)
tan
2
.
(2)
193.
To find the equation of the

and a plane.
intersection of
a right
cir
cular cone
GALA
be the cone and

OY the cutting plane. Let
angle which the cutting plane makes with the
plane of the cone s base,
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the curve of intersection
Let
X OX,
BPB
the
We
<p.
wish to find the equation of this curve when
OX as axes.
Draw PD to OY PL and DK
referred to
OY,
||
(OK, KL, LP)
(x, y, z)
||
to
OZ
then
are the space co-ordinates of P,
252
= (x
and (OD, DP)

to
OX
y) are the co-ordinates of
P when referred
OY.
From
OD cos
KL =
the figure
PL = KD = OD sin
DP,
qp,
OK =
go.
i.e.,
= x s m Vi
z
V>
=x
cos V-
But these values of x, y, & must subsist together with the

curve of
equation of the conic surface for every point on the
and
intersection; hence substituting in (2), Art. 192, reducing
2
2
2
we
tan.
cos
sin
that
have,
cp
?,
dropping
y
remembering
accents,
2
?/
tan
l9
+x
cos 2
+2 casing
tan
<p(tan
(1)
for the equation of the intersection.

By giving every value to y from
value from
to
equation
oo,
(1)
to 90 and to c every
can be made to represent every
section cut from a cone by a plane except sections

planes that are parallel to the co-ordinate planes.
COR.
1.
Comparing
(1)
= tan.
= cos
with
(1),
Art. 138.
we
made by
find
2
(JP
(tan
tan
2
g>)
Hence, equation (1) represents an ellipse, a parabola, an

Art.
hyperbola or one of their limiting cases according as,
146.
b
4 ac
<
IP =.
Case
and
1.
>
>
If 6
hence,
and
>
We

<p.
ellipse.
4 ac
hence
it is
find this supposition in (2) gives a

4 ac, i.e., the intersection is
>
an
<
the equation resulting from introducing

the point
(1) can only be satisfied by
0,
supposition in
;
ac.
the equation of two imaginary lines inter
secting at the origin.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

]f
= 0,
cp
equation
that
CASE
c
2.
.-.
qp
and
2
?/
which
is
tan
6>
=c
2
,
a circle.
is
Hence the
This supposition in
g>.
= 4c.
Z>
(9
If
+x
the intersection
is,
becomes
(1)
if tan
From
0.
tan
2
<9
253
is
a parabola,
i.e.,
the equation of the X-axis

a straight line.
90and<?= oo,then the cone becomes a
cp
cylinder,
= =
If
and the cutting plane is perpendicular to its base.

section is therefore two parallel lines.
CASE 3. 9
This supposition makes a
cp.
The
<
>
If 6
Hence the
ac.
<
q>
and
c
if-
intersection
then
tan
(1)
=x
is
0,
>
.-.
and
>
we have
(1),
gives a
(2)
intersection
inter
<
an hyperbola.
becomes
cos 2
(tan
9)
tan
<p
0)
which is the equation of two intersecting lines.

CASE 4. Planes to the co-ordinate planes.
to XY-plane.
Let z = m be the
(a) Plane
\\
\\
such a plane. Combining

surface, we have
it
equation of
with the equation of the conic
tan
which
(b)
is
the equation of a circle for
Plane
||
such a plane.
or
7/
tan
2
which, since b
values of n.
(c)
Plane
a plane.
tion
a;
\\
all values of m.
Let x = n be the equation of
Combining with (2), Art. 192, we have
to
YZ-plane.
>
to
z?
+ 2 cz + n
ac, is
tan
XZ-plane. Let y
z2
tan
(4)
the equation of an hyperbola for
Combining with
2
...
= p be
(2), Art. 192,
+ 2 c +^
tan
all
the equation of such

after reduc
we have
c
(5)
254
which, since
values of p 2
2
>
ac, is
the equation of an hyperbola for
all
Hence, in
of the cutting plane, the

possible positions
an ellipse, a parabola, an hyperbola, or one of
all
intersection is
their limiting cases.
NOTE.
Equations
(3),
(4),
(5)
of
case
4 are the equa
on the
tions of the projections of the curves of intersection
the
But
are
projection of any
parallel.
planes to which they
to the given
curve
a
is
a
on
equal
parallel plane
plane curve
the conclusions of case 4 are true for the
curve
hence
curves themselves.
We have defined the conies, Art. 191, as the curves

the surface of a right circular cone by a plane, and
from
cut
found and discussed their
assuming this definition we have
194.
general equation, Art. 193.

A conic, however, may be otherwise defined as the locus
in a plane that the ratio of its
generated by a point so moving
is always constant.
distance from a fixed point and a fixed line
195.
To deduce the general equation of a
conic.
FIG.
the basis of the

Let us assume the definition of Art. 194 as
the fixed line.
Let F be the fixed point and
operation.
of its path.
Let P be the generating point in any position
OY
THE STRAIGHT
Draw FO
Draw PL
OY, and take OY and OX as co-ordinate axes.

OY, PD J_ to OY, and join P and F. Let OF
to
||
FP =
definition
From
but
FL
DP =
2
e*x
2
.
These values
in (1) give
e
or, after
a constant.
FPL, FP == FL + PL 2 ;...(!)
2
(OL - OF) = (x - p)\ LP 2 = f- and FP 2
triangle
2
255
J_ to
= p.
By
LINE.
x2
reduction,
y-
-p)
(x
-e
(1
x2
+ if
- 2px + p* =
(2)
COR.
Comparing
a
hence
CASE
1.
(2)
4 ac
with
1, b
(1),
= 0,
4
c
2
e )
(1
we
Art. 138,
and
The fixed point not on
= (1
= 4 (e~
find
e ),
1)
the fixed line
(3)
i.e.,
not
zero.
If e
an
<
1, b
2
<
ellipse.
= 1,
If e
ac.;
= 4 ac
hence equation
(2) is the
hence equation
equation of
the equation of a
(2) is
parabola.
If e
>
1, 6
2
>
4 ac
hence equation
(2) is the
equation of
an hyperbola.
CASE
The fixed point

(2) becomes
2.
is
on the fixed
^2
line, i.e.,
= 0.
In this case
f+
If e
<
1,
(1
e )
(4)
equation (4) represents two imaginary lines inter
secting at origin.
If
= l,
equation
(4)
represents
one
straight line (the
X-axis).
If e
>
1,
equation
(4) represents
two straight
lines inter
secting at the origin.
Hence, equation
iting cases.
(2) represents the conies or
one of their lim
256
GENERAL EXAMPLES.
Find the point of intersection of the
2
x =
1
x = 2
1.
lines
and the cosine of the angle between them.

^%s.
Required the equation of the

to
2, 3) and is parallel
2.
(1
_92
(3, 5, 1)
line
y~l-V}What
3.
g>
^|
=2z
?/=
the angle between the lines
is
What
-.+
Ans.
4.
which passes through
_]_ 1 )
cos
is
the distance of the point
3, 2,
90.
from
1)
the line
y
5.
= 4z
-\-
makes equal angles with the co-ordinate axes

the angles which it makes with the co-ordinate
line
required
planes.
4y
2x
The equation of a surface is x -f y* +
_ 2 what does the equation become when the surface
2
6.
Qz
is
at
referred to a parallel system of axes, the origin being

2
16.
z
Ans. x 2
if
?
(1, 2, 3)
7.
Given the
the line on
XY
line
x
?
+
^
2
,
8.
Ans.
Required the distance cut

I
the projections of the line
j~_
of
required the projection
and the point on which the
co-ordinate planes.
off
__
line pierces the
in part, 2 y
on the Z and
+ = 4.
a-
axes by
^ x == 9
on Y^s
Ans.
?/
"
= -
_3o
6
.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

How
9.
257
are the following pair of lines related ?
= 2z
= 2z-
10. What are the equations of the line which passes through
the origin and the point of intersection of the lines
What is
origin ? What
11.
on
the distance of the point (3. 2,

angle does this line make with
= 3z\
from the
4)
its
projection
XY ?
12. A
straight line makes an angle of 60 with the X-axis

and an angle of 45 with the Y-axis what angle does it make
Ans. 60.
with the Z-axis ?
;
What
13.
"1
are the cosines of the angles
make with
14.
which the
lines
through the point
line passes
angles with X, Y,
the co-ordinate axes ?
Z whose cosines
V2
are
and makes
(1, 2, 3)
1
?
res P ect
"
ively; required
(a) the
equation of the line,

the equation of the plane J_ to the line at the point,
to the
(V) to show that the projections of the line are J_
traces of the plane.
(b)
15.
The
directional cosines of
two
lines are
212 and
Xfrj
L
1,1. What
is
the cosine of the angle which they
2i
make with each other
Ans.
Cos
y>
3
-
+2 V2
b
16.
The projecting planes
=2y
-\-
2.
jects the line
What
on
YZ ?
is
of a line are x
=3z
and
the equation of the plane which pro

3.
2y
Ans. 3 z
258
and YZ each form with

The projections of a line on
the
45
of
an
equation of the line
Z-axis
the
required
angle
which passes through (2, 1, 4) parallel to the line.
XZ
17.
Find the equation of the
18.
(3,.
2, 1)
and meets the
Given the
19.
line
lines
quired
of
(a) the value
line
which contains the point
* Z
^ _~3
at right angles.
[
and
**+_l\ }
x
y
\ J
re-
order that the lines may be parallel

order that the lines may be perpen
in
of s
(b) the value
dicular
the value of s in order that the lines may intersect.
s in
(c)
212
- -
directional cosines of a line are
required
o o
the co-ordi
the sines of the angles which the line makes with
nate planes.
20.
The
21.
Find the equations of the
the origin and

-
and
y
22.
2,
Find
is
1 )
line
which passes through
two lines
perpendicular to the
^
Ans. x
11
&
the
angle
+ By + C* = D
and
included
between
Ax + By +
If
_^_
3z
j-
2 z\
the two planes
=D
AA +
+B +
a
23.
j-
two planes are parallel show that the
C"
coefficients of
the variables in their equations are proportional.

24.
Find the condition for perpendicularity of the two
planes given in
Example
22.
Ans.
AA + BB + CO - 0.
SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER.
CHAPTER
259
IV.
A DISCUSSION OF THE SURFACES OF THE

SECOND ORDER.
By
A. L. Nelson, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in

ton and Lee University, Va.
EVERY equation
Washing
involving three variables represents a sur
If the equation be of the first

degree the surface will
be a plane. If the equation be of a higher
degree the surface
will be curved.
It is proposed in this
to determine
face.
chapter
the nature of the surfaces represented
by equations of the
second degree involving three variables. The most
general
2
2
form of the equation of the second degree is Ax 2
By/ -f- Cz
+ Day + Vxz + -Fyz +
Gx
+ Hy +
Iz
+K=
(1)
where
the coefficients A, B, C, etc.,

may be of either sign and of any
magnitude. Let us suppose the co-ordinate axes to be rectan
The form of equation (1) may be simplified

gular.
by a
transformation of axes. Let us turn the axes without chan
ging the origin.
The formulae
of transformation are
(Art. 190)
=X
y = x
z =x
X
z COS a
+ y COS
cos p + / cos $ + z cos
cos f + if cos / +
cos f
COS
"
a"
-f-
"
ft
Substituting these values, equation (1) becomes
AV* + By + C V + DVv/ + E
+ TV + K =
(2).
2
W+
F yV
+ GV + Hy
260
Since the original axes were supposed rectangular the nine

are connected by the three relations
angles
ft f etc.,
+ cos
cos 2
cos 2
COS 2 a
If
ft
2
4- cos
2
4- COS
"
"
ft"
2
4- cos
/J"
we take the new axes
able, the
2
4- cos
y"
2
4- COS
I.
= 1.
=
1.
/"
also rectangular,
which
desir
is
nine angles will be connected by the three additional
relations
cos a cos
"
-j-
cos a
cos
cos
"
cos
u"
cos
cos
ft
+ cos
"
/?
4- cos
cos
ft"
4- cos
ft"
"
ft
cos
f cos
f=
4- cos y cos
"
/?
-4-
f"
f cos
cos
y"
0.
= 0.
= 0.
This will leave three of the nine angles to be assumed arbi

Let us give to them such values as to render the co
trarily.
efficients D E and F each equal to zero in equation
(2).
The general equation will thus be reduced to the form
,
AV
or,
4-
By
4-
CV
4-
GV + Hy 4- IV 4- K = 0,
omitting accents,
Ax 2
In order
By 4 Cs
to make a
2
4-
+ GJB + Hy + I
Equation
a 4- #
(3) will
(b
+ //)
(3)
>
=b +y
r
,
f-
4- %
become
Y +B
(a 4- x
move the origin without changing

The formulae of transformation
will be (Art. 189)
K=
further reduction in the form of the
equation let us endeavor to

the direction of the axes.
4-
(b
+ y Y + C (c + * )* + G
+K=
4- I (c 4- *
(a
+x 4
)
0.
2
2
2
4- B&
Developing, omitting accents, and placing A
HZ
Ic
4- Ga
L, the equation takes the form
Ax 2 4- B// 2 C,? 2 (2 Att 4- G) x 4- (2 B^ +H) y 4- (2 Cc +1 )z
+
+ L = 0.
In order
and
c,
now
+K=
+
to give definite values to the quantities a,
which were entirely
2A
arbitrary, let us
= --1L_
2B
assume
= _ _JL or
b,
=
If these values of
a,
reduces to the form
b,
and
Cc
+I=
(4)
be Unite, the general

equation
+ By + C* + L =
2
261
[A],
a form which will be set aside for further
examination.
It may be remarked that
equations (4) are of the first
degree, and will give only one value to each of the
quantities
a, b, and c, and there is therefore
only one position for the
new
origin.
If,
however, either A, B, or
become
distance.
be zero, then
a, b,
and the origin will be removed

This, must be avoided.
infinite,
Let us suppose
then assume 2 B6
assume 2 Aa
G
A=
0,
B and C are finite. We may

and 2 Cc + I = 0, but we cannot
while
+ H = 0,
= 0.
or c will
to an infinite
Having assumed the values of

assume the entire constant term
and
c as
indicated, let us
This will give
equal to zero.
+ Cc + Ga + Hb + I C + K = 0,
a = - g + Co + Kb + Ic + K
B6 2
or
G
and the general equation will be reduced
to the form
2
By + C* a + G* =
.
(B),
a second form set aside for

examination.
must observe that this last
proposed transformation
will also fail when G
0, that is, when the first
power of x
as well as the second
power of x is wanting in the general
equation.
We
And
without making the second

transformation we have a
examination, viz.
third form for
IV*
+ C* + Hy + I* + K =
a
(C)
Lastly, two of the terms
involving the second powers of
the variables
may be wanting, and the equation
then
.
(1)
becomes
Cs 2
Gx
+ Hy 4. Iz + K =
(D)
262
It is apparent, therefore, that
every equation of the second

degree involving three variables can be reduced to one or
another of the four forms
A* 2 + By
2
2
By + C*
B?/
We
will
with the
+ C.?
+ Gx
+ Cz* + L =
+ Gx =
(B)
+ H// + I* + K + Hy + Iz + K =
examine each of these forms

form
first
(A)
in order,
(C)
(D)
beginning
Ax 2
+ B?/ +
2
C* 2
(A)
This equation admits of several varieties of form

according
to the signs of the coefficients.
1.
A, B, and
2.
A, B, C, and L positive.
Two of the coefficients as
3.
positive,
and
negative in the
and
first
member.
positive,
C and L
negative,
negative.
Two
4.
and L
Ko
of the coefficients as
and
positive,
positive.
other cases will occur.
CASE 1.
Ax 2 + B?/ 2 + Cs 2 = L,
in which form all of the coefficients are
positive.
In order to determine the nature of the surface

represented
by this equation, let it be intersected by systems of planes
The equations
parallel respectively to the co-ordinate planes.
of these intersecting planes will be x
c.
Com
a, y
b, z
bining the equations of these planes with that of the surface,
we
find the equations of the

projections on the co-ordinate
planes of the curves of intersection.
When
"
"
=
y =
z =
x
Thus we
a,
b,
c,
By
Ax
Ax
2
2
+ C.? = L - Aa
+ Cz = L - IW
+ By = L - Cc
2
an
an
an
ellipse.
ellipse.
ellipse.
see that the sections parallel to each of the co
ordinate planes are ellipses.

The
made
section
Aa
or a
>
<
by the
-j-
plane
=a
-~ and
imaginary
,
is
real
263
when
in the
contrary
case.
The
ft
<
=i=
<
Thus we
>
and imaginary when
see that the surface
lar parallelepiped
When
sections
When
ft
>
is
-J-
=b
is
y
=c
-[-
>
real
when
real
when
is
i/
enclosed within a rectangu
whose dimensions are
become
a
plane
made by the plane
section
i y ~7T
by the
an d imaginary when
V/~fT~>
The
c
made
section
or 4
points.
= 0, = 0,
and
by the co-ordinate planes
ft
By +
2
Ax
Ax
2
2
or
= 0,
C,-
we
L.
+ C,v = L.
By = L.
2
-f~
Vc
find the sections
the
made
264
These are called the principal sections of the surface. The

principal sections are larger ellipses than the sections parallel
to them, as is indicated by the magnitude of the absolute
term.
The surface
called the Ellipsoid.
is
may be generated by the motion of an ellipse of variable

dimensions whose centre remains on a fixed line, and whose
It
plane remains always perpendicular to that line, and whose

semi-axes are the ordinates of two ellipses which have the
same transverse
but unequal conjugate axes placed at
axis,
The axes of the principal sections

right angles to each other.
are called the axes of the ellipsoid.
c,
If
we
we
shall
represent the semi-axes of the ellipsoid by
a, b,
and
have
and the equation of the surface

Ax 2 + B?/ 2 -j- Cz 2
a2
b c
-f-
2 2
=L
becomes
2
-f-
a2b 2z 2
a 2b 2 c 2
These are the forms in which the equation of the ellipsoid

is
usually given.
If
we suppose B
= A, then b = a, and the

z
x + y
_
2
equation becomes
2~
and the surface
is
the Ellipsoid of Revolution about the axis
of Z.
If
A=B
2
-j_ ?/
If
-(-
= 0,
then a
== C,
=a
2
,
=b=
c,
and the surface
the axes 2
and the equation becomes

is
a sphere.
2
i/-^-,
reduce to zero, and the ellipsoid becomes a point.
265
be negative in the second member, the equa

2
L will represent an imaginary
B?/ -j- Cz
will
be
no
there
and
geometrical locus.
surface,
Hence the varieties of the ellipsoid are
CASE
tion
If
2.
Ax 2
The ellipsoid proper with three unequal axes.

of revolution with two equal axes.
(2) The ellipsoid
The
sphere.
(3)
(4) The point.
(5) The imaginary surface.
CASE 3. In this case the equation takes the form
(1)
Ax 2 + By 2 - Cz 2 = L,
C, and L are essentially
which A, B,
positive.
Cutting the surface by planes as before, the sections will be,
2
L
Aa 2 a hyperbola, having its
when x
Cz 2
a, ~By
in
when a
transverse axis parallel to the Y-axis

parallel to the Z-axis
v/
when a
-j-
t/
V
but
A.
And when
>
<
-J-
the intersection becomes two straight lines whose pro-
.A.
jections on the plane of
When
b,
Ax 2
YZ pass through
Cz 2
=L
the origin.
B& 2 a hyperbola, with simi

,
lar conditions as above.
When
values of
c,
Ax 2
+ B?/ =
2
+ Cc
2
,
an ellipse real for
all
c.
Since the elliptical sections are all real, the surface

it consists of a
single sheet.
is
con
tinuous, or
The
principal sections are found by
= 0,
b = 0,
c = 0,
a
which gives By 2
Ax 2
Ax 2
"
Cz 2
Cz 2
+%
making successively
= L, a hyperbola.
= L,
= L, an ellipse.
The surface is called the elliptical hyperboloid of one

The equation may be reduced to the form
v?_
2
.y*_
2
^L
*
sheet.
266
may be generated by an ellipse

centre remains constantly on
whose
dimensions
is
whose
and
perpendicular to that axis,
plane
semi-axes are the ordinates of two hyperbolas
same conjugate axis coinciding with the Z-axis,
This surface
of variable
the Z-axis,
and whose
having the
but having
different transverse axes placed at right angles to each other.
FIG. B.
If
we suppose
A = B,
then will a
b,
and the equation of
the surface becomes
the hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet.

If
A=B=
C,
we have x 2
+ if - ^ = a
z
,
the equilateral
one sheet.
hyperboloid of revolution of
a right cone having an
If L
0, the equation represents
B this base becomes a circle.
base and if
elliptical
A=

Hence we have the following
267
varieties of the hyperboloid
of one sheet.
The liyperboloid proper, with three unequal axes.

The hyperboloid of revolution.
3. The equilateral hyperboloid of revolution.
4. The cone.
2
= - L, where A, B, C, and
CASE 4. Ax 2 + B?/ 2 1.
2.
are essentially positive.
a,
Intersecting the surface as before we have, when x
Aa 2 a hyperbola having its transverse
L
QgZ
axis parallel to the axis of Z.
__
j>^2
When
its
ing
When
c
-j-
>
b,
Ax 2
Cz"
I/V C
c,
Ax 2
+ B// =
B6 2
-f
and imaginary when
sections between the limits

real
hyperbola hav
transverse axis parallel to the axis of Z.
beyond those
-j-
Cc 2 an ellipse real when

,
i/
V
-J- t
<
Since the
V C
are imaginary, but
two
limits, it follows that there are
distinct
sheets entirely separated from each other.

The surface is called the hyperboloid of two sheets.
The principal sections are found by making successively
2
2
a
0, which gives By
L, a hyperbola with its
transverse axis parallel to the Z-axis.
O
O
= 0,
which gives Az 2
L, a hyperbola with its
transverse axis parallel to the Z-axis.

c
= 0,
which gives Ax 2
The semi-axes
+ By =
2
of the
L, an imaginary ellipse.
section
first
Those of the second section are I/
V A
of
the imaginary section
The distances 2
i/-^_X
I
are
i/
V
and
Jj
V/ B
i
and
And
!/_.
V
1)
and
i /
those
2 4/1*1. and 2 \/
T
are
1).
are called the axes
268
FIG. C.
and
Eepreseiiting the semi-axes by a, b,
form
the
to
reduced
the equation of the surface may be
of the surface.
5 + -?
If
we suppose
A=B
then a
c,
&,
and the equation
duces to
the hyperboloid of revolution of two sheets.
re

If
A=B=
C, the equation
becomes
+f_^= _
x*
269
a*
which represents the surface generated

by the revolution of
an equilateral hyperbola about
its transverse axis.

the
surface
becomes a cone having an
Finally,
elliptical base, and the base becomes a circle when
B.
We have, therefore, the following varieties of the
if
= 0,
A=
hyper
boloid of two sheets:

1.
2.
3.
4.
The hyperboloid proper having three

unequal
The hyperboloid of revolution.
The equilateral hyperboloid of revolution.
The cone.
We
will
now examine the second

2
2
By + C* + G x =
axes.
form,
.
(B)
Three cases apparently different present themselves for

examination.
B and C
positive
(2).
B, C, and
(3).
(1).
and
negative in the
first
mem
ber.
CASE
positive.
C and G negative.
The equation may be written
positive and
1.
B?/
in
which B,
+ O. = Gx
2
and
are essentially positive.

C,
Let the surface be intersected as usual
by planes parallel
respectively to the co-ordinate planes.
When
By
+O =
Ga, an ellipse real when a
and imaginary when a

0.
2
When y = b,
= Gx
>
0,
<
B6 2
parabola with
its
axis
its
axis
parallel to the axis of X.
When
c,
By
= Gx -
a parabola
with
parallel to the axis of X.
The
and
principal sections are found by
When
When
origin.
making a
= 0, b = 0,
0.
a
b
= 0, By + C,? =
= 0. C.s = Ga;, a
2
0,
a point, the origin.

its vertex at the
parabola with
270
When c, =
2
G#, a parabola with vertex at the origin.
0, B?/
Since every positive value of x gives a real section, and
every negative value of x an imaginary section, the surface
consists of a single sheet extending indefinitely and contin
uously in the direction of positive abscissas, but having no

from the origin.
points in the opposite direction
The surface is called the elliptical paraboloid. It may be
dimensions
generated by the motion of an ellipse of variable
the
same
on
remains
whose centre
straight line,
constantly
and whose plane continues perpendicular to that line, and

whose semi-axes are the ordinates of two parabolas having a
common transverse axis and the same vertex, but different
to each
parameters placed with their planes perpendicular
other.
FIG. D.
in the
2. If we suppose G to be positive
form
the
take
will
the
so that
equation
CASE
By
+C = 2
Go;,
first
member
271
the sections perpendicular to the X-axis will become imaginary
when x
>
0,
and
real
when x
<
0.
In other respects the results are similar to those deduced

case
in
1.
will represent a surface of the same form

but turned in the opposite direction from the
Thus the equation

as in case
1,
co-ordinate plane of
If B = C, the
CASE
surface becomes the paraboloid of revolution.
By
3.
YZ.
-C =
a
Gx.
Intersect the surface
by planes as before.
Gz 2 = Ga, a hyperbola with transverse
and in the
axis in the direction of the Y-axis when a
direction of the Z-axis when a
0.
When
= a,
By
>
<
When
b.
in the direction of
Gx
B6 2 a parabola having its

the X-axis and extending to the left.
Cz 2
-\-
axis
Gx -j- Cc a parabola having its axis in

When z c B?/
the direction of the X-axis and extending to the right.
2
Since every value of x, either positive or negative, gives a

real section, the surface consists of a single sheet extending
This
indefinitely to the right and left of the plane of YZ.
surface
is
called the Hyperbolic Paraboloid. To find its princi

make x, y, and z alternately equal to zero.
pal sections
When x = 0, B^/ = Cz two straight lines.

When y = 0, Cz =
Gx, a parabola with axis to the left.
When = 0, B?/ = Gx, a parabola with axis to the right.
2
The hyperbolic paraboloid admits of no variety.

Now taking up form (C), By 2 + Cs a + Hy + Iz + K = 0,
we see that it is the equation of a cylinder whose elements
are perpendicular to the plane of YZ, and whose base in the
plane of YZ will be an ellipse or hyperbola according to
the signs of B and C.
+K=
The fourth form (D), Cz

Ga;
Hy -f Is
sents a cylinder having its bases in the planes
2
XZ
repre
and
YZ
272
VA
\ /
FIG. E.
parabolas, and having its right-lined elements parallel to the

and to each other, but oblique to the axes of and Y.
plane
XY
The preceding discussion shows that every equation
of the
second degree between three variables represents one or an

other of the following surfaces
the ellipsoid
1. The
ellipsoid with its varieties, viz.
:
the
of
proper,
ellipsoid
and the imaginary surface.
revolution, the
sphere, the
point,

The hyperboloid
2.
of
one
or
two
sheets,
273
with
their
the hyperboloid proper of one or two sheets,

the hyperboloid of revolution of one or two sheets, the
varieties, viz.
equilateral hyperboloid of revolution of one or two sheets,

the cone with an elliptical or circular base.
The
3.
paraboloid, either elliptical or hyperbolic, with the
variety, the paraboloid of revolution.
The
4.
cylinder, having its base either an ellipse,
hyper
bola, or parabola.
The general equation of surfaces

be deduced by a direct method, as follows
Surfaces of Revolution.
of revolution
may
Ri
FIG. F.
Let the Z-axis be the axis of revolution, and

tion
x2
of
= fz.
Let
AB,
the
let
the equa
generating curve in the plane of XZ, be
be the point in this curve which generates the circle
274
PQR, and
be the radius of the
let r
The value
circle.
We
will
have
of r2
may also be expressed in terms of z from

the equation of the generatrix in the
plane of XZas follows
:
= CP =
2
r2
(JD =fz.
Equating these two values of r
we have
as the general equation of surfaces of revolution.

It will be observed that the second value of r 2
is the value
of x 2 in the equation of the
generatrix.
Hence, to find the
equation of the surface of revolution we have only to substi
2
tute x 2
if of the surface for x in the generatrix.
2
Surface of a Sphere.
Equation of generatrix x
Hence the equation of the surface of the sphere is
z2
K,.
Ellipsoid of Revolution.
Generatrix
Surface
JL_
x*
-f-
~^~
J!L
= 1,
1
-4-
a2
Similarly, the equation of the hyperboloid of revolution
***-*-*
Paraboloid of Revolution.
x2
4:pz, the generatrix.
=
+ IT = 4=pz, the
Cone of revolution,
z = mx
x2
surface of revolution.
-+- j3
~T
Hence
or
the generatrix,
~~i^~
2 -
(x
if)
(z
ft)
is
275
EXAMPLES.
1.
9z
7/2
(^
3.
Of ^ 2
+ if = r- ?
Qf
if
Determine the nature of the surfaces x 2
+^
= 36 ?
+ =r ?
the locus in space of 4 x 2 -f 9 y-
is
- 16 y = 144 ?
+ 8x = o?
2.
What
.2
-\-
,-
y"-
-(-
4 z2
Of
Of
= 25,
79>
Find the equation of the surface of revolution about the

Z whose generatrix is z = 3 x -\- 5.
axis of
4.
Find the equation of the cone of revolution whose inter

2
= 9, and whose vertex
-f- y
section with the plane of XYisx 2

is
(0, 0, 5.)
5.
Determine the surfaces represented by
+ 4 y + 9 s = 36.
+ 4 y _ 9 # = 36
- 36.
x + 4y = 9
4 y + 9 2 = 36 x.
9z* = 36x.
2
x*
a;
14
DAY USE
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ll

COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE VIRGINIA MILITARY

LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN,

BY LEACH, SIIKWELL, & SANBOKN.

PETERS & SON,

TYPOGRAPHERS AND ELECTROTYPERS.

and Technical Schools.

author has been

for the requirements

the usual undergraduate course.

experience in the class-room.

In the preparation of the work

have been freely consulted.

whose works were

elementary examples follow the

of examples appear at intervals throughout each chapter,

end of each chapter general

the benefit of those

desire a higher course in the

The author takes pleasure

and Lee University,

A. L. Nelson, M.A., Professor of

takes pleasure also in

Prof. C. S. Venable, LL.D., University

for assistance rendered in reading

and revising manuscript,

and for valuable suggestions given.

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.

The Cartesian or Bilinear System.

Discussion and Construction of Loci.

THE STRAIGHT LINE.

The Slope Equation. Examples

Perpendicular Distance of a Point from a Line.

From One System

Polar Equation of Circle

Condition that a Straight Line touch a Circle.

Polar Equation of Parabola

at the Extremities of a Chord.

Generation of Ellipse. Definition. Equation of Ellipse

Polar Equation of Ellipse

Methods of constructing Tangents

Parallelogram on a pair of Conjugate Diameters

Generation of Hyperbola. Definitions.

Conjugate Hyperbola. Examples

Tangent Line, Asymptotes being Axes. The Point

GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

The General Equation.

HIGHER PLANE CURVES.

EQUATIONS OF THE THIRD DEGREE.

EQUATIONS OF THE FOURTH DEGREE.

Trisection of an Angle by aid of Conchoid

SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.

The Tri-planar System.

Symmetrical Equation of Plane

Perpendicular from Point on Plane

Any Equation between

THE STRAIGHT LINE.

Equations of a Straight Line

Angle between Two Lines

where a given Line pierces the Co-ordinate

DISCUSSION OF SUHFACES OF THE SECOND OKDER.

The Ellipsoid and varieties