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Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Development and validation of an internet use attitude scale


Yixin Zhang
Department of Educational Leadership and Instructional Technology, McNeese State University,
P.O. Box 91815, Lake Charles, LA 70609, USA
Received 17 January 2002; accepted 3 May 2005

Abstract
This paper describes the development and validation of a new 40-item Internet Attitude Scale (IAS), a
one-dimensional inventory for measuring the Internet attitudes. The rst experiment initiated a generic
Internet attitude questionnaire, ensured construct validity, and examined factorial validity and reliability.
The second experiment further analyzed the results of the rst experiment to verify criterion validity and
reliability using a dierent sample group. The results of the rst and second experiments illustrated that this
newly Internet Attitude Scale is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring Internet attitudes.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Internet; Attitude; Instrument

1. Introduction
The number of people who presently use various subsets (the World Wide Web, Telnet, Usenet)
of what is collectively known as the Internet is certainly tremendous (Vaughan, 1999). The Internet, enabling us to completing tasks eectively and quickly, has become an ubiquitous xture and
its use will continuously grow (Weiser, 2001). Currently, a substantial amount of Internet usage
occurrs in schools (Schoeld & Davidson, 1997). Participants in the Jackson et al. (2003) study
showed that people held positive attitudes toward the Internet and constantly used the Internet

E-mail address: yzhang@mcneese.edu


0360-1315/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.05.005

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Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

even though sometimes they were aware of the negative side of the Internet, such as inappropriate
websites for children. Attitudes toward the Internet have become an interesting research topic for
educators, marketers and the general public (Jackson et al., 2003).
The Internet, dened by Wells (2000) as a computer-mediated communication tool, provided
the individual with access to a broad-spectrum of information and unique communication technologies. The learning activities involved in computer-mediated communication were eective in
teaching the necessary enabling skills. Encouragement of using computer-mediated communication and improvement of capabilities of integrating computer-mediated communication positively
impacted students attitudes toward the Internet. Education ocials, teacher association ocials,
classroom teachers, and school administrators participating in Gibsons (2004) research on the
Canadian experience of Internet implementation visualized the Internet as a full potential to contribute to the enhancement of teaching and the development of information literate students.
Drawing 78 subjects from a pool of 615 high school students for nal research in Taiwan, Tsai
and Lin (1999) examined the relationship of computer attitudes and Internet addiction. They indicated that students behaviors and perceptions of using the Internet were more substantial than
their emotional responses in predicting students Internet addiction. The more usefulness of the
computer network students perceived, the higher level of Internet usage satisfaction they felt.
However, students aective attributes did not contribute as signicant variables toward students
Internet addiction. Duggan et al. (1999) surveyed 395 undergraduate students to measure students attitude toward educational use of the Internet. They found that students attitudes were
more favorable when more Internet features were available to them. Signicant dierences were
not found between attitude toward using the Internet for education and students computer ownership and connectivity of the Internet. There was no gender dierence in terms of the attitude
toward the Internet for either education use or of the grade point average.
Because of the potential power of Internet technologies, distance education and online learning
in education have been proliferating (Recent & relevant, 2005). More and more instructors have
taken advantage of online learning exibility, have utilized e-leaning as a mechanism, have made
their teaching materials available in the Internet, and have made a new segment of higher education for those who were unable to attend traditional courses on campus (Cheung, 2005; Concannon, 2005; Distance Education Report, 2005; Wyatt, 2005). In Weglarzs (1999) survey, over
two-thirds of the respondents with current and future access to the Internet pointed out they were
interested in taking courses on the Internet.
Attitudes were expected to vary in terms of an individuals Internet-related activities, behavior,
and experience. Perceptions of the Internet correlates should be examined in a systematic research.
Internet usage was constrained because it was greatly aected by the users attitudes and behaviors.
These factors must be addressed in order to achieve the full potential of the Internet use (Schoeld
& Davidson, 1997). However, research has not yet supported the usefulness of the Internet to substantiate the eectiveness of using the Internet for educational practices (Windschitl, 1998). By
extensively reviewing literature, Duggan et al. (1999) found that previous research on the Internet
focused on the inclusion of Internet-related classroom instruction, and student attitudes toward the
Internet were not studied. Duggan et al. (1999) suggested that future research should incorporate
more information concerning other potential correlates of the attitude. Miltiadou and Yu (2000)
indicated that few available instruments in their review of literature were specically designed
for general computer technologies, and research on specic measurements for online environment

Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

245

has not been developed. There was a dearth of studies published studies that oered validated research instruments for World Wide Web delivered courses (Izat, McKinzie, L, Mize, & McCallie,
2000). Research on Internet behavior is still in the infant stage (Brengman, Geuens, Weijters,
Smith, & Swinyard, 2005; Cheung, 2005). Validated instruments would allow to bring vigor research, ensure validity of research, and make research results more interpretable (Straub, 1989).
This study was developed to validate a widely applicable survey instrument suitable for administration to measure the Internet users preferred and perceived specic Internet attributes.

2. First experiment
2.1. Questionnaire generation and content validity
Substantial changes were made from the previous questionnaire used in Zhang et al.s previous
study (1999/2000) due to fast ever-changing technologies. Some items relating to the technologies
which were no longer popular were removed, and more items reecting newly emerging technologies were added. The author did an extensive review of relevant literature and existing surveys
and solicited options from Internet using professionals. The initial draft consisted of 40 items
representing Internet enjoyment, usefulness, anxiety, and self-ecacy respectively.
The draft was sent to experts of educational technology and frequent Internet-using college
professors. The draft was also sent to those who had already graduated from educational technology programs in order to check the content relevance and wording. Any ambiguous or unclear
items were reworded, and a few new items were added according to the feedback from the original
reviewers. The nal instrument consisted of 40 items, with 10 items describing each of the four
Internet attributesenjoyment, usefulness, anxiety, and self-ecacy. To avoid inconsistency by
using both positively worded items and negatively worded items, Changs (1995) rst recommendation was to not use negatively worded items. Therefore, no negative items were used to ensure
that the construct under investigation was measured similarly. The nal instrument consisted of
40-items using a 4-point Likert-type scale, where Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Agree = 3,
and Strongly Agree = 4. Among them, 10 items were constructed for each individual subscale.
The maximum score for each subscale was 40. A higher score on a scale indicated more enjoyment, feeling more usefulness and self-ecacy, and less anxiety.
2.2. Sample
The sample consisted of 302 undergraduate and graduate students selected from a mid-south
state-supported university in the US. Among them were 40 were freshmen, 49 were sophomores,
57 were juniors, 42 were seniors, 62 took courses beyond a bachelor degree, 45 were graduate students, and seven left the item blank. The majority of these students majored in Education, Social
Science, Science, and Business, counting up to 92.1%. The rest of the students were only counted
for 7.9%. There were 239 female students (79.1%), 58 male students (19.2%), and 5 students left
the item blank. The numbers of students by age group were: less than 20 years old were 57
(18.9%), 20 to 29 years old 151 (50%), 3039 years old 44(14.6%), 4050 years old (36%), over
50 years old 13, and one student left the item blank.

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Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

2.3. Results
Internal consistency coecients for the 10 items for each subscaleenjoyment, usefulness, anxiety, and self-ecacywere .87, .86, .90, and .89 respectively. The coecient alpha for the total 40
items was .96. Correlational analysis revealed that all items were highly inter-related, ranging
from .12 to .67.
The principal components analysis yielded ve components with eigenvalues greater than one.
The prerotational eigenvalues and percentages of common variance explained by the components
were as follows: Component I, eigenvalue = 17.64 (percentage variance = 44.10%); component II,
eigenvalue = 2.18 (percentage variance = 5.45%); Component III, eigenvalue = 1.66 (percentage
variance = 4.14%); Component IV, eigenvalue = 1.46 (percentage variance = 3.65%); and Component V, eigenvalue = 1.15 (percentage variance = 2.88%). Table 1 shows the factor structure
in detail.
Factor loadings in the table were arranged according to their magnitude with the largest value
on the top. Any loadings below .300 were replaced with zero. The factor structure showed that the
rst extracted component explained a large proportion of the variance. Most of the items had substantial structure coecients on the rst component. Subsequent components explained fairly
equal and gradually decreased proportions of the remaining variance. This result indicated that
the Internet Attitude Scale resulted in a single factor (Carmines & Zeller, 1979).
Carmines and Zeller (1979) supported an assertion that factor analysis was useful in establishing
the validity and reliability of empirical measures. They used a measurement of self-esteem as an
example to illustrate the limitations and assessments of instrument validity through factor analysis. The data were collected from high school students from a study of the relationship between
political attitudes and personality traits. The result did not support presumption of the analysis as
a unifactorial structure. There were 10 items with items 1, 3, 5, 8, and 10 clustered as Factor I, and
items 2, 4, 6, 7, and 9 as Factor II. This was coincident with the instrument wording, which denoted that items in Factor I were worded positively and items in Factor II were worded negatively. Therefore, they considered the dual dimensionality of self-esteem was a measurement
error using two sets of scale itemspositive and negative wording.
The items in this current study were all positively worded. Obviously, it came out a unitary
dimension as opposed to Carmines and Zellers (1979) self-esteem scale. The range of the result
of factor analysis indicated that items could not be distinctly loaded into four subscales. The result
of the factor analysis suggested that all subscales could be collapsed into a single construct.

3. Second experiment
3.1. Procedure
The use only of students as subjects has been challenged in terms of external validity (Gordon,
Slade, & Schmitt, 1986). To measure the users accurate perceptions and preferred attributes of
the Internet attitudes, the instrument must be reliable and valid. To achieve this goal, the instrument for this study was sent to a local industrial enterprise to retest its reliability and validity in
order to ensure the construct validity of the instrument after the rst experiment. Since there was

Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

247

Table 1
Factor loadings and communalities (h2) of the Internet Attitude Scale Items, Experiment 1
Item

Mean

SD

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

h2

Item#11
Item#17
Item#40
Item#31
Item#23
Item#28
Item#12
Item#35
Item#8
Item#24
Item#7
Item#13
Item#25
Item#6
Item#26
Item#9
Item#20
Item#15
Item#39
Item#30
Item#10
Item#18
Item#4
Item#16
Item#27
Item#5
Item#37
Item#34
Item#38
Item#3
Item#33
Item#29
Item#22
Item#21
Item#2
Item#14
Item#36
Item#32
Item#19
Item#1

3.24
3.18
3.20
3.11
3.12
3.12
2.89
3.01
3.24
3.08
3.16
2.92
2.89
3.34
3.01
3.14
2.97
3.15
3.00
3.13
2.80
3.05
3.40
3.24
3.02
3.09
3.02
2.94
3.14
3.33
2.62
3.00
2.92
2.57
3.22
2.75
2.57
2.43
1.94
3.09

.62
.63
.64
.67
.67
.58
.79
.63
.64
.70
.64
.78
.66
.57
.60
.70
.71
.66
.70
.56
.87
.70
.69
.71
.63
.82
.76
.78
.71
.73
.81
.70
.75
.87
.66
.86
.86
.83
.89
.71

.831
.820
.818
.765
.759
.758
.757
.751
.745
.738
.737
.735
.721
.713
.705
.704
.691
.690
.689
.685
.681
.680
.662
.661
.641
.636
.624
.619
.604
.588
.585
.548
.541
.541
.499
.485
.470
.457
.445
.441

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.317
.335
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.360
.313
.000
.000
.000
.418
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.301
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.594
.618
.000
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.339
.000
.000
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.549

.722
.710
.717
.637
.692
.619
.592
.650
.620
.748
.575
.618
.592
.593
.633
.552
.560
.628
.815
.566
.542
.526
.624
.622
.597
.641
.688
.631
.611
.611
.533
.382
.317
.551
.530
.344
.729
.688
.502
.578

not any loading below .300 from the rst experiment, all 40 items were retested in the second sample, which was dierent from the rst sample. Because the rst sample contained university students and the second sample was selected from employees in the workforce, the demographic
information was modied. Instead of using college levels, educational levels were used. All the
40 items in the questionnaire remained the same. The questionnaire was posted in the enterprises
Intranet. All entries were stored in an electronic spreadsheet.

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Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

3.2. Sample
Six hundred eight employees (184 males, 496 female) voluntarily participated in this study,
using the Intranet to complete the instrument and then send the information through the enterprise network. Among 680 employees, 452 (66.5%) were high school graduates, 208 (30.6%) held
Bachelors degree, 12 (1.8%) held Masters degree, and 8 (1.2%) held higher degrees above the
Masters. Twenty-eight (4.1%) employees were under 20 years old; 380 (55.9%) employees were
between 20 and 29 years old; 136 (20.0%) were between 30 and 39 years old; 104 (15.3%) were
between 40 and 49 years old, and 32 (4.7%) were over 50 years old.
3.3. Results
Factor analysis corresponded quite closely to Experiment 1. Since the result of the rst experiment came out with a one-dimensional scale, coecient alpha for original four subscales were not
calculated. The internal consistent coecient alpha for the 40-item instrument in the second
Experiment was .96. Table 2 showed the factor analysis structure in details.
Comparing with the loadings in Table 1, loadings in Experiment 2 yielded a fairly similar loading structure. Although factor analysis in Experiment 2 generated 7 factors with prerotational
eigenvalue greater than 1, the patterns of the factor loadings were alike as in Experiment 1. A
dominant rst factor emerged with an eigenvalue of 18.476, accounting for 46.19% of the common
variance. Eigenvalues for the remaining four factors ranged from 2.336 to 1.055, with variance
ranging from 5.84% to 2.64%. In the rst factor, 38 items were extracted with coecients above
.40. These results were rmly consistent with those in the Experiment 1, suggesting a strong singlefactor model for measuring the attitudes toward the Internet. The factor loadings for items with
values below .40 were item 19 and item 32. Most correlational coecients were still relatively high
inter-related as in Experiment 1, ranging from .07 to .80. The factor loadings generally delineated
one dimensional pattern of the Internet Attitude Scale.

4. Discussion
Both Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 had the rst extracted component occupying a large proportion of the variance with subsequent components explaining fairly equal and gradually
decreasing proportions of the remaining variance. The results generated from two dierent
real-worlds with diverse characteristics provided a more condent instrument than from a single
population (McKnight, Choudhury, & Kacmar, 2002). Factor analyses for Experiment 1 and
Experiment 2 showed a high degree of similarity of factor loading structures across two experiments, suggesting an identiable generic dimension from two experiments using separated samples. The internal consistency alphas of scale from two experiments were stable, with .964 for
the rst Experiment, and .965 for the second Experiment. It was the authors intention to use
two dierent groups as samples one from college students on campus and another from employees in the workforce to develop and validate the Internet Attitude Scale across wider populations. Even though samples selected for this study were dierent, the outcome of the factor
analyses converged a homogenous construct. With consistent high internal alpha and similarity

Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

249

Table 2
Factor loadings and communalities (h2) of the Internet Attitude Scale Items, Experiment 2
Item

Mean

SD

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

F6

F7

h2

Item#11
Item#24
Item#31
Item#40
Item#17
Item#15
Item#7
Item#39
Item#23
Item#8
Item#12
Item#25
Item#20
Item#26
Item#28
Item#35
Item#30
Item#10
Item#6
Item#13
Item#38
Item#5
Item#18
Item#37
Item#3
Item#27
Item#14
Item#16
Item#9
Item#2
Item#4
Item#34
Item#22
Item#29
Item#1
Item#21
Item#33
Item#36
Item#32
Item#19

3.26
3.22
3.29
3.28
3.23
3.29
3.24
3.20
3.21
3.31
3.09
3.00
3.08
3.11
3.20
3.09
3.21
2.85
3.39
2.85
3.22
3.18
3.18
3.19
3.35
3.15
2.99
3.19
3.26
3.26
3.37
2.99
3.11
2.99
3.04
2.70
2.58
2.58
2.52
2.22

.59
.59
.55
.57
.56
.59
.61
.59
.61
.59
.68
.59
.58
.47
.60
.54
.56
.81
.57
.78
.65
.69
.61
.64
.63
.59
.72
.64
.61
.58
.58
.70
.62
.66
.58
.80
.79
.82
.82
.85

.844
.842
.838
.832
.823
.812
.803
.788
.787
.785
.783
.767
.763
.753
.734
.726
.724
.705
.687
.673
.670
.649
.648
.645
.644
.635
.631
.618
.587
.586
.585
.578
.575
.572
.545
.464
.469
.404
.383
.304

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.56
.54
.55
.51

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.620
.618
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000

.784
.812
.771
.741
.705
.725
.761
.759
.685
.709
.701
.668
.652
.628
.691
.730
.735
.624
.729
.636
.671
.728
.680
.617
.742
.627
.579
.676
.680
.563
.674
.658
.704
.666
.543
.478
.705
.887
.878
.498

of the factor coecients, this single-factor instrument could be used as a stable and valid robust
questionnaire for research and education.
Based on Massouds (1990) suggestion that only factor loadings greater or equal to 4.0 were
considered signicant, item 19 and item 32 were recommended not to be included in the Internet

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Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

Attitude Scale. Therefore, the nal Internet Attitude Scale consisted of 38 items. The Internet consistent coecient for 38 items was again performed, which still yielded high value of .967.
The Internet will denitely be used in the academic world to play an important role in teaching,
research, and learning. Self-perception of computing skills was found signicantly correlated with
perceived usefulness of the Internet for research and teaching (Applebee, Clayton, Pascoe, &
Bruce, 2000). Smerdon et al. (2000) indicated in their statistical analysis report that teachers
use of technology was related to their training and professional development. Educational practices have been dealing with new Internet technologies to optimistically utilize Internet to advance
knowledge dissimilation. This study provides a reliable and validated instrument which could be
used in training and professional development design. The instructors at colleges can use the
instrument to measure students general attitudes about the Internet, so that appropriate actions
could be taken to assist students to take full advantage of the Internet.
Overall, the empirically validated measures protably for testing dierent subjects from this
study could provide facilitation and determination in assisting peoples usage of the Internet eectively and eciently. The Internet has tremendous potential to facilitate teaching and training,
and it provides magnicent possibilities for delivery of instruction. Based on peoples attitudes toward the Internet, instructors could use those variables in designing and delivering online courses,
enhancing ultimate learning achievement. With the rapid growth of Internet users in the digitalized information society, identications of positive or negative attitudes toward the Internet might
be helpful in program evaluation, instruction planning, and business applications.
In dealing with connotatively consistent and connotatively inconsistent items, Chang (1995)
made two suggestions. The rst suggestion was simply to avoid using any negatively-worded
items. The second suggestion was to test the means and variances from the separate pool of items
to ensure the similarity before the data analysis. This study adopted Changs rst recommendation. Future research might incorporate Changs second recommendation to acquire a broader
view of results.

Appendix A. Internet Attitude Scale

1. Surng on the Internet is not boring


2. I can get more current information from the
Internet rather than from printed materials
3. I do not feel nervous using the Internet
4. I feel condent sending an E-mail message
5. I like to use the Internet to communicate
with my friends
6. The Internet provides convenient tools
to communicate with others
7. I feel comfortable talking about the Internet
with others
8. I feel condent using an Internet browser
9. I enjoy searching for information on
the Internet

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Agree

Strongly agree

SD
SD

D
D

A
A

SA
SA

SD
SD
SD

D
D
D

A
A
A

SA
SA
SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD
SD

D
D

A
A

SA
SA

Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

251

Appendix A (continued)
10. The Internet has become an indispensable tool
in my daily life
11. I feel at ease working on the Internet
12. I feel condent discussing questions with others
through the Internet
13. Because I like using the Internet, I can stay on
the Internet for a longer time
14. Using the Internet could expedite my job
15. I do not think that surng the Internet is scary
16. I feel condent forwarding an E-Mail message
17. I like working on the Internet
18. It is easy to locate useful information on the
Internet
19. I have never been frustrated with the Internet
20. I feel condent gathering useful Websites
21. I prefer to read information on the Internet
than as a hard copy
22. It is handy to use the Internet to obtain
materials such as tax return forms and
application forms, etc
23. The Internet does not threaten me
24. I feel condent communicating with others
through the Internet
25. The interface of the Internet browser appeals
to me
26. Time spent on the Internet is worthwhile
27. I do not feel anxious when I use the Internet
28. I feel condent using WWW search engines
29. Graphics and hyperlinks on the Internet
attract my attention
30. The Internet can help locate the information
eciently
31. The Internet does not make me uncomfortable
32. I feel condent using HTML (HyperText
Markup Language) to create my homepage
33. Whenever I log onto the Internet, I would like
to stay as long as I can
34. The Internet is always my rst choice for research
35. The interface of the Internet browser does not
make me uneasy
36. I feel condent using an HTML editor
(e.g. Composer, FrontPage, Dreamweaver, etc.)
37. I prefer the Internet to the library for research
38. I feel that the Internet is useful to contact
someone in a remote area
39. I feel comfortable communicating with others
on the Internet
40. I feel condent locating the information I need
on the Internet

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Agree

Strongly agree

SD

SA

SD
SD

D
D

A
A

SA
SA

SD

SA

SD
SD
SD
SD
SD

D
D
D
D
D

A
A
A
A
A

SA
SA
SA
SA
SA

SD
SD
SD

D
D
D

A
A
A

SA
SA
SA

SD

SA

SD
SD

D
D

A
A

SA
SA

SD

SA

SD
SD
SD
SD

D
D
D
D

A
A
A
A

SA
SA
SA
SA

SD

SA

SD
SD

D
D

A
A

SA
SA

SD

SA

SD
SD

D
D

A
A

SA
SA

SD

SA

SD
SD

D
D

A
A

SA
SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

252

Y. Zhang / Computers & Education 49 (2007) 243253

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